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ENGLISH HERITAGE
PRACTICALBUILDINGCONSERVATION
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8 Thecraftofmasonrycontinuedtodevelopinthemedievalperiod,whenever-more
ambitiousstructureswerecreatedfromstone.Asnewsourceswereidentiedandmore
masonstrained,theuseofstoneforlargehouse,publicbuildingsandbridgesbecame
morecommon.Thishadatrickledowneectso,inareaswhereitwasabundant,stone
becamethematerialofchoiceforsmallerhouses,barnsandotherdomesticbuildings.
Forhumblerbuildingsrubblestonewasused,sometimeswithonlyminimaldressing
andoftenrenderedorush-pointed,butoftenitwasroughlysquaredupand
constructedincourses.
Theincreasingamboyanceofmedievalarchitectureledtothedevelopmentofmore
sophisticatedconstructionandxingmethods.Medievalbuildershadagood
understandingofengineeringandwallsreliedtoalargeextentonthrustandcounter
thrustforstability.Thisiswelldemonstratedbytheuseofyingbuttressestotransmit
theoutwardthrustofavaultedceilingtoapieroutsidethebuilding;thepierwas
surmountedbyaheavypinnaclethatactedasacounterweighttransferringtheforce
downwards.Jointingtechniquesbecamemoresophisticated,withtheuseofstepped
jogglesforminginterlockingjoints,usedparticularlyinarchvoussoirs.
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Rubblewalls
Clockwisefromtopleft:
Somehard,intractablestonesbroke
naturallyintorandomshapes,which
werelaidclosely-jointedtoform
polygonalorragwalling.
Otherstoneswereofmore
regularshapeandcouldbe
roughlycoursed.
Somerubblestonesweredressedto
formrectangularblocksthatcould
belaidinevencourses.
Manyrubblewallswereoriginally
lime-renderedforessential
protection.Fragmentsofsuch
renderssometimessurvivein
shelteredareas.
TYPICALVAULTEDCONSTRUCTION
compositewalls
boss
ribs
piers
vaultspringing
andtasdecharge
groined
vaulting
flyingbuttress
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9
STONE
MATERIALS&HISTORYOFUSE
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EXAMPLESTOLOOKFORWHENSURVEYINGSTONE
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SYMPTOM DESCRI PTI ON POSSI BLE CAUSES

DETACHMENT
Delamination Weatheringofweaknessesrelatedto
Detachmentalongthe
beddingplanesofthestone,
whichcanoccurwhetheror
thebedding,suchaslayersofclayor
mica,resultinginwateringressand
increasedweatheringduetowetting/
notthestoneissubjectto
compressiveload
dryingstress,saltcrystallisationor
frostaction
Exfoliation Failureofsurfacecrustinsome
Aformofdelaminationin
sandstonesandlimestones;usuallydue
whichthestonebreaks
tohardeningofsurfaceresultingin
downintooneormore
restrictionofmoisturemovement
verynelayers,often Thermalstressesbetweenthesurface
curlingandtwisting andunderlyingstone
Contourscaling Differentialthermalmovementsin
Separationofouter
densersurfacelayersofsandstone
layerofstoneparallelto Saltcrystallisationbehindsurface
surfacecontoursofstone
(independentofthebedding),
occurringalmostexclusively
insandstones
Thedetachedlayercanbe
fromabout2mmupto
20mmthick
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EXAMPLESTOLOOKFORWHENSURVEYINGSTONE
SYMPTOM DESCRI PTI ON POSSI BLE CAUSES
DETACHMENT
Blistering Thermalstressinsurfacelayer,such
Raised,rounded,hollow
asasulphatecrustonlimestone
swellingsonthestone Insandstones,morelikelytoreect
surface,varyinginsize aconcentrationofsaltsratherthan
from<1mmtoseveral evendistributionofsalts(asin
millimetresindiameter,often contourscaling)
accompaniedbyhairline
cracksandsometimesbroken
(burst)inthecentre
Crystallisationofsaltsbehindawater
repellentcoatingorpaintlayer(usually
formssmallblistersbutcansometimes
resultinlargerareasofdetachment)
Crumblingandaking Expansionofclayinargillaceous
Breakdownofstoneinto
sandstonesandlimestones
friablesmallfragments Dissolutionofbinderincalcareousand
orslivers argillaceoussandstones
Saltcrystallisationinsurfacepores
ofstone
Granulardisintegration Dissolutionofbinderincalcareousand
Powdering(negrained
argillaceoussandstones
stone) Saltcrystallisationinsurfaceporesof
Sanding(sandstone
limestonesandsandstones
andgranite) Breakdownofkaoliniteinsomegranites
Sugaring(marble) Dissolutionofcalcitealonggrain
Breakdownofstoneinto
boundariesduetoactionofacidicrain
individualgrainsofstoneor
onmarble
minutefragments,forminga
friablesurface
STONE
ASSESSMENT
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EXAMPLESTOLOOKFORWHENSURVEYINGSTONE
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SYMPTOM DESCRI PTI ON POSSI BLE CAUSES

DISCOLOURATION,STAINING&ACCRETION
Discolouration:orange/ Weatheringandoxidationofiron
brown mineralsinthestone
Generaldeepeningofthe
colourofstoneovertime
Discolouration: Dampnessconcentratedinaparticular
moistarea area,emanatingfromsourcessuchas
Wettinganddarkeningofthe
stonesurfaceindiscreteareas
groundwater,leakingrainwatergoods,
seepageofrainwaterviacorevoidsor
blockeddrains
Discolouration:reddening Oxidationofironmineralstoferric
Reddeningofblockofstone
oxidecausedbyexposuretore.
Discolourationofisolatedblocks
Mayaffectisolatedblocks
ofstone,oralltheblocksin
suggestsre-useofstonefromanearlier
structure.Discolourationofanareaof
anarea
blocksindicatesalterationinsitu
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EXAMPLESTOLOOKFORWHENSURVEYINGSTONE
SYMPTOM DESCRI PTI ON POSSI BLE CAUSES
DISCOLOURATION,STAINING&ACCRETION
Staining: Ironoxidefromrustingofironxings
orange/brown
Streaksorpatchesoforange/
browndiscolouration,usually
closetoajointoradjacentto
anironcomponentsuchas
windowframeorrailings
Staining: Run-off(usuallycoppercarbonate
blue/green orcoppersulphate)fromcorroding
Blue/greenstreaks,often
copper,bronzeorbrasselements
immediatelybelowcopper,
bronzeorbrasselements
Staining: Algalgrowthusuallyindicativeofhigh
brighttoverydarkgreen levelsofdampness,nutrientsorboth.
Areasofgreenstaining,
varyingfrombrightgreento
verydarkgreen(almostblack)
Usuallyassociatedwithrisingdampor
withconcentrationofrun-offcaused,
forexample,bydefectiverainwater
goodsorpoordetailingofmasonry.
Mayalsoindicaterun-offfrom
accumulationsofbirdguano
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ASSESSMENT
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152 Althoughthismethodcanbeveryeective,itisirreversible.Aswithallinterventions,
thiswillneedtobeweighedagainsttheadvantagesofimprovingthestructuralstability
ofthebuilding.
Pinningwithdowelscanbeusedtogivestructuralsupportandcohesiontoindividual
stoneelements,eitheronitsownorinconjunctionwithgrouting.Itshouldbenoted,
however,thatifmovementcontinues,pinningmayjustcausecrackingelsewhere
withinthesamestone,orinadjacentstones.
Armerbondbetweendowelandstoneisachievedifthesurfaceofthedowelis
roughened:formetalthismeansusingathreadedrod,andformaterialssuchas
breglass,thesurfacecanbehatched.Grade316austeniticstainlesssteelisthestandard
forhistoricbuildingrepair.Itisespeciallyresistanttocorrosion,sinceitcontains
molybdenumaswellasthenickelandchromiumusedinotherausteniticsteels.
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Decayedormissingjambs,lintels
ormullionsmayrequiretemporary
support,eithertoallowfurther
investigationoraspartoftherepair
process.Thisisbestdonewith
timberstrutsorpinssupportedon
eithersideoftheopening.
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Helicaltiesortwistedwirescanbe
insertedintoahorizontaljointtotie
acrossverticalcracksandactasa
restraintforfurthermovement.
153
Thediameterofthedowelswilldependontheparticularapplication,butcanoftenbe
minimisedbycarefulchoiceoflocationanddirection.Helicalties,astheirname
suggests,areengineereduniformspiraldowels(usuallygalvanisedsteelorstainless
steel)that,whenxedwithgroutorresinintoapre-drilledaperture,provideastrong,
evenanchorageintothemasonry.Theyareavailableinvariouslengthsanddiameters.
Holesforpinningshouldbedrilledwithanon-percussivevariable-speeddrill,using
tungsten-carbideordiamond-tippedbits.Thediameterofthebits,andthelength,
locationandnumberofholesandxingsmustbechosentosuitthesize,scaleandtype
ofstone.Pilotholesshouldbedrilledtomakeiteasiertocontroldirectionand
orientation,andthesecanthenbewidenedwitheverthickerbits,untilboththedowel
andthexinggroutcanbeaccommodated.Thepinsshouldberecessedbehindthe
surfacetoaminimumdepthof10mmwherepossible.Theholeisthenlledwith
mortarorastoneplug.
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TREATMENT&REPAIR
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174
POINTING
Existingpointingcanprovideevidenceaboutthematerialsandtechniquesusedinthe
constructionandlaterinterventions,buteventhebestmortarwilltendtoerodeand
mayneedtobereplaced.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatrepointingisthemost
commoninterventiononmasonry.However,althoughmanyhistoricmortarsmaybe
quitesoftandcrumbly,theymaystillbefunctioningperfectlywellinkeepingmoisture
frompenetratingthewall.Replacement,evenofcementitiousmortars,isonly
necessarywherethepointingisclearlyfailing,islooseormissingtoadepthequaltoor
morethanthewidthofthejoint,orisdamagingthesurroundingmasonry(for
example,ahardimpermeablemortarcausingdeteriorationofthearrises).
Therepointingofstoneworkcanhaveasignicanteectontheappearanceofthestone
aswellasitslong-termsurvival.Tobeeectiveandvisuallyappropriate,repointing
requiresattentiontodetailandmustbeexecutedtothehigheststandards.Sometimes
earlierrepointingininappropriatematerialsissosupercialthatitcanberemoved
easily,torevealaperfectlyserviceableoriginalmortarbeneath.MORTARS
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Pointingisoftenreplaced
unnecessarilywhentheoriginal
mortarisstillsound
Herethethinjointbetweenthe
stonesvisibleinthecentreofthe
pictureappearssound,butithas
beenrepointedinacementmortar
thathasitselfbeenoverlaidwitha
palermortar.Theresultisthatthe
pointingnolongeractsasapathfor
waterevaporation.Theappearance
ofthewallisnowdominatedby
pointing,ratherthanbytheclose-
ttingstoneblocks.
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TIME
50-200YEARS
175
Typicalweatheringofa
lime- mortarjoint
Left:Mostjointsinsquaredrubble
orashlarwerenishedushwith
thefaceofthestone.Overtime,
frostactionandcyclesofwetting
anddryingwillhavecausedthe
mortarandsurfacesofstonework
todecay.Theexposedarrisesare
particularlyvulnerable,andwillhave
tendedtobecomerounded.
Right:Historicbirdsbeakpointing
on17thcenturystonework:this
hasadistinctiveprojecting
V-shapedprole.
POINTING DESIGN
Althoughpointingmayamounttoaslittleas5%ofthesurfacearea,itscolour,texture,
thicknessandnishwillaecttheoverallappearanceandbehaviourofthemasonry.
Repointingshouldmatchtheoriginalnotjustincolourandtexture,butalsoindesign
andapplication.
Therearefewexamplesofearlypointing,ascommonpracticewassimplytostrikeo
thebeddingmortarattheface.
Moreconsiderationbegantobegiventotheappearanceofthejointsfromthe16th
centuryonwards,whenpointingsometimesbecamepartofthedesignofthemasonry
(forexample,tuckpointing).Modernjointnishescommonlyincludeweather-struck
(nishedwithapointingtrowel)andbucket-handle(aconcavenishformedwitha
brickjointer),butthesearequiteunlikeanyhistoricproles.Aswellasbeingvisually
overbearing,theyarelesseectiveinprotectingthemasonry.
STONE
TREATMENT&REPAIR
POINTINGTOOLS
Thecorrecttoolsareessentialforgoodpointing.This
diagramshowsarangethatwouldbesuitableformost
situations;theXdimensionsneedtobejustlessthan
thewidthofthejoint.
hacksawblade
adaptedforcutting
outveryfinejoints
jointingtool
Abentknifemaybe
usedfortrimmingand
pointingtool
shapingreplacement
mortarinjoints,prior
tofinishingwitha
hookforremoving
deeplyembedded
rootsanddebris
churnbrush
X
pluggingchisel
X
masonsquirk:cutting
X
edgewiderthanshank
X
X
X
churnbrush:astiff
bristlebrushusedwith
firmstipplingactionto
purpose-madecurved finishjoints
andcrankedpointingirons
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183 APPLYING THE POINTING
Thewallshouldberinseddownwellinadvanceofpointing,sothatbythetimeof
mortarapplication,itisdampratherthanwet.Thisencouragesgoodbondingbetween
thenewmortarandthesubstrate.Theweathermustbesuitable;hightemperaturesor
highwindswillcausethemortartodrytooquickly,inhibitingcarbonation.If
necessary,thefreshpointingcanbecoveredwithdamphessianandplasticsheetingto
slowdrying.Repointingshouldbeavoidedentirelyifthetemperatureisexpectedto
dropbelow5Cduringtheapplicationorcuringperiod.
Itisbesttostartrepointingatthetopofthewall,sothatanydrippingwaterrinsesthe
stoneworkratherthanwashingoutthenewmortar.Itisworthtakingthetimetoselect
andobtainapointingkeyofthecorrectsize,asthismakesfortheswiftestandmost
accurateapplication.
1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
Themainstagesin
successfulrepointing
1.Removalofoldpointingusing
aquirk.
2.Cleaningoutthejointusinga
hand-heldblower(thishelpsprevent
debrisbeingwasheddownthewall).
3.Thoroughwettingofthejoint.
4.Applyingthepointing.
5.Compressingthepointingwith
apointingkeyofsuitablewidth.
6.Allowingthemortartotakean
additionalset.
7.Cuttingbackmortarto
slightrecess.
8.Stipplingthesurfacewitha
churnbrush.
9.Thenishedjoint.
Thejointmustbekeptdampboth
duringtheprocess,andforsome
timeafterwards.
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TREATMENT&REPAIR
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276
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277
INTRODUCTION
Historicruinsdierfromintacthistoricbuildingsinwaysthatcanmakethem
challengingeventoexperiencedhistoricbuildingsurveyors.Deprivedorpartly
deprivedofroofsandoorsandwithdamagedwallswhosecoresareexposedtothe
weather,theybehavedierentlytocompletebuildingsandhavedierentneeds.Not
everythingisasitseems.Earlierinterventionsmayhavekeptsomeofthebuilding
standingsothatfractured,leaning,bulgingandoverhangingmasonrymayhavebeen
consolidated.Converselysomebulgingandcrackingorwatermovementinwallsmay
indicaterecentproblemsthatrequirenewintervention.Itisusuallythecasethat
replacementoffabricwillhavebeenabsolutelyminimalandconsolidationworkwill
havebeencontrivedtobevisuallyunobtrusiveandmaythereforebedicultto
identify.Inmanycases,thewholeofaruinsiteisofextremearchaeologicalsensitivity
andmaybeofconsiderableecologicalimportance:thesefactorsincreasinglydictate
whatispossibleandpermissibleandthemannerinwhichanyproposedworkis
carriedout.
Apreliminaryunderstandingofthecharacterandidentityofthesiteanditsruination
isessentialforanyaccurateassessment.Moderntechnology(suchasrectied
photography,groundpenetratingradar,pulseradar,resistivitymeasurementsand
thermographicsurveys)canbeusedtoprovideinformationbutshouldonlybeusedas
supplementarytoolsfortheotherresponsibilitiesofobservationandtherecognition
andidenticationofproblems.
COMPOSITEWALLS&ASSOCIATEDFEATURES
Compositewallstypicallyconsistoftwoskinsofmasonry,withacentralcoreof
mortaredrubble.Theirstabilitywilldependonthesurvivingheight,theoriginal
width,thequalityofthemortarandtheirmethodofassembly.Themaindestructive
agentsofthebrokencompositewallcanbesummarisedas:
waterpenetrationofthewallhead
waterdegradationofthecore
substantialrootgrowthinthecore
detachmentbetweencoreandfacing
stonerobbingatthewallbase
washingoutofjoints
saltcrystallisationcoupledwithfrequentwetting/dryingandfreeze/thawcycles
distortionandcrackingofunsupported/unbracedwallsections
inappropriateremedialtreatments.
Facingpage:TheruinsofGoodrich
Castle,inHerefordshire
STONE
SPECIALTOPIC:CONSERVATIONOFRUINS

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