History of political thought

December 3rd

The scientific revolution

From the beginning of the 17th century, we have the rise of the new spirit, the gradual
shift of what we would call the sources of authority. Political theory used to have a very
standard set of sources of authority, namely classical authors (esp. Greek philosophers),
Roman law, Christian doctrine (esp. the Scripture) and tradition (in a loose sense). The
great absent of the list is Science, because until then people were very skeptical that the
human mind alone was able to produce sound knowledge by itself.
In the 17th century appears the evolution of abstract sciences (Sociology, Psychology)
and applied sciences (Physics, Math).
An important author was Rene Descartes who is widely credited for the rise of what is
called rationalism. After Descartes, there won’t be many authors who would openly
declare themselves to be anti-rationalists. Descartes relies on method and reason which
resulted in a number of transformations and among these is the transformation of
Physics. The name commonly associated with this transformation is that of Newton.
Descartes’ Physics revolved around the theory of the vortex. Before Newton, this theory
was one of the transforming forces of the study of nature.
Another great name is Blaise Pascal, who was one of the founders of the calculus of
probability that would prove immense importance for the future science of Statistics.
Another contribution of Pascal was the study of fluids. A result was the use of canals,
which led to the formation of an economy where transportation using the artificial water
ways was crucial. The study of canals became a truly important task in what we would
call the science of administering the state. The unification of the German states and the
concentration of power in the hands of the future German government can be
understood as a necessity in the context of those large engineering projects that were
aimed at the damming in the valley of the Rhine.
There also occurred Chemistry and Biology; a very important invention was that of the
microscope.
The academies and scientific societies were encouraged by sovereigns. They appeared in
Italy, France etc. The first university was founded in 1080 in Bologna and the second in
1222 in Padua, but none was as influential as the Royal Society (1660).
The self-regulatory mechanism appears. The expression “checks and balances” was in
fact used in regard to this mechanism firstly and then in political thought by theorists of
separation of powers (for instance). It has built-in devices (weights and counterweights).

Francis Bacon – New Atlantis

It is one of the first utopias to present a very detailed society and state whose secret of
ever-increasing power lays in the mastery of nature through the mastery of science, in
other words, science, knowledge as the secret of the power of the state. Francis Bacon
presents the society of New Atlantis, a well-ordered society. What is striking is the
presence of a very special institution, the House of Solomon, which is basically a
scientific society. It is financed and administrated by the state and it is dedicated into
pursuing excellence in knowledge, with a view to the practical applications of science. In
many ways, this is a visionary work. Francis Bacon describes genetic manipulation,
elaborate means to transmit at large distances sights and sounds (TV, radio), scientists
who invent miraculous medicine or study different foods that are supposed to promote
good health (nutritionists). There is the dream of building a state with the aid of modern,
experimental science.

Another novelty is the presence of the idea of encyclopedic knowledge. In 1751, there
appears the first volume of the Great French Encyclopedia. Its main editor was Denis
Diderot. There appears the idea that science in its encyclopedic form has benefits for the
public at large and is indispensable for the progress of society. Denis Diderot and his
associates, such as d’Alembert produced a huge collection of articles about different
aspects of trades, sciences, society etc. Although it is very hard to sum up what is new
there from the 34 volumes, the least we can say is that these articles betray the radical
spirit of the Enlightenment (to some extent anti-clerical), the feeling that everything can
be explained in a rational way, against the traditional ways of explanation.
Baruch Spinoza comes up with a criticism of theology which very quickly evolved towards
social criticism, for instance he is one of the first authors that come up with the idea of a
democratic republic. His influence was mainly clandestine – his book Tractatus
theologico-political was forbidden. Mirabeau’s Erotica Biblo was claimed to be published
in Rome while it dealt with the “daily activities” of the Pope and his cardinals.
Dom Bougre – TO RESEARCH.
La Mettrie published in 1747 a work called Man Machine claiming that basically, the
individual is just a very complicated machine. It is made of matter, thus being more
complicated than the machines we could build ourselves. A very sinister implication
could be that man is not built of body and soul, thus rendering the Church a liar.

The increasing influence of Social Mathematics (Statistics)

Before having Statistics, we must have loads of data. From the 17 th century onwards, we
witness the formation of modern archives (e.g. accumulation of data about birth and
death in London). It is a political necessity because the sovereigns feel that the power of
the state lies in a number of people that could be mobilized (for instance, in the army)
and the number of goods that could be taxed.

Harrington is known as the author of Oceana, a utopia in which he is focused on what

would later become the theory of voting. He comes up with the idea that what we call
today the electoral system is worth studying because it is essential for the preservation
or transformation of a regime. He has a model, the model of Venice. He makes
observations like the one in which he discusses the best way for a state to remain free,
how to organize such a state – you only had to watch two dumb girls sharing a cake:
there is one who does the cutting and one who does the choosing. The study of statistics
has to do with the rise of the insurance industry.

Condorcet was one of the first to come up with an elaborate, formal theory of voting. He
discovers something called a cyclical majority.