Exp.

No:5
Date:
FAULT ANALYSIS
AIM
To compute the fault level, post-fault voltages and currents for both
symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.

Software Required

MIPOWER

Theory

Need for short circuit analysis:

The system must be protected against heavy flow of short circuit current
during the occurrence of the fault. This is done by disconnecting the faulty section
from the healthy section by means of circuit breaker. To estimate the magnitude of
fault current for the proper choice of circuit breaker and protective relays, short
circuit study is essential.

Causes of short circuit fault:

Insulation failure of equipment.
Flash over of lines initiated by lightning stroke or through accidental faulty
operation.
Salt spray or pollution on insulators.
Animals or plants coming in contact with the wires.

Fault types:

There are two main types of faults:

Symmetrical faults: System remains balanced; these faults are relatively
rare, but easiest to analyze.
Unsymmetrical faults: System is no longer balanced; very common, but
relatively difficult to analyze.

The most common type of fault on a three phase system by far is the line-to-
ground (L-G), followed by the line-to line faults (L-L), double line-to-ground (L-
L-G) faults, and balanced three phase faults. The probability of two or more
simultaneous faults on a power system is removed and is therefore ignored in
system design for abnormal conditions.


In power system, loads are specified and the load currents are unknown. The
effects of load currents in the fault analysis are to express the loads by constant
impedance evaluated at the prefault bus voltages.


Prefault fault bus voltages are obtained from the results of power flow
solution.
Loads are expressed by constant admittance using prefault bus voltages.
Replace reactances of synchronous machines by their sub-transient /
transient values.
Draw reactance diagram for the short circuit.
Draw Thevenins equivalent viewed from faulted bus (q
th
bus) and find the
fault current using the following formula

F qq
q
f
Z Z
V
I
+
=
0
(5.1)
Where
0
q
V = Prefault voltage
qq
Z = Thevenins resistance

F
Z = Fault impedance

Determine current contributed by each generator in the system using current
division technique.
Determine post fault bus voltage using formula.

(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

f Nq N
f qq q
f q
f
N
f
q
f
I Z V
I Z V
I Z V
V
V
V
0
0
1
0
1
1

(5.2)
Determine post fault line flows using the following formula (5.3).
series
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I

= (5.3)

Where
f
ij
I
= the post fault line current connecting the buses i and j
series
ij
Z
= the series impedance of the line connecting the buses i and j.


Short circuit capacity (SCC) or fault level of a bus is defined as the product of
the prefault voltage and the post fault current and is given by

MVA u p
Z
V
I V SCC
qq
q
f q
. . .
2
0
0
= = (5.4)
If the prefault voltages are assumed to be 1.0 p.u then,

qq
Z
SCC
1
= (5.5)
Unsymmetrical fault analysis:

Most of the systems have unsymmetrical faults. It consists of unsymmetrical
short circuit fault or unsymmetrical faults through impedance, or open conductor
faults. If the insulation of the system fails at any point or if a conducting object
comes in contact with a bare conductor, an unsymmetrical short circuit fault is said
to occur. Due to this unbalanced currents flow in the system.

Shunt type faults:

Line to ground fault (L-G)
Line to line fault(L-L)
Double line to ground fault (L-L-G)

Series type faults:

Open conductor fault

Three phase (3L) fault being the most severe must be used to calculate the
rupturing capacity of circuit breakers, even though this type of fault has a low
frequency of occurrence, when compared to the unsymmetrical faults listed above.
There are, however, situations when LG fault can cause greater fault current than a
three phase fault.

Causes of unsymmetrical faults:

Lightning
Wind damage, tree falling across lines, vehicles colliding with towers,
breaks due to excessive ice loading.
Salt spray.
Braking of one or more conductors.


Symmetrical Component Analysis of Unsymmetrical Faults

The key idea of symmetrical component analysis is to decompose the system
into three sequence networks. The networks are then coupled only at the point of
the unbalance (i.e., the fault).

The three sequence networks are known as the
Positive sequence
Negative sequence
Zero sequence

Positive sequence:

The positive sequence sets have three phase currents/voltages with equal
magnitude, with phase b lagging phase a by 120, and phase c lagging phase
b by 120 as shown in figure (5.1).



Fig (5.1)



Negative Sequence:

The negative sequence have three phase currents/voltages with equal
magnitude, with phase b leading phase a by 120, and phase c leading phase
b by 120. Negative sequence sets are similar to positive sequence, except that
Ic
Ib
Ia
the phase order is reversed as shown in figure (5.2).



Fig (5.2)


Zero sequence:

Zero sequence sets have three values with equal magnitude and angle. Zero
sequence sets have neutral current as shown in figure (5.3).




Fig (5.3)





Single Line - to - Ground fault (L- G)

The single line to ground fault, the most common type, is caused by
lightning or by conductors making contact with grounded structures.
Suppose a line to ground fault occurs on phase a connected to ground through
impedance Z
f
as shown in figure (5.4).






Fig (5.4)



Ib
Ia
Ic
Ia
Ib
Ic
a
b
c
F
Ic=0
ZF
Ib=0
Ia
Fault current is calculated by


(5.6) (6.4) (6.4)


Where
0
a
I = zero sequence current
+
a
I = positive sequence current

a
I = negative sequence current
+
KK
Z = positive sequence impedance

KK
Z =negative sequence impedance
0
KK
Z =zero sequence impedance


Fault phase current:

0 = =
c b
I I

(5.7)


+
= =
a a f
I I I 3 (5.8)




(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
a
a
a
c
b
a
I
I
I
a a
a a
I
I
I
0
2 2
2 2
1
1
1 1 1
(5.9)


Symmetrical voltages are

(5.10)


+ + +
= =
a KK q a
I Z V V
0

(5.11)

+
=
a KK a
I Z V

(5.12)



F KK KK KK
q
a a a
Z Z Z Z
V
I I I
3
0
0
0
+ + +
= = =
+
+
+
=
a KK a
I Z V
0 0
Post fault positive sequence bus voltages

+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+

=
=
=
f
K NK f p
f
K KK f p
f
K K f p
f
N
f
k
f
I Z V
I Z V
I Z V
V
V
V
.
.
1 .
1

(5.13)

Post fault negative sequence bus voltages

=
=
=
f
K NK
f
K KK
f
K K
f
N
f
k
f
I Z
I Z
I Z
V
V
V

1
1
(5.14)

Post fault zero sequence bus voltages
0 0
.
0 0
.
0 0
1 .
0
0
0
1
f
K NK f p
f
K KK f p
f
K K f p
f
N
f
k
f
I Z V
I Z V
I Z V
V
V
V

=
=
=

(5.15)
Positive sequence line current
+
+ +
+

=
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I

(5.16)
Negative sequence line current

=
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I

(5.17)
Zero sequence line current
0
0 0
0
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I

=

(5.18)



LINE TO-LINE FAULT (L-L)
A three phase generator with a fault through impedance Z
f
between phases
b and c is shown in fig (5.5) Assume the generator is unloaded (no load), the
conditions at the fault bus K are expressed by the following relations.



Fig (5.5)





Fault current:
0
0
=
a
I

(5.19)
F KK KK
q
a a
Z Z Z
V
I I
+ +
= =
+
+
0

(5.20)


Fault phase currents:
0 =
a
I

(5.21)
+
= =
a c b
I j I I 3

(5.22)
F KK KK
q
b f
Z Z Z
V j
I I
+ +

= =
+
0
) 3 (

(5.23)


Symmetrical voltages:
0 =
a
V

(5.24)
+ + +
= =
a KK q a
I Z V V
0

(5.25)

+ +
= =
KK a a KK a
Z I I Z V

(5.26)






ZF
a
b
c
F
Ia=0
Ib
Ic
Post fault positive sequence bus voltages

+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+

=
=
=
f
K NK f p
f
K KK f p
f
K K f p
f
N
f
k
f
I Z V
I Z V
I Z V
V
V
V
.
.
1 .
1

(5.27)
Post fault negative sequence bus voltages

=
=
=
f
K NK
f
K KK
f
K K
f
N
f
k
f
I Z
I Z
I Z
V
V
V

1
1

(5.28)

Post fault zero sequence bus voltages

0 0
.
0 0
.
0 0
1 .
0
0
0
1
f
K NK f p
f
K KK f p
f
K K f p
f
N
f
k
f
I Z V
I Z V
I Z V
V
V
V

=
=
=

(5.29)

Positive sequence line current
+
+ +
+

=
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I

(5.30)
Negative sequence line current

=
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I

(5.31)
Zero sequence line current
0
0 0
0
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I

=

(5.32)


DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT (L-L-G)
A three phase generator with a fault on phase b to c through impedance
Z
f
. Assuming the generator is initially on no-load, the condition at the fault K is
expressed by the following relations.







Fig (5.6)



Fault currents:


(5.33)


(5.34)

F KK KK
KK a
a
Z Z Z
Z I
I
3
0
0
0
+ +

=

+
(5.35)


Fault phase currents:
0
3
a f
I I =

(5.36)

0 =
a
I

(5.37)

f c b
I I I = +

(5.38)

Symmetrical voltage faults:

0 0 0
a KK a
I Z V =
(5.39)

+ + +
= = =
a KK q a a
I Z V V V
0


(5.40)




a
b
c
F
Ia=0
Ib
Ic
ZF
3Ig0
F KK KK
F KK KK
KK
q
a
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z
V
I
3
) (
0
0
0
+ +
+
+
=

+
+
F KK KK
F KK a
a
Z Z Z
Z Z I
I
3
) 3 (
0
0
+ +
+
=

+

Post fault positive sequence bus voltages

+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+

=
=
=
f
K NK f p
f
K KK f p
f
K K f p
f
N
f
k
f
I Z V
I Z V
I Z V
V
V
V
.
.
1 .
1

(5.41)

Post fault negative sequence bus voltages

=
=
=
f
K NK
f
K KK
f
K K
f
N
f
k
f
I Z
I Z
I Z
V
V
V

1
1

(5.42)


Post fault zero sequence bus voltages

0 0
.
0 0
.
0 0
1 .
0
0
0
1
f
K NK f p
f
K KK f p
f
K K f p
f
N
f
k
f
I Z V
I Z V
I Z V
V
V
V

=
=
=

(5.43)


Positive sequence line current
+
+ +
+

=
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I
(5.44)

Negative sequence line current

=
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I
(5.45)

Zero sequence line current
0
0 0
0
ij
f
j
f
i f
ij
Z
V V
I

=
(5.46)












FLOW CHART (Symmetrical Fault Analysis)























Draw the Thevenins equivalent circuit and obtain the fault
current using equation (5.1)

Start
Read line data, bus data, fault bus sub-transient reactance of each machine

Assume prefault load currents, shunt elements in transformer, transformer taps, shunt
capacitances, series resistances
Draw the prefault per phase network (positive sequence network) and
then obtain
bus
Z matrix using bus building algorithm
Compute the post fault bus voltage using equation (5.2)

Calculate Post fault line currents using equation (5.3)

Calculate the fault level using the equation (5.4)
Print
f
I , post fault voltages, post fault currents, SCC
Stop
Flow chart (Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis):
NO
START
Read the bus data, line data, fault bus, reactance of each
machine, Assume prefault voltages.

Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence networks using the
sequence impedances of the power system. Compute positive,
negative, zero sequence using bus building algorithm

IS LG FAULT?
Symmetrical
components of fault
current at bus k for
LL-G fault are
calculated using the
equations (5.34),
(5.35) and (5.36).







Symmetrical
components of
fault current at
bus k for L-G
fault are
calculated
using the
equation (5.6)

IS LL FAULT?
Symmetrical
components of
fault current at bus
k for L-L fault are
calculated using
the equations
(5.19) and (5.20)


E
F
G
YES
YES
NO
Assume fault at phase a and bus k

Symmetrical voltages for
L-G fault are calculated
using the equation s (5.10),
(5.11) and (5.12)

Fault phase currents
for L-L fault are
calculated using
equations (5.21),
(5.22) and (5.23)





Fault phase currents
for L-G fault are
calculated using
equations (5.7), (5.8)
and (5.9)

Symmetrical voltages for
L-L fault are calculated
using the equation s
(5.24), (5.25) and (5.26)

Fault phase currents
for LL-G fault are
calculated using
equations (5.37),
(5.38) and (5.39)



Symmetrical voltages for
LLG fault are calculated
using the equations
(5.40) and (5.41)



Post fault positive sequence bus voltages are calculated using the
formula (5.13)

Post fault negative sequence bus voltages are calculated using the
formula (5.14)

Post fault zero sequence bus voltages are calculated using the
formula (5.15)




E
F G

Positive sequence line current is calculated using the equation (5.16)
Negative sequence line current is calculated using the equation (5.17)
Zero sequence line current is calculated using the equation (5.18)

Phase voltages
| | | || |
s p
V T V . =
Phase current
| | | || |
s p
I T I . =

Stop
Algorithm:

Symmetrical fault analysis
1. Draw the prefault per phase network (positive sequence network). Determine the
matrix using step by step bus building algorithm.

2. Obtain prefault bus voltages from power flow solution.

3. Assume prefault currents to be negligible. Represent all the components and
loads by their appropriate impedances and draw the Thevenins circuit. Obtain the
fault current using the equation (5.1).

4. Obtain the Thevenins network by inserting the Thevenins voltage source in
series with .

5. Obtain the post fault bus voltages using the equation (5.2).

6. Calculate the post fault line current using the equation (5.3).

7. Determine the short circuit capacity using the equation (5.4).


Unsymmetrical fault analysis:
1. Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence networks using the sequence
impedance of the power system and compute the positive, negative, zero sequence
impedance matrices using bus building algorithm.

2. Check if the fault is L-G Fault. If YES then go to next step else jump to step 6.

3. For the L-G fault calculate the symmetrical components of the fault current at
bus k using the formula (5.6)

Where are the diagonal elements in the K axis of .

4. Determine the fault phase current using the symmetrical components obtained in
the previous step using equations (5.7), (5.8) and (5.9).

5. Symmetrical voltages can be calculated from the equations (5.10), (5.11) and
(5.12) and then jump to step 13.

6. Check if the fault is L-L fault. If YES jump to step 10 else go to next step.

7. Calculate the symmetrical components for LLG fault using the equations (5.34),
(5.35) and (5.36).

8. Determine the fault phase currents for the LLLG fault from the symmetrical
component currents obtained in the previous step using the equations (5.37), (5.38)
and (5.39).

9. Compute the symmetrical voltage components for the LLLG fault using the
equations (5.40) and (5.41) and then jump to step 13.

10. Calculate the symmetrical components for L-L fault using the equations (5.19),
and (5.20).

11. Determine the fault phase currents for the L-L fault from the symmetrical
component currents obtained in the previous step using the equations (5.21), (5.22)
and (5.23).

12. Compute the symmetrical voltage components for the LLLG fault using the
equations (5.24), (5.25) and (5.26) and then jump to step 13.

13. Calculate the post fault positive, negative and zero sequence bus voltages using
the equations (5.13), (5.14) and (5.15) respectively.

14. Determine the positive, negative and zero sequence line currents using the
equations (5.16), (5.17) and (5.18) respectively.







Problem statement
For the above circuit with X= 15% generator, Transmission line X =30% and
Transformer X = 20%, obtain
a) Fault current at fault point and post fault voltage for a bolted fault at bus 4.
b) Symmetrical fault.
c) Line to ground fault
d) Line to line fault



F











G1 G2
1 2 3 4




















RESULT
Thus the fault level, post-fault voltages and currents for both symmetrical and
unsymmetrical faults were computed using MIPOWER. The obtained outputs were
also verified using hand calculations.