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Lectures On The Beginnings of Calculus in Kerala and in Europe
Lectures On The Beginnings of Calculus in Kerala and in Europe
calculusinKeralaandinEurope
Math191,April5,7,12,14,19
TheSchoolofMdhavainKerala,
c.13501600CE
ExodusofBrahminsfromNorthfollowing
Musliminvasions(DelhiSultanate,Mughal
EmpireofBabur,Akbar,etc.)
Tightlyknitguruparampara (chainofteachers):
Mdhava(thefounder)Paramevara Dmodara
Nl k h J h d N ( B h i ! Nlakantha,Jyethadeva Narayana (+nonBrahmins!
ankara Variyar,Acyuta Pisrati)
All in a small area, at small village temples, under Allinasmallarea,atsmallvillagetemples,under
protectionoftheMahrjah ofCalicut.
Jyethadeva wroteauniquebook,informallecture
t i M l l th Y kti Bh ( l notes,inMalayalam,theYuktiBha (vernacular
<exposition>ofrationales).AtranslationbyK.V.Sarma
wasrecentlypublishedasGanitaYuktiBha.
ThebasicideaswereattributedtoMdhava,andideas
suchasavirtuallyheliocentricmodelofthesolarsystem
to Nlakantha (1444c 1540) toNlakantha (1444c.1540)
Theirworkneverspreadandwasforgottenuntilc.1820
whenC.M.Whish learnedMalayalam,collectedpalmleaf
manuscriptsfromKeralaandfound,tohisastonishment,
acompletesystemoffluxions
Firstbigdiscovery:
1
1
R
n
n
n
R
x dx
+
+
=
}
In6.4oftheYukti:SummationofSeries
Goal is to approximate the Riemann sum
0
GoalistoapproximatetheRiemannsum
b ll ( ) hil
( )
1
. , , "radius", "segment"
n
p
k
s k s ns R s
=
= =
2 2
1 1 1
3 3
k
R
R k k
R
= =
=
1
.
3 3
R
R
R
=
~
4 4
3 3
4
,
3 3 4
R R
k k = =
( )
1 1
1
Same argument shows:
p p
n
p
n R
+ +
( )
1
1
. . . , equality
1 1
p
p
k
n R
s k s s
p p
+
=
~ =
+ +
in the limit
Using double integrals and induction, this becomes:
R R R R R
| |
1 1 1
0 0 0 0
( ( )) .
R R R R R
p p p p
x
x dx x R R x dx R x dx x dy dx
| |
= =
|
\ .
} } } } }
1
0 1
.
p
p
x y
R
R x dxdy
p
s s s
=
}}
0 1
x y
p
s s s
1
= .
y R
p
p
R
R x dx dy
| |
|
|
\ .
} }
0 0
=
R
p p
p
R y
R dy
|
\ .
} }
}
( )
0
1 1
1
= .
1 h
R R
p p
p p
R dy
p p
R R
d d
+ +
}
} }
( )
1
0 0
so 1 , hence
1
p p
p
R R
x dx x dx
p p
+ = =
+
} }
Heappliesthis
summation to summationto
computefirst
1 1 1
1
p
= - + - +
in6.3andlaterto
get the power series
4 3 5 7
+ +
getthepowerseries
forarctan(x),anyx.
Hereishisbasic
diagram,aquadrant
ofacircleofradius
R P the East R,P the East
point,thelinePP
n
dividedinavery
largenumbernof
segments
Now is described the procedure for arriving at the Nowisdescribedtheprocedureforarrivingatthe
circumferenceofacircleofdesireddiameterwithout
involvingcalculationofsquareroots.Constructasquare
withfoursidesequaltothediameteroftheproposedcircle.
Inscribethecircleinsidethesquareinsuchamannerthat
thecircumferenceofthatcircletouchesthecentersofthe f f f
foursidesofthesquare.Themthroughthecenterofthe
circle,drawtheeastwestlineandthenorthsouthlinewith
their tips being located at the points of contact of the theirtipsbeinglocatedatthepointsofcontactofthe
circumferenceandthesides.Thentheintersticebetween
theeastpointandthesoutheastcornerofthesquarewill
beequaltotheradiusofthecircle.Dividethislineintoa
numberofequalpartsbymarkingalargenumberofpoints
closelyatequaldistances.Themorethedivisions,themore y q ,
accuratewouldbethecalculatedcircumference.
Outlineofproof:
Let 1 R s n s P P i n k OP s s
p
1
1
Let . , , 1 , ,
angle , so that 8
i i i i
n
i i i i
R s n s P P i n k OP
P OP u t u
= = s s =
= =
1
Sections 6.3.1, 6.3.2 are devoted to showing:
i
R R
=
2
1
sin( )
.
i i ( )
i i
i i i
s R s R
k k k
P P R
u u
u
~ = ~
d l P P
0
or, since is arctan( ),
i i
P P x R x u
0
2 2 2
coord along ,
he shows
n
P P
d R R
d k R
u
=
= =
2 2 2
dx k R x +
6.3.1:Dividingthe
circum into arcbits
A
P
i
P
i+1
C Q
i
circum.intoarcbits,
approx.thearcbitsby
sines
C
C
(AOP
i+1
)congruentto
(ACP
i+1
)andto
i+1
(P
i
CP
i+1
)and
(P
i
CO)congruentto
(Q
i
CO)
i
(Q
i
C O).
Thus:
O
i i
C P C P R OA
' '
= = =
O
1 1 1
and sin( ) hence sin( )
i i i i
i i i
k s OP PP
C P C P C Q s R
u u
+ + +
= = =
' ' ''
= = = =
1
and sin( ), hence sin( )
i i
i i i i i
k k k OP OP
u u
+
= = = =
Laststep:
Start with the identity:
a a ac
=
( )
and iterate, giving the "sequence of subtractive corrections":
b c b b b c
=
+ +
2 2 3
2 2 2 3 4
( )
a a ac ac a ac ac ac
b c b b b b c b b b b
| |
| |
| | | |
= =
|
|
| |
|
+ +
\ . \ .
\ .
\ .
Applying this to a
\ .
\ .
=
2 2 2
3 2 5 4
. , , ( ) , ,
i
s R b R c is b c k
s R s s i s i t
= = + =
| |
| |
2 3 5
3 3 5 5
.
4
1 1 1
i
i i i
i
s R s s i s i
k R R R
t
u
| |
| |
= ~ =
|
|
\ .
\ .
3 3 5 5
3 5
1 1 1
1
3 3 5 7
sn s n s n
R R R
~ + = + +
Howrigorousisthis?
Boundscomparingareeasyand
strong
,
p p
k x
}
strong
Boundsonarealsoeasy
A i k i h
sin( ) u u
1 1 1
1
Atrickypartisthat
convergesonlyconditionally,notabsolutely
1 1 1
3 5 7
1 + +
Ifx <1,thenwegetabsoluteconvergencefor
3 5
3 5
arctan( )
x x
x x = +
ThisiscalledAbelsummation:thatthelimit
of this as x1 can be taken term by term.
3 5
ofthisasx1canbetakentermbyterm.
Itisinterestingtocompare
this argument with Newtons thisargumentwithNewton s
derivationofKeplers Second
Law:thatplanetsmoveso
thattheareasweptoutthe
lineconnectingthemtothe
sunincreasesataconstant su c eases at a co sta t
speed.Bothusegeometryin
discreteapproximations,
then a loose passage to the thenaloosepassagetothe
limit.
IsaacNewton,Philosophi Naturalis PrincipiaMathematica, 1687
HowdidNewtonjustifyhismethods(myboldface)
Inanycase,Ihavepresentedtheselemmasbeforethepropositionsinorderto
avoidthetediumofworkingoutlengthyproofsbyreductio adabsurduminthe
manneroftheancientgeometers.Indeed,proofsarerenderedmoreconciseby g , p y
themethodofindivisibles.Butsincethehypothesisofindivisiblesis
problematicalandthismethodisaccountedlessgeometrical,Ihavepreferredto
maketheproofsofwhatfollowsdependontheultimate sumsandratiosof
vanishingquantitiesandonthefirstsumsandratiosofnascentquantities,that
is,onthelimits ofsuchsumsandratios,andthereforetopresentproofsof
thoselimitsbeforehandasbrieflyasIcould.Forthesameresultisobtainedby
h b h h d f d bl d h ll b f d theseasbythemethodofindivisibles,andweshallbeonsafergroundusing
principlesthathavebeenproved..
It may be objected that there is no such thing as an ultimate proportion of Itmaybeobjectedthatthereisnosuchthingasanultimateproportionof
vanishingquantities,inasmuchasbeforevanishingtheproportionisnot
ultimate,andaftervanishingitdoesnotexistatall.Buttheansweriseasy:
the ultimate ratio of vanishing quantities is to be understood not as the ratio of theultimateratioofvanishingquantitiesistobeunderstoodnotastheratioof
quantitiesbeforetheyvanishoraftertheyhavevanishedbuttheratiowith
whichtheyvanish.
NicoleOresme,13231382,TractatusdeConfigurationibusQulaitatum
Onethinghewasveryclearaboutisthatthekey
thingaboutagraphisthatitsshapeshoulddepict
t l th ti f th lit b i accuratelytheratiosofthequalitybeing
measuredagainstthetruedistancesinthesubject,
an interval of space or time anintervalofspaceortime.
Thisisthepointinproblem#1,HW9.
GottfriedWilhelmvonLeibniz,16461716
Polymath:Philosopher,Mathematician,Scientist,he
aspiredtounderstandeverything andreducetoa p y g
logicalsystem
Discoveredcalculusseeminglyindependentlyof
Newton,drawingonmanyideasintheairinthe
workofFermat,Descartes,Cavalieri,Huygens,
P l B Pascal,Barrow
Introducedandtheformalismfor
ki ith th b i t l ti t d b
, (also ) dx x ddx
}
workingwiththem.,beingstronglymotivatedby
finitedifferencesofdiscretesequences,aswerethe
Indian mathematicians Indianmathematicians.
IfA,B,C,D,E aresupposedtobequantitiesthatcontinually pp q y
increaseinmagnitude,andthedifferencesbetweensuccessive
termsaredenotedbyL,M,N,P,itwillfollowthat
L+M+N+P = E-A L+M+N+P=E A
thatis,sumsofthedifferences,nomatterhowgreattheirnumber,
willbeequaltothedifferencebetweentermsatthebeginningand
d f h i F l l k h 0 1 4 9 16 25 endoftheseries.Forexample,letustakethesquares01491625
withdifferences13579.Itisevidentthat
1+3+5+7+9=25-0=25
andthesamewillholdgoodwhateverthenumberoftermsorthe
differencesmaybe.Delightedbythiseasyeleganttheorem,our
young friend considered a large number of numerical series and youngfriendconsideredalargenumberofnumericalseries,and
alsoproceededtoto theseconddifferencesordifferencesofthe
differences,.
Leibnizwrotemanyunpublishednotesandmany
letters.
Inanunpublishedmanuscriptaddressedtothethe
JournaldesSavans(fromthe1670s),heannounces
1 1 1
1
4 3 5 7
p
= - + - +
byamethodwhichstartsverydifferentlyfrom
Madhavan butendsthesameway[nextslide]
He publishes New Method for Maxima Minima and HepublishesNewMethodforMaxima,Minimaand
Tangentsin1784usingdifferentialsdx andshowing
howtocalculatedy/dx forallfunctionsy=f(x) obtained y y f( )
byrationalexpressionsandpowers.
Hisnotesandlettersshowmuchmoredetailincluding
i t l th f d t l th d hi h integrals,thefundamentaltheoremandevenhigher
orderdifferentialsddx,dddx,[describe]