303 U.S.

444 (1938)
LOVELL
v.
CITY OF GRIFFIN.
No. 391.
Supreme Cour o! U"#e$ S%e&.
Argued February 4, 1938.
Decided March 28, 1938.
APPEAL FROM !E "O#R OF APPEAL$ OF %EOR%&A.
Mr. O.R. Moyle 'or a((e))a*+.
Messrs. Hughes Spalding a*d Sumter M. Kelley ,ub-i++ed o* brie' 'or a((e))ee.
.y )ea/e o' "our+, brie', o' amici curiae 0ere 'i)ed by Messrs. Francis Biddle a*d Osmond K.
Fraenkel, o* beha)' o' +he A-erica* Liber+ie, #*io*, a*d by Messrs. Samuel Slaff a*d George
Slaff, o* beha)' o' +he 1or2er,3 De'e*,e League, i* ,u((or+ o' a((e))a*+.
4445444 MR. "!&EF 6#$&"E !#%!E$ de)i/ered +he o(i*io* o' +he "our+.
A((e))a*+, A)-a Lo/e)), 0a, co*/ic+ed i* +he Recorder3, "our+ o' +he "i+y o' %ri''i*, %eorgia, o'
+he /io)a+io* o' a ci+y ordi*a*ce a*d 0a, ,e*+e*ced +o i-(ri,o*-e*+ 'or 'i'+y day, i* de'au)+ o' +he
(ay-e*+ o' a 'i*e o' 'i'+y do))ar,. he $u(erior "our+ o' +he cou*+y re'u,ed ,a*c+io* o' a (e+i+io*
'or re/ie07 +he "our+ o' A((ea), a''ir-ed +he 8udg-e*+ o' +he $u(erior "our+ 9:: %a. A((. ;<97
191 $.E. 1:2=7 a*d +he $u(re-e "our+ o' +he $+a+e de*ied a* a(()ica+io* 'or cer+iorari. he ca,e
co-e, here o* a((ea).
he ordi*a*ce i* >ue,+io* i, a, 'o))o0,?
@$ec+io* 1. ha+ +he (rac+ice o' di,+ribu+i*g, ei+her by ha*d or o+her0i,e, circu)ar,, ha*dboo2,,
ad/er+i,i*g, or )i+era+ure o' a*y 2i*d, 0he+her ,aid ar+ic)e, are bei*g de)i/ered 'ree, or 0he+her
,a-e are bei*g ,o)d, 0i+hi* +he )i-i+, o' +he "i+y o' %ri''i*, 0i+hou+ 'ir,+ ob+ai*i*g 0ri++e*
(er-i,,io* 'ro- +he "i+y Ma*ager o' +he "i+y o' %ri''i*, ,uch (rac+ice ,ha)) be dee-ed a
*ui,a*ce, a*d (u*i,hab)e a, a* o''e*,e agai*,+ +he "i+y o' %ri''i*.
@$ec+io* 2. he "hie' o' Po)ice o' +he "i+y o' %ri''i* a*d +he (o)ice 'orce o' +he "i+y o' %ri''i* are
hereby re>uired a*d direc+ed +o ,u((re,, +he ,a-e a*d +o aba+e 4485448 a*y *ui,a*ce a, i,
de,cribed i* +he 'ir,+ ,ec+io* o' +hi, ordi*a*ce.@
he /io)a+io*, 0hich i, *o+ de*ied, co*,i,+ed o' +he di,+ribu+io* 0i+hou+ +he re>uired (er-i,,io* o'
a (a-(h)e+ a*d -agaAi*e i* +he *a+ure o' re)igiou, +rac+,, ,e++i*g 'or+h +he go,(e) o' +he @Bi*gdo-
o' 6eho/ah.@ A((e))a*+ did *o+ a(()y 'or a (er-i+, a, ,he regarded her,e)' a, ,e*+ @by 6eho/ah +o
do !i, 0or2@ a*d +ha+ ,uch a* a(()ica+io* 0ou)d ha/e bee* @a* ac+ o' di,obedie*ce +o !i,
co--a*d-e*+.@
#(o* +he +ria), 0i+h (er-i,,io* o' +he cour+, a((e))a*+ de-urred +o +he charge a*d -o/ed +o
di,-i,, i+ u(o* a *u-ber o' grou*d,, a-o*g 0hich 0a, +he co*+e*+io* +ha+ +he ordi*a*ce /io)a+ed
+he Four+ee*+h A-e*d-e*+ o' +he "o*,+i+u+io* o' +he #*i+ed $+a+e, i* abridgi*g @+he 'reedo- o'
+he (re,,@ a*d (rohibi+i*g @+he 'ree eCerci,e o' (e+i+io*er3, re)igio*.@ hi, co*+e*+io* 0a, +hu,
eC(re,,ed?
@.ecau,e ,aid ordi*a*ce i, co*+rary +o a*d i* /io)a+io* o' +he 'ir,+ a-e*d-e*+ +o +he "o*,+i+u+io*
o' +he #*i+ed $+a+e,, 0hich read,?
D"o*gre,, ,ha)) -a2e *o )a0 re,(ec+i*g a* e,+ab)i,h-e*+ o' re)igio*, or (rohibi+i*g +he 'ree
eCerci,e +hereo', or abridgi*g +he 'reedo- o' ,(eech or o' +he (re,,7 or +he righ+ o' +he (eo()e
(eaceab)y +o a,,e-b)e a*d +o (e+i+io* +he go/er*-e*+ 'or a redre,, o' grie/a*ce,.3
@$aid ordi*a*ce i, a),o co*+rary +o a*d i* /io)a+io* o' +he 'our+ee*+h a-e*d-e*+ +o +he
"o*,+i+u+io* o' +he #*i+ed $+a+e,, 0hich had +he e''ec+ o' -a2i*g +he ,aid 'ir,+ a-e*d-e*+
a(()icab)e +o +he $+a+e,, a*d 0hich read,?
DA)) (er,o*, bor* or *a+ura)iAed i* +he #*i+ed $+a+e,, a*d ,ub8ec+ +o +he 8uri,dic+io* +hereo', are
ci+iAe*, o' +he #*i+ed $+a+e,, a*d o' +he $+a+e 0herei* +hey re,ide. No $+a+e ,ha)) -a2e or
e*'orce a*y )a0 0hich ,ha)) abridge +he (ri/i)ege, or i--u*i+ie, o' ci+iAe*, o' +he #*i+ed 4495449
$+a+e,7 *or ,ha)) a*y $+a+e de(ri/e a*y (er,o* o' )i'e, )iber+y, or (ro(er+y 0i+hou+ due (roce,, o'
)a07 *or de*y +o a*y (er,o* 0i+hi* i+, 8uri,dic+io* +he e>ua) (ro+ec+io* o' +he )a0,.3
@$aid ordi*a*ce ab,o)u+e)y (rohibi+, +he di,+ribu+io* o' a*y )i+era+ure o' a*y 2i*d 0i+hi* +he )i-i+, o'
+he "i+y o' %ri''i* 0i+hou+ +he (er-i,,io* o' +he "i+y Ma*ager a*d +hu, abridge, +he 'reedo- o'
+he (re,,, co*+rary +o +he (ro/i,io*, o' ,aid >uo+ed a-e*d-e*+,.
@$aid ordi*a*ce a),o (rohibi+, +he 'ree eCerci,e o' (e+i+io*er3, re)igio* a*d +he (rac+ice +hereo' by
(rohibi+i*g +he di,+ribu+io* o' )i+era+ure abou+ (e+i+io*er3, re)igio* i* /io)a+io* o' +he +er-, o' ,aid
>uo+ed a-e*d-e*+,.@
he "our+ o' A((ea),, o/erru)i*g +he,e ob8ec+io*,, ,u,+ai*ed +he co*,+i+u+io*a) /a)idi+y o' +he
ordi*a*ce, ,ayi*g E
@he ordi*a*ce i, *o+ u*co*,+i+u+io*a) becau,e i+ abridge, +he 'reedo- o' +he (re,, or (rohibi+,
+he di,+ribu+io* o' )i+era+ure abou+ +he (e+i+io*er3, re)igio*, i* /io)a+io* o' +he 'our+ee*+h
a-e*d-e*+ +o +he co*,+i+u+io* o' +he #*i+ed $+a+e,.@
1hi)e i* a ,e(ara+e (aragra(h o' i+, o(i*io* +he cour+ ,aid +ha+ +he charge +ha+ +he ordi*a*ce 0a,
/oid becau,e i+ /io)a+ed a de,ig*a+ed (ro/i,io* o' +he ,+a+e or 'edera) co*,+i+u+io* 0i+hou+ ,+a+i*g
0herei* +here 0a, ,uch a /io)a+io*, 0a, +oo i*de'i*i+e +o (re,e*+ a co*,+i+u+io*a) >ue,+io*, 0e
+hi*2 +ha+ +hi, ,+a+e-e*+ -u,+ ha/e re'erred +o o+her grou*d, o' de-urrer a*d *o+ +o +he ob8ec+io*
abo/e >uo+ed 0hich 0a, ,u''icie*+)y ,(eci'ic a*d 0a, de'i*i+e)y ru)ed u(o*. he co*+e*+io* a, +o
re,+rai*+ @u(o* +he 'ree eCerci,e o' re)igio*,@ 0i+h re,(ec+ +o +he ,a-e ordi*a*ce, 0a, (re,e*+ed
i* +he ca,e o' oleman /. ity of Griffin, :: %a. A((. 123, a*d +he a((ea) 0a, di,-i,,ed 'or 0a*+
o' a ,ub,+a*+ia) 'edera) >ue,+io*, 3<2 #.$. ;3;. Reynolds /. !nited States, 98 #.$. 14:, 1;;, 1;4 7
"a#is 4:<54:< /. Beason, 133 #.$. 333, 342, 343 . .u+, i* +he oleman ca,e, +he "our+ did *o+
dea) 0i+h +he >ue,+io* o' 'reedo- o' ,(eech a*d o' +he (re,,, a, i+ had *o+ bee* (ro(er)y
(re,e*+ed. 1e +hi*2 +ha+ +hi, >ue,+io* 0a, ade>ua+e)y (re,e*+ed a*d 0a, decided i* +he i*,+a*+
ca,e. 1he+her i+ 0a, ,o (re,e*+ed a*d 0a, decided i, i+,e)' a 'edera) >ue,+io*. arter /. $e%as,
144 #.$. 442, 4447 &ard /. 'o#e ounty, 2:3 #.$. 14, 22 7 First (ational Bank /. )nderson, 2;9
#.$. 341, 34;7 Schuylkill $rust o. /. *ennsyl#ania, 29; #.$. 113, 121 . hi, "our+ ha,
8uri,dic+io*.
Freedo- o' ,(eech a*d 'reedo- o' +he (re,,, 0hich are (ro+ec+ed by +he Fir,+ A-e*d-e*+ 'ro-
i*'ri*ge-e*+ by "o*gre,,, are a-o*g +he 'u*da-e*+a) (er,o*a) righ+, a*d )iber+ie, 0hich are
(ro+ec+ed by +he Four+ee*+h A-e*d-e*+ 'ro- i*/a,io* by ,+a+e ac+io*. Gitlo+ /. (e+ ,ork, 2;8
#.$. ;:2, ;;;7 Strom-erg /. alifornia, 283 #.$. 3:9, 3;8 7 (ear /. Minnesota, 283 #.$. ;94, 4<4 7
Gros.ean /. )merican *ress o., 294 #.$. 233, 244 7 "e /onge /. Oregon, 299 #.$. 3:3, 3;4 .
$ee, a),o, *alko /. onnecticut, 3<2 #.$. 319 . &+ i, a),o 0e)) ,e++)ed +ha+ -u*ici(a) ordi*a*ce,
ado(+ed u*der ,+a+e au+hori+y co*,+i+u+e ,+a+e ac+io* a*d are 0i+hi* +he (rohibi+io* o' +he
a-e*d-e*+. Raymond /. hicago !nion $raction o., 2<4 #.$. 2< 7 Home $elephone 0
$elegraph o. /. 'os )ngeles, 224 #.$. 248 7 uyahoga Ri#er *o+er o. /. )kron, 24< #.$. 4;2 .
he ordi*a*ce i* i+, broad ,0ee( (rohibi+, +he di,+ribu+io* o' @circu)ar,, ha*dboo2,, ad/er+i,i*g,
or )i+era+ure o' a*y 2i*d.@ &+ -a*i'e,+)y a(()ie, +o (a-(h)e+,, -agaAi*e, a*d (eriodica),. he
e/ide*ce agai*,+ a((e))a*+ 0a, +ha+ ,he di,+ribu+ed a cer+ai* (a-(h)e+ a*d a -agaAi*e ca))ed +he
@%o)de* Age.@ 1he+her i* ac+ua) ad-i*i,+ra+io* +he ordi*a*ce i, a(()ied, a, a((are*+)y i+ cou)d
be, +o *e0,(a(er, doe, *o+ a((ear. he "i+y Ma*ager +e,+i'ied +ha+ @e/ery o*e a(()ie, +o -e 'or
a 4:154:1 )ice*,e +o di,+ribu+e )i+era+ure i* +hi, "i+y. No*e o' +he,e (eo()e 9i*c)udi*g de'e*da*+=
,ecured a (er-i+ 'ro- -e +o di,+ribu+e )i+era+ure i* +he "i+y o' %ri''i*.@ he ordi*a*ce i, *o+ )i-i+ed
+o @)i+era+ure@ +ha+ i, ob,ce*e or o''e*,i/e +o (ub)ic -ora), or +ha+ ad/oca+e, u*)a0'u) co*duc+.
here i, *o ,ugge,+io* +ha+ +he (a-(h)e+ a*d -agaAi*e di,+ribu+ed i* +he i*,+a*+ ca,e 0ere o'
+ha+ charac+er. he ordi*a*ce e-brace, @)i+era+ure@ i* +he 0ide,+ ,e*,e.
he ordi*a*ce i, co-(rehe*,i/e 0i+h re,(ec+ +o +he -e+hod o' di,+ribu+io*. &+ co/er, e/ery ,or+ o'
circu)a+io* @ei+her by ha*d or o+her0i,e.@ here i, +hu, *o re,+ric+io* i* i+, a(()ica+io* 0i+h re,(ec+
+o +i-e or ()ace. &+ i, *o+ )i-i+ed +o 0ay, 0hich -igh+ be regarded a, i*co*,i,+e*+ 0i+h +he
-ai*+e*a*ce o' (ub)ic order or a, i*/o)/i*g di,order)y co*duc+, +he -o)e,+a+io* o' +he i*habi+a*+,,
or +he -i,u,e or '#er#"( o' +he ,+ree+,. he ordi*a*ce (rohibi+, +he di,+ribu+io* o' )i+era+ure o'
a*y 2i*d a+ a*y +i-e, a+ a*y ()ace, a*d i* a*y -a**er 0i+hou+ a (er-i+ 'ro- +he "i+y Ma*ager.
1e +hi*2 +ha+ +he ordi*a*ce i, i*/a)id o* i+, 'ace. 1ha+e/er +he -o+i/e 0hich i*duced i+, ado(+io*,
i+, charac+er i, ,uch +ha+ i+ ,+ri2e, a+ +he /ery 'ou*da+io* o' +he 'reedo- o' +he (re,, by ,ub8ec+i*g
i+ +o )ice*,e a*d ce*,or,hi(. he ,+rugg)e 'or +he 'reedo- o' +he (re,, 0a, (ri-ari)y direc+ed
agai*,+ +he (o0er o' +he )ice*,or. &+ 0a, agai*,+ +ha+ (o0er +ha+ 6oh* Mi)+o* direc+ed hi, a,,au)+
by hi, @A((ea) 'or +he Liber+y o' #*)ice*,ed Pri*+i*g.@ A*d +he )iber+y o' +he (re,, beca-e i*i+ia))y
a righ+ +o (ub)i,h @+ithout a )ice*,e 0ha+ 'or-er)y cou)d be (ub)i,hed o*)y +ith o*e.@
F1G
1hi)e +hi,
'reedo- 'ro- (re/iou, re,+rai*+ u(o* (ub)ica+io* ca**o+ be regarded a, eChau,+i*g +he guara*+y
o' )iber+y, +he (re/e*+io* o' +ha+ re,+rai*+ 0a, a )eadi*g (ur(o,e i* +he ado(+io* o' +he 4:254:2
co*,+i+u+io*a) (ro/i,io*. $ee *atterson /. olorado, 2<: #.$. 4:4, 4;2 7 (ear /. Minnesota, 283
#.$. ;94, 413H41;7 Gros.ean /. )merican *ress o., 294 #.$. 233, 24:, 24; . Legi,)a+io* o' +he
+y(e o' +he ordi*a*ce i* >ue,+io* 0ou)d re,+ore +he ,y,+e- o' )ice*,e a*d ce*,or,hi( i* i+,
ba)de,+ 'or-.
he )iber+y o' +he (re,, i, *o+ co*'i*ed +o *e0,(a(er, a*d (eriodica),. &+ *ece,,ari)y e-brace,
(a-(h)e+, a*d )ea')e+,. he,e i*deed ha/e bee* hi,+oric 0ea(o*, i* +he de'e*,e o' )iber+y, a, +he
(a-(h)e+, o' ho-a, Pai*e a*d o+her, i* our o0* hi,+ory abu*da*+)y a++e,+. he (re,, i* i+,
hi,+oric co**o+a+io* co-(rehe*d, e/ery ,or+ o' (ub)ica+io* 0hich a''ord, a /ehic)e o' i*'or-a+io*
a*d o(i*io*. 1ha+ 0e ha/e had rece*+ occa,io* +o ,ay 0i+h re,(ec+ +o +he /i+a) i-(or+a*ce o'
(ro+ec+i*g +hi, e,,e*+ia) )iber+y 'ro- e/ery ,or+ o' i*'ri*ge-e*+ *eed *o+ be re(ea+ed. (ear /.
Minnesota, supra1 Gros.ean /. )merican *ress o., supra 1 "e /onge /. Oregon, supra .
F2G
he ordi*a*ce ca**o+ be ,a/ed becau,e i+ re)a+e, +o di,+ribu+io* a*d *o+ +o (ub)ica+io*. @Liber+y o'
circu)a+i*g i, a, e,,e*+ia) +o +ha+ 'reedo- a, )iber+y o' (ub)i,hi*g7 i*deed, 0i+hou+ +he circu)a+io*,
+he (ub)ica+io* 0ou)d be o' )i++)e /a)ue.@ 2% parte /ackson, 9; #.$. 424, 433 . he )ice*,e +aC i*
Gros.ean /. )merican *ress o., supra , 0a, he)d i*/a)id becau,e o' i+, direc+ +e*de*cy +o re,+ric+
circu)a+io*.
A, +he ordi*a*ce i, /oid o* i+, 'ace, i+ 0a, *o+ *ece,,ary 'or a((e))a*+ +o ,ee2 a (er-i+ u*der i+.
$he 0a, 4:354:3 e*+i+)ed +o co*+e,+ i+, /a)idi+y i* a*,0er +o +he charge agai*,+ her. Smith /.
ahoon, 283 #.$. ::3, :;2 .
he 8udg-e*+ i, re/er,ed a*d +he cau,e i, re-a*ded 'or 'ur+her (roceedi*g, *o+ i*co*,i,+e*+
0i+h +hi, o(i*io*.
Re#ersed.
MR. 6#$&"E "ARDOIO +oo2 *o (ar+ i* +he co*,idera+io* a*d deci,io* o' +hi, ca,e.
F1G $ee 1ic20ar, @he $+rugg)e 'or +he Freedo- o' +he Pre,,,@ (. 1:.
F2G $ee a),o, Starr ompany /. Brush, 18: A((. Di/. 9N.J.= 2;1 7 142 N.J.$. 8:17 "ear-orn *u-lishing o. /. Fit3gerald, 241 Fed.
4497 4n re amp-ell, ;4 "a). A((. 3<<7 221 Pac. 9:27 oughlin /. Sulli#an, 1<< N.6.L. 42 7 12; A+). 144. "o-(are *eople /.
)rmstrong, 43 Mich. 288 7 41 N.1. 24:7 hicago /. Schult3, 341 &)). 2<8 7 143 N.E. 24;7 *eople /. )rmentrout, 118 "a). A((. $u((.
4;17 1 P.2d ::;.