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Silvia Luraghi- pg 82
Pg 74 she says that ps in Homer could also be used as free adverbs.
Pg 80
Ancient Greek prepositions are often divided into three groups, depending
on the number of cases that they can occur with:
(14) a. prepositions with one case: ant, ap, ek, pr (genitive), eis (accusative),
en, sn (dative);
b. prepositions with two cases: di, kat, hupr (genitive and accusative);
c. prepositions with three cases: amph, an, ep, met, par, per, prs,
hup.
Pg 81
in Homeric Greek, particles had a high degree of freedom as to their position,
even in adpositional use. To a varying extent, most particles could occur both
as prepositions, and as postpositions. Since Classical Greek only had prepositions
(postposing of the particles was used as an archaizing poetic device),
Greek grammarians and text editors found postposing a somewhat irregular
feature of Homeric Greek, and called it anastrophe, literally back turn; to indicate
postpositional usage they used special accentuation rules (the accent was
moved to the first syllable when possible, so per is written pri when used as a
postposition).

1. EN
She claims that en is used only with DATIVE , and expresses location. In a comment, she
says that in Homeric Greek it can also express direction, so I should look into that and see
what causes the alternation.Must see Horrocks (1981:198)

She mentions specific verbs (pp83) which denote direction, such as ballein, pesein, tithenai,
hezesthai, where, as she notes, the end of motion is focused.

Pp 84 she gives an example with anabainein, still back then with the meaning of ascending/
get on, which is an example of TERMINATIVE use.

Pp 86 she mentions the rare use of en + GENITIVE, which merely operates as the equivalent
of english at the doctors. pp 85 en soi men lekso, with you I will end, so en so here is
terminative.

Pg 93 she mentions that there is a greek tragedy text where the DATIVE alone and the en
PP are interchangeable, but we can see that the verbs differ. Thus, in the case of plain dative
we have labein, whereas in the case of en + dative pp we have agein (verb of directed
motion)

So, in general, we see that the main case that en takes is dative, and it operates as a place /
location denoting p. there are specific verbs that take an en-direction denoting pp (not
mentioned by luraghi apart from a couple). En can sometimes combine with genitive, and
that is when we talk about a specific landmark, and also sometimes we can have plain
dative where we would expect en, but the verbal element I believe- should make the
difference there.

2. EK / EX
Ek goes with genitive. It means out of and it is only combined with genitive since she calls it
a p of ablative value. It used to be an adverb meaning outside, and was also used as a PP to

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denote movement to the exterior of towns or masses of people. It can also be used to denote
a source, with toponyms, and pp96 from the boat (combined with peson=fall). Also used for
locations, after a verb which denotes distancing (pp96).

In Homer ek is also used to denote origin, and sometimes with the verb gignesthe.

Pp 103 she says that apo and ek started becoming close semantically from Herodotus and
on.

3. EIS
It goes with accusative. Eis appeared later than en, after (pp 107) the establishment of most
other ps. She claims that its meaning is similar to the English to, and in Homer it can also
mean into.

She describes it as a p which can take a directional interpretation when the trajectory finds
itself inside the landmark (pp 108). In that example, es is used with the verb ebainen and
erhomai. With ship (look at pp 108) it can denote direction, but not necessarily that the
interior of the landmark is reached.

We can also sometimes see it with the genitive in expressions like the ones with en and the
doctors.

Pp 109 example denoting the limit of motion (from head to toes). In Homer, eis can denote
physical motion of a person towards another, with ACC.

In contexts other than directional ones, in the sense of motion, eis can be replaced by a plain
dative, eg with the verb parekhein, to offer (pp 113) .

4. APO
It only combines with genitive, as it has an ablative use (pp 118). When used with motion
verbs, as she notes, it expresses a source. When with a verb of rest, it mainly denotes
location away from a landmark. When used with cities, interestingly enough, in Homer, the
ablatival suffix then is added to the city name. The occurrence of this with a motion verb is
rare, and she notes that, when used with a non-motion verb, the meaning is away and it
doesnt take the then.(pp 119).
Compared to ek- she says (pp 120) that in the case of both pps used in one sentence, one
pp (ek) is used to denote coming out of the landmark, and the other one (apo) is used to
denote moving away from that region.

5. PARA
When used as a free adverb, it means nearby (pp 131). When used as a preverb, it adds
proximity to the verbal meaning.
It can combine with accusative, genitive and dative.

Para + dative: it expresses Location of a trajectory near or beside a landmark (para soi). It
can also be used to denote Direction, when the landmark is the endpoint of motion (pp 133).

Para + genitive: with Genitive, it expresses Source (HOW INTERESTING. SHOULD CHECK
THIS MORE THOUROUGHLY), but indicates that motion starts from BESIDE the landmark.
(pp 134)

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Para + accusative: more varied than the other two. When Directional, it occurs with animate
landmarks (135). When locational, it denotes location beside a point (136).

In pp 136 she says: when the accusative does not contribute a directional meaning, but
rather refers to the stretch of space occupied by the landmark, the preposition means
alongside, and can be found with verbs that denote rest or motion it expresses Path.

Pp 137 she says that sometimes it denotes beyond or past, as the movement covers a
stretch of space which coincides with the extension of a landmark. She also makes a
comment that it depends on the landmark, whether it is multiplex (=along) or uniplex (=past).

Pp 142, when para occurs with ACCUSATIVE to denote direction, it is an animate landmark
that the motion event is directed towards.

6. SYN/ XYN
I consider this a non-directional/locational P, and therefore not include it? Its meaning is
confined to comitative. (pg 146) there are no hints on spatial meaning even in its original use
as an adverb.

7. PRO
Pro means before (pp155). In Homer it was a free adverb, or a P followed by a genitive DP,
and it can also be used as a preverb in verbs such as provallein and pronoein.

In Homer, it mainly defined spatial Location, as an ADVERB. In another example, with
genitive DP, it denotes that the trajector is advanced in a trajectory located inside the
landmark. She says that (pp 156) it denotes a trajectory and a deictic point, from the view of
the observer.
Pg 157 The spatial relation expressed by pr envisages the trajector as covering the
landmark: with verbs of fighting, in particular, the location of the trajectory before the
landmark implies that the trajector can protect the landmark.

8. ANTI
Originally meant in front of/ before, and goes with genitive. The difference with pro, (pp
165), as Bortone says (2000) is that pro is back to front, whereas anti is face-to-face.

9. DIA
It occurred as a free adverb, (pp 168), and also as a P, followed by genitive or accusative.

Dia + genitive DP, combined with a motion verb, it denotes a straight path through the
landmark. Sometimes it is also followed by a Goal expression, which denotes that the entity
is reached through straight motion (pp 169). The landmark is crossed completely by the
trajector: often (although not always) the trajectory starts outside the landmark and ends,
again outside the landmark, after having crossed it. In other passages it might occur with
genitive but as a Location expression, AS I CAN SEE FROM THE DATA WHEN THE VERB
IS ONE OF LOCATION AND NOT MOTION. Pg 170 a uniplex trajector can occur with a
genitive landmark in a non-dynamic state of affairs because the structure of the landmark
allows to locate it precisely, which would not be the case with accusative landmarks.

Dia + accusative (pp 170): it mostly profiles continuity of the landmark, and is better
translated as among, about, or inside. It seems that the genitive version provides a straight
trajectory through sth, whereas the accusative is more of a dispersed kind of thing.

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Pg 172 One can say that both di with the genitive and di with the accusative denote Path,
but in two different ways: while the former type of expression profiles a straight trajectory, that
may surpass the limits of the landmark (unidirectional path), the latter profiles a trajectory that
changes direction randomly, and remains inside the landmark.

Pg 174: the accusative with di has two quite distinct meanings:
a. it denotes an extension, inside which a trajector is located in scattered positions, or is
moving following a multidirectional path;
b. it indicates a goal, which, on account of the meaning of the particle, is not the final
goal of motion, but is crossed over in the course of motion.

After Homer, the spatial meaning remains limited to the GENITIVE (pp 176). When with
motion verbs, that expresses path, when with non-motion verbs, it is Location.

10. ANA
It always implies the existence of a trajectory (pp 188). It has dynamic, inchoative and
repetition meanings, and should be seen in close connection to kata, with which they have a
complementary relation.

Pg 188. As a preposition, an occurs with all three cases in Homer, but the genitive only
occurs in the Odyssey, always with the word ship as a complement and the verb bainen, to
go in.

Ana + dative = denotes either location, or direction. With direction, it is when the end of
motion is profiled. the dative has its locatival function, whereby plexity of the landmark is not
relevant, while contact of the trajector with the landmark is focused. the difference between
dative and accusative is in profiling: while the dative profiles the endpoint of motion, the
accusative profiles the trajectory.

Ana + accusative = it is the trajectory that is profiled instead of the endpoint. The use of an
with the accusative is much more widespread (as we will see, the same also holds for its
semantic opposite kat). Two types of landmark may occur: uniplex, in which case the
accusative expresses motion, and multiplex. In spatial expressions, an with the accusative
and multiplex landmarks indicates that a trajector performs an exhaustive motion, by which it
touches all points of the landmark.
Even with verbs of rest, it denotes the result of an implied motion, and so does KATA. An
interesting fact is that in Homer, they combine with verb forms of resultative aspect. (p 189).

The meaning of an in the above examples must be understood in contrast to the meaning of
kat with the accusative: when motion verbs occur, kat denotes mutidirectional path, similar
to di with the accusative, but it indicates that only some points of the landmark are touched
randomly. With verbs of rest, kat means that the trajector is scattered over the landmark,
without covering its whole surface. This difference between an and kat is best captured by
Ebeling, who writes: a beggar who begs an stu stops in sequence at each house, begging
kat stu, on the other hand, he walks around approaching some doors and skipping others
(1885).

11. KATA
The local meaning (pp 197) is downwards. There is also an adverb deriving from the same
root.
As a PP, it takes genitive or accusative. It implies the existence of a trajectory.

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Kata + genitive: source relation between landmark and trajectory. There is often a resultative
meaning, when the meaning of verbs occurring with this type of expression do not profile
direction of motion but endpoint. = under??. Pp200, kata + genitive operates as p+ dative,
denoting the direction when the endpoint of motion is profiled. More generally speaking,
dative/ genitive plus the ana/kata Ps denote endpoint of trajectory, whereas the same Ps with
accusative denote route. / ;;;;;

Pp 198, kata + accusative refers to an area along which the trajectory moves.
1. When a downward direction is denoted, it reflects a trajectory along a landmark.
2. when it does not express direction, it occurs with multiplex landmarks to express
location or multidirectional path

Pg 200. Regarding possible SRs expressed by the two prepositions, Source apparently was
never a function of an, so the ablatival genitive did not have a chance to occur with the
particle.

Pg 201. Where the accusative does not express Direction, kat occurs with multiplex
landmarks and expresses Location or multidirectional Path on a surface, similar to di:

Pg 203 an and kata with the accusative of extension


ana kata
multiple path systematic random
location multiplex Tr. Tr. continuous Tr. discontinuous
location uniplex Tr. precise spot non-precise spot

In Attic-Ionic its ablatival value is restricted. However, (pg 204) Source expressions occur in
herodotus and thukidides.
Pg 205, an extension of the directional meaning of kat with the genitive: indeed, it is
remarkable that in Attic-Ionic this meaning is no longer connectedwith resultative aspect, as
shown by the fact that the verb forms are not in the perfect. InHomer the achievement of the
final location was highlighted; later on, the existence of a downward trajectory along which
the trajector moves in the direction of the landmark appears to be more salient in the
meaning of kat.
An extension of kata is that it reverses in a sense its verticality (pp206). Instead of denoting a
vertical direction, it denotes a horizontal one, taking the meaning of behind. She claims that
this can also happen with other Ps expressing verticality.
As language evolves, kata takes the meaning of around or over, more frequently than
downwards or along to (pp 209).
Pg 210 A new local meaning found in Attic-Ionic is opposite to.

12. HUPER
Never used as an independent adverb, occurs as preverb, indicating that the motion goes
over or beyond a landmark (pg 214).
In Homer, it takes the accusative and the genitive.
Pg 214. The meaning of hupr shares features of over and of above: in particular, it never
denotes contact (contact is denoted by ep, on). Some of the meanings conveyed by over
are conveyed by hupr, too, but they are divided between the two cases that can occur with
it. In some occurrences, hupr denotes that a limit is surpassed, like English across.
above it. These two features are demonstrated in examples


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Huper+ genitive= location, normally implying that the trajector is not in contact with the
landmark, but located on a vertical line above it, not just in Homer, but also in Attic Ionic (pg
219).

Huper+ accusative= with motion verbs and uniplex trajectors. It profiles motion across the
boundaries of a landmark (direction), horizontal orientation. When used with accusative, it
refers to a landmark placed on a horizontal line wrt the trajector, and is then conceived as a
possible limit that the trajectory crosses with its motion (pp 217). It can also mean all over.
After Homer it is not often found to denote spatial relation with accusative.

Pg 224. Already in Homer, hupr with the accusative only expressed verticality in its usage
with multiplex trajectors, denoting multidirectional Path. In its usage with simplex trajectors in
Direction expressions, it indicated that the landmark is a limit setting entity placed on a
horizontal trajectory with respect to the initial position of the trajector. Since the function of
denoting multidirectional Path was lost after Homer, and given the fact that the metaphorical
use of hupr was based on its directional meaning, later occurrences of the preposition in
space expressions must not be taken as meaning above, but rather beyond.

13. HUPO
Pg 225.Used both as a free adverb and as a preverb. It takes all three cases. In Homer

hupo+ dative= Location, sometimes Direction where the dative profiles the endpoint of a
motion. It can refer to the area below or the area at the lower end of sth. Dative can be found
in direction expressions, where the endpoint is profiled. In Homer, the meaning beneath was
sometimes transformed to behind (pg 226).

Hupo+ genitive= ablatival meaning, to express Source (pg 229). It seems (pp 230) that the
ablatival genitive only denotes motion from beneath the lower edge of a landmark, and not
from a location close to the lower edge. Local usage is extremely limited, there is only one
example in Herodotus which is used locally (pp 238).

Hupo+accusative= it includes direction and location expressions. It can occur as:
1. Locatival dative or ablatival genitive
2. to denote below, but not in the sense that kata does. Hupo is used to profile the relation of
inferiority between the trajector and the landmark.
3. location of a trajector under a multiplex landmark.

In general, (pp235), it denotes direction, with the accusative, whereas the genitive has a
more concrete meaning, denoting a precise location.
After Homer, the few PPs with spatial meaning present a shift from Source to Location (pg
238).

The differences are connected to possible contact between the trajector and the landmark.
When it combines with accusative, it also implies lack of contact, as opposed to the dative or
genitive (pg 241).

14. META
(pg 244) Its original meaning is between. When the landmark consists of more than two
entities, then we have the meaning of among. The meaning after is equally represented,
even when meta functions like an adverb. Rarely, there is also the spatial meaning of behind.

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When a preverb, it indicates a change to a contrary state, and as a P, it takes all three cases,
accusative, genitive, dative.

Meta + dative= the position of a trajector relative to a multiplex landmark. The spatial SR
expressed by met is Location; only occasionally does this type of PP occur with a motion
verb, for instance in cases in which en (or, in Homer, the dative/locative) can also be found,
where Direction is envisaged as the end of motion (pg 245). The landmark consists of two or
more entities. It can also denote location (pp 248). After Homer, the dative disappears (pg
249).

Meta + genitive= it was an innovation in Homer, as it appeared in only 5 passages. The
landmark always consists of more than two entities.(pp 244).
After a while, it started taking over the use of meta with dative. It denotes a multiplex but
discontinuous location (among)

Meta+ accusative= involves both among and after meanings. Pp 246 she gives an example
of direction, where the PP denotes motion toward a plural referent, the result of motion is that
the trajector will be among the landmark. With accusative, it can also imply location, as with
among. When used as direction-denoting, it takes the sense of among or after.

The dative disappears after Homer, so meta is only followed by genitive or accusative (pp
249). Its meaning is also shifted from Location to Commitative. Generally speaking, after
Medieval times (pp 254), meta + accusative loses its local meaning and can only be used in
the temporal meaning.
Pg 255. After Homer, meaning polarizes around two centers: with (genitive) / after
(accusative), regardless of the internal structure of the landmark.

Pg 248 Table 4.
Spatial SRs expressed by met
dative, biplex or multiplex, +/ continuous Location/Direction (with endpoint profiled)
(between, among)
genitive, multiplex discontinuous

Location (among)
accusative, multiplex continuous

Location (among)
accusative, multiplex +/ continuous

Direction (with trajectory profiled) (among)
accusative, uniplex

Direction (after)

15. AMPHI
Its original local meaning was on both sides. It soon acquired the extended meaning of all
around (pp 256). It can occur with all three cases in Homer.

Amphi+ dative = in locations, where the extension of the landmark is not envisaged as
relevant. When with motion verbs, the achievement of the endpoint is highlighted. It can also
sometimes indicate proximity and not achievement (pp 257). The dative refers to location in a
certain spot, without reference to its physical dimensions. The space on the side of an
accusative landmark, even if the latter is a singular count noun, must always be extended,
while this requirement does not hold in the case of the dative and the genitive.

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Amphi+ accusative= the space on the side of the landmark must be extended, something
unnecessary in the case of genitive and dative. It can express Direction or Location in a
continuous area. With time, it can also take the meaning of along, close, as its meaning shifts
to a less specific location. With motion verbs in particular, it expresses the motion of a
multiplex trajector towards the two sides of a landmark. (pg 259). The space on the side of an
accusative landmark, even if the latter is a singular count noun, must always be extended (pg
259).
In Homer, the genitive is used in the same way as the dative.
In Herodotus, there is one occurrence with the genitive, where amphi really takes the
meaning of around (pp 264).
Xenophon is not a reliable source of information, as his work is influenced by dialectal
elements, but (pp 266) we can see that he uses amphi mainly with accusative, sporadically
with genitive, and never with Dative.
Pg 267. Amphi is an interesting case of a preposition which especially in connection with
certain types of landmark puts special constraints on the trajectors structure: the trajector
with amph in Homer must be multiplex (or biplex); with respect to the landmark, a uniplex
trajector cannot stand in the local relation profiled by amph. This was not a common feature
of Greek prepositions, which much more frequently put constraints on the landmarks
structure in Homer. Only marginally uniplex trajectors occur, where the meaning of the
preposition bleaches and simply denotes proximity.

16. PERI
It means around/ about, and is very productive in its adverbial usage. It can be used with all
three cases.

Peri + dative= usually expresses location and mostly occurs with uniplex landmarks (pg
268). Sometimes it can combine with verbs that denote a winding movement around a
landmark. When it means beside, it can combine with verbs of rest. Later, the dative was
completely substituted by the genitive. In Homer, though, the genitive denoted superiority.(p
272).pg 270, peri + genitive, we find multiplex trajectors.

Peri + accusative= around in Homer. When it combines with a verb of rest, it occupies the
area surrounding the landmark. It does imply, though, that there is some space between the
trajector and the landmark. Also, local meaning is always retained with the accusative (pg
277).

When with accusative, even in later times, it retains its circular motion around a landmark.

With verbs of rest, it can denote location near or around a landmark.

(pg 282) she mentions a phrase which means set out for with peri, but calls it a purpose
phrase.

17. PROS
It means towards or against and denotes directionality. As a preverb, (pp 284) it adds its
meaning to the verb. As a P, it combines with all three cases.

Similar to para, their core difference is that para does not denote contact, whereas pros does.


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Pros + dative= Location, close contact of trajectory with landmark. Can also denote direction,
profiling the endpoint of a trajectory (pg 284).

Pros + genitive= creates a semantic conflict, as genitive is usually ablatival (pg 285). The
semantic ambiguity is solved by animacy of the landmark, and they do not denote source but
origin. It is later proven by data that it does take a meaning of apo when used with genitive.
With inanimate landmarks, the genitive expresses Direction, when a motion verb occurs.
(pg 286) prs only marginally occurs in sentences where the verb expresses actual motion of
a trajector away from a landmark. Even in passages that contain motion verbs, the landmark
is the origin of the trajector rather than a concrete starting point for concrete motion. In
general, it denotes origin rather than Source, unlike para.
Otherwise, it can be location (pp 288), whereby the landmark specifies a specific orientation.
She also mentions that Horrocks considers genitive with pros partitive, referring to an
example which means towards a part of Elis. Also, according to Horrocks, genitive is used
there to denote non-reaching the landmark, whereas accusative does the exact opposite
thing. With inanimate landmarks, the genitive does not convey ablatival info (pp 288), but
Direction, or Location, when the landmark specifies a specific orientation.
In Attic Ionic, it denotes Location, with orientation or the trajectory toward the landmark.

Pros + accusative= denotes the addressee to whom the info is directed, in a symmetric way
to pros + genitive (pg 293). It is found in Direction and Location expressions. The Location
phrases are not that common, unlike the direction ones, found frequently, and occurring with
all types of motion verbs. No human beings as possible landmarks of pros phrases. Perhaps
that is what distinguishes para from pros.

Pg 297. Case of peri seems to be semantically rather complicated: in Homer the genitive
encodes both Source and Direction; from the examples available it is hard to find a common
root for these two functions.In Homer the two functions are kept distinct by the feature of
animacy: in Classical Greek, animate nouns, that only occurred in Origin expressions in
Homer, frequently occur in Beneficiary expressions, which can semantically be derived from
the Origin meaning, but made the meaning of case variation with prs even more opaque.


18. EPI
Epi means on. You get it with all three cases (pg 298). Interesting fact: the genitive with epi
has no ablatival value, and it seems to cover the same functions in Homer. After Homer, the
dative is frequent, even when the semantics between the two cases overlap.
As an adverb, it means over/ besides.

Epi + dative = Location where close contact is implied (pg 298). It can also occur in Direction
expressions, to denote final contact of the trajector with the landmark.
When epi combines with verbs of put, sit down, cast meaning, they take epi both with dative
and accusative. Dative refers to the endpoint of the action, whereas accusative profiles the
whole trajectory (pg 299) SOS LOOK AGAIN AT PG 299.

The use of dative is much wider than the use of any other prepositions with dative, and it
involves motion verbs of generic meaning. The dative (pp 299) is used more with animate
nouns, whereas the accusative is used with inanimate nouns. Also, epi + dative can also
mean against and denote malefactive. The dative can also denote immediate vicinity (pp
310).


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Epi + accusative, on the other hand, only denotes motion. (Pg 299)She says that motion
with final contact can occur with horizontal trajectories, and that can lead to the meaning
against in a sense. The dative mostly denotes vertical orientation and final contact, although
one of the two might be missing sometimes.
Sometimes among locations we can find a PP where only proximity is denoted (pp301).

Epi + genitive= Location, in occurrences almost similar to the dative ones. It can denote (pp
303) vertical orientation, and contact between trajector and landmark. When the orientation is
not vertical, epi + genitive does not denote contact, unlike the dative form. It also denotes
proximity. In other passages, it can denote vertical location on an extended surface, as does
epi with accusative (pp 304). In some occurences, the genitive does not denote contact, but
rather it describes the trajector as covering a part of the area occupied by the landmark. In
such cases, it is the accusative that denotes contact. In Attic, it can also express Location.

Epi+ accusative= it can express direction, or refer to an extended landmark and express
location (pp 305). When directional, it expresses that the landmark is the limit of the motion,
but does not imply that it is reached at the end of the trajectory. It can also express a lateral
relation (pp 306), but not only that. Sometimes it expresses motion to the upper surface, with
final contact. In general, when epi appears in a passage with different cases, the dative has a
locatival use, and the accusative a motion one. It can also express location on the surface of
an extended landmark, either literal or abstract (pp 307).

In general, she says, the genitive actually profiles a specific orientation, while the dative does
not profile a specific orientation, but just contact. The orientation is understood on the basis
of common knowledge about the shape of the concrete entity that occurs as landmark (pp
310).

Pp 312, she says that the meaning of epi+accusative preserves both the horizontal
orientation type and the vertical orientation type, and it can also profile final contact.
Sometimes it denotes lateral orientation. with animate landmarks, it mostly means against.