Minor Project'12 Wireless Energy Transfer

Minor Project12 Wireless Energy Transfer
1. INTRODUCTION
Wireless energy transfer or wireless power transmission is the process that
takes place in any system where electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an
electrical load, without interconnecting wires. Wireless transmission is useful in cases
where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer is needed, but interconnecting wires
are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible.
While the physics of both are identical, this is distinct from wireless
transmission for the purpose of telecommunications (the transferring of information), such
as radio, where the signal-to-noise ratio, or the percentage of power received, becomes
critical if it is too low to successfully recover the signal. With wireless energy transfer,
efficiency is the most important parameter and this creates differences in these
technologies.
The most common form of wireless power transfer is carried out using
electro-dynamic nductive !ower Transfer. "ther viable technologies for wireless power
include those based upon microwaves and lasers.
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1.1 W!y "o #e nee" #ireless trans$ission of o#er %
# great concern has been voiced in recent years over the e$tensive use of
energy, the limited supply of resources, and the pollution of the environment from the use
of present energy conversion systems. %lectrical power accounts for much of the energy
consumed. &uch of this power is wasted during transmission from power plant generators
to the consumer.
The resistance of the wire used in the electrical grid distribution system
causes a ma$imum loss of '(-)*+ of the energy generated. This loss implies that our
present system of electrical distribution is only ,*-,-+ efficient. # system of power
distribution with little or no loss would conserve energy. t would reduce pollution and
e$penses resulting from the need to generate power to overcome and compensate for
losses in the present grid system.
#n electrical distribution system, based on this method would eliminate the
need for an inefficient, costly, and capital intensive grid of cables, towers, and substations.
The system would reduce the cost of electrical energy used by the consumer and rid the
landscape of wires, cables, and transmission towers.
There are areas in the world where the need for electrical power e$ists, yet
there is no method for delivering power. #frica is in need of power to run pumps to tap
into the vast resources of water under the .ahara /esert. 0ural areas, such as those in
1hina, re2uire the electrical power necessary to bring them into the '*th century and to
e2ual standing with western nations.
#s first proposed by 3uckminster 4uller, wireless transmission of power
would enable world wide distribution of off peak demand capacity. This concept is based
on the fact that some nations, especially the 5nited .tates, have the capacity to generate
much more power than is needed. This situation is accentuated at night. The greatest
amount of power used, the peak demand, is during the day. The e$tra power available
during the night could be sold to the side of the planet where it is day time.
1onsidering the huge capacity of power plants in the 5nited .tates, this system
would provide a saleable product which could do much to aid our balance of payments.
Though we say, we live in a 6wireless7 world or gadgets and other
e2uipments8 we are actually bounded to more and more wires day by day in form of
chargers and other forms. The tangle of cables and plugs needed to recharge today9s
electronic gadgets is very hectic for a home which is not well organized.
The offices and factories where space is of big concern we can not allow
cables to :ust hang around all the places so here wireless power transmission can be of big
use. #ll the worries about the chargers to work properly are removed by this technology.
%ven in near future we are going to see a big leap in this field, for e$ample now a days,
computers have wireless connectivity, but still we have to carry adapters with it. 3ut may
be in future we won9t re2uire any adapters, we :ust enter the room and our laptops will
start charging on its own after getting to the charging mode and detecting a particular
resonant field. #ll these are some e$amples which will be benefited by this technology.
1.2 &o# #ireless energy co'l" #or(%

The answer is ;resonance;, a phenomenon that causes an ob:ect to vibrate
when energy of a certain fre2uency is applied. "When you have two resonant objects of
the same frequency they tend to couple very strongly7. 0esonance can be seen in musical,
instruments for e$ample.
;When you play a tune on one, then another instrument with the same acoustic
resonance will pick up that tune, and it will visibly vibrate7. nstead of using acoustic
vibrations, we e$ploit the resonance of electromagnetic waves. %lectromagnetic radiation
includes radio waves, infrared and <-rays. Typically, systems that use electromagnetic
radiation, such as radio antennas, are not suitable for the efficient transfer of energy
because they scatter energy in all directions, wasting large amounts of it into free space.

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To overcome this problem a special class of ;non-radiative; ob:ects with so-
called ;long-lived resonances;. When energy is applied to these ob:ects it remains bound
to them, rather than escaping to space. ;Tails; of energy, which can be many meters long,
flicker over the surface. f you bring another resonant ob:ect with the same fre2uency
close enough to these tails then it turns out that the energy can tunnel from one ob:ect to
another.

=ence, a simple copper antenna designed to have long-lived resonance could
transfer energy to a gadget with its own antenna resonating at the same fre2uency. #ny
energy not diverted into a gadget or appliance, is simply reabsorbed. The proposed
scheme is very general and any type of resonant structure (e.g. electromagnetic, acoustic,
nuclear) satisfying the above re2uirements can be used for its implementation.
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2. &I+TOR,
n >?'@ William .turgeon invented the electromagnet, a conducting wire
wrapped around an iron core. The principle of electromagnetic induction - that a changing
magnetic field can induce an electrical current in an ad:acent wire - was discovered by
&ichael 4araday in >?)>. 1ombining these two discoveries, Aicholas Boseph 1allan was
the first to demonstrate the transmission and reception of electrical energy without wires.
1allan9s >?)( induction coil apparatus consisted of two insulated coils - called the primary
and secondary windings - both placed around a common iron core. # battery
intermittently connected to the primary would 9induce9 a voltage in the longer secondary
causing a spark to :ump across its free terminals.
n an induction coil or electrical transformer, which can have either an iron core
or an air core, the transmission of energy takes place by simple electromagnetic coupling
through a process known as mutual induction. With this method it is possible to transmit
and receive energy over a considerable distance. =owever, to draw significant power in
that way, the two inductors must be placed fairly close together. f resonant coupling is
used, where inductors are tuned to a mutual fre2uency, significant power may be
transmitted over a range of many meters.
n >?(- Bames 1lerk &a$well mathematically modeled the behavior of
electromagnetic radiation. .ome early work in the area of wireless transmission via radio
waves was done in >??? by =einrich =ertz who performed e$periments that validated
&a$well9s mathematical model. =ertz9s apparatus for generating electromagnetic waves is
generally acknowledged as the first radio transmitter. # few years later Cuglielmo
&arconi worked with a modified form of the =ertz-wave transmitter, the main
improvement being the addition of an elevated conductor and a ground connection. 3oth
of these elements can be traced back to the >,-D work of 3en:amin 4ranklin and that of
&ahlon Eoomas in >?(-.
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Aikola Tesla also investigated radio transmission and reception but unlike
&arconi, Tesla designed his own transmitter - one with power-processing capability some
five orders-of-magnitude greater than those of its predecessors. =e would use this same
coupled-tuned-circuit oscillator to implement his conduction-based wireless energy
transmission method as well. 3oth of these wireless methods employ a minimum of four
tuned circuits, two at the transmitter and two at the receiver.
#s wireless technologies were being developed during the early >D**s,
researchers further investigated on these different wireless transmission methods. The
goal was simply to generate an effect locally and detect it at a distance. #round the same
time, efforts began to power more significant loads than the high-resistance sensitive
devices that were being used to simply detect the received energy. #t the .t. EouisWorld9s
4air (>D*-), a prize was offered for a successful attempt to drive a *.> horsepower (,@ W)
air-ship motor by energy transmitted through space at a distance of least >** feet ()* m).
"...the air will serve as a conductor for the current produced, and the latter will be
transmitted through the air with, it may be, even less resistance than through an ordinary
copper wire.;
This was the statement given by Tesla.
3ut further studies and research in the field faced a huge lag. The reason for this
lag was mainly due to the reason that people were not that attached towards electricity and
so itself, any form of gadgets. t is in recent years that people have felt for the need of
such a technology.
#t last it was in '**,, that wireless energy transfer over mid-range was
successfully conducted. t was done by a team from &T, under &arin .ol:aFiG. The team
successfully transferred energy over a distance of , feet to light a (*W bulb. The bulb
glowed even when different ob:ects (like a wooden panel) were placed between the two
coils.
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). T&EOR,
ME/N+ O0 ENER1, TR/N+0ER
).1. NE/R 0IE2D
Aear field, is a wireless transmission techni2ue over distances comparable to,
or a few times the diameter of the device(s), and up to around a 2uarter of the wavelengths
used. Aear field energy itself is non radiative, but some radiative losses will occur. n
addition there are usually resistive losses. Aear field transfer is usually magnetic
(inductive), but electric (capacitive) energy transfer can also occur.
).2. INDUCTION
The action of an electrical transformer is the simplest instance of wireless
energy transfer. The primary and secondary circuits of a transformer are not directly
connected. The transfer of energy takes place by electromagnetic coupling through a
process known as mutual induction. (#n added benefit is the capability to step the primary
voltage either up or down.) The battery chargers of a mobile phone or the transformers in
the street are e$amples of how this principle can be used. The main drawback of
induction, however, is the short range. The receiver must be very close to the transmitter
or induction unit in order to inductively couple with it.
).) RE+ON/NT INDUCTION

The ;electrodynamic inductive effect; or ;resonant inductive coupling; has
key implications in solving the main problem associated with non-resonant inductive
coupling and electromagnetic radiation8 specifically, the dependence of efficiency on
transmission distance. %lectromagnetic induction works on the principle of a primary coil
generating a predominant magnetic field and a secondary coil being within that field, so a
current is induced in the secondary. This results in a relatively short range because most
of the magnetic field misses the secondary. "ver greater distances the non-resonant
induction method is inefficient and wastes much of the transmitted energy.
This is where the resonance comes in and helps efficiency dramatically by
;tunneling; the magnetic field to a receiver coil that resonates at the same fre2uency. f
resonant coupling is used, where inductors are tuned to a mutual fre2uency and the input
current is fed in such a way as to drive the resonance, significant power may be
transmitted over a range of many meters. 5nlike the multiple-layer secondary of a non-
resonant transformer, such receiving coils are often single layer solenoids with series
capacitors, which in combination allow the coil to be tuned to the transmitter fre2uency
and give low resistive losses.
# common use of the technology is for powering contactless smartcards, and
proposed systems e$ist to power and recharge laptops and cell phones.
).* C/P/CITI4E TR/N+0ER

The Tesla effect is the application of a type of electrical displacement, i.e., the
passage of electrical energy through space and matter, other than and in addition to the
development of a potential across a conductor. Tesla stated, 6nstead of depending on
HelectrodynamicI induction at a distance to light the tube . . . HtheI ideal way of lighting a
hall or room would . . . be to produce such a condition in it that an illuminating device
could be moved and put anywhere, and that it is lighted, no matter where it is put and
without being electrically connected to anything. have been able to produce such a
condition by creating in the room a powerful, rapidly alternating electrostatic field. 4or
this purpose suspend a sheet of metal at a distance from the ceiling on insulating cords
and connect it to one terminal of the induction coil, the other terminal being preferably
connected to the ground. "r else suspend two sheets . . . each sheet being connected with
one of the terminals of the coil, and their size being carefully determined. #n e$hausted
tube may then be carried in the hand anywhere between the sheets or placed anywhere,
even a certain distance beyond them8 it remains always luminous
6n some cases when small amounts of energy are re2uired the high elevation
of the terminals, and more particularly of the receiving-terminal /9 may not be necessary,
since, especially when the fre2uency of the currents is very high, a sufficient amount of
energy may be collected at that terminal by electrostatic induction from the upper air
strata, which are rendered conducting by the active terminal of the transmitter or through
which the currents from the same are conveyed7
Through longitudinal waves an operator uses the Tesla effect in the wireless
transfer of energy to a receiving device. The Tesla effect is a type of high field gradient or
differential capacitance between two elevated electrodes over a conducting ground plane
for wireless energy transmission. The Tesla effect uses high fre2uency alternating current
potential differences transmitted between two plates or nodes. The electrostatic forces
through natural media across a conductor situated in the changing magnetic flu$ can
transfer power to the receiving device (such as Tesla9s wireless bulbs).
).-. 0/R 0IE2D
4ar field methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges,
where the distance is much greater than the diameter of the device. With radio wave and
optical devices the main reason for longer ranges is the fact that electromagnetic radiation
in the far-field can be made to match the shape of the receiving area (using high
directivity antennas or well-collimated Easer 3eam) thereby delivering almost all emitted
power at long ranges. The ma$imum directivity for antennas is physically limited by
diffraction.
)... R/DIO /ND MICROW/4E
!ower transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing
longer distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation,
typically in the microwave range. # rectenna may be used to convert the microwave
energy back into electricity. 0ectenna conversion efficiencies e$ceeding D@+ have been
realized. !ower beaming using microwaves has been proposed for the transmission of
energy from orbiting solar power satellites to %arth and the beaming of power to
spacecraft leaving orbit has been considered.
!ower beaming by microwaves has the difficulty that for most space
applications the re2uired aperture sizes are very large due to diffraction limiting antenna
directionality. 4or e$ample, the >D,? A#.# .tudy of solar power satellites re2uired a >-
km diameter transmitting antenna, and a >* km diameter receiving rectenna, for a
microwave beam at '.-@ C=z. These sizes can be somewhat decreased by using shorter
wavelengths, although short wavelengths may have difficulties with atmospheric
absorption and beam blockage by rain or water droplets. 3ecause of the Thinned array
course, it is not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the beams of several
smaller satellites.
4or earthbound applications a large area of >* km diameter receiving array
allows large total power levels to be used while operating at the low power density
suggested for human electromagnetic e$posure safety. # human safe power density of >
mWJcm' distributed across a >* km diameter area corresponds to ,@* megawatts total
power level. This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants.
Wireless !ower Transmission (using microwaves) is well proven. %$periments in the tens
of kilowatts have been performed at Coldstone in 1alifornia in >D,@ and more recently
(>DD,) at Crand 3assin on 0eunion sland. These methods achieve distances of the order
of a kilometer.
).3. 2/+ER
n the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to visible region of spectrum
(>*s of microns (um) to >*s of nm), power can be transmitted by converting electricity
into a laser beam that is then pointed at a solar cell receiver. This mechanism is generally
known as ;!ower 3eaming; because the !ower is beamed at a receiver that can convert it
to usable electrical energy. There are 2uite a few uni2ue advantages of Easer based energy
transfer that outweigh the disadvantages.
>. 1ollimated monochromatic wave front propagation allows narrow beam cross-section
area for energy confinement over large ranges.
'. 1ompact size of solid state lasers- photovoltaic semiconductor diodes allows ease of
integration into products with small form factors.
). #bility to operate with zero radio-fre2uency interference to e$isting communication
devices i.e. Wi-4i and cell phones.
-. 1ontrol of Wireless %nergy #ccess, instead of omnidirectional transfer where there can
be no authentication before transferring energy.
These allow laser-based Wireless %nergy Transfer concept to compete with conventional
energy transfer methods. ts drawbacks areK
>. 1onversion to light, such as with a laser, is moderately inefficient (although 2uantum
cascade lasers improve this)
'. 1onversion back into electricity is moderately inefficient, with photovoltaic cells
achieving -*+-@*+ efficiency. (Aote that conversion efficiency is rather higher with
monochromatic light than with insolation of solar panels).
). #tmospheric absorption causes losses.
).5. E2ECTRIC/2 CONDUCTION
%lectrical energy can also be transmitted by means of electrical currents made
to flow through naturally e$isting conductors, specifically the earth, lakes and oceans, and
through the upper atmosphere L a natural medium that can be made conducting if the
breakdown voltage is e$ceeded and the gas becomes ionized. 4or e$ample, when a high
voltage is applied across a neon tube the gas becomes ionized and a current passes
between the two internal electrodes. n a wireless energy transmission system using this
principle, a high-power ultraviolet beam might be used to form vertical ionized channels
in the air directly above the transmitter-receiver stations.
*. O4ER4IEW O0 PRO8ECT

Witricity is based on strong coupling between electromagnetic resonant
ob:ects to transfer energy wirelessly between them. This differs from other methods used
in the past, like simple induction, microwaves, or air ionization. The system consists of
transmitters and receivers that contain magnetic loop antennas critically tuned to the same
fre2uency. .ince itMs operating in the electromagnetic near-field, the receiving devices
must be no more than about a 2uarter wavelength from the transmitter.
"ur pro:ect aims at lighting an E%/ bulb by the principle of &agnetic
0esonant %vanescent 1oupling between two coils spaced )*cm apart. The electric power
with the help of an oscillator causes the copper coil connected to it to start oscillating at a
particular (&=z) fre2uency. .ubse2uently, the space around the copper coil gets filled
with nonmagnetic radiations. This generated magnetic field further transfers the power to
the other copper coil connected to the receiver. .ince this coil is also of the same
fre2uency, it starts oscillating at the same fre2uency as the first coil. This is known as
6coupled resonance7.
Aow the pro:ect was implemented in two stages. n the first stage, we have
implemented a simple circuit, as a proof of the technology. n the second phase, we
introduced amplifier thereby to increase the efficiency of the system.
5nlike the far field wireless power transmission systems based on traveling %& waves,
WiTricity employs near field inductive coupling through fields, which interact far more
weakly with surrounding ob:ects, including biological tissue. n particular, it is based on
using 9strongly-coupled9 resonances to achieve high power-transmission efficiency.
#risteidis Naralis, referring to the team9s e$perimental demonstration, says that "the usual
non-resonant magnetic induction would be almost 1 million times less efficient in this
particular system". HWireless !ower Transfer via .trongly 1oupled &agnetic 0esonances
.cience, Ool. )>,. no. @?)-, pp. ?) P ?(, Bune (, '**,I
The researchers suggest that the e$posure levels will be below the threshold
for 411 safety regulations, and the radiated-power levels will also comply with the 411
radio interference regulations. t is not known e$actly why this technology had not been
developed. 0esearchers attribute it to various reasons ranging from the limitations of well-
known physical laws, to simply a lack of need. The reason would be that, only recently
have modern consumers obtained a high number of portable electronic devices which
currently re2uire batteries and plug-in chargers. "nly then we have faced the need for
reducing the wires. n early days when there were no wires, certainly no man would ever
thin! of removing wires"
3ut the world has come to an era of a load of wires with each individual. .o itMs high time
we develop the technology to erase these wires hanging around us. We here have taken a
step to study deep on this emerging technology. There is much more to be developed in
this technology.
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-. WOR9IN1
-.1. PRINCIP2E:
Two copper coils are set up -one at the QTransmitter endM and one at Q0eceiver end9. The
sender coil is attached to the power source, while the receiver coil is attached to the light
bulb or E%/.
When the circuit is turned on, and when the resonant fre2uency of the transmitter and the
receiver becomes e2ual the energy transfer takes place. This is the basic principle and it is
called as the 6Tesla effect.7
The resonant fre2uency or the operating fre2uency of the transmitter and receiver is their
natural fre2uency of oscillation which differs with materials and their parameters like
number of turns, area of cross section etc.
1oupling between the transmitter and receiver takes place when their natural fre2uency of
oscillation becomes e2ual.
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.. ;2OC9 DI/1R/M:
..1 ;2OC9 DI/1R/M DE+CRIPTION
The purpose of this pro:ect is to design and create a wireless charger that will
be able to send an electromagnetic wave to energize an E%/ within )* centimeter. The
principle that will be used in this process is known as short distance Q&agnetic nduction
1ouplingM which is the basis of wireless energy transfer by means of a shared magnetic
field. The wireless energy system will be made of two separate coils, one as a transmitter
and the other as a receiver.
The transmitter is supplied with ')* volts #1 and the current circulating in it
will induce an electromotive force in the receiving coil that will drive the E%/. The
electromagnetic wave is used to radiate energy with its oscillating electric and magnetic
fields. That wave naturally decays over time with distance and is known as an evanescent
wave, which in our case sets limitations to how far the receiver can be placed from the
transmitter.
To make sure the field stays strong, the two sides will be made to resonate at
the same magnetic fre2uency of '&=z. The method of resonance allows the
electromagnetic wave toward the receiver to be non-radiative (non-dispersive) and will
also tunnel unused energy back to the transmitter for re-absorption.
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The ')*O @*=z input signal is initially rectified to a constant /1 voltage of
>'O which is made to oscillate at a fre2uency of '&=z using a 0ela$ation oscillator. This
high fre2uency signal is amplified using an amplifier. This forms the ma:or share of the
transmission side. The remaining part is the filters used in both at transmitter and receiver
side. Then we have the load, i.e. the bulb used here. We have used a >W E%/ as the load
in the circuit. The design and details of all these are mentioned in the design section.
The following table gives an overall idea about the circuitK
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Trans$itter Coer Coil
In't 4oltage 2)7 4 </C=> -7 &?
Trans$ission signal 2 M&?> 54<@=
ReceiAer Coer coil
O't't 2ED
3. DE+I1N
#s said earlier, resonant evanescent coupling and energy transfer occur if and
only if there is strong magnetic coupling between the coils. The great concern here comes,
for the distance of transmission. t is seen that the mutual coupling drops significantly on
increasing the distance between the coils (decays by >J/)). The transmitting and
receiving circuitry are thus forced to be tuned to a resonant fre2uency. This approach has
been proven to be useful for energy transfer in short ranges i.e. for around ' meters. The
magnetic coupling between the coils and therefore the energy transfer efficiency
decreases significantly as the coil sizes shrink, due to the almost linear relationship
between the area of the transmitting and receiving coils and the mutual coupling between
two coils, &, appro$imated as
BBBBBBBBBB.eCn<1=
Where, A>- noK of turns of transmission coil
A'- noK of turns of receiving coil
r>- radius of transmission coil
r'- radius of receiving coil
/- distance between the coils
R*- -S < >*-,
3ased on this method, the transmitting and receiving circuitry are designed such that they
are tuned to a resonant fre2uency with high 2uality factors (T). n addition, the resonance
2uality factor (T) is proportional to the radius of the coil and the conductor thickness.
Therefore, energy transfer efficiency is degraded significantly as the coils become smaller
and their wires become thinner. Aow we have selected a load of >W E%/ bulb. .ince the
load is very small, there is very less effect by the load on the receiver side. .o we have
taken two identical coils for the purpose of energy transfer.
4ig (.>K Oariations of T and optimum resonance fre2uency with the wire radius, a, for
rU>'cm, AU>
The resonant fre2uency is the fre2uency corresponding to the ma$imum
Tuality 4actor (T-factor). #s evident from the graphs, the resonant fre2uency increases
and the resonance 2uality factor decreases as the coil size becomes smaller, i.e. with
smaller radius or thinner wire or both.
The inductance of the coil can be calculated as

VVVV..VVVVVe2n(')
Where, aU cross sectional radius of the wire
Thus E U -S $ >*
-,
$'*
'
W*.> ln (? $ >* J.>@X.>)
-'
U *.',@( m=
Aow, we know the basic e2uation for resonance is given by

BBBBBBBBBBBB..eCn<)=
.electing an operating fre2uency of ' &=z, the capacitance can be calculated as,
' $ >*
(
U >J ('SY*.',@( $ >*
-)
$ 1 )
1 U ''.D, p4
U '' p4 (std. capacitance)
The distance along which we have planned to transfer the energy is )*cm.
Thus from e2n. (>), the mutual coupling between the coils is given by,
& U S $ -S $ >*
-,
$ '*
'
$ ( *.>
'
) J *.)
)

U *.>-( m=
This range of mutual coupling is of course strong enough to transfer energy along the
distance.
5sing these parameters the initial circuit was implemented.
The above circuit was successfully implemented and hence the fact that energy
could be transferred without wires was proved. The e$perimental results of this are
e$plained later. Aow, the aim in front of us is to improve the efficiency by amplifying the
signal at the transmitting side. 3esides a practical circuit should be without the signal
generator. Thus the circuit was modified toK
5.CIRCUIT DI/1R/M

CIRCUIT COMPONENT+
POWER +UPP2,
The ac voltage, typically ''*O rms, is connected to a transformer, which
steps that ac voltage down to the level of the desired dc output. # diode rectifier then
provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to
produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage
variation.
# regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value even if
the input dc voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This
voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of the popular voltage regulator 1 units.
/C DC
IC Aoltage reg'lators
Ooltage regulators comprise a class of widely used 1s. 0egulator
1 units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device,
and overload protection all in a single 1. 1 units provide regulation of either a fi$ed
positive voltage, a fi$ed negative voltage, or an ad:ustably set voltage. The regulators can
be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of
amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milli watts to tens of watts.
1ircuit diagram (!ower supply)
O"ET#C% 0%C5E#T"0 (E& ,?*@)
The &1,?<<JE&,?<<J&1,?<<# series of three terminal positive regulators
are available in the T"-''*J/-!#N package and with several fi$ed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of applications. %ach type employs internal current
limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially
indestructible. f ade2uate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over ># output

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current. #lthough designed primarily as fi$ed voltage regulators, these devices can be
used with e$ternal components to obtain ad:ustable voltages and currents.
Oscillator
The oscillator used here is rela$ation oscillator. The main part of this oscillator is
1 E&)>>. E&)>> is single high-speed voltage comparators. These devices are designed
to operate from a wide range of power-supply voltages, including Z>@-O supplies for
operational amplifiers and @-O supplies for logic systems. The output levels are
compatible with most TTE and &". circuits. These comparators are capable of driving
lamps or relays and switching voltages up to @* O at @* m#.
The circuit compares the two inputs if A[(iJp') is greater than A-(iJp)), the output is
high, if A- is greater than A[ the output is low(ground).

Po#er a$lifier
The signal from the oscillator is amplified using an amplifier 31@-,. This device is
designed for use as general purpose amplifiers and switches re2uiring collector currents to
)** m#. t is an A!A epita$ial silicon transistor. t is used in general purpose switching
and amplification.
6. PC; DE+I1NIN1 PROCEDURE
PC; Prearation
\ou need to generate a positive (copper black) 5O translucent art work film.
\ou will never get a good board without good art work, so it is important to get the best
possible 2uality at this stage. The most important thing is to get a clear sharp image with a
very solid opa2ue black. #rt work is done using "01#/ software. t is absolutely
essential that your !13 software prints holes in the middle of pads, which will act as
centre marks when drilling. t is virtually impossible to accurately hand-drill boards
without these holes. f you are looking to buy !13 software at any cost level and want to
do hand-protyping of boards before production, check that this facility is available when
defining pad and line shapes, the minimum size recommended (through-linking holes) for
reliable result is @* mil, assuming *.?mm drill size8 > milU(>J>***)
th
of an inch. \ou can
go smaller drill sizes, but through linking will be harder .(@ mil round or s2uare pads for
normal components.
1s, with *.? mm hole, will allow a >'.@mil, down to >*mil if you really
need to. 1enter-to-centre spacing of >'.@ mil tracks should be '@ mil-slightly less may b
possible if your printer can manage it. Take care to preserve the correct diagonal track-
track spacing on mitered corners8 grid is '@ mil and track width >'.@mil. The art work
must be printed such that the printed side is in contact with !13 surface when e$posing,
to avoid blurred edges. n practice, this means that if you design the board as seen from
the component side, the bottom (solder side) layer should be printed the QcorrectM way
round, and top side of the double-sided board must be printed mirrored.
Det of EEE 2) College of Engineering T!alassery
Etc!ing
4erric chloride etchant is a messy stuff, but easily available and cheaper than
most alternatives. t attacks any metal including stainless steel. .o when setting up a !13
etching area, use a plastic or ceramic sink, with plastic fitting and screws wherever
possible, and seal any metal screws with silicon. 1opper water pipes may be splashed or
dripped-on, so sleeve or cover them in plastic8 heat-shrink sleeving is great if you are
installing new pipes. 4ume e$traction is not normally re2uired, although a cover over the
tank or tray when not in use is a good idea. \ou should always use the he$ hydrate type of
ferric chloride, which should be dissolved in warm water until saturation. #dding a
teaspoon of table salt helps to make the etchant clearer for easier inspection. #void
anhydrous ferric chloride. t creates a lot of heat when dissolved. .o always add the
powder very slowly to water8 do not add water to the powder, and use gloves and safety
glasses. The solution made from anhydrous ferric chloride doesnMt etch at all, so you need
to add a small amount of hydrochloric acid and leave it for a day or two. #lways take
e$treme care to avoid splashing when dissolving either type of ferric chloride, acid tends
to clump together and you often get big chunks coming out of the container and splashing
into the solution. t can damage eyes and permanently stain clothing. f you are making
!13s in a professional environment where time is money you should get a heated bubble-
etch tank. With fresh hot ferric chloride, the !13 will etch in well under @ mins. 4ast
etching produces better edge-2uality and consistent line widths. f you arenMt using a
bubble tank, you need to agitate fre2uently to ensure even etching. Warm the etchant by
putting the etching tray inside a larger tray filled with boiling water.
Drilling
f you have fiber glass (40-) board, you must use tungsten carbide drill bits.
4iber glass eats normal high-speed steel (=..) bits very rapidly, although =.. drills are
alright for older larger sizes (] 'mm). 1arbide drill bits are available as straight-shank or
thick-shank. n straight shank, the hole bit is the diameter of the hole, and in thick shank,
a standard size (typically about ).@ mm)
shank tapers down to the hole size. The straight-shank drills are usually preferred because
they break less easily and are usually cheaper. The longer thin section provides more
Det of EEE 2* College of Engineering T!alassery
fle$ibility. .mall drills for !13 use usually come with either a set of collets of various
sizes or a three-:aw chuck. .ometimes the )-:aw chuck is an optional e$tra and is worth
getting for the time it saves on changing collets. 4or accuracy, however, )-:aw chucks are
not brilliant, and small drill sizes below > mm 2uickly formed grooves in the :aws,
preventing good grip. 3elow > mm, you should use collets, and buy a few e$tra of the
smallest ones8 keeping one collet per drill size as using a larger drill in a collet will open it
out and it no longer grips smaller drills well. \ou need a good strong light on the board
when drilling, to ensure accuracy. # dichroic halogen lamp, under run at DO to reduce
brightness, can be mounted on a microphone gooseneck for easy positioning. t can be
useful to raise the working surface above >@ cm above the normal desk height for more
comfortable viewing. /ust e$traction is nice, but not essential and occasional blow does
the trick^ # foot-pedal control to switch the drill QoffM and QonM is very convenient,
especially when fre2uently changing bits. #void hole sizes less than *.? mm unless you
really need them. When making two identical boards, drill them both together to save
time. To do this, carefully drill a *.? mm whole in the pad near each corner of each of the
two boards, getting the center as accurately as possible. 4or larger boards, drill a hole near
the centre of each side as well. Eay the boards on the top of each other and insert a *.?
mm track pin in two opposite corners, using the pins as pegs to line the !13s up. .2ueeze
or hammer the pins into boards, and then into the remaining holes. The two !13s are now
QnailedM together accurately and can be drilled together.
+ol"ering
.oldering is the :oining together of two metals to give physical bonding and
good electrical conductivity. t is used primarily in electrical and electronic circuitry.
.older is a combination of metals, which are solid at normal room temperatures and
become li2uid between >?* and '** degree 1elsius. .older bonds well to various metals,
and e$tremely well to copper. .oldering is a necessary skill you need to learn to
successfully build electronics circuits. To solder you need a soldering iron. # modern
basic electrical soldering iron consists of a heating element, a soldering bit (often called a
tip), a handle and a power cord. The heating element can be either a resistance wire
wound around a ceramic tube, or a thick film resistance element printed on to a ceramic
base. The element is then insulated and placed into a metal tube for strength and
protection. This is then thermally insulated from the handle. The heating element of
Det of EEE 2- College of Engineering T!alassery
soldering iron usually reaches temperatures of around ),* to -** degree 1elsius (higher
than need to melt the solder). The strength or power of a soldering iron is usually
e$pressed in watts. rons generally used in electronics are typically in the range of >' to
'@ watts. =igher powered iron will not run hotter. &ost irons are available in a variety of
voltages8 >'O, '-O, >>@O and ')*O are most popular. Today most laboratories and repair
shops use soldering irons, which operate at '-O. \ou should always use this low voltage
where possible, as it is much safer. 4or advanced soldering work, you will need a
soldering iron with temperature control. n this type of soldering irons, the temperature
may be usually set between '** and -@* degree 1elsius.
&any temperature control soldering iron designed for electronics have a
power rating of around -* to @* watt. They will heat fast and give enough power for
operation, but are mechanically small.
\ou will occasionally see gas-powered soldering irons which use butane
rather than the main electrical supply to operate. They have a catalytic element which once
warmed up, continues to glow hot when gas passes over them. Cas powered soldering
irons are designed for occasional Qon the spotM used for 2uick repairs, rather than for main
stream construction or for assembly work.
1urrently, the best commonly available, workable, and safe solder alloy is
()J),. That is, ()+ lead, ),+ tin. t is also known as eutectic solder. ts most desirable
characteristic is that it solids (QpastyM) state, and its li2uid state occur at the same
temperature -)(> degree 4ahrenheit. The combination of ()+ lead and ),+ tin melts at
the lowest possible temperature. Aowadays there is tendency to move to use lead free
solders, but it will take years until they catch on normal soldering work. Eead free solders
are nowadays available, but they are generally more e$pensive or harder to work on than
traditional solders that they have lead in them.
The metals involved are not the only things to consider in a solder. 4lu$ is vital
to a good solder :oint. 4lu$ is an aggressive chemical that removes o$ide and impurities
from the parts to be soldered. The chemical reactions at the point(s) of connection must
take place for the metal to fuse. 0&# type flu$ (0osin &ildly #ctive) is the least
corrosive of the readily available materials, and provides an ade2uate o$ide removal.
Det of EEE 2. College of Engineering T!alassery
n electronics, a (*J-* fi$ed core solder is used. This consists of (*+ lead and
-*+ tin, with flu$ cores added to the length of solder.
There are certain safety measures which you should keep in mind when
soldering. The tin material used in soldering contains dangerous substances like lead (-*-
(*+ of typical soldering tins are lead and lead is poisonous). #lso the various fumes from
the soldering flu$ can be dangerous. While it is true that lead does not vaporize at the
temperature at which soldering is typically done.
When soldering, keep the room well ventilated and use a small fan or fume
trap. # proper fume trap of a fan will keep the most pollution away from your face.
!rofessional electronic workshops use e$pensive fume e$traction systems to protect their
workers. Those fume e$traction devices have a special filter which filters out the
dangerous fumes. f you can connect a duct to the output from the trap to the outside, that
would be great.
#lways wash hands prior to smoking, eating, drinking or going to the
bathroom. When you handle soldering tin, your hands will pick up lead, which needs to be
washed out from it before it gets to your body. /o not eat, drink or smoke while working
with soldering iron. /o not place cups, glasses or a plate of food near your working area.
Wash also the table sometimes. #s you solder, at times there will be a bit of
spitting or sputtering. f you look you will see tiny balls of solder that shoot out and can
be found on your soldering table.
17.PC; 2/,OUT
COMPONENT 2/,OUT
11..EDPERIMENT /ND RE+U2T+
n order to demonstrate wireless energy transfer, the mid range energy transfer
was conducted at a fre2uency of '&=z by using two coils, one of which acts as
transmitter and the other as receiver. %ach coil, having a diameter of '* cm, consisted of
'* turns of >? .WC copper wire. The high fre2uency signal source used for the
e$periment was a signal generator. The output taken from the signal generator having a
fre2uency of '&=z, and a peak to peak voltage of amplitude ? volts was fed to the
primary coil. The current at the primary side was found to be *.DD milli-amperes. The
secondary coil, which is the receiver, is tuned to the same fre2uency as that of the
transmitter. #s a result, strong magnetic coupling occurs between the primary and
secondary coils, and electrical energy is transmitted from primary side to the secondary
side with air as medium. The e$tent of coupling decreases with increase in distance
between the coils.
The load used was an E%/. 3y this setup, we were successful in lighting the
E%/ up to a distance of '> cm.
The output current and voltages as distance between the transmitter and
receiver coils is increased from @cm to '@ cm is tabulated as follows and the plot of
efficiency vs distance is obtained.
nput powerU O $ Watts
U - $ *.DD
U ).D( Watts.
4ollowing table shows the readings that were obtained when the initial circuit
was implemented. #lso, the plots of the parameters l- 1urrent, Ooltage and %fficiency are
given.
Det of EEE )7 College of Engineering T!alassery
/.T#A1%
(1&)
O"ET#C%
(O"ET.)
1500%AT
(&EE
#&!%0%.)
"5T!5T
!"W%0
(W#TT.)
%441%A1
\ (+)
@ *.(' *.?, *.@- >).('
>* *.@- *.?> *.-), >>.*-
>@ *.-' *.,- *.)> ,.?-
'* *.)> *.,* *.'>, @.-?
'@ *.>D *.() *.>>D, ).*'

4ig.?.>. !lot of current Os /istance
4ig.?.'. !lot of Ooltage Os /istance
4rom the plot of Ooltage vs /istance it is clear that the voltage induced in the
secondary decreases as the distance between the coils increases. =ence it can be deduced
that the coupling between them decreases as gap increases. #s the coupling decreases the
current induced also decreases.
4ig.?.).!lot of %fficiency Os /istance
The efficiency curve also has the same effect with increase in distance. The
efficiency can be increased by either increasing the number of turns of the coils or
increasing the strength of the transmitting signal. The approach we had adopted was to
increase the transmitting signal strength by amplifying the same. n the e$periment the
transmitting signal was obtained from a signal generator. When the amplifier is
incorporated the transmitting signal is obtained from an oscillator instead of the signal
generator. The oscillator is designed such that it oscillates at the resonant fre2uency. This
signal is amplified by a power amplifier which is then transmitted via magnetic resonant
coupling.
Det of EEE )) College of Engineering T!alassery
12. +/0ET, CONCERN+
5nfortunately, magnetic fields are e$tremely difficult to shield and easily
permeate (penetrate) nearly all materials including people, trees, buildings, e2uipment,
and most metals e$cept special ferromagnetic and highly conductive (copper and
aluminum) materials. Aormally, people are not able to sense the presence of these fields
until the fieldMs fre2uency is very high in the range of >*
>@
hz.
There are no environmental concerns for the wireless energy transfer, because
the device is completely non-radiative and the waves are much below the fre2uency
specified earlier. 4urthermore the use of electric resonators adds more safety to the
transmitted signal. These electronic devices only channel energy between two ob:ects that
are designed to resonate. The electromagnetic fields that are pro:ected by our wireless
device are called QAon-onizing 0adiation fieldsM. These fields can be described as energy
waves composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields travelling at the speed of light.
.ome electromagnetic fields that are high fre2uency 04 signal in range of >*
>'
=z up to >*
'*
=z can cause current in human bodies and are calledK Qonizing 0adiationsM.
They contain enough energy to cause ionization which is a process by which electrons are
stripped from molecules inside our body. This kind of radiation can damage biological
tissues in all living organism and alter /A#.
"n the other hand, QAon-onizing 0adiationsM are low fre2uency 04 signal in
the range of >*
'
#$ up to >*
>*
=z that do not have sufficient energy to cause ionization in
all living matter such as humans, pets and plants. These radiations are confined in the
upper layers of our skin and do not penetrate in our body. Therefore they do not cause
current to circulate in our bodies. t can cause some heating effects depending on the size
of the living organism and their molecular distribution. The heating sensation is not
caused by the 04 field but rather the process of powering a device which causes electron
e$citation. This is similar to what a person feels when they hold a mobile phone close to
their ear for a prolonged time.
Det of EEE )* College of Engineering T!alassery
%ven though such factors are clear, still the fear about the radiations is roaming
around. The main reason for this is, the study conducted by 0ichard .trickland, who runs
the consultancy 04 .afety .olutions. =e pointed out, 6%$posure to very high 04 energy
will heat youLthereMs no 2uestion about that7. n the 5nited .tates, for e$ample, many
follow %%%Ms 1D@.> standard, whereas %uropeans generally adhere to the somewhat
stricter guidelines of the nternational 1ommission on Aon-onizing 0adiation !rotection
(1A0!). 1onsideration of those limits should be sobering to anyone hoping to send
significant amounts of power using electromagnetic fields. Take the 1A0! guidelines
for 04 fields at >* megahertz, the fre2uency of the system .ol:acic and his &T
colleagues built. 4or this fre2uency, those guidelines indicate that the general public
should not be e$posed to magnetic fields in e$cess of *.*,) ampere per meter, or to
electric fields greater than '? volts per meter.
Det of EEE )- College of Engineering T!alassery
1). /PP2IC/TION+
This technology can potentially be used in a large variety of applications,
including consumer, industrial, medical and military. ts aim is to reduce our dependence
on batteries. 4urther applications for this technology include transmission of information
L it would not interfere with radio waves and thus could be used as a cheap and efficient
communication device without re2uiring a license or a government permit. #s wireless
energy becomes more common, it would integrate into our society similar to the 6Wi-4i7
technology. 3usinesses could use wireless energy as a promotional tool. The idea would
e$pand to the point where portable electronics are powered any time you are near an
energy transmitting station. %ventually the powering capabilities would be able to fulfill
stronger power loads and could be promoted in the small household appliance market.
1offeepots, lamps, /O/ players, and toaster ovens are :ust the beginning of a long list of
product that could benefit from wireless energy. .uch a household application would have
the primary coil placed at a proper position or even inside the ceiling (since e$ternal
ob:ects creates no problem for the transfer) and the gadgets or devices to be
operatedJcharged can be placed anywhere in the room.
4ig >*.> 0epresentation of the practical application
Det of EEE ). College of Engineering T!alassery
#ttendees at 1%. '*>*, the %onsumer &lectronics 'how in Eas Oegas last
month, caught a glimpse of what the future might bring as 1hinese appliance maker
=aier, working with &assachusetts-based WiTricity 1orporation, unveiled a remarkable
)'-inch television -- remarkable because it had no power cord.
The =aier prototype was powered by electricity converted from an oscillating
magnetic field. The wireless transmission of electricity demonstrated so boldly in Banuary
at an international trade show may fulfill a 2uest that began more than a century ago by
the inventor of alternating current himself, Aicola Tesla. .o, the technology is on to
change the whole electrical system.

1*. COMPONENT 2I+T
Total cost: 1157.77
1-. CONC2U+ION
NO COMPONENT+ +PECI0IC/TION EU/NTIT, CO+T
> Transformer ')*->'O ># > >X>'*U>'*
' 1opper coils >? .WC ' 'X'-@U-D*
) /iode >A-**, ' 'X>.@*U)
- 1apacitor *.> 54
>* 54
''** 54
'
)
>
'X*.@*U>.**
)X*.@*U>.@*
>X'* U'*
@ 1 E& )>>
E& ,?*@
>
>
>X'@U'@
>X>@U>@
( Ceneral purpose !13 ?.@X@.@ s2. cm > >X@**U@**
, 0ed E%/ > >X>U>
? Transistor 31 @-, > >X>U>
0esistors >**N
-,N
>N
>*N
)
>
>
>
)X*.'@U*.,@
>X*.'@U*.'@
>X*.'@U*.'@
>X*.'@U*.'@
Wireless energy transfer is an efficient way of transfer of energy with air as the
medium. 3ut due to technological constraints, this method is still in the dormant stages.
3y this pro:ect, we conducted a feasibility study of Witricity and realized a Witricity
system capable of transmitting power up to )* cm. With the advances in technology, the
range and efficiency of energy transfer can be improved and the size of coils used can be
reduced. What we have seen here is an initial step onto the emerging technology. We
hope further developments in this field would come in near future. The technology as any
other technology, which once were only a dream, would become a reality.
1.. ;I;2IO1R/P&,
>. 6%fficient wireless non-radiative mid-range energy transfer7, #risteidis Naralis, B./.
Boannopoulos , &arin .ol:acic- #nnals of !hysics )') ('**?) )--?.
'. 6.imulation and %$perimental #nalysis on Wireless %nergy Transfer 3ased on
&agnetic 0esonances7, %%% Oehicle !ower and !ropulsion 1onference (O!!1)
). (ncorporating Wireless )ower Transfer n *n +ed +ighting *pplication., by Bonathan
.. .hipley, .chool of Technology, 3righam \oung 5niversity.

Det of EEE *7 College of Engineering T!alassery
13. D/T/ +&EET+
Det of EEE *1 College of Engineering T!alassery

Minor Project'12 Wireless Energy Transfer

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