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Chapter 11 BBBB
Chapter 11 BBBB
. Applications such
as studs and millwork are common.
Advantages and Uses
In contrast with sawn lumber, the strength-reducing charac-
teristics of SCL are dispersed within the veneer or strands
and have much less effect on strength properties. Thus,
relatively high design values can be assigned to strength
properties for both LVL and PSL. Whereas both LSL and
OSL have somewhat lower design values, they have the
advantage of being produced from a raw material that need
not be in a log size large enough for peeling into veneer. All
SCL products are made with structural adhesives and are
dependent upon a minimum level of strength in these bonds.
All SCL products are made from veneers or strands that are
dried to a moisture content that is slightly less than that for
most service conditions. Thus, little change in moisture con-
tent will occur in many protected service conditions. When
used indoors, this results in a product that is less likely to
warp or shrink in service. However, the porous nature of
both LVL and PSL means that these products can quickly
absorb water unless they are provided with some protection.
All types of SCL products can be substituted for sawn lum-
ber products in many applications. Laminated veneer lumber
is used extensively for scaffold planks and in the fanges of
prefabricated I-joists, which take advantage of the relatively
high design properties. Both LVL and PSL beams are used
as headers and major load-carrying elements in construc-
tion. The LSL and OSL products are used for band joists in
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Chapter 11 Wood-Based Composite Materials
foor construction and as substitutes for studs and rafters in
wall and roof construction. Various types of SCL are also
used in a number of nonstructural applications, such as the
manufacture of windows and doors.
Standards and Specifcations
The ASTM D 5456 (ASTM 2008b) standard provides meth-
ods to develop design properties for SCL products as well as
requirements for quality assurance during production. Each
manufacturer of SCL products is responsible for developing
the required information on properties and ensuring that the
minimum levels of quality are maintained during produc-
tion. An independent inspection agency is required to moni-
tor the quality assurance program.
Unlike lumber, no standard grades or design stresses have
been established for SCL. Each manufacturer may have
unique design properties and procedures. Thus, the designer
should consult information provided by the manufacturer.
WoodNonwood Composite
Materials
Wood may be combined with inorganic materials and
with plastics to produce composite products with unique
properties. Woodnonwood composites typically contain
wood elements suspended in a matrix material (for example
in fber-reinforced gypsum board, or in thermoplastic mate-
rial), in which the proportion of wood elements may account
for less than 60% of product mass.
The primary impetus for developing such products has come
from one or more of the following research and develop-
ment goals:
Develop green or environmentally benign products
with enhanced sustainability.
Reduce material costs by combining a lower cost mate-
rial (acting as a fller or extender) with an expensive
material.
Develop products that can utilize recycled materials and
be recyclable in themselves.
Produce composite products that exhibit specifc prop-
erties that are superior to those of the component mate-
rials alone (for example, increased strength-to-weight
ratio, improved abrasion resistance, enhance resistance
to fre, decay, and insects).
Composites made from wood and other non-wood materi-
als create enormous opportunities to match product perfor-
mance to end-use requirements. The following discussion
includes the most common type of woodnonwood compos-
ites: inorganic-bonded and woodthermoplastic composites.
Inorganic-Bonded Composite Materials
Inorganic-bonded wood composites have a long and varied
history that started with commercial production in Austria
in 1914. They are now used in many countries in the world,
mostly in panel form. Applications include panel products,
siding, roofng tiles, and precast building members.
Figure 1115. Generalized process for manufacturing PSL. (Courtesy of iLevel by Weyerhaeuser,
Federal Way, Washington. Used by permission.)
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General Technical Report FPLGTR190
Inorganic-bonded wood composites are molded products or
boards that contain between 10% and 70% by weight wood
particles or fbers and conversely 90% to 30% inorganic
binder. Acceptable properties of an inorganic-bonded wood
composite can be obtained only when the wood particles are
fully encased, and the binder is a continuous matrix materi-
al. This differs considerably from conventional wood-based
composites, where fakes or particles are spot welded by
a binder applied as a fnely distributed spray or powder.
Because of this difference and because hardened inorganic
binders have a higher density than most thermosetting
resins, the required amount of inorganic binder per unit
volume of composite material is much higher than that of
resin-bonded wood composites. The properties of inorganic-
bonded wood composites are signifcantly infuenced by the
amount and type of the inorganic binder and the wood ele-
ment as well as the density of the composites.
Inorganic-bonded composites include gypsum-bonded,
cement-bonded, and ceramic-bonded composites. Magnesia
and Portland cement are the most common cement binders.
Gypsum and magnesia cement are sensitive to moisture,
and their use is generally restricted to interior applications.
Composites bonded with Portland cement are more durable
than those bonded with gypsum or magnesia cement and are
used in both interior and exterior applications. Inorganic-
bonded composites are made by blending wood elements
with inorganic materials in the presence of water and allow-
ing the inorganic material to cure or set up to make a rigid
composite. Some inorganic-bonded composites are very re-
sistant to deterioration by decay fungi, insects, and vermin.
Most have appreciable fre resistance.
An advantage of inorganic-bonded composites is that their
manufacture is adaptable to either end of the cost and tech-
nology spectrum. This is facilitated by the fact that no heat
is required to cure the inorganic material. This versatility
makes inorganic-bonded composites ideally suited to a va-
riety of lignocellulosic materials. With a very small capital
investment, satisfactory inorganic-bonded lignocellulosic
composite building materials can be produced on a small
scale using mostly unskilled labor. If the market for such
composites increases, technology can be introduced to in-
crease manufacturing throughput. The labor force can be
trained concurrently with the gradual introduction of more
sophisticated technology.
Gypsum-Bonded Composite Materials
Paper-faced gypsum boards have been widely used since the
1950s for the interior lining of walls and ceilings. They are
commonly called drywall because they often replaced wet
plaster systems. These panels are critical for good fre rat-
ings in walls and ceilings. Paper-faced gypsum boards also
fnd use as exterior wall sheathing. Gypsum sheathing pan-
els are primarily used in commercial construction, usually
over steel studding, and are distinguished from gypsum dry-
wall by their water repellent additives in the paper facings
and gypsum core. The facings of drywall and of gypsum
sheathing panels are adhered to the gypsum core, providing
the panels with impact resistance, and bending strength and
stiffness. The paper facings of gypsum panels are derived
from recycled paper fber.
An alternative to adhered facings is to incorporate lignocel-
lulosic fber (typically recycled paper fber) in the gypsum
core to make what are termed fber-reinforced gypsum pan-
els. In the production process, a paste of gypsum and water
is mixed with the recycled paper fber and extruded into a
panel without facings. Shortly after formation, the panel is
dried in an oven. Bonding occurs between the gypsum and
the fber as hydrate crystals form.
Fiber-reinforced gypsum panels are typically stronger and
more resistant to abrasion and indentation than paper-faced
drywall panels and also have a moderate fastener-holding
capability. They are marketed for use as interior fnish pan-
els (drywall). Additives can provide a moderate degree of
water resistance, for use as sheathing panels, foor underlay-
ment, roof underlayment, or tile-backer board.
Cement-Bonded Composite Materials
The properties of cement-bonded composites are infuenced
by wood element characteristics (species, size, geometry,
chemical composition), cement type, woodwatercement
ratio, environmental temperature, and cure time (Jorge and
others 2004). They are heavier than conventional wood-
based composites but lighter than concrete. Therefore they
can replace concrete in construction, specifcally in applica-
tions that are not subjected to loads. Woodcement com-
posites provide an option for using wood residues, or even
agricultural residues. However, species selection can be im-
portant because many species contain sugars and extractives
that retard the cure of cement (Bowyer and others 2007).
Magnesia-Cement-Bonded Composite Materials
Fewer boards bonded with magnesia cement have been
produced than Portland-cement-bonded panels, mainly be-
cause of price. However, magnesia cement does offer some
manufacturing advantages over Portland cement. First, the
various sugars in lignocellulosics do not have as much ef-
fect on the curing and bonding. Second, magnesia cement is
more tolerant of high water content during production. This
opens up possibilities to use lignocellulosics not amenable
to Portland cement composites, without leaching or other
modifcation, and to use alternative manufacturing processes
and products. Although composites bonded with magnesia
cement are considered water sensitive, they are much less so
than gypsum-bonded composites.
One successful application of magnesia cement is a low-
density panel made for interior ceiling and wall applications.
In the production of this panel product, wood wool (excelsi-
or) is laid out in a low-density mat. The mat is then sprayed
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Chapter 11 Wood-Based Composite Materials
with an aqueous solution of magnesia cement, pressed, and
cut into panels (Fig. 1116).
Other processes have been suggested for manufacturing
magnesia-cement-bonded composites. For example, a slurry
of magnesia cement, water, and lignocellulosic fber may be
sprayed onto existing structures as freproofng. Extrusion
into a pipe-type profle or other profles is also possible.
Portland-Cement-Bonded Composite Materials
The most widely used cement-bonded composites are those
bonded with Portland cement. Portland cement, when
combined with water, reacts in a process called hydration
to solidify into a solid stone-like mass and bind aggregate
materials. Successfully marketed Portland-cement-bonded
composites consist of both low-density products made with
excelsior and high-density products made with particles and
fbers.
Low-density products may be used as interior ceiling and
wall panels in commercial buildings. In addition to the
advantages described for low-density magnesia-bonded
composites, low-density composites bonded with Port-
land cement offer sound control and can be decorative. In
some parts of the world, these panels function as complete
wall and roof decking systems. The exterior of the panels
is coated with stucco, and the interior is plastered. High-
density panels can be used as fooring, roof sheathing, fre
doors, load-bearing walls, and cement forms. Fairly com-
plex shapes, such as decorative roofng tiles or non-pressure
pipes, can be molded or extruded.
The largest volume of cement-bonded wood-based compos-
ite materials manufactured in North America is fber-cement
siding. Fiber-cement siding incorporates delignifed wood
fber into a Portland cement matrix.
Problems and Solutions of Cement-Bonded Composite
Materials
The use of cement for wood-based composites involves lim-
itations and tradeoffs. Embrittlement of the lignocellulosic
component is known to occur and is caused by the alkaline
environment provided by the cement matrix. In addition,
hemicellulose, starch, sugar, tannins, and lignin, each to a
varying degree, affect the cure rate and ultimate strength of
these composites. To make strong and durable composites,
measures must be taken to ensure long-term stability of the
lignocellulosic in the cement matrix. To overcome these
problems, various schemes have been developed. The most
common is leaching, whereby the lignocellulosic is soaked
in water for 1 or 2 days to extract some of the detrimental
components. However, in some parts of the world, the water
containing the leachate is diffcult to dispose of. Low water
cement ratios are helpful, as is the use of curing accelerators
like calcium carbonate. Conversely, low-alkali cements have
been developed, but they are not readily available through-
out the world. Two other strategies involve the use of natu-
ral pozzolans and carbon dioxide treatment.
PozzolansPozzolans are defned as siliceous or siliceous
and aluminous materials that can react chemically with
calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) at normal temperatures in
the presence of water to form cement compounds. Some
common pozzolanic materials include volcanic ash, fy ash,
rice husk ash, and condensed silica fume. All these materials
can react with lime at normal temperatures to make a natural
water-resistant cement.
In general, when pozzolans are blended with Portland ce-
ment, they increase the strength of the cement but slow the
cure time. More importantly, pozzolans decrease the alkalin-
ity of the product.
Carbon Dioxide TreatmentIn the manufacture of a
cement-bonded lignocellulosic composite, the cement hy-
dration process normally requires from 8 to 24 h to develop
suffcient board strength and cohesiveness to permit the
release of consolidation pressure. By exposing the cement to
carbon dioxide, the initial hardening stage can be reduced to
less than 5 min. This phenomenon results from the chemical
reaction of carbon dioxide with calcium hydroxide to form
calcium carbonate and water.
Reduction of initial cure time of the cement-bonded ligno-
cellulosic composite is not the only advantage of using car-
bon dioxide injection. Certain species of wood have various
amounts of sugars and tannins that interfere with the hydra-
tion or setting of Portland cement. Research has shown that
the use of carbon dioxide injection reduces the likelihood
that these compounds will inhibit the hydration process,
Figure 1116. Commercial cement-bonded composite
panel. (Courtesy of Ty-Mawr Lime Ltd., UK. Used by
permission.)
1124
General Technical Report FPLGTR190
thus allowing the use of a wider range of species. In addi-
tion, research has demonstrated that composites treated with
carbon dioxide can be twice as stiff and strong as untreated
composites (Geimer and others 1992). Finally, carbon-
dioxide-treated composites do not experience efforescence
(migration of calcium hydroxide to surface of material),
so the appearance of the surface of the fnal product is not
changed over time.
Ceramic-Bonded Composite Materials
In the last few years a new class of inorganic binders, non-
sintered ceramic inorganic binders, has been developed.
These non-sintered ceramic binders are formed by an acid
base aqueous reaction between a divalent or trivalent oxide
and an acid phosphate or phosphoric acid. The reaction slur-
ry hardens rapidly, but the rate of setting can be controlled.
With suitable selection of oxides and acid-phosphates, a
range of binders may be produced. Recent research sug-
gests that phosphates may be used as adhesives, cements, or
surface augmentation materials to manufacture wood-based
composites (Jeong and Wagh 2003, Wagh and Jeong 2003).
As adhesives, the reaction slurry resulting from the acid
base reaction may be used as an adhesive similar to the cur-
rent polymer resins. Thus, phosphate adhesives can be used
to coat individual fbers and form a composite by binding
the fbers to each other. The adhesives will behave much
like current polymer resins and may be used with existing
equipment. The binder content is typically 15% to 20 % by
weight.
As a cement, phosphate binders can be used to produce bulk
composites. When conventional cement is used in fber-
based products, typical cement loading is approximately
30% or higher; phosphate cements may be used in a similar
manner. The slurry formed by the acidbase reaction may
be mixed with fber or any other extender to produce solid
composites (Jeong and Wagh 2003).
Phosphate binders may also be used for coating wood-based
composite panels to enhance surface properties. The phos-
phate slurry is very smooth; thin (<1 mm) coatings can be
applied, suitable for providing fre or water resistance.
WoodThermoplastic Composite Materials
In North America and Europe, wood elements have been
combined with thermoplastics for several decades. How-
ever, it is only in the past decade that woodthermoplastic
composites have become a widely recognized commercial
product in construction, automotive, furniture, and other
consumer applications (Oksman Niska and Sain 2008).
Commercialization in North America has been primarily due
to penetration into the construction industry, frst as decking
and window profles, followed by railing, siding, and roof-
ing. Interior molding applications are also receiving atten-
tion. The automotive industry in Europe has been a leader
in using woodthermoplastic composites for interior panel
parts and is leading the way in developing furniture ap-
plications. Manufacturers in Asia are targeting the furniture
industry, in addition to interior construction applications.
Continued research and development will expand the avail-
able markets and each application will penetrate the global
marketplace.
Materials
Broadly defned, a thermoplastic softens when heated and
hardens when cooled. Thermoplastics selected for use with
wood generally melt or soften at or below the thermal deg-
radation temperature of the wood element, normally 200 to
220 C (392 to 428 F). These thermoplastics include poly-
propylene, polystyrene, vinyls, and low- and high-density
polyethylenes.
The term woodthermoplastic composites is broad, and the
class of materials can include fbers derived from wood or
other natural sources. Geographical location often dictates
the raw material choice. In North America, wood is the most
common raw material, in Europe natural fbers such as jute,
hemp, and kenaf are preferred, while rice hull four and
bamboo fber are typical in Asia. The wood is incorporated
as either fber bundles with low aspect ratio (wood four) or
as single fbers with higher aspect ratio (wood fber). Wood
four is processed commercially, often from post-industrial
materials such as planer shavings, chips, and sawdust. Sev-
eral grades are available depending upon wood species and
particle size. Wood fbers, although more diffcult to process
than wood four, can lead to superior composite proper-
ties and act more as a reinforcement than as a fller. A wide
variety of wood fbers are available from both virgin and
recycled resources.
Other materials can be added to affect processing and prod-
uct performance of woodthermoplastic composites. These
additives can improve bonding between the thermoplastic
and wood component (for example, coupling agents), prod-
uct performance (impact modifers, ultraviolet (UV) light
stabilizers, fame retardants), and processability (lubricants).
Woodthermoplastic composites are of two main types. In
the frst type, the wood element serves as a reinforcing agent
or fller in a continuous thermoplastic matrix. In the second
type, the thermoplastic serves as a binder to the wood ele-
ments much like conventional wood-based composites. The
presence or absence of a continuous thermoplastic matrix
may also determine the processability of the composite ma-
terial. In general, if the matrix is continuous, conventional
thermoplastic processing equipment may be used to process
composites; however, if the matrix is not continuous, other
processes may be required. For the purpose of discussion,
we present two scenarioscomposites with high and low
thermoplastic content.
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Chapter 11 Wood-Based Composite Materials
Composite Materials with High Thermoplastic Content
The vast majority of commercially available woodther-
moplastic composites have high thermoplastic content. In
composites with high thermoplastic content, the thermoplas-
tic component is a continuous matrix and the wood element
serves as a reinforcement or fller. The wood content is typi-
cally less than 60% by weight. In the great majority of re-
inforced thermoplastic composites available commercially,
inorganic materials (for example, glass, clays, and minerals)
are used as reinforcements or fllers. Wood-based materials
offer some advantages over inorganic materials: they are
lighter, much less abrasive, and renewable. Wood elements
reinforce the thermoplastic by stiffening and strengthening
and can improve thermal stability of the product compared
with that of unflled material.
The manufacture of thermoplastic composites is usually a
two-step process. The raw materials are frst mixed together
in one step, and the composite blend is then formed into a
product in the second step. The combination of these steps is
called in-line processing, and the result is a single process-
ing step that converts raw materials to end products. In-line
processing can be very diffcult because of control demands
and processing trade-offs. As a result, it is often easier and
more economical to separate the processing into a com-
pounding step and a forming step (Clemons 2002).
Compounding is the feeding and dispersing of the wood ele-
ment in a molten thermoplastic to produce a homogeneous
material. Various additives are added and moisture is re-
moved during compounding. Compounding may be accom-
plished using either batch mixers (for example, internal and
thermokinetic mixers) or continuous mixers (for example,
extruders and kneaders).
The compounded material can be immediately pressed or
shaped into an end product while still in its molten state
or pelletized into small, regular pellets for future reheating
and forming. The most common types of product-forming
methods for woodthermoplastic composites involve forc-
ing molten material through a die (sheet or profle extrusion)
or into a cold mold (injection molding), or pressing in cal-
enders (calendering) or between mold halves (thermoform-
ing and compression molding). Most woodthermoplastic
composites in North America are formed using profle extru-
sion. Products such as decking, siding, railings, and window
profles readily lend themselves to extrusion through a two-
dimensional die (Fig. 1117). Injection-molded applications
such as consumer household goods and furniture parts are
gaining importance (Fig. 1118). Thermoforming or com-
pression molding is the forming method of choice for the
automotive industry.
Several factors must be considered when processing
wood with thermoplastics. Moisture can disrupt many
thermoplastic processes, resulting in poor surface quality,
voids, and unacceptable parts. Either materials must be
pre-dried or vented equipment must be used to remove
moisture. The low thermal degradation temperature of wood
must also be considered. As a general rule, melt tempera-
tures should be kept below 200 C (392 F), except for short
periods. Higher temperatures can result in the release of
volatiles, discoloration, odor, and embrittlement of the wood
component. Although processing wood four in thermoplas-
tics is relatively easy, the low bulk density and diffculty of
dispersing fbrous materials in thermoplastics is more dif-
fcult. More intensive mixing and the use of special feeding
equipment may be necessary to handle longer fbers.
Composite Materials with Low Thermoplastic Content
In composites with low thermoplastic content, the thermo-
plastic component is not continuous, acting more as a binder
for the fber much the same way as binders in conventional
wood-based composites. Thermoplastic content is typically
Figure 1117. Extruded woodthermoplastic compos-
ites being evaluated for a siding application (Clemons
and Stark 2007).
Figure 1118. Injection-molded woodthermoplastic
composites in a variety of shapes and forms.
1126
General Technical Report FPLGTR190
less than 30% by weight. In their simplest form, lignocellu-
losic particles or fbers can be dry-blended with thermoplas-
tic granules, fakes, or fbers and pressed into panel prod-
ucts. An alternative is to use the thermoplastic in the form of
a textile fber. The thermoplastic textile fber enables a vari-
ety of lignocellulosics to be incorporated into a low-density,
non-woven, textile-like mat. The mat may be a product in
itself, or it may be consolidated into a high-density product.
Because the thermoplastic component remains molten when
hot, different pressing strategies must be used than when
thermosetting binders are used. Two options have been
developed to accommodate these types of composites. In
the frst, the material is placed in the hot press at ambient
temperature. The press then closes and consolidates the ma-
terial, and heat is used to melt the thermoplastic component,
which fows around the lignocellulosic component. The
press is then cooled, freezing the thermoplastic so that the
composite can be removed from the press. Alternatively, the
material can be frst heated in an oven or hot press. The hot
material is then transferred to a cool press where it is quick-
ly consolidated and cooled to make a rigid panel. Some
commercial nonstructural woodthermoplastic composite
panels are made in this way.
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