Beth Holz

10/14/2013
bh12@my.fsu.edu

Introduction
Although my educational journey started many years ago, I often feel that my voyage along the
information and knowledge highway has only just begun. My latest venture as a masters student at
Florida State University is where, for the first time, I am attending an actual brick and mortar classroom.
While I have always felt responsible for my learning, this is the first time I feel that I am engaged and in
control of my learning too. Looking back at my prior learning environments, I was exposed to a variety
of instructional environments and methods, and I can appreciate the behaviorist, cognitivist and
constructionists learning theories and instructional approaches that were used. The focus of this paper,
therefore, is to explain the influence of these theories in relation to my personal experiences using
blended formats (i.e., classroom, Internet, CD-Rom, video-based learning activities).
Behaviorism
I have come to know behaviorism through a psychological framework that is anchored by a belief
that only environmental change can shape ones learning, eschewing the belief that learners have a role in
their own learning (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008). Skinner contended that trying to understand the
processes inside the mind were unnecessary and compared the mind to a black box, which had no
influence on behavior. According to Skinner and those in his camp, behavior is controlled through
environmental stimulus and consequences. Learning therefore was best understood as a permanent
change in behavior that can be observed and measured over a period of time (Driscoll, 2005).
According to Driscoll (2005) fundamental to Skinners behaviorism are the contingencies of
reinforcement, primarily the concept of reinforcement. Further, in order for a desired behavior to reoccur,
the behavior must be reinforced. Strengthening a desirable behavior is attained through positive and
negative reinforcement while weakening a response is realized through punishment and reinforcement
removal. A key consideration regarding reinforcement is understanding the value of the reinforcement.
Food and sleep serve as primary reinforcers, and are of high value to our well-being, but equally is the
need to sustain or maintain the new behavior (Driscoll, 2005).
Once the desired behavior is observed, it is important to maintain the behavior. This is brought
about through reinforcement schedules. Skinner provides four possible schedules: fixed ratio, fixed
interval, variable ration, and variable interval. A fixed ratio is one which requires a series of correct
responses before a reinforcement is delivered. The reinforcement might be made after each correct or
desired response or after every fifth or 15th. On the other hand, a fixed interval is determined by time. A
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great example provided by Driscoll and through my own personal experience is time in rank leading to a
promotion as long as performance was satisfactory. While these fixed ration and schedule methods work,
they become expected, whereas variable ratios and schedules generally do not. Clearly, the learner is not
taking an active role in the learning process, but rather responding to a series of scheduled reinforcements.
Behaviorism and eLearning
I have taken many e-learning training courses throughout my Navy career. Most were mandatory
courses or refresher courses that I accessed through the Navys e-Learning portal. One particular course
that comes to mind which uses a behaviorist approach is the Anti-Terrorism Force Protection course
(Appendix A). This is a yearly web-based AT awareness course required for all Department of Defense
personnel. The training presents information on how to recognize and respond to possible terrorist
activity. The training provides background information and practice opportunities through scenario based
problems and immediate feedback throughout the course.
This training course provides a good model for behaviorism in that it provides me the information
I need to know (stimulus). I am then given the opportunity to practice through the presented scenarios
that improve my skills and ability, that gradually become more complex as the course progresses (shaping
and chaining). In addition, I am provided feedback or reinforcement (reinforcement) by each time I
answer a question correctly or incorrectly (Appendix B). It is in my last example where I believe
behaviorism has its greatest strength in learning. Behaviorism deals best with facts and on producing
observable and measureable outcomes; it does not address critical thinking or problem solving. However,
not all learning is simply recalling information and or completing a series of procedural steps. Some
learning demands learner involvement and higher-level thinking.
Cognitivism
While a behaviorist sees the learner as passive, the cognitive information-processing theorist sees
the learner as taking a more active role in their learning. Both the behaviorist and cognitivist place an
emphasis on environment, practice and feedback. However the primary focus for CIP theorists are the
stages of memory and how learners store, retrieve and represent information (Greitzer, 2002). According
to Driscoll (2005), the processing center of the learner behaves like a computer-processing unit.
Information is input from the environment, and then processed through different stages of memory, and
results in a learning output. There are three stages of information processing: sensory memory, which is
held short-term and associated with our senses (hearing, sight); working memory, also a short term
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memory that processes information for an immediate response or storage; long-term memory, which is an
information store of permanent and endless capacity.
Much like a CPU, we have some ability to focus our attention to the task easily and
automatically. These are carried out by selective attention and automaticity, which refers to our ability to
select and process information simultaneously while ignoring other information and how we might learn
to react automatically to certain task and information (Driscoll, 2005). Information that needs chunking
or the organization and simplifying of complex tasks, rehearsal (simple repetition) and encoding
(elaborate rehearsal) is processed in the working memory. Information in long-term memory is available
to help in understanding new information or in providing a response by recalling our stored previous
knowledge. Driscoll (2005) offers four recommendations for using CIP for instruction: (1) provide
organized instruction to support a learners inclination to receive information in a certain way, (2)
arranging extensive and variable practice which supports automaticity and encoding (3) enhancing
learners encoding and memory supported through effective teaching strategies, (4) enhancing learners
self-control of information processing (metacognitive skills).
Cognitivism and eLearning
One course of instruction I feel addresses the principles of CIP best is a Vietnam era mobile
radio-transmitter course that converted to an e-learning format in the early 2000s. In late 2002, I received
orders to a remote and isolated location, where one of my responsibilities was to maintain a ready force of
technicians to support overland reconnaissance flights. This required the use of the antiquated PRC-77
radio-transmitter, as it was one of our primary means of communicating with our deployed teams.
Unfortunately, none of my technicians, or myself had any prior training with this specific radio.
However, we were armed with various prior knowledge from our previous basic, systems electronics
courses, and fleet experience with other mobile radios. I was provided a CD-Rom that contained both
fundamental and advanced information and realistic activities to simulate advanced operations and basic
troubleshooting training for this radio set.
The CD-Rom provided interactive experiences through rich and realistic problem solving
activities. As learners, my team and I pulled from our prior knowledge as we explored and discovered
this new information. Plenty of cues were provided along the way to activate the processes between and
inside our memory stores in an organized fashion. In addition, the modules progressed from simple on
and off procedures to more complex assembly and troubleshooting steps. The training provided in this
CD-Rom activated our memory stages, provided interactive learning experiences and frequent and
variable feedback and practice. In the end, the training was successful and my team and I were able to
transfer what we learned immediately to our real world requirements.
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Constructionism
Cognitivists and Constructionists are both concerned with what is happening in the black boxes of
our minds. Moreover, while Cognitivism seeks to understand the active learner processes of reception,
storage, retrieval and representation, Constructionism proposes that learners take an even greater active
role in suggesting the learner actually constructs new knowledge based on prior knowledge (Greitzer,
2002). Additionally, as pointed out by Driscoll (2005), learners are not merely empty vessels seeking
inputs from external sources, but rather they are active in discovering or constructing new information
through their interaction between what knowledge they already have and their external environments.
Therefore the role of the educator is also changed from teaching to facilitating and shaping the learners
experience. Instead of focusing just on outcomes, the educator is actually engaging the learner in
environments that promote learner growth and result in meaningful learning.
The primary learning goal of the Constructivist is that knowledge is learned in context.
Meaningful learning is achieved when the learner has freedom, flexibility and ownership to use prior
knowledge to set his or her own goals in problem solving, reasoning and critical thinking. Conditions for
learning reassert the process of the learning over the learning outcome. Driscoll (2005) offers five
conditions for learning: (1) Complex and relevant learning environments are necessary to support our
ability to cope with complex situations. It is only when we are faced with complex problems can we learn
to solve them. (2) Social negotiation is necessary to support the social and collaborative context of
learning. (3) Multiple perspectives and modes of learning provide learners a rich and flexible (p. 398)
knowledge base from which to interpret new information. (4) Ownership of learning, which is the
distinguishing principle of constructivism, in that it places the learner in complete control of their
learning. (5) Self-awareness and knowledge construction are the metacognitions that allow the leaner to
think critically and reflectively about their role in the knowledge construction process.
Constructionism and eLearning
In my opinion, I think that this class, Learning Theories, serves as an excellent model for a
constructionist instruction. Almost from the beginning we have been responsible and in control of our
learning. The tools and the content of this course provide for a rich, challenging and social learning
environment. For example, the use of blended delivery has exposed me to face-to-face interactions with
my peers as well as providing an extended classroom through online discussions and debates. It is
through these interactions that I have been exposed to diverse perspectives and learning styles. I can
recall our second face-to-face interaction where we had to share our personal learning theories with a peer
and then work together to string together a causal map of that theory. I felt apprehensive about sharing
my work because I thought it would demonstrate my lack of understanding thus far. However, once my
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partner and I began to work through the complexities of the assignment I felt engaged and empowered
with new knowledge.
The complexities of the assignments encourage me to seek and explore a variety of different
knowledge sources in order to communicate and collaborate with my peers effectively. The use of the
debates is especially challenging, but because I am exposed to new ways of thinking through the
perspectives of others and the various theories presented thus far, I know I can accept the information
entirely or refuse and construct new knowledge that supports my personal worldview. This assignment in
particular requires that I reflect on the theories that we have explored individually, discuss, and debated in
class and online. Had I not participated fully in our online discussions and debates or committed myself
to the assigned readings and online research I would have had a much harder time completing this
assignment.
Conclusion
Clearly each of these theories has a place in teaching and learning. Fact based information that
requires little thought or reasoning is supported well by the behaviorist approach. On the other hand,
environments that require greater learner involvement are supported well by Cognitivism and
Constructivism, with Constructivism providing deeper and more meaningful use of knowledge.















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References
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
Education, Inc.

Greitzer, F. L. (2002, September). A cognitive approach to student centered elearning. Human factors &
ergonomics society 46th annual meeting, Baltimore, MD.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https://atlevel1.dtic.mil/at/signin

Rothwell, W. J., & Kazanas, H. C. (2008). Mastering the instructional design process. (4th ed.). San
Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.





















Appendix A
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(n.d.). Retrieved from https://atlevel1.dtic.mil/at/signin


Appendix B
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(n.d.). Retrieved from https://atlevel1.dtic.mil/at/signin