KMEM 3122 Edition 0910 Past Year

1
Prepared by Saifizul
Lecture Notes
KMEM 3122
Control Systems Engineering
DR. AHMAD SAIFIZUL ABDULLAH
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Malaya
Phone: 7967 4597
Email: saifizul@um.edu.my
2
Introduction
3
What is control systems?
Definition
A control system consists of subsystems
and processes (or plants) assembled for
the purpose of controlling the outputs of
the processes.
Analog
(Hardware)
Digital
(Software+Hardware)
Sensor Actuator Controller
Introduction
4
Analog controller
(hardware
electronic circuit)
Sensor
Actuator
Controller
Introduction
(Adapted from text book)
5
Potentiometer
Signal and
power
amplifiers
Motor, load
and gears
Potentiometer
Input
transducer
Plant /
process
Controller
Sensor
(output transducer)
in
out
V
out
in
V
e
V
Analog controller (hardware
electronic circuit)
Introduction
6
Disadvantage
Need to re-configure the electric circuit
whenever we want to change the controller
gain
Analog controller (hardware
electronic circuit)
Introduction
7
Digital controller
(software
computer
programming)
Sensor & Actuator
Controller
Introduction
8
Digital controller (software
computer programming)
Introduction
9
To re-design the controller, just change
the programming.
No hardware re-configuration is needed.
computer
Software &
I/O board
Model,
analysis and
design
Digital controller
(software + PC based hardware)
Introduction
10
Digital Controller
(Embedded system)
Sensor & Actuator
Controller
ECU
(Microcontroller, ADC,
DAC, etc)
Download the program
into microcontroller
Introduction
11
Embedded System (Microcontroller)
Write the programming (MATLAB,
assembly, C++, etc)
Download the programming into the
microcontroller
Develop / Configure the electric circuit with
this microcontroller and link it to the plant
Widely use in the industry
Introduction
12
Multivariable Control System
Open-Loop Control
Systems utilize a controller or
control actuator to obtain the
desired response.
Closed-Loop Control
Systems utilizes feedback
to compare the actual
output to the desired output
response.
Types of Control Systems
Introduction
13
Control Systems Design Process
Modeling /
System
Identification
Analysis
Design
(Controller)
Verification
of control
systems
Steady-state error
Time response
Stability
To meet some
specifications
such as time
response, steady-
state error and
stability
Simulation,
real-time
simulation or
experiment
Introduction
14
Physical system /
model
Schematic diagram
Mathematical
model
State space
representation
(time domain)
Kirchhoffs laws,
Newtons laws, etc
Physical laws
Assumptions
must be justified
through analysis or
testing
LTI, low-order,
lumped system, etc
ODE
Transfer
Function
(frequency
domain)
Modeling
Introduction
15
a. Physical
system concept;
b. Detailed
layout;
Modeling
Introduction
16
c. Schematic
diagram;
d. Functional
block diagram
Introduction
17
Physical system /
model
Schematic diagram
Mathematical
model
LTI, low-order,
lumped system, etc
ODE
Transfer
Function
(frequency
domain)
State space
representation
(time domain)
Kirchhoffs laws,
Newtons laws, etc
Physical laws
Assumptions
must be justified
through analysis or
testing
Modeling
Introduction
18
Schematic diagram
Mathematical
model
High-order
nonlinear
time-varying
PDE
Describe the
relation between
the input & output
of dynamic
systems normally
in PDE / ODE
Kirchhoffs laws,
Newtons laws, etc
Physical laws
Modeling
Introduction
19
Mathematical
model
LTI, low-order,
lumped system, etc
ODE
Assumptions
must be justified
through analysis or
testing
State space
representation
(time domain)
Du Cx y
Bu Ax x
+ =
+ = &
) , ( u x f x =
&
Transfer Function
(frequency domain)
) ... (
) ... (
) (
) (
) (
0
1
1
0
1
1
a s a s a
b s b s b
s D
s N
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + +
+ + +
= =
(Laplace transform)
Modeling
Introduction
20
Mathematical
modeling
(White Box Model)
System
Identification
(Black Box Model)
Parameter
Identification
Derive the set of
equations from
physical law
Derive the set of
equations from
experimental data
Determine the
coefficients /
parameters of the
mathematical
model from
experimental data
Modeling Approaches
Introduction
21
Modeling /
System
Identification
Analysis
Design
(Controller)
Steady-state error
Time response
Stability
To meet some
specifications
such as time
response, steady-
state error and
stability
Verification
of control
systems
Simulation,
real-time
simulation or
experiment
Introduction
22
Control Systems Analysis
Time
response
analysis
Steady-
state error
analysis
Stability
analysis
Introduction
23
What we want to know form our
control systems analysis?
Performance
specifications
Introduction
24
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Example: Elavator
3 4
2 1
4
Time
F
l
o
o
r
Input command
Introduction
25
Example: Elavator
Introduction
26
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Example: Elavator
4
Time
F
l
o
o
r
unstable
Introduction
27
Transient
response is
very
important
Steady-
state error
Stability
SLOW
RAPID
Passengers
impatient
Uncomfortable
& danger
Uncomfortable
& danger
Transient response &
Steady-state error
analysis meaningless
Introduction
28
Modeling /
System
Identification
Analysis
Design
(Controller)
Steady-state error
Time response
Stability
To meet some
specifications
such as time
response, steady-
state error and
stability
Verification
of control
systems
Simulation,
real-time
simulation or
experiment
Introduction
29
Why we have to design the
controller?
To produce the desired transient response
To reduce steady-state errors
To achieve stability
Classical
Modern
Optimal
Robust
Intelligent
Nonlinear
Introduction
30
History
18th Century James Watts centrifugal governor for the speed control of a steam
engine.
1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for steering ships.
1930s Nyquist developed a method for analyzing the stability of controlled systems
1940s Frequency response methods made it possible to design linear closed-loop
control systems
1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was fully developed
1960s State space methods, optimal control, adaptive control and
1980s Learning controls are begun to investigated and developed.
Present and on-going research fields. Recent application of modern control theory
includes such non-engineering systems such as biological, biomedical, economic and
socio-economic systems
???????????????????????????????????
Introduction
31
Modeling in
Frequency Domain
32
The Transfer Function
One kind of system representation.
Advantages:
1) Clearly define the input, system
and output.
2) Allow us to algebraically combine
mathematical representations of
subsystems to yield a total system
representation.
33
T. F
Transfer Function
34
Transfer Function
35
Physical system /
model
Schematic diagram
Mathematical
model
LTI, low-order,
lumped system, etc
ODE
Transfer
Function
(frequency
domain)
State space
representation
(time domain)
Kirchhoffs laws,
Newtons laws, etc
Physical laws
Assumptions
must be justified
through analysis or
testing
Modeling
36
Mathematical
model
LTI, low-order,
lumped system, etc
ODE
Transfer Function
(frequency domain)
State space
representation
(time domain)
Assumptions
must be justified
through analysis or
testing
Du Cx y
Bu Ax x
+ =
+ = &
) ... (
) ... (
) (
) (
) (
0
1
1
0
1
1
a s a s a
b s b s b
s D
s N
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + +
+ + +
= =
) , ( u x f x =
&
(Laplace transform)
Modeling
37
ODE
solution
T.F
Laplace transform
Inverse
Laplace
Control Course
Modeling
38
Laplace
transform
table
39
Laplace transform of the derivative of any order n
) 0 ( ' ) 0 ( ) ( ) ' ' ( : order 2nd for say Let
) 0 ( ) ( ) ' ( : order 1st for say Let
) 0 ( ........ ) 0 ( ' ) 0 ( ) ( ) (
2
) 1 ( 2 1 ) (
f sf f L s f L
f f sL f L
f f s f s f L s f L
n n n n n
=
=
=

40
t t
e e t y
Laplace Inverse
s s s
s Y
s
s Y s sY s Y s
transform Laplace
y y y
dt
dy
dt
y d
8 4
2
2
2
2 1 ) (
:
) 8 )( 4 (
32
) (
32
) ( 32 ) ( 12 ) (
:
0 ) 0 ( ; 0 ) 0 ( ; 32 32 12

+ =
+ +
=
= + +
= = = + +
&
ODE
Solution
T.F
Example:
41
Physical
Systems
Electrical
Mechanical
Electromechanical
Etc
42
Mechanical System Transfer Function
Translational
(Force, displacement,
etc)
Rotational
(Torque, angular
displacement, etc)
43
Physical
Systems
Impedance
method
(by inspection)
FBD
Write
ODE
Transfer
Function
44
Mechanical translational transfer function
Adapted from N. S. Nise Control Systems Engineering (John Wiley, 2004)
45
Example using ODE
2
2
2
2
) (
) ( ) (
dt
x d
m
dt
t dx
f t Kx t f
dt
x d
m ma f
v
=
= =
K s f Ms s F
s X
s G
v
+ +
= =
2
1
) (
) (
) (
46
force] applied of [Sum ) ( impedence] of Sum [ = s X
Impedance method for 1 DOF
mech. trans. system
47
Example: Impedance method for 1 DOF mech.
trans. system
FBD
K s f Ms s F
s X
s G
s F s X K s f Ms
v
v
+ +
= =
= + +
2
2
1
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) ( ] [
48
Sum of
impedances
connected
to the
motion at x
1
X
1
(s)
Sum of
impedances
between x
1
and x
2
X
2
(s)
Sum of
applied
forces at
x
1
Sum of
impedances
connected
to the
motion at x
2
X
2
(s)
Sum of
impedances
between x
1
and x
2
X
1
(s)
=
+
Sum of
applied
forces at
x
2
=
mech. trans. system
49
a. Two-degrees-of-freedom translational
mechanical system
b. block
diagram
Example: 2 DOF trans. mech. system
50
a. Forces on M
1
due
only to motion of M
1
b. forces on M
1
due only
to motion of M
2
c. all forces on M
1
51
a. Forces on M2 due
only to motion of M2;
b. forces on M2 due
only to motion
of M1;
c. all forces on M2
52
+
=
= + + + + + +
= + + + + +
2 3 2
2 3 2 3 2
2
2 1 2 3
2 2 3 1 2 1 3 1
2
1
) (
) (
0 ) ( )] ( ) ( [ ) ( ] [
) ( ) ( ] [ ) ( )] ( ) ( [
K s f
s F
s X
s X K K s f f s M s X K s f
s F s X K s f s X K K s f f s M
v
v v v
v v v
53
Translational mechanical system for Skill-
Assessment Exercise 2.8
54
Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Function
55
Sum of
impedances
connected
to the
motion at
Sum of
impedances
between
and
Sum of
applied
forces at
Sum of
impedances
connected
to the
motion at
Sum of
impedances
between
and
=
+
Sum of
applied
forces at
=
2
) (
1
s ) (
2
s
) (
1
s ) (
2
s
rotational. trans. system
56
a. Two-degrees-of-freedom rotational
mechanical system
Example: 2 DOF rotational mech. system
57
a. Torques on J1
due only to the
motion of J1
b. torques on J1
due only to the
motion of J2
c. final free-body
diagram for J1
a. Torques on J
2
due only to the
motion of J
2
;
b. torques on J
2
due only to the
motion of J
1
c. final free-body
diagram for J
2
58
=
= + + +
= + +
K
s T
s
s K s D s J s K
s T s K s K s D s J
) (
) (
0 ) ( ] [ ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ] [
2
2 2
2
2 1
2 1 1
2
1

59
Skill-Assessment Exercise 2.9
60
Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears
61
Transfer functions for
a) angular displacement in lossless gears and
b) torque in lossless gears
62
a. Rotational
system driven
by gears;
b. equivalent
system at the
output after
reflection of input
torque;
c. equivalent
system at the input
after reflection of
impedances
Equivalent system with gears
63
Example 2.21
a. Rotational mechanical system with gears;
b. system after reflection of torques and
impedances to the output shaft;
c. block diagram
64
65
Electromechanical System Transfer Functions
The system consists of electrical and mechanical
variables.
A motor is an electromechanical component that yields
a displacement output for a voltage input, that is, a
mechanical output generated by an electrical input.
In this section, we will derive the T. F for one particular
kind of electromechanical systems, the armature-
controlled dc servomotor.
66
DC motor:
a. schematic;
b. block diagram
c. DC motor
driving a
rotational
mechanical load
(c)
See Appendix F
67
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
) (
) (
) (
|
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
\
|
+ =
(
|
|
\
|
+ +
=
N
N
D D D
N
N
J J J
where
R
K K
D
J
s s
J R K
s E
s
L a m
L a m
a
b t
m
m
m a t
a
m
Transfer Function DC motor and load

68
Example 2.23
a. DC motor and load;
b. torque-speed curve;
10
10
1
800 2
12
10
1
700 5
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
=
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
\
|
+ =
=
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
\
|
+ =
N
N
D D D
N
N
J J J
L a m
L a m
2
50
100
5
100
500
= = =
= = =
load no
a
b
a
stall
a
t
e
K
and
e
T
R
K
69
( )
) 667 . 1 (
417 . 0
) 2 )( 5 ( 10
12
1
12 5
) (
) (
above equation into parameters all ng Substituti
1
) (
) (
) (
+
=
(
+ +
=
(
|
|
\
|
+ +
=
s s
s s
s E
s
R
K K
D
J
s s
J R K
s E
s
a
m
a
b t
m
m
m a t
a
m
Example 2.23
(Continue)
70
Electromechanical system for
200 8 + =
m m
T when the input voltage is 100 volts.
71
Time Response
(Performance Analysis)
72
Modeling /
System
Identification
Analysis
Design
(Controller)
Steady-state error
Time response
Stability
To meet some
specifications
such as time
response, steady-
state error and
stability
Verification
of control
systems
Simulation,
real-time
simulation or
experiment
73
Time
response
analysis
Steady-
state error
analysis
Stability
analysis
74
Poles and Zeros
Zeros of a transfer function
The values of the Laplace transform variable, s that cause the
transfer function to become zero
Poles of a transfer function
The values of the Laplace transform variable, s that cause the
transfer function to become infinite
n-order transfer function
75
a. System showing
input and output;
b. pole-zero plot
of the system;
c. evolution of a
system response.
Follow blue arrows
to see the evolution
of the response
component generated
by the pole or zero.
76
System Categories
a s
a
s G
+
= ) (
order 1st 1)
b as s
b
s G
+ +
=
2
) (
order 2nd 2)
0
1
1
....
) (
order Higher 3)
a s a s a
b
s G
n
n
n
n
+ + +
=
) )( (
) (
) (
zero order with 2nd 4)
2 1
p s p s
z s
s G
+ +
+
=
77
a. First-order system; b. pole plot
78
First-order
system
response to a
unit step
79
Time Constant, T
The time constant is the time it takes for the step response to rise to 63% of its
final value.
Rise Time, T
r
Time for the response to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value.
Settling time, T
s
Time for the response to reach, and stay within, 2% of its final value.
First-order systems
Transient response performance specifications:
a
T
1
=
a
T
r
2 . 2
=
a s
a
s G
+
= ) (
a
T
s
4
=
80
A system has a transfer function, .
Find the time constant, T, settling time, T
s
, and rise
time, T
r
.
50
50
) (
+
=
s
s G
Solution
Since a = 50 , T =1/a= 1/50= 0.02s;
T
s
= 4/a= 4/50= 0.08 s; and
T
r
= 2.2/a= 2.2/50= 0.044 s.
81
Second-order systems: Introduction
First-order
systems
Varying
systems
parameter
Second-order
systems
Speed of the
response
a s
a
s G
+
= ) (
Speed & form
of the
response
Poles and
zeros
location in
the s-plane
b as s
b
s G
+ +
=
2
) (
82
b as s
b
s G
+ +
=
2
) (
Poles
location
Speed & form
of the
response
2
2
2
2
) (
n n
n
s s
s G

+ +
=
) , (
n
f
(Cont.)
83
Second-order
systems, pole
plots,
and step
responses
84
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Example: Elavator
3 4
2 1
4
Time
F
l
o
o
r
Input command
85
Example: Elavator
86
Step
responses
for second-
order
system
damping
cases
87
Second-order systems: General Form
2
2
2
2
) (
n n
n
s s
s G

+ +
=
1
2
2 , 1
=
n n
s
The poles of the transfer function
Damping ratio
Natural frequency
88
Second-order
response as a
function of
damping ratio
89
Systems for Example 4.4
155 . 1 8 2
12 12
2
= =
= =

n
n n
(overdamped)
90
Second-order systems: Underdamped
1) Common model for physical problems
2) Damping ratio between zero and one
3) Complex poles
91
Percent
overshoot vs.
damping ratio
92
Second-order
underdamped
response
specifications
93
Peak Time, T
p
The time required to reach the first, or maximum, peak.
Percent overshoot, %OS
The amount that the waveform overshoots the steady-state, or, final, value at
the peak time, expressed as a percentage of the steady-state value.
Settling time, T
s
Time for the response to reach, and stay within, 2% of the steady-state value.
Rise Time, Tr
Time for the response to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value.
Second order underdamped
performance specifications:
2
1
=
n
p
T
n
s
T
4
=
2
2
2
2
) (
n n
n
s s
s G

+ +
=
100 %
) 1 (
2
=

e OS
94
Underdamped second-order systems: Pole Plot
T
p
, %OS, T
s
, T
r
) , (
n
f
Location of the poles
2 2
2 , 1
1 1 = =
n n n n
j s
For underdamped case, damping ratio between
0 and 1, and also s is always complex poles
95
Pole plot for an
underdamped
second-order
system
n
Pythagorean theorem
= cos
1 / (Time constant )
96
d
n
p
T
=
2
1
(Inversely proportional to the
imaginary part)
d n
s
T

4 4
= =
(Inversely proportional to the real part)
= cos
(damping ratio is constant along radial line)
= ) ( % f OS
(%OS is also constant
along radial line)
97
Lines of constant peak time,T
p
, settling time,T
s
, and percent
overshoot, %OS. Note: T
s
2
< T
s
; T
p
2
< T
p
1
; %OS
1
< %OS
2
98
Step responses
of second-order
underdamped
systems
as poles move:
a. with constant
real part;
b. with constant
imaginary part;
c. with constant
damping ratio
99
Example 4.6 (Analysis)
. ,% , ,
s p n
T and OS T Find
Solution
seconds 333 . 1
3
4 4
% 26 100 %
seconds 449 . 0
7
616 . 7 3 7
394 . 0 )] 3 7 ( cos[arctan cos
) 1 (
2 2
2
= = =
= =
= = =
= + =
= = =

d
s
d
p
n
T
e OS
T

100
Example 4.7 (Design)
Find J and D to yield 20% overshoot and a
settling time of 2 seconds for a step input of
torque T(t).
101
Example 4.7: Solution
J
K
s
J
D
s
J
s G
+ +
=
2
1
) (
) 2 .......( 2
and .......(1)
J
D
J
K
n
n
=
=
) 3 ........( 2
4
2
n
= = =
n
s
T
) 4 .......( 4 2
J
D
n
= =
) 6 ......( 052 . 0 0.456 2
0.456. implies overshoot 20%
) 5 .......( 2
2
4
n
= = =
=
= =
K
J
K
J
K
J
26 . 0 and 04 1
: (7) and (4) from , 5 Given
= =
=
J . D
K
Transfer Function:
From (2)
102
System Response with Additional Poles
If a system has more than two poles or has
zeros, we cannot use the formulae that we have
derived for second order systems to calculate the
performance specifications
However, under certain conditions, a system
with more than two poles or with zeros can be
approximated as a second-order system that has
just two complex dominant poles.
103
) 2 )( (
) (
2
2
2
n n r
n
s s s
s G

+ + +
=
1
2
2 , 1
=
n n
s
r
s =
3
(Non-dominant pole)
(Dominant poles)
The step response of the system:
t
d d
t
r
d n
d n
r n
De t C t B e t Au t c
s
D
s
C s B
s
A
s G

+ + + =
+
+
+ +
+ +
+ =
) sin cos ( ) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
2
2
104
Second order approximation is valid
n r
5
Insignificant poles in the s-plane
105
Component
responses of a
three-pole system:
a. pole plot;
b. component
responses:
nondominant pole
is near
dominant second-
order pair (Case I),
far from the pair
(Case II), and
at infinity (Case III)
106
Example 4.8
t t
t t
e e t c
e e t c
2 3
3
2 10
2
707 . 0 14 . 1 1 ) (
189 . 1 29 . 0 1 ) (

+ =
=
10/2 = 5 (better approximation)
3/2 = 1.5 (not valid)
107
Step responses
of system T
1
(s),
system T
2
(s), and
system T
3
(s)
Example 4.8 (Cont.)
108
System Response with Zeros
Additional poles:
Affect the form and amplitude of the response
Additional zeros (negatif zeros i.e. zeros in the lhp):
Affect the amplitude of the response
109
Effect of adding
a zero to a
two-pole system
Zero move away
from the dominant
poles
Second order
approximation is
valid
110
Step response of a
nonminimum-phase
system
Additional zeros (positif zeros i.e. zeros in the rhp):
111
2
2
2
) (
) (
n n
s s
z s K
s G
+ +
+
=
Insignificant zeros in the s-plane
n
z if 5
2
nd
-order approximation is valid
112
Pole-Zero cancellation
) )( (
) (
) (
2
3
b as s p s
z s K
s G
+ + +
+
=
3
p z if 2
nd
-order approximation is valid
(see Example 4.10 and skill-assessment 4.7)
113
Conclusion
For the dominance condition to be satisfied, all the
closed-loop poles other than the two corresponding
to specified and , should either lie in the
insignificant region or have zeros nearby.
114
Reduction of
Multiple Subsystems
115
The space shuttle
consists of multiple
subsystems. Can you
identify those that are
control systems, or
parts of control
systems?
NASA-Houston.
Example of system consists of multiple subsystems
116
Components of a block diagram for a linear,
time-invariant system
117
a. Cascaded subsystems; b. equivalent transfer function
Block Diagram Algebra (Cascade)
118
a. Parallel subsystems;
b. Equivalent transfer function
Block Diagram Algebra (Parallel)
119
a. Feedback control
system;
b. simplified model;
c. equivalent transfer
function
Block Diagram Algebra (Feedback)
120
Block diagram
algebra for summing
junctions
equivalent forms for
moving a block
a. to the left past a
summing junction;
b. to the right past a
summing junction
Block Diagram Algebra (Summing Junctions)
121
Block diagram
algebra for pickoff
points
equivalent forms for
moving a block
a. to the left past a
pickoff point;
b. to the right past a
pickoff point
Block Diagram Algebra (Pickoff Points)
122
Example 5.1
123
Example 5.1: Solution
a. collapse summing
junctions;
b. form equivalent
cascaded system
in the forward path
and equivalent
parallel system in the
feedback path;
c. form equivalent
feedback system and
multiply by cascaded
G
1
(s)
124
Block diagram for Example 5.2
125
Steps in the
block diagram
reduction for
Example 5.2
126
Block diagram for Skill-Assessment Exercise 5.1
127
Example 5.3 (Analysis)
Find the peak time, %OS and settling time of the
closed-loop system
128
Solution:
The closed-loop transfer function is
25 5
25
) (
2
+ +
=
s s
s T
0.5 5 2 and 5 25 = = = =
n n
seconds 6 . 1
4
303 . 16 100 %
second 726 . 0
1
2
1
2
= =
= =
=
=

n
s
n
p
T
e OS
T

129
Example 5.4 (Design)
Design the value of gain , K, for the feedback control
system so that the system will respond with a 10%
overshoot.
130
Solution:
The closed-loop transfer function is
K s s
K
s T
+ +
=
5
) (
2
and 5 2 K
n n
= =
0.591 %
2
5
=
=
OS
K
K = 17.9
131
Stability
132
Modeling /
System
Identification
Analysis
Design
(Controller)
Steady-state error
Time response
Stability
To meet some
specifications
such as time
response, steady-
state error and
stability
Verification
of control
systems
Simulation,
real-time
simulation or
experiment
133
Time
response
analysis
Steady-
state error
analysis
Stability
analysis
134
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Example: Elavator
4
Time
F
l
o
o
r
unstable
135
Stability: Definition
) (
1
) (
) (
) (
a s s R
s C
s G
+
= =
a s
B
s
A
a s s s
s R
+
+ =
+
= =
) (
1
C(s) ;
1
) (
at
Be A t c

+ = ) ( Total response:
Force response Natural response
If a > 0, then as t ,
natural response 0
Pole in the left half
of the s-plane
136
Using the natural response
A system is stable if the natural response
approaches zero as time approaches infinity.
A system is marginally stable if the natural
response neither decays nor grows but
remains constant or oscillates.
Using the total response (BIBO)
A system is stable if every bounded input
yields a bounded output
Stability: Definition (for LTI system only)
137
Closed-loop poles
and response:
a. stable system;
b. unstable system
Example
138
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion
A method that yields stability information
without need to solve for the closed-loop
system poles.
Using this method, we can tell how many (not
where) closed-loop system poles are in the left
half-plane (lhp), right half-plane (rhp) and on
the jw-axis.
139
Common cause
of problems in
finding closed-loop
poles:
a. original system;
b. equivalent
system
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion (Cont.)
140
The method requires two steps:
1) Generate a data table called a Routh table
and;
2) Interpret the routh table to tell how many
closed-loop system poles are in the lhp, rhp
and on the jw-axis.
Note: R-H stability criterion deals with closed-loop T.F
141
Equivalent closed-loop transfer function
142
Initial layout for
Routh table
Generating a Basic Routh Table
143
Generating a Basic Routh Table
Completed
Routh table
144
Interpreting the Basic Routh Table
The number of
roots of the
polynomial that
are in the rhp =
the number of
sign changes in
the 1
st
column
Any row of R-H
table can be
multiplied by a
positive constant
(not negative
constant)
145
a. Feedback system for Example 6.1;
b. equivalent closed-loop system
Example 6.1
146
Example 6.1: Completed Routh table
147
Routh-Hurwitz criterion: Special Cases
1) Zero only in the First Column
a) Epsilon method
b) Reverse coefficients
2) Entire row is zero
148
Example 6.2 Zero only in the First Column
Epsilon method
Determine the stability of the closed-loop transfer
function
3 5 6 3 2
10
) (
2 3 4 5
+ + + + +
=
s s s s s
s T
149
Completed Routh table for Example 6.2
150
Example 6.2
Determining signs in first column of a Routh table
with zero as first element in a row
151
Example 6.3
Zero only in the First Column Reverse
coefficients method
Determine the stability of the closed-loop transfer
function
3 5 6 3 2
10
) (
2 3 4 5
+ + + + +
=
s s s s s
s T
152
Routh table for Example 6.3
1 2 3 6 5 3 ) (
2 3 4 5
+ + + + + = s s s s s s D
Reverse coefficients:
153
Example 6.4 Entire row is zero
Determine the stability of the closed-loop
transfer function
56 8 42 6 7
10
) (
2 3 4 5
+ + + + +
=
s s s s s
s T
154
Even polynomial
0 12 4
) (
8 6 ) (
3
2 4
+ + =
+ + =
s s
ds
s dP
s s s P
No sign
changes
No rhp
poles
No lhp poles
(because symmetry
requirement)
4 poles on
jw-axis
155
Root positions
to generate even
polynomials:
A , B, C,
or any
combination
Pole distribution via Routh table with
row of zeros
156
Example 6.5 Pole distribution via Routh
table with row of zeros
Determine the stability of the closed-loop
transfer function
20 38 48 59 39 22 12
20
) (
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+ + + + + + + +
=
s s s s s s s s
s T
157
Solution: Routh table for Example 6.5
Even polynomial
158
Example 6.5: Summary of pole locations
159
Example 6.8: Feedback control system
160
161
Example 6.8: Summary of pole locations
162
Example 6.9: Stability design via Routh-
Hurwitz
163
K < 1386: stable
K > 1386: unstable
K = 1386:
marginally stable
164
Routh table for Example 6.9 with K = 1386
165
Steady-State Errors
166
Definition
Steady-state error is the difference between the
input and the output for a prescribed test input
at time approach infinity
Necessary Condition
Steady-state error analysis can only be done
for a stable system
167
Test Inputs
168
Test inputs for
steady-state error
analysis and design
vary with target type
Example: Test Inputs
169
Steady-state error:
a. step input;
b. ramp input
Test Inputs
170
Feedback Systems
1) Unity Feedback Systems:
2) Non-unity Feedback Systems:
H(s)
171
Source of steady-state errors
Nonlinear Linear
Configuration of
the system
(system type)
Type of applied
input (step,
ramp, parabola)
Nonlinear
components
Source of steady-state errors
172
Steady-state error for unity feedback system
Steady-state error can be calculated from a systems
closed-loop transfer function, T(s) or open-loop transfer
function, G(s)
) (
) (
) ( and
) (
) (
) ( 1
) (
) (
s E
s C
s G
s R
s C
s G
s G
s T = =
+
=
173
Steady-state error in terms of G(s) i.e.
using G(s) to obtain steady-state error
(2) ) ( ) ( ) (
(1) ) ( ) ( ) (
s G s E s C
s C s R s E
=
=
) ( 1
) (
) ( ), 1 ( ) 2 (
s G
s R
s E
+
=
) ( 1
) (
lim ) (
) ( lim ) ( lim ) (
0
0
s G
s sR
e
s E t e e
s
s t
+
=
= =

Apply final value theorem,
If R(s) i.e. test input and G(s) is given, then we can calculate
steady-state error.
174
a) Step Input
s
s R t r
1
) ( , 1 ) ( = =
( )
) ( lim constant, Position
1
1
) ( lim 1
1
) ( 1
1
lim ) (
0
0
0
s G K
K s G s G
s s
e
s
p
p
s
s
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
r(t)
t
1
(Cont.)
175
b) Ramp Input
2
1
) ( , ) (
s
s R t t r = =
( )
) ( lim constant, Velocity
1
) ( lim
1
) ( 1
1
lim ) (
0
0
2
0
s sG K
K s G s s G
s s
e
s
v
v
s
s
=
= =
+
=
r(t)
t
1
(Cont.)
176
c) Parabolic Input
3
2
1
) ( , ) (
s
s R t t r = =
( )
) ( lim constant, on Accelerati
1
) ( lim
1
) ( 1
1
lim ) (
2
0
0
2
3
0
s G s K
K s G s s G
s s
e
s
a
a
s
s
=
= =
+
=
r(t)
t
1
Static error constant
a v p
K K K , ,
(Cont.)
177
System Type
Definition:
The number of pure integration, 1/s in the forward path.
The values of the static error constants depend upon
the form of G(s) i.e. system type
178
Feedback control systems for Example 7.4
179
Relationships between input, system
type, static error constants, and steady-
state errors
180
Steady-state error specification
Static error constants can be used to specify the
steady-state error characteristics of control
systems.
e.g. K
v
=1000
1) Stable i.e. steady-state error is finite
2) Type 1 since K
v
is finite constant
3) Ramp input
4) Steady-state error = 1/K
v
181
Problem:
Given the control system in Figure below, find
the value of K so that there is 10% error in the
steady state.
182
Solution
Since the system is Type 1, the error stated in the
problem must apply to a ramp input; only a ramp
yields a finite error in a Type 1 system. Thus,
8 7 6
5
) ( lim 10 ; 1 . 0
1
) (
0

= = = = =
K
s sG K
K
e
s
v
v
K=672
Skill-assessment 7.3
183
Forming an
equivalent
unity feedback
system from a
general nonunity
feedback system
Nonunity
Feedback System
184
Root Locus Technique
185
Previously, we have learned how to design gain
(K) and other system parameters ( etc) to
yield a desired transient response (OS%, T
s
, T
p
,
etc) only for 1
st
and 2
nd
order systems.
Why Root Locus?
Its ability to provide solutions for systems of
order > 2.
Can analyze and design transient response and
stability simultaneously.
Graphic technique.
, ,
n

186
The poles of T(s)
Systems transient
response & stability
Function of gain K
depend on
As K varies Poles of T(s) also varies
Systems transient
response & stability
affect
On the other hand
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
s H s KG
s KG
s T
+
=
Closed-loop transfer function:
187
Root Locus is a representation of the path of
the closed-loop poles as the gain is varied.
Definition:
188
Root Locus Technique: Example
a. CameraMan
Presenter Camera System
automatically follows a
subject who wears infrared
sensors on their front and
back (the front sensor is
also a microphone);
tracking
commands and audio are
relayed to CameraMan via
a radio frequency link from
a unit worn by the subject.
b. block diagram.
c. closed-loop transfer
function.
189
Pole location as a function of gain for the camera system.
190
Pole plot
Root locus
K<25: poles are real;
overdamped
K=25: real & multiple; critically
damped
K>25; real & imaginary;
underdamped
191
Properties of the root locus
Form these properties we will able to make a rapid sketch
of the root locus for higher-order systems.
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
s H s KG
s KG
s T
+
=
s which is pole of T(s), exists when
1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0
0
180 ) 1 2 ( 1 1 ) ( ) ( + = = k s H s KG
polar form
-1
180
0
where k = 1, 2, 3,
192
Properties of the root locus
The point s is a closed-loop system pole for some
value of gain, K if the open-loop transfer function
satisfy the following properties:
180 ) 1 2 ( ) ( ) (
and 1 ) ( ) (
0
+ =
=
k s H s KG
s H s KG
Odd multiple of 180
0
) ( ) ( s H s KG
193
Evaluation of a magnitude and angle of the
open-loop transfer function
jw
jw
M
j s + =
Complex
function
F(s)
jw
M
jw
new
complex
number
Transfer function
=
=
+
+
=
n
j
j
m
i
i
p s
z s
s F
1
1
) (
) (
) (
How to calculate
the value of M
and to know
whether the root
locus properties
is satisfies or not.
194
=
=
+
+
=
n
j
j
m
i
i
p s
z s
s F
1
1
) (
) (
) (
At any point, s

=
=
angles pole angles zero
lengths pole
lengths zero
M


195
0
180 ) 1 2 (
) ( ) (
+ =
=

k
angles pole angles zero s H s KG
= = =
lengths zero
lengths pole
M s H s G
K

1
) ( ) (
1
s is
located on
the root
locus
Then, gain K at that point,
At any point s, if,
196
Example:
) 2 )( 1 (
) 4 )( 3 (
) ( ) (
+ +
+ +
=
s s
s s K
s H s KG
Determine whether the
point is on
the root locus or not.
2
2
2 j s + =
197
2
2
j
2
2
2 j s + =
Let,
0
4 3 2 1
180 ) 1 2 (

) ( ) (
+ =
+ =
=

k
angles pole angles zero s H s KG

is a point
on the root locus for some
value of gain.
2
2
2 j s + =
Example (Cont.):
198
Example (Cont.):
To determine the value of K at that point:
33 . 0

) ( ) (
1
2 1
4 3
= =
= =
L L
L L
K
lengths zero
lengths pole
s H s G
K
is a point on the root locus for a gain of
0.33.
2
2
2 j s + =
199
Sketching the root locus
Five rules to sketch the root locus
Rule 1:The number of branches of
the root locus equals the
number of closed-loop poles.
Rule 2: The root locus is symmetrical
about the real axis.
200
Real-axis segments of
the root locus
) 2 )( 1 (
) 4 )( 3 (
) ( ) (
+ +
+ +
=
s s
s s K
s H s KG
Rule 3: On the real axis, for K>0, the root locus exists to
the left of an odd number of real-axis, finite open-loop
poles and/or finite open-loop zeros.
Sketching the root locus (Cont.)
201
Rule 4: Starting and ending points
The root locus begins at the finite and infinite poles of
G(s)H(s) (zero gain) and ends at the finite and infinite zeros
of G(s)H(s) (inifinite gain).
(This knowledge enable us to expand the sketch of the root
locus beyond the real-axis segments)
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
s H s KG
s KG
s T
+
=
) (
) (
) ( and
) (
) (
) (
s D
s N
s H
s D
s N
s G if
H
H
G
G
= =
then
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
s N s KN s D s D
s D s KN
s T
H G H G
H G
+
=
202
For small gain K (=0)
+
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
s D s D
s D s KN
s T
H G
H G
C. L poles =
O. L poles
For infinite gain, K (=)
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
s N s KN
s D s KN
s T
H G
H G
+
C. L poles =
O. L zeros
203
Complete root locus
Example system
) 2 )( 1 (
) 4 )( 3 (
) ( ) (
+ +
+ +
=
s s
s s K
s H s KG
Example: Rule 4
204
Rule 5: Behavior at infinity
What is the meaning of finite and infinite poles / zeros in Rule 4?
Infinite poles (pole at infinity):
e.g. G(s) = s
Infinite zeros (zero at infinity):
e.g. G(s) = 1/s
s s H s KG as ) ( ) (
s s H s KG as 0 ) ( ) (
205
Every function of s,
No. of poles (including infinite & finite poles) =
No. of zeros (including infinite & finite zeros)
e.g.
According to rule 4, the root locus begin at finite poles of
KG(s)H(s) and end at infinite zeros. What are these
infinite zeros?
) 2 )( 1 (
) ( ) (
+ +
=
s s s
K
s H s KG
206
The root locus approaches straight lines as asymptotes as
the root locus approaches infinity. Further, the equation of
the asymptotes is given by the real-axis intercept, and
angle of asymptote, as follows:
a
zeros finite of No poles finite of No

k
zeros finite poles finite
a
a
. .
) 1 2 (
. .

+
=

207
k
zeros finite poles finite
a
a
. .
) 1 2 (
. .

+
=

jw

208
Example:
For open-loop transfer function: 4 finite poles; 1 finite zero
and 3 infinite zeros.
Calculate the asymptotes:
1) Real-axis intercept
2) Angle of the lines that intercept at -4/3, are
3
4
1 4
) 3 ( ) 4 2 1 (
=

=
a
2 for
3
5
; 1 for ; 0 for
3 1 4
) 1 2 (
= = = =
+
= k k k
k
a
209
Root locus and
asymptotes
Example (Cont.):
210
Refining the sketch
Calculate:
1)Real-axis breakaway and break-in points
2)jw-axis crossing
3)Angles of departure from complex poles
4)Angles of arrival to complex zeros
211
Breakaway and break-in points
1) Via differentiation
Root locus example
showing real- axis
breakaway (-1) and
break-in points (2)
3 methods:
2) Transition method
3) Use programming
212
Variation of gain along the real axis for
the root locus
213
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
s H s KG
s KG
s T
+
=
) ( ) (
1
,
) ( ) (
1

H G
K s
s H s G
K
= =
=
When breakaway & break-in point exists:
If we differentiate this equation w.r.t and set the derivative equal
to zero, we can find the points of max & min gain i.e. breakaway &
break-in points.

214
Example
Open-loop system for root locus shown
in figure below:
2 3
) 15 8 (

) 2 )( 1 (
) 5 )( 3 (
) ( ) (
2
2
+ +
+
=
+ +

=
s s
s s K
s s
s s K
s H s KG
All points along the root locus, KG(s)H(s) = -1
And along the real axis,
82 . 3 and 45 . 1
0
) 15 8 (
) 61 26 11 (
) 15 8 (
) 2 3 ( -
K 1
2 3
) 15 8 (
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
=
=
+

=
+
+ +
= =
+ +
+

d
dK
s s
s s K
(breakaway) (break-in)
= s
215
2) Transition method
Breakaway and break-in points satisfy the relationship:

+
=
+
n
i
m
i
p z
1 1
1 1

where z
i
and p
i
are the negative of the zero and pole
values, respectively, of G(s)H(s).
e.g. from previous example,
82 . 3 and 45 . 1
0 61 26 11
2
1
1
1
5
1
3
1
2
=
=
+
+
+
=

216
stable unstable
The jw-axis crossing
The gain K at jw-axis crossing is
very important because it is a max
positive gain K before the system
become unstable.
Use Routh-Hurwitz criterion to find
the jw-axis crossing
217
Example
The closed-loop transfer function is given as
K s K s s s
s K
s T
3 ) 8 ( 14 7
) 3 (
) (
2 3 4
+ + + + +
+
=
Find the frequency and gain, K, for which the root locus
crosses the imaginary axis.
Solution
218
For K > 0, only the s
1
row can yield a row of zeros where as
discussed before, a row of zeros show that the possibility of
poles on the jw-axis.
Example
65 . 9
0 720 65
=
= +
K
K K
Then replace K to the even polynomial,
0 7 . 202 35 . 80 21 ) 90 (
2 2
= + = + s K s K
We obtain
59 . 1 j s =
Thus the root locus crosses the jw-axis at gain K=9.65
and
59 . 1 j s =
219
Angles of departure and arrival
a) Angle of departure,
0
6 5 4 3 2 1
0
6 5 4 3 2 1
0
180 ) 1 2 (
180 ) 1 2 (
180 ) 1 2 (
+ + + =
+ = + + +
+ =

k
k
k angles pole angles zero

b) Angle of arrival,
0
6 5 4 3 1 2
0
6 5 4 3 2 1
0
180 ) 1 2 (
180 ) 1 2 (
180 ) 1 2 (
+ + + + =
+ = + + +
+ =

k
k
k angles pole angles zero

220
Example
Find the angle of departure from the complex poles
and sketch the root locus
221
Solution
Let is a point close to the complex
pole, -1+j1, in the second quadrant.
Thus,
0 0
1
0 1 1 0
1
0
4 3 2 1
4 . 108 6 . 251
180
2
1
tan
1
1
tan 90
180
= =
=
|
\
|
\
|
+
= +

222
Compensator Design using
Root Locus
223
Compensator Design using Root Locus
1) Simple gain adjustment (Static Compensator)
Adjust the gain to meet the desired transient response.
However, the adjustment or design is limited to those responses
that exist along the root locus.
224
Simple gain adjustment can only improve the transient response of a
system which exist along the root locus.
Transient response & Steady-state error is a function of gain K

e OS K
OS e K
but %
% but
2) Simple gain adjustment (Static Compensator)
225
2) Cascade compensation /
Augmentation (Dynamic compensator)
Flexibility in the design of a desired transient
response can be increased if we can design for
transient response that are not on the root locus.
Point B desired transient response
Point A simple gain adjustment (same
%OS but different t
s
from point B)
To get desired response at point B:
a) Replace the existing system with a
system whose root locus intersects the
point B. (But this method is expensive
and counterproductive).
b) Compensate the system with additional
poles & zeros so that the root locus of
compensate system intersect the desired
point B. (Cheap and easy to implement)
226
Ideal compensator
(Active networks)
2) Cascade compensation / Augmentation (Dynamic compensator)
Compensator
(Passive networks)
Ideal integral compensator or PI
controller (use pure integration)
Ideal derivative compensator or PD
controller (use pure differentiation)
Lead Compensator
(Passive networks)
Lag Compensator
(Passive networks)
227
Design procedure
(For second-order system or second order approximation is valid)
Design problem:
Design the gain K and compensator (if necessary) to meet desired
performance characteristics (i.e. %OS, t
s
and static error constants)
Procedure:
1) Find and from given %OS and settling time.
2) Calculate the desired complex poles,
3) Test whether this desired poles is on the root locus or not using angle
criterion.
4) If angle criterion is satisfied (i.e. desired poles are on the root locus),
then design the gain K using magnitude criterion:
(simple gain adjustment)
5) If angle criterion is not satisfied, then dynamic compensator is needed
(i.e. PI, PD, PID, Lead, Lag or Lead-Lag compensator).
2
1 =
n n
j s
d
s s
n
i
i
p s K
=
= )
`
+ =

1
For 2
nd
-order system
without zero
228
Simple gain adjustment
Consider a unity-feedback system with a forward-path transfer function
} , { ; 0 ;
) )( (
) (
2 1
2 1

+ +
= p p K
p s p s
K
s G
Find the gain K which gives the closed-loop system response with
certain %OS.
B
P
-p
2
-p
1
j
1) Sketch the root locus

2) From given %OS, obtain
3) Find breakaway point,
4)
5)
6) Desired pole,
7) Gain

1
cos
=
) (tan = BP
jBP s + =
{ }
jBP s
p s p s K
+ =
+ + =
2 1
229
Simple gain adjustment: Least-damped oscillatory
response (maximum %OS)
a) Open-loop T. F poles is real & distinct
Consider a unity-feedback system with a forward path transfer function
Prove that part of the root locus is a circle centred at with radius
given by .
0 ;
) )( (
) (
) (
2 1
+ +
+
= K
a s a s
b s K
s F
) 0 , ( b
) )( (
2 1
a b a b
- - -
min
G A B
P
O
230
Let , at this point:
) ( ) )( (
) (

) ( ) )( (
) (

) )( (
) (
) (
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1 2 1
2 1
a a j a a
j b K
a a j a a
j b K
a j a j
b j K
s F
+ + + + + +
+ +
=
+ + + + + +
+ +
=
+ + + +
+ +
=

(
(
(
(
(
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
+
=
(
+
+
+
+
=
+ =
=

2 1
2 1
1 1
2
1
1
1 1
2 1 3
1
tan tan
tan tan tan
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
a a
a a
b
a a b
angles pole angles zero s F

j s + =
231
0
) )( (
) 2 (
1
) )( (
) 2 (
2
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2 1
=
(
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
a a
a a
b
a a
a a
b
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
=
+ +
+ +
+
=

2
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2 1
1
2
2 1
2 1
1 1
) )( (
) 2 (
1
) )( (
) 2 (
tan
) )( (
) 2 (
tan tan ) (

a a
a a
b
a a
a a
b
a a
a a
b
s F
is a multiple of 180
0
if:
) (s F
232
Manipulation of this equation gives:
) )( ( ) (
2 1
2 2
a b a b b = + +
This is the equation of a circle with centre at and
radius .
) 0 , ( b
) )( (
2 1
a b a b
It can easily be verified that at every point on this circle in the s-
plane, is
) (s F
0
180
233
Example:
Let us assume the following numerical values for open-
loop poles and zeros, 5 , 2 , 1
2 1
= = = b a a
O
234
1) The damping ratio for maximum oscillatory response is
obtained by drawing a straight line OP tangential to the circular locus as
shown above. By geometry,
min
) )( ( where
72 . 0
) ( ) (
cos
2 1
2 2
min
a b a b GP
OG
GP OG
OG
OP
=
=
= = =
2) The least-damped complex-conjugate closed-loop poles are
5 . 2 6 . 2
sin cos
2 , 1
j
jOP OP s
=
=
3) The value of K corresponding to least damping may obtained by
applying the magnitude criterion at the point P where OP is a straight line
tangential to the circular locus
2 . 2
45 . 3
9 . 2 6 . 2
=
= =
GP
BP AP
K
Remarks:
The systems which have been considered are 2
nd
-order with additional zeros. So, 2
nd
-order
approximation is needed in order to use general 2
nd
-order transient response formulae.
235
b) Open-loop T. F poles is complex number
Consider a unity-feedback system with a forward path transfer function
Prove that part of the root locus is a circle centred at with radius
given by .
0 ;
) )( (
) (
) (
+ + +
+
= K
j s j s
b s K
s F

) 0 , ( b
2 2
) ( + b
236
Let , at this point: j s + =
) ( 2 ) 2 (
) (

) )( (
) (
) (
2 2 2 2

+ + + + +
+ +
=
+ + + + +
+ +
=
j
j b K
j j j j
b j K
s F
+ + +
+
+
+
+ + +
+
+
=
+ + +
+
+
=
=

) 2 (
) ( 2
1
) 2 (
) ( 2
tan
) 2 (
) ( 2
tan tan
) (
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1
2 2 2 2
1 1

b
b
b
angles pole angles zero s F
237
is a multiple of 180
0
if:
) (s F
0
) 2 (
) ( 2
1
) 2 (
) ( 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
=
(
+ + +
+
+
+
+ + +
+
b
b
Manipulation of this equation gives:
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( + = + + b b
This is the equation of a circle with centre at and
radius .
) 0 , ( b
It can easily be verified that at every point on this circle in the s-
plane, is
) (s F
0
180
2 2
) ( + b
238
Example:
Let us assume the following numerical values for open-
loop poles and zeros,
7 . 0 , 2 , 2 , 1 = = = = b
239
1) The desired complex-conjugate closed-loop poles are
369 . 2 cos ) )( ( 2 ) ( ) (
cos
2 2
1
= + =
=

OE EP OE EP OP
7 . 1 65 . 1
sin cos
2 , 1
j
jOP OP s
=
=
2) The value of K corresponding to damping ratio 0.7 may obtained by
applying the magnitude criterion at the point P:
3 . 1
73 . 1
2 . 3 7 . 0
= =
EP
BP AP
K
Remarks:
The systems which have been considered are 2
nd
-order with additional zeros. So, 2
nd
-order
approximation is needed in order to use general 2
nd
-order transient response formulae.
Example:
240
Design procedure
(For second-order system or second order approximation is valid)
Design problem:
Design the gain K and compensator (if necessary) to meet desired
performance characteristics (i.e. %OS, t
s
and static error constants)
Procedure:
1) Find and from given %OS and settling time.
2) Calculate the desired complex poles,
3) Test whether this desired poles is on the root locus or not using angle
criterion.
4) If angle criterion is satisfied (i.e. desired poles are on the root locus),
then design the gain K using magnitude criterion:
(simple gain adjustment)
5) If angle criterion is not satisfied, then dynamic compensator is needed
(i.e. PI, PD, PID, Lead, Lag or Lead-Lag compensator).
2
1 =
n n
j s
d
s s
n
i
i
p s K
=
= )
`
+ =

1
For 2
nd
-order system
without zero
241
Dynamic
Compensation
242
Reshaping the root locus
A simple control system configuration
If the desired performance characteristics cannot be obtained by a simple gain
adjustment alone, some dynamic compensations for the plant dynamics are
required.
243
) (
) (
) (
) (
1
1
s KD
p s
z s K
s D
n
j
j
m
i
i
c
=
+
+
=
=
=
The transfer function Dc(s) is typically of the form
For the purpose of simplifying the design procedure, we normally
associate the adjustable gain parameter K with the plant transfer
function and then design the dynamic compensator D(s) given by
equation above based on the new plant transfer function KGp(s).
At the implementation stage, the gain K is associated with the
compensator and the transfer function Dc(s) is realized.
244
(a) Uncompensated system (b) Compensated system
245
Dynamic compensator categories
1) A given system is stable and its transient response is satisfactory,
but its steady-state is too large. Thus, the corresponding error constant
must be increased while nearly preserving the transient response. This
can be achieved by a cascade lag compensator
0 , 1 ;
1
1
) ( > > =
+
+
=
+
+
=
p
z
s
s
p s
z s
s D
2) A given system is stable, but its transient response is unsatisfactory.
Thus the root locus must be reshaped so that it is moved farther to the
left, away from the imaginary axis. This can be achieved by a cascade
lead compensator
0 , 1 ;
1
1
) ( > < =
+
+
=
+
+
=
p
z
s
s
p s
z s
s D
246
3) A lead-compensated system has satisfactory transient response
but its steady-state error is too large. The steady-state error can be
decreased by cascading a lag compensator to the lead-
compensated system. This is equivalent to using a second-order
compensator, called lag-lead compensator, of the form
Dynamic compensator categories
0 0, , 1 , 1
;
1
1
1
1
) (
1 2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
> > < = > =
|
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
\
|
+
+
=
|
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
\
|
+
+
=

p
z
p
z
s
s
s
s
p s
z s
p s
z s
s D
4) A given system is unstable for all values of gain. Thus the root locus
must be reshaped so that part of each branch falls in the left half of the
s-plane thereby making the system stable. A double lead compensator
(two compensators in cascade) mat sometimes be required to obtain
satisfactory transient response.
247
Cascade Lead Compensator
Desired dominant closed-loop poles
Desired response
specifications of
system dynamic i.e
%OS, t
s
, etc.
n
and
Desired location,
s
d
248
KG
p
(s)
(G(s) is assumed to be unalterable except for the adjustment of gain)
A feedback system with cascade compensator
0
180 ) (
d
s G
If , the uncompensated root locus with variable
open-loop gain will not pass through the desired location, s
d
.
Introduce,
0 , 1 ;
1
1
) ( > < =
+
+
=
+
+
=
p
z
s
s
p s
z s
s D
249
D(s) has to be so designed that the compensated root locus passes through s
d
.
This requires that
) ( 180 ) (
180 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
0
d d
d d d d
s G s D or
s G s D s G s D
= =
= + =
Thus, for the root locus of the compensated system to pass through the
desired root location, the lead compensator pole-zero must contribute an
angle given by equation above and shown in figure below
There is no unique location

for the pole-zero pair
250
The steps for lead compensator design:
1) Translate the transient response specifications into a pair of complex
dominant roots.
2) Sketch the pole-zero plot of the uncompensated system and determine
using angle criterion whether the desired root locations can be realized by
gain adjustment alone. If not, calculate the angle deficiency . This angle
must be contributed by the lead compensator if the root locus is to pass
through the desired root locations.
3) Place the compensating zero on the real axis in the region below the
desired dominant root s
d
. If the uncompensated system has an open-loop
pole on the real-axis in the region below s
d
, the compensating zero should
lie to the left of this pole.
4) Determine the compensator pole location so that the total angle contributed
by compensator pole-zero pair at s
d
is .
5) Evaluate the gain at s
d
and then calculate the error constant.
6) Repeat the steps if transient performance is unsatisfactory because of a
weak dominance condition and/or if the error constant is not satisfactory.
251
Example:
Consider a unity-feedback type-2 system with open-loop transfer
function
2
) (
s
K
s G =
Compensate the system so as to meet the following transient
response specifications:
20% input step for overshoot Peak
sec 4 time, Settling
s
t
Solution:
These specifications imply that:
1 and , 45 . 0
n

We choose a desired dominant root location as
2 1 1
2
j j s
n n d
+ = + =
252
Sketch the root locus:
) 180 (i.e. 232 116 2
) (
0 0
= =
=

angles pole angles zero s G
d
0 0 0
52 ) 232 ( 180 = =
The angle deficiency,
Place the zero of the compensator on the real-axis
segment directly below s
d
, at s = z = -1. Join the
compensator zero to s
d
and locate the compensator
pole by making an angle of . The location of
the pole is found to be at s = -p = -3.6.
0
52 =
Solution (Cont.):
253
With the addition of the cascade lead compensator,
6 . 3
1
) (
+
+
=
s
s
s D
The open-loop transfer function of the system becomes
) 6 . 3 (
) 1 (
) ( ) (
2
+
+
=
s s
s K
s G s D
Using Magnitude Criterion:
1 . 8
2
) 25 . 3 ( ) 23 . 2 (
2
= = K
) 6 . 3 (
) 1 ( 1 . 8
) ( ) (
2
+
+
=
s s
s
s G s D
Therefore the open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is
The system under consideration is type-2, and therefore will result in
zero steady-state error for step and ramp input signals. The acceleration
error constant is
25 . 2
6 . 3
1 . 8
) ( ) ( lim
2
0
= = =
s G s D s K
s
a
Solution (Cont.):
254
Example:
Consider a unity-feedback type-1 system with open-loop transfer
function
) 2 (
) (
+
=
s s
K
s G
Compensate the system so as to meet the following transient
response specifications:
rad/sec 4 frequency natural Undamped
5 . 0 ratio, Damping
=
=
n
Solution:
We choose a desired dominant root location as
46 . 3 2 1
2
j j s
n n d
+ = + =
255
Sketch the root locus:
) 180 (i.e. 210
) (
0 0
=
=

angles pole angles zero s G
d
0 0 0
30 ) 210 ( 180 = =
The angle deficiency,
Place the zero of the compensator at s = -2.9 i.e. on
the real-axis segment below s
d
and just to the left of
the open-loop pole at s = -2. Join the compensator
zero to s
d
and locate the compensator pole by
making an angle of . The location of the pole
is found to be at s = -p = -5.4.
0
30 =
Solution (Cont.):
256
With the addition of the cascade lead compensator,
4 . 5
9 . 2
) (
+
+
=
s
s
s D
The open-loop transfer function of the system becomes
(
+
|
\
|
+
+
=
) 2 ( 4 . 5
9 . 2
) ( ) (
s s
K
s
s
s G s D
Using Magnitude Criterion:
7 . 18 = K
) 4 . 5 )( 2 (
) 9 . 2 ( 7 . 18
) ( ) (
+ +
+
=
s s s
s
s G s D
Therefore the open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is
The system under consideration is type-1, and therefore will result in
zero steady-state error for step input signal. The velocity error constant
is
1
0
sec 02 . 5
4 . 5 2
9 . 2 7 . 18
) ( ) ( lim

= = s G s sD K
s
v
Solution (Cont.):
257
Cascade Lag Compensator
+ =
=
+
+
=
n
r j
j
r
m
i
i
p s s
z s K
s G
1
1
) (
) (
) (
Assumption: The root locus passes through (or is close to) the desired
closed-loop location s
d
at a certain value of K.
Design objective: After compensation, the root locus should continue to
pass through s
d
, while the static error constant at s
d
is raised to the
specific value.
258
To accomplish this, consider a cascade lag compensator
0 , 1 ;
1
1
) ( > > =
+
+
=
+
+
=
p
z
s
s
p s
z s
s D
Pole-zero pair
close to origin
Locating the lag
compensator
pole-zero pair
If p z
negligible is
s
d
continues to lie
on the root locus
259
The gain of the uncompensated system at s
d
is given by
=
+ =
+
+
=
m
i
i d
n
r j
j d
r
d
d
uc
z s
p s s
s K
1
1
) (
For the system with a cascade lag compensator, the system gain at s
d
is
1 and , 1 where
) (
1
1
+ = + =
|
\
|
+
+
=
=
+ =
d d
m
i
i d
n
r j
j d
r
d
d
c
s b s a
b
a
z s
p s s
s K
260
Since the distance from pole and zero are located close to each other,
they are nearly equidistant from s
d
, i.e. .
Therefore,
b a
) ( ) (
d
uc
d
c
s K s K
The static error constant K
e
(which equal to K
p
, K
v
or K
a
depending on
the type of the system) of the uncompensated system is given by
+ =
=
=
n
r j
j
m
i
i
d
uc
uc
e
p
z
s K K
1
1
) (
The static error constant of the compensated system is given by
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
=
+ =
=
p
z
K
p
z
p
z
s K K
uc
e
n
r j
j
m
i
i
d
c
c
e
1
1
) (
261
Since the static error constant must equal the desired value ,
we have
c
e
K
d
e
K
uc
e
d
e
uc
e
d
e
K
K
p
z
or
p
z
K K
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
\
|

Ratio of the desired static
error constant to the
error constant of the
uncompensated system.
262
The steps for lag compensator design:
1) Draw the root locus plot for the uncompensated system.
2) Translate the transient response specifications into a pair of complex dominant
roots and locate these roots on the uncompensated root locus plot. It is
assumed that acceptable transient performance can be obtained by gain
adjustment; the desired dominant root will therefore lie on (or close to) the
uncompensated root locus.
3) Calculate the gain of the compensated system at the dominant root s
d
and
evaluate the corresponding static error constant.
4) Determine the factor by which the static error constant of the uncompensated
system should be increased to meet the specified value. Choose the
parameter of lag compensator to be somewhat greater than this factor.
5) Select zero (s = -z) of the compensator sufficiently close to the origin. As a
guide rule, we may construct a line making an angle of 10
0
(or less) with the
desired line from s
d
; the intersection of this line with the real axis gives
location of the compensator zero.
6) The compensator pole can then be located at . It is important to
note that the compensator pole-zero pair should contribute an angle less
than 5
0
at s
d
so that the root locus plot in the region of s
d
is not appreciably
change and hence satisfactory transient behaviour of the system is preserve.
z p s = =
263
Example:
The uncompensated open-loop transfer function is
The system is to be compensated to meet the following specifications.
) 2 (
) (
+
=
s s
K
s G
K nt, consta error Velocity
t time Settling
ratio Damping
v
s
4
sec 5 ,
707 . 0 ,
=
264
The uncompensated root locus is vertical line at -1 and results in a root
locus on the line at s
d
, as shown in Figure below.
1 1 j s
d
+ =
Solution:
Settling time corresponding to this root
is .
The gain at s
d
is K = 2.
Therefore, the uncompensated system
with the gain adjusted to a value of 2
meets the transient response
specifications.
The velocity error constant of the
uncompensated system is
707 . 0 =
sec 4 4 =
n
1 2 ) ( lim
0
= = =
K s sG K
s
uc
v
The desired velocity error constant,
4
d
v
K
265
Thus, the velocity error constant must be increased by at least a
factor of 4. Lag compensator with is expected to meet this
requirement.
5 =
Let set compensator zero at
2 where 1 . 0 = << = =
d
s z z s
The compensator pole is located at
02 . 0 =
= =
z
p s
The difference of the angles from compensator zero and pole at the
desired root s
d
is about 3
0
. Therefore will lie close to
compensated root locus.
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system
becomes
1 1 j s
d
+ =
) 2 )( 02 . 0 (
) 1 . 0 ( 2
) ( ) (
) 2 ( 02 . 0
1 . 0
) ( ) (
+ +
+
=
(
+
|
\
|
+
+
=
s s s
s
s G s D
s s
K
s
s
s G s D
Solution (Cont.):
266
Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation
When both transient and steady-state responses are
unsatisfactory, we must use lag and lead compensators in order to
meet the specification.
Lag-lead compensator is of the form
0 , 0 , 1 , 1
;
1
1
1
1
) (
1 2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
> > < = > =
|
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
\
|
+
+
=
|
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
\
|
+
+
=

p
z
p
z
where
s
s
s
s
p s
z s
p s
z s
s D
Lag Lead
We frequently choose in designing a lag-lead
compensator.
1 =
267
Basic steps in designing lag-lead compensator:
1) Design the lead section to realize the required for the
dominant closed-loop poles
2) The error constant is then determined for the lead-compensated
system, say it is
3) If is sufficiently high to give the desired steady-state response,
we need not go further
4) If however, is not large enough, we consider adding the lag
section with . This results in an error constant
5) If as given in Eqn. above is not large enough to meet steady-
state specification, we choose and redesign the lag
section.
Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation
n
and
lc
e
K
lc
e
K
lc
e
K
1 =
lc
e
llc
e
K K
llc
e
K
1 >
268
Example:
The uncompensated open-loop transfer function is
Design a feedback system to meet the following specifications:
) 5 . 0 (
4
) (
+
=
s s
s G
1 -
v
n
sec 80 K nt, consta error Velocity
rad frequency natural Undamped
ratio Damping

sec / 5
5 . 0 ,
=
=
=
269
Solution:
Unity-feedback control configuration
270
Root locus plot
Uncompensated system: A > 0 and D(s)=1
line intersects the
root locus at the point
s = -0.25 + j 0.433
5 . 0 =
Therefore, D(s) = 1
cannot meet the
specifications
sec) / 5 ( sec / 5 . 0 rad rad
n
=
Solution (Cont.):
271
Introduce a cascade lead compensator.
Performance
specifications
Desired location
33 . 4 5 . 2 j s
d
+ =
0 0 0
235 115 120 ) ( = =
d
s G Since, the lead compensator must contribute
55
0
so that the root locus passes through the desired root s
d.
Let choose so that it cancels the open-loop pole at s = -0.5. 5 . 0 = = z s
The compensator pole is chosen such that the angle contribution of the
pole-zero pair is 550. By simple graphic analysis,
Thus,
5 = = p s
0.1 ,
5
5 . 0
1
1
) (
1
1
1
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
s
s
s
s
s D
Solution (Cont.):
272
Open-loop transfer function
A
s s
K
s s s
s K
s G s D 4 K ,
) 5 ( ) 5 )( 5 . 0 (
) 5 . 0 (
) ( ) (
1
=
+
=
+ +
+
=
Using magnitude criterion
25 5 + =
d d
s s K
Root locus plot of the lead-compensated system is shown in the
previous figure. The steady-state performance of this system
5
5
) ( ) ( lim
1
0
= = =
K
s G s sD K
s
lc
v
The desired . So we need to design a lag compensator,
1 ,
1
1
) (
2
2
2
>
+
+
=
s
s
s D
80 =
d
v
K
Solution (Cont.):
273
Since,
16 = =
lc
v
d
v
K
K
The pole-zero pair of the lag compensator can be chosen by

satisfying the following condition:
0
2 2 2
2
2
2
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( 5
1 ) (
< + + = <
+
+
=
p s z s s D
p s
z s
s D
d d d
d
d
d
Finally,
0125 . 0 16 2 . 0 and , 2 . 0
2 2 2
= = = = z p z
Solution (Cont.):
274
The open-loop transfer function of the lag-lead compensated system
becomes
(
+ + +
+ +
=
+ +
+
=
) 5 . 0 (
4
) 5 )( 0125 . 0 (
) 5 . 0 )( 2 . 0 (
4
25

) 5 )( 0125 . 0 (
) 2 . 0 ( 25
) ( ) ( ) (
1 2
s s s s
s s
s s s
s
s G s D s D
Therefore,
) 5 )( 0125 . 0 (
) 5 . 0 )( 2 . 0 (
4
25
) (
+ +
+ +
=
s s
s s
s AD
Solution (Cont.):
275
Frequency Response
Techniques
276
1)Frequency response techniques is used when
the input test signal to a linear system is
sinusoidal input signal
2)It is a design technique that uses only the
information of G(s) and H(s) along the positive
imaginary axis, that is, G(jw) and H(jw)
for all
3)No particular design method, root locus or
Bode plot, can be judged superior to the other
4)Direct control on the time-domain performance
is lost.
Basic information
277
1)The method does not need precise mathematical
description of systems for design compensator
2)The method is independent of the complexity of
systems and is applicable to systems containing
time-delay elements
3)Can be used to find the stability of nonlinear
systems.
Some advantages of frequency response
techniques:
278
The concept of frequency response
sinusoidal
input
System is represented
by a complex number
(i.e. )
where (magnitude)
and (phase)
) cos( + t M
) (
) (
) (
i
o
M
M
M =
) ( ) ( ) (
i o
=
279
Plotting Frequency Response
M
n
M
2
M
1
Frequency
) (
) (
) (
i
o
M
M
M =
) ( ) ( ) (
i o
=
1
280
G(jw) can be plotted in two ways
In separate magnitude
and phase plots
In a polar plot
Bode plot Nyquist plot
Magnitude plot
(decibels (dB)
vs. log w)
Phase plot
(phase angle
vs. log w)
Magnitude = Phasor length
Phase = Phasor angle
j
M
Plotting Frequency Response
281
Frequency response plots for G(s) = 1/(s + 2): separate
magnitude and phase
Example:
282
Frequency response plots for G(s) = 1/(s + 2): polar plot
Example:
283
The bode plots

+ + =
+
+ +
+ + + + + =
=
+ + + +
+ +
=

) /( 2 tan
tan tan ) 90 ( tan tan ) (
log vs. : ) (
/ / 2 1 log 20
1 log 20 1 log 20 log 20
1 log 20 1 log 20 log 20
) ( log 20 ) (
log vs. dB : ) (
] / ) / 2 ( 1 [ ) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 )( 1 (
) (
2
2
1
2
1
1
1 0 1 1
2 2
2 1
2
2

n n
a a
n
n
b a
dB
n n b a
N
b a
N j G
is s G of phase The
j
j j j N
j j K
j G j G
dB in j G of Magnitude
s s s s s
s s K
s G
284
The bode plots
In general, a rational transfer function G(s) can contain just four
simple types of factors:
1. Real constant: K > 0
2. Poles and zeros at the origin of order
3. Poles or zeros at of order
4. Complex poles or zeros of order
N
s N

) ( :
/ 1 = s
q
s q

+ ) 1 ( :
r
n n
s s r

+ + ) / / 2 1 ( :
2
2

One of the unique characteristics of Bode plot
each of the four types of factors listed can be considered as a
separate plot (basic building blocks); the individual plots are
then algebraically added to yield the total plot of the given transfer
function.
285
Sketching Bode plots can be simplified because they can be
approximated as a sequence of straight lines (asymptotes).
Magnitude or phase
versus logarithmic scale
for frequency (log w)
Use linear rectangular
coordinate graph paper
Use semilog graph paper
Octave Decade
2 /

1 2 2 1
= where to
from band Frequency
10 /

1 2 2 1
= where to
from band Frequency
log vs. ) ( j G
vs. ) ( j G
Magnitude Plot: Straight-Line Approximation
l
i
n
e
a
r

s
c
a
l
e
,

d
B
logarithmic scale,
286
Real constant K
Since the constant K is frequency-invariant, the plot of
dB = 20 logK
is a horizontal straight line.
Example: Bode magnitude plot of G(s) = K where K = 10
287
Poles at the origin
The factor 1/(jw) appearing in a transfer function G(jw) has the
magnitude
The dB vs. log plot of equation above is a straight line with a slope
of -20 dB/decade or -6 dB/octave. The plot intersects the 0-dB axis at
For an Nth-order pole at the origin, the magnitude is
The magnitude plot is still a straight line that intersects the 0-dB axis
at but the slope is now -20N dB/decade.
log 20
1
log 20 = =
j
dB
. 1 =
log 20
) (
1
log 20 N
j
dB
N
= =
, 1 =
288
Bode magnitude plot of pole at the origin
Poles at the origin (Cont.)
289
Zeros at the origin
The factor jw appearing in a transfer function G(jw) has the
magnitude
The dB vs. log plot of equation above is a straight line with a slope
of +20 dB/decade or +6 dB/octave. The plot intersects the 0-dB axis
at
For an Nth-order pole at the origin, the magnitude is
The magnitude plot is still a straight line that intersects the 0-dB axis
at but the slope is now +20N dB/decade.
log 20 log 20 = = j dB
. 1 =
log 20 ) ( log 20 N j dB
N
= =
, 1 =
290
Bode magnitude plot of zero at the origin
Zeros at the origin (Cont.)
291
Example:
Consider the transfer function
For an Nth-order pole at the origin with gain K, the magnitude is
The magnitude plot is a straight line having a slope -20N dB/decade
and passing through 20 logK dB when
Further, the plot has a value of 0 dB at the frequency of
. 1 =
K N
j
K
dB
N
log 20 log 20
) (
log 20 + = =
N
s
K
s G = ) (
N
K K N
/ 1
) ( or log 20 log 20 = =
292
Bode magnitude plot of
N
s
K
s G = ) (
(for N = 2)
(for N = 1)
Example (Cont.)
293
Poles at
The factor appearing in a transfer function G(jw) has the
magnitude
For low frequencies, such that the magnitude may be
approximated by
The plot of equation above is a straight line coincident with the 0-dB
axis.
2 2
1 log 20
1
1
log 20
+ =
+
=
j
dB
0 1 log 20 = = dB
, / 1 <<
/ 1 = s
) 1 /( 1 j +
294
For high frequencies, such that the magnitude may be
approximated by
The plot of equation above is also a straight line having a slope of
-20 dB/decade intersecting the 0-dB axis at
We call straight line approximations the asymptotes.
The low-frequency approximation is called the low-frequency
asymptote and
the high-frequency approximation is called the high-frequency
asymptote.
The frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is called
the corner frequency or break frequency.
, / 1 >>
log 20 log 20 ) log( 20 = = dB
. / 1 =
/ 1 =
Poles at (Cont.)
/ 1 = s
295
The asymptotic approximations hold good for and
With some loss of accuracy these could be extended for
/ 1 << / 1 >>
/ 1 and / 1
divides the plot into two region
s
s G
+
=
1
1
) (
296
divides the plot into two region
low freq. asymptote
high freq.
asymptote
s s G + =1 ) (
Zeros at
The magnitude plot of the factor is exactly same of the form
as that of the factor , but with the opposite sign.
/ 1 = s
j + 1
) 1 /( 1 j +
297
When a given transfer function involves terms like
a similar asymptotic construction may be made.
The corner frequency:
The low-frequency asymptote: a straight line at 0 dB
The high-frequency asymptote: a straight line having a slope of
dB/decade.
q
j
m
) 1 ( +
/ 1 =
q 20 m
Example:
Draw the Bode magnitude plot for the transfer function
2
) 10 (
) 1 ( 200
) (
+
+
=
s
s
s G
Zeros at
/ 1 = s
298
Solution:
The rearrangement of the transfer function in the time-constant form
gives
Therefore, the sinusoidal transfer function in the time-constant form
is given by
2
) 10 / 1 (
) 1 ( 2
) (
s
s
s G
+
+
=
2
) 10 / 1 (
) 1 ( 2
) (
j
j
j G
+
+
=
We can draw the composite asymptotic plot directly by algebraically
adding the asymptotes for each factor.
299
Straight line of 0 dB for
straight line of -40 dB/decade
for
Straight line of 0 dB for
straight line of +20 dB/decade
for
Constant magnitude of +6 dB None 2
Asymptotic magnitude
characteristic
Corner
frequency
Factor
j + 1
2
) 10 / 1 /( 1 j +
1
1
=
c
10
2
=
c
;
1 c

1 c

;
2 c

2 c

Asy. approximation table for Bode mag. plot of
2
) 10 / 1 /( ) 1 ( 2 j j + +
Solution (Cont.):
300
2
) 10 / 1 /( ) 1 ( 2 j j + +
Solution (Cont.):
301
Complex poles
Transfer functions of control systems often posses quadratic factors of
the form
The term is not only a function of , but also a function the variable
Therefore the shape of the Bode plot depends strongly upon what
value of damping ratio is being considered.
In normalized form, the quadratic factor may be written as
1 0 ;
/ ) / 2 ( 1
1
2
2
<
+

n n
j
frequency. normalized the is / where

;
) 2 1 (
1
2
n
u
u u j

=
+
302
2 2 2
2
) 2 ( ) 1 ( log 20
2 1
1
log 20 u u
u j u
dB
+ =
+
=
The magnitude of this factor is
approximated by
approximated by
, 1 << u
0 1 log 20 = = dB
, 1 >> u
u u dB log 40 ) log( 20
2
= =
Complex poles (Cont.)
303
Therefore an approximate magnitude plot of the quadratic factor
consists of :
The corner frequency:
The low-frequency asymptote: a horizontal line at 0 dB for
The high-frequency asymptote: a straight line having a slope of
-40 dB/decade for
1 . . = = u e i
n

1 u
1 u
) 2 1 /( 1
2
u u j +
304
The peak value at the corner frequency
2 2 2
) 2 ( ) 1 ( log 20 u u dB + =
Magnitude:
minimum
maximum
differentiate u
r
M
r
305
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2
2
2
3
2 1
2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2 1 / since
2 1
0 8 4 4

0
) 2 ( ) 1 (
8 ) 1 ( 4
2
1
) 2 ( ) 1 (

= =
=
= +
=
+
+
= +
=
n r n r r
r
r r r
r r
r r r
u u
u
u or
u u u
gives which
u u
u u u
u u
du
d
r
The peak value at the corner frequency
The corresponding peak value M
r
is then
dB 1 2 log 20
) 2 ( ) 1 ( log 20
2
2 2
2

=
+ =
r r r
u u M
306
Example:
Draw the magnitude plot of the transfer function
Solution:
The rearrangement of the transfer function in time-constant form
gives
Therefore, the sinusoidal transfer function in time-constant form is
given by
) 100 10 (
) 2 ( 200
) (
2
+ +
+
=
s s s
s
s G
] ) 10 / ( 10 / 1 [
) 2 / 1 ( 4
) (
2
s s s
s
s G
+ +
+
=
) 100 / 10 / 1 (
) 2 / 1 ( 4
) (
2

+
+
=
j j
j
j G
307
The corner frequencies of the asymptotic plot of G(jw), in order of their
occurrence as frequency increases, are
10. and 5 . 0 with poles conjugate complex of pair to due 10, 2)
; 2 at zero to due , 2 1)
1
1
= = =
= =
n c
c
s

At frequencies less than only the factor is effective.

1 c
) /( 4 j
dB ) 2 / 3 log( 20
2 / 10
=
=
r
r
M
Solution (Cont.):
308
Bode magnitude plot
Solution (Cont.):
309
Phase Plot
4 3 2 1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
1

) /( 2 tan tan 90 tan ) (
: ) (
) / ) / 2 ( 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
) (

+ + + =
=
+ +
+
=

n n
n n
j G
is j G of phase The
j j j
j K
j G
Consider the transfer function:
310
First term: due to real zero
1
1
1
tan

=
Phase Plot
311
Second term: due to the pole at the origin
The plot is identically equal to -90
0
.
Third term: due to the real pole
The plot is similar to the first term but for reversal in sign.
Fourth term: due to the complex-conjugate pair of poles
0
4
0
4
0
4
2
1
4
90
180 10
0 1 . 0
2
tan
= =
= >>
= <<
n
n
n
n
n
Phase Plot
312
For a general case, it is usually advisable to make a table of phase
against frequency for each factor and then obtain the total phase
as the algebraic sum of these.
Fourth term: due to the complex-conjugate pair of
poles (Cont.)
313
Stability, Gain Margin and Phase Margin via
Bode Plots
dB
0 dB
-180
0
G
M
The gain margin, G
M
which is the gain required to raise
the magnitude curve to 0 dB at the phase crossover
frequency where the phase angle is -180
0
The phase margin, ,which is the difference between the phase

value and -180
0
at the gain crossover frequency where the
gain is 0 dB
M
STABLE:
0
0
>
>
M
M
G
314
Example:
A unity-feedback system has open-loop transfer function
200 ;
) 5 )( 4 )( 2 (
) ( =
+ + +
= K
s s s
K
s G
The rearrangement of the transfer function in time-constant form
gives
Therefore, the sinusoidal transfer function in time-constant form is
given by
) 5 / 1 )( 4 / 1 )( 2 / 1 (
5
) (
s s s
s G
+ + +
=
) 5 / 1 )( 4 / 1 )( 2 / 1 (
5
) (

j j j
j G
+ + +
=
Solution:
315
Bode magnitude and phase plot for G(jw) are
G
M
= 5.5 dB
0 0 0
23 ) 180 ( 157 = =
M
STABLE
Solution (Cont):
316
Therefore, an increase in gain of +5.5 dB is
possible before the system becomes unstable.
Since the magnitude plot was drawn for a gain
of 200, +5.5 dB (20 log 1.885 = 5.5) represents
the allowed increase in gain above 200.
Hence, the gain for instability is 200 x 1.885 =
377. The closed-loop system is stable for
0 < K < 377.
Solution (Cont):
317
Nyquist Plots
) ( ) ( ) ( ,
) ( Im ) ( Re ) ( ,
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
1
1
1
1

j G j G j G form polar In
j G j G j G Also
p j j
z j K
j G
j s
p s s
z s K
s G
n
r j
j
r
m
i
i
n
r j
j
r
m
i
i
=
+ =
+
+
=
=
+
+
=
+ =
=
+ =
=
Let,
318
j s =
Nyquist Plots
jw
Im G
Re G
0 =
1
=
2
=
) (
1
j G
) (
1
j G
Transfer function
+ =
=
+
+
=
n
r j
j
r
m
i
i
p s s
z s K
s G
1
1
) (
) (
) (
319
The Nyquist Criterion
The closed-loop system is stable if the Nyquist plot of
G(s)H(s), in the counterclockwise direction, does not
encircle the -1 +j0 point.
Im G
Re G
=
0 0
0
stable
Marginally
stable
unstable
-1
320
Stability Margins
Gain Margins
Phase
Margins
STABLE:
0
1
>
>
M
M
G
0
180 ) ( ) (
,
=

j H j G
frequency crossover Phase
1 ) ( ) (
,
=
g g
g
j H j G
frequency crossover gain

321
Example:
A unity-feedback system has open-loop transfer function
) 2 )( 2 2 (
6
) (
2
+ + +
=
s s s
s G
Since the open-loop poles are only in the left half s-plane, the
Nyquist criterion tells us that we want no encirclement of -1 + j0 point
for stability. In such cases closed-loop stability can be evaluated
from Nyquist G(jw) plot.
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2
0 0
0
) 6 ( ) 1 ( 16
)] 6 ( ) 1 ( 4 [ 6

) 2 )( 2 2 (
6
) (
90 0 ) ( ; 0 5 . 1 ) (

+

=
+ + +
=
= =
=
=
j
s s s
j G
j G j G
j s
322
Example:
Setting the imaginary part to zero, we find the phase crossover
frequency
At this frequency, the real part of G(jw) is calculated to be -0.3.
The gain margin GM = 3.33
rad/sec 6 =
323
Physical Realization
Operational amplifier configured for transfer
function realization
324
Active realization of controllers and compensators,
using an operational amplifier
(continued next slide)
325
Active realization of controllers and compensators,
using an operational amplifier
326
Example: PID Controller
327
Actuator
output
Desired
input
Sensor
input
V-
Ground
V+
COMPARATOR
CONTROLLER
Op amp
Physical Realization
328
Passive realization of compensators
(continued next slide)
329
Passive realization of compensators
330
Text Book:
Nise, Norman S.
Control Systems Engineering, John Wiley, 4rd edition 2004.
Reference book:
M. Gopal
Control Systems: Principal and Design, McGraw Hill, 2001.
Stanislaw H. Zak
Systems and Control, Oxford, 2003.
Katsuhiko Ogata
Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall, 4
th
Edition.
Dorf Bishop
Modern Control Systems, Pearson Education, 11
th
Edition.

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1

Transfer Function DC motor and load

Evaluation of a magnitude and angle of the

zeros finite of No poles finite of No

Sketching the root locus (Cont.)

Rule 5: Behavior at infinity

Sketching the root locus (Cont.)

Breakaway and break-in points

1) Sketch the root locus

There is no unique location

Cascade Lead Compensator

The pole-zero pair of the lag compensator can be chosen by

frequency. normalized the is / where

At frequencies less than only the factor is effective.

The phase margin, ,which is the difference between the phase

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