ADVANCED COURSE IN HARDWARE RETAILING

NATIONAL RETAIL HARDWARE ASSOCIATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Chapter 01: Automotive and Outdoor Power Equipment
TUNE-UP/MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT
AUTOMOTIVE CHEMICALS
BATTERIES
AUTO BODY REPAIR PRODUCTS
ACCESSORIES
POWER UNITS
ROTARY MOWERS
POWER REEL MOWERS
HAND MOWERS
RIDING MOWERS/TRACTORS
LAWN EDGERS AND TRIMMERS
SHREDDER-GRINDERS
AIR BLOWERS
POWER HEDGE TRIMMERS
CORDLESS GARDEN GOODS


CHAIN SAWS
LOG SPLITTERS
TILLERS
SNOW THROWERS
PORTABLE GENERATORS
Chapter 02: Building Materials
INSULATION MATERIALS
CEILING MATERIALS
ROOFING MATERIALS
VENTILATION PRODUCTS
GUTTERING
SIDING
BUILDING PANELS
DECORATIVE ITEMS
DOORS
WINDOWS
WROUGHT IRON
COLUMNS/POSTS
KITCHEN CABINETS
WALLBOARD
CLOSET LINING


PATCHING MATERIALS
WEATHER STRIPPING
FLOOR COVERINGS
TILE
UTILITY BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Chapter 03: Electric House wares and Home Electronics
ELECTRIC HOUSEWARES
HOME ELECTRONICS
TELEPHONES & ACCESSORIES

Chapter 04: Electrical Supplies
LIGHTING FIXTURES
ELECTRIC MOTORS
LIGHT BULBS
WIRE AND CABLE
CORDS
WIRING DEVICES
BATTERIES
TELEPHONES & ACCESSORIES




Chapter 05: Hand Tools
HAMMERS
PLIERS
SCREWDRIVERS
DRILLING TOOLS
WRENCHES
CUTTING TOOLS
PLANES
MEASURING DEVICES
LEVELS
AXES AND HATCHETS
SAWS
FASTENING TOOLS
STORAGE ITEMS
WORKSHOP AIDS
MISCELLANEOUS HAND TOOLS



Chapter 06: Hardware and Fasteners
HOME SECURITY
GAS, SMOKE AND FIRE PROTECTION
DOOR AND WINDOW HARDWARE
CABINET HARDWARE
DRAPERY HARDWARE
UTILITY HARDWARE
CHAIN AND CORDAGE
SCREENING MATERIALS
FENCING ACCESSORIES
SCREWS AND BOLTS
WALL ANCHORS
NAILS




Chapter 07: Heating and Cooling
WOOD-BURNING STOVES
STOVE ACCESSORIES
FIREPLACES
FIREPLACE ACCESSORIES
SETBACK DEVICES
SUPPLEMENTAL HEATERS
HUMIDIFIERS
DEHUMIDIFIERS
AIR CONDITIONERS
FANS
AIR CLEANING DEVICES
HEAT-SAVING ITEMS

Chapter 08: Lawn and Garden Chemicals
SOIL CONDITIONERS
SEEDS
PESTICIDES/FERTILIZERS



Chapter 09: Lawn and Garden Supplies
CUTTING TOOLS
DIGGING TOOLS
CULTIVATING TOOLS
HOSE AND HOSE ACCESSORIES
WATERING DEVICES
WHEEL GOODS
SPRAYERS AND DUSTERS
LAWN DECORATIVES
GLOVES

Chapter 10: Lumber and Wood Products
LUMBER
TREATED LUMBER
STRUCTURAL-USE PANELS
ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS
PANELING
MOULDING




Chapter 11: Non-Electric Housewares and Cleaning Supplies
FLOOR & RUG CLEANERS
LAUNDRY SUPPLIES
STORAGE AND DISPOSAL SUPPLIES
COOKWARE
PLASTICS
TABLEWARE
CUTLERY
FOOD PREPARATION
MISCELLANEOUS HOUSEWARES
HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE
BATH ACCESSORIES



Chapter 12: Outdoor Living and Sporting Goods
OUTDOOR LIVING
BARBECUE GRILLS
INSECT REPELLENTS, LIGHTS, TRAPS
OUTDOOR FURNITURE
POOL CHEMICALS
SPORTING GOODS
HUNTING
FISHING
CAMPING EQUIPMENT
BICYCLES
POWER VEHICLES
ARCHERY
TEAM SPORTS
RACQUET SPORTS
WATER SPORTS
GOLF
YARD SPORTS
SNOW SPORTS
FITNESS



Chapter 13: Paint and Decorating Products
PAINTS
AEROSOLS
WOOD FINISHES
INTERIOR DECOR
PAINT SUNDRIES
HOUSEHOLD ADHESIVES
REPAIR/PATCHING TOOLS & MATERIALS
CAULKS AND SEALANTS
GLAZING MATERIALS
LADDERS




Chapter 14: Plumbing Supplies
PIPE/TUBE
PIPE FITTINGS
VALVES
PLUMBING TOOLS
TOILET PLUMBING
FAUCETS
SINKS
TUB AND SHOWER FIXTURES
WATER SYSTEMS
MISCELLANEOUS PLUMBING



Chapter 15: Power Tools
ALL ABOUT POWER TOOLS
CORDLESS TOOLS
PORTABLE DRILLS
PORTABLE SAWS
STATIONARY AND BENCH TOOLS
PROFESSIONAL POWER TOOLS
OTHER POWER TOOLS
ROTARY TOOLS
POWER EQUIPMENT
POWER TOOL ACCESSORIES

Chapter 16: Merchandising Techniques
HOW EFFECTIVE MERCHANDISING HELPS YOU
EFFECTIVE MERCHANDISING
SAMPLE SALESFLOOR PLAN
MAKE REMERCHANDISING EASIER
PROMOTIONAL ACTIVITIES
PREPARING THE STORE FOR A SALE
SUMMARY
CHAPTER ONE:
TUNE-UP/MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT
AUTOMOTIVE CHEMICALS
BATTERIES
AUTO BODY REPAIR PRODUCTS
ACCESSORIES
POWER UNITS
ROTARY MOWERS
POWER REEL MOWERS
HAND MOWERS
RIDING MOWERS/TRACTORS
LAWN EDGERS AND TRIMMERS
SHREDDER-GRINDERS
AIR BLOWERS
POWER HEDGE TRIMMERS
CORDLESS GARDEN GOODS
CHAIN SAWS
LOG SPLITTERS
TILLERS
SNOW THROWERS
PORTABLE GENERATORS
AUTOMOTIVE & OUTDOOR
Power Equipment
1
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
2
AUTOMOTIVE
TUNE-UP/
MAINTENANCE
EQUIPMENT
Automotive d-i-yers have gone far
beyond simple car care and appearance
projects, graduating into full-scale mainte-
nance tasks that include such things as
tune-ups, oil changes, etc.
With the available product knowledge and
easy-to-use products and kits, the range of
projects that d-i-yers are willing and able to
tackle continues to expand.
I MOTOR OILS
One of the simplest projects is an oil
change. When selecting a motor oil, a
consumer should understand its designa-
tor. SAE (Society of American Engineers)
ratings indicate the viscosity of the oil.
The most commonly used oil for automo-
biles is 10-, 20- and 30-weight or all-
weather combinations.
A rating of 10 represents a thinner oil
than a 30-rated oil. The thin oil is recom-
mended for winter driving, where cold
weather causes the oil to become thick
and sluggish. A 30-rating oil is heavier and
is applicable in warm climates.
The designator W in a rating indicates
that the oil has been tested for viscosity
levels at specific cold temperatures. An oil
rated 10W-40 is considered an all-weather
oil with sufficient viscosity for both sum-
mer and winter driving.
A CC or CD label on an oil indi-
cates that it is for diesel engines. It should
also be noted that high-compression diesel
engines usually require more frequent oil
changes than their gasoline counterparts.
Synthetic motor oils are higher priced
than petroleum products but extend
change intervals up to 25,000 miles,
according to some manufacturers.
Synthetics can operate under a wide
temperature range since the molecular
chemistry is specifically developed at the
outset rather than relying solely on refin-
ing procedures and additives to fortify a
petroleum-based product. However, addi-
tives are still used in synthetics.
Generally, synthetics lubricate better, thus
reducing engine wear; they are purported to
enhance performance and economy. Two of
the major drawbacks are increased price,
which can run up to four times the price of
conventional oils, and educating consumers
to alter their oil-change intervals.
Rerefined oils are used oils reprocessed for
consumption. Although rerefined or recycled
oil is almost equal in quality to virgin oil
lubricants, the consumer will have to be edu-
cated to eliminate the stigma of used oil.
Detergent Oil
Detergent oils contain additives known as
detergent dispersants, designed to suspend
combustion by-products and keep these by-
products from settling on engine parts.
Automobiles built since about 1970 require
a high-detergent oil, designated by the
American Petroleum Institute Service
Classification SE or SF for gasoline engines
and API Service Classification CC and CD for
diesel-powered engines.
Nondetergent oils are classified under
API Service Classifications SA and SB.
These indicate a straight mineral oil-type
formulation and may have some rust oxi-
dation additives added.
I OIL FILTERS
A specially treated paper filtering element
contained in a metal screening is the prime
component in virtually all oil filters. The
paper is pleated into an accordion fold for
maximum surface area and the metal screen
is used to hold the paper in place and prevent
its collapse under the high pressure that
builds up in the oil system.
Filter quality is determined by the mini-
mum-sized particle that the filter is capable of
stopping. A 10-micron rating, for instance,
will stop a particle measuring approximately
HOW TO READ A CAN OF OIL
The first item you should look for on a
container of oil is the American Petroleum
Institutes symbol as an assurance of oil
quality. It should read API Service.
Next check the oils performance level. An
S means the oil is suitable for use in
gasoline engines, and a C means the oil
is suitable for diesel engines.
Following the S should be a letter from
A to F, indicating its service letter. F
is the highest designation and will provide
the greatest performance. Following the
C will be a letter from A to D.
If a customer says his owners manual rec-
ommends an SD or SE oil, assure him
that an SF will provide better protection
and is preferable.
The words Energy Conserving on the
label usually mean the oil contains friction
modifiers and may provide a fraction of
an mpg in fuel economy.
The grade of the oil is set in accordance
with standards of the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE). A multiple-
grade oil will have two numbers. The first
shows the oils flow properties at low tem-
peratures; the second indicates the oils
high-temperature properties. A single-
grade oil will have only one number.
The W denotes the oil is recommended
for winter use.
OIL RECOMMENDATIONS
TEMPERATURE SAEGRADES
AIR SINGLE VISCOSITY MULTI-VISCOSITY
Above 32F 20,30 10W-30
10W-40
20W-40
21W-50
0-32F 10W 20W-30
10W-40
Below 0F 5W 5W-20
5W-30
5W-40
.0004 inches, but still allow the oil to circu-
late freely in the system.
Spin-On Filters
Most cars are equipped with spin-on fil-
ters. These come with the filter enclosed
in the canister. When changing the unit,
the used canister is thrown away. When
selling this type filter, always consult the
catalog; although the filter might appear
outwardly to fit on a given car, there is a
good chance that the gaskets might not
seat properly or that the bypass valves
might not function.
Special wrenches are available for use with
filters of this type.
Long-Life Filters
Dual or long-life filters are basically spin-on
filters equipped with two filtering elements.
The main paper filter handles the flow of oil
under normal driving conditions. As oil pres-
sure builds, pressure valves release some of
the oil and channel it through a second ele-
ment often made of a synthetic material such
as rayon.
This relieves back pressure and prevents
clogging as oil pressure increases. As the pres-
sure declines, the valves close and redirect all
of the oil through the main filter element.
Cartridge-Type Filters
Cartridge-type oil filters, used primarily on
older cars, fit into a canister that is mounted
on the engine. The filter and the canister lid
must be seated properly to prevent oil leaks
and to ensure that the oil passes entirely
through the filtering element.
I GREASE GUNS
Two types of grease guns are usually sold
by d-i-y retailers. One is a long cylinder
(about 14) that operates with a lever action.
It frequently has a flexible hose that allows
the user to maneuver the nozzle around cor-
ners and into tight spots.
A smaller, more compact pistol-type can is
operational with one hand and usually has its
nozzle at the end of a short, rigid tube. It is
suited for work in tight quarters.
Grease can be bought in bulk to load into
the guns or purchased in cartridge form.
Grease containing molybdenum disulfide is
recommended for auto chassis.
I SPARK PLUGS
Spark-plug performance is one of the single
most important factors in maintaining gaso-
line mileage and engine efficiency. It is esti-
mated that one spark plug firing improperly
can rob an auto of 15 to 35 percent of its fuel
efficiency.
A spark plug consists of an electrode
encased in a ceramic insulator plus a metal
shell threaded to fit into the engine block. A
second electrode is attached to the shell.
The distance between the two electrodes is
called the gap and creates the spark. Gap set-
tings are specified by engine manufacturers
and should always be checked with a gauge
and reset prior to installation of the plug.
It is imperative that the consumer purchase
plugs recommended for use in his or her car,
based on the plugs size and performance pro-
file. Just because it fits doesnt mean that it
will work efficiently in the auto.
Hot and Cold Plugs
The terms hot and cold refer to the
ability of the spark plugs to dissipate operat-
ing heat. They do not refer to the intensity of
the spark.
As an engine runs, heat builds up in the
upper cylinder. If the spark plug cannot dissi-
pate its own heat, it can become hot enough
to ignite the fuel without the spark, causing
the engine to misfire. This is called preigni-
tion and can cause serious damage to the
engine, if not remedied.
A cold plug will dissipate heat more rapidly
than a hot plug. Engine manufacturers will
specify heat range ratings for the engines.
Situations where a colder plug might be rec-
ommended are when the engine is modified
for greater output, hauling heavy trailers, sus-
tained high speeds or heavy-duty applications
for exotic fuel uses. Hotter plugs might be
used for oil burners, light-duty applications
or continuous city driving.
I SPARK-PLUG WRENCHES
Most socket wrench sets contain a deep-
well socket designed for use on spark plugs.
However, on many cars the plugs are
extremely difficult to reach. A special long-
handled, T-shaped wrench with a socket per-
manently attached to the bottom of the T
by a universal joint will solve the problem.
I SPARK-PLUG WIRE SETS
Spark-plug wires transmit the electrical
charge from the distributor to the spark plug.
They are available in sets of four, six or eight,
depending on the number of cylinders.
Length of the wires varies to reach the sepa-
rate spark plugs.
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
3
SPARK PLUG PROBLEMS
A spark plug, after extended use, can indicate many problems in an engine. Some of the common
indicators are as follows:
Brown to grayish-tan deposits
of powder on electrodes and
slight electrode wear.
Dry, fluffy black carbon
deposits.
Wet, oily electrodes.
Red, brown, yellow and white
coatings on insulator.
Burned or blistered insulator
tips.
Normal for mixed high and low speed driving combination.
Over-rich carburetion, faulty choke, sticking manifold heat
valve, clogged air filter, faulty coil, condenser or spark plug
coils. Can also be caused by excessive low-speed driving or
idling so that engine temperature is not high enough to
burn off carbon.
Oil is entering combustion chamber. Can be faulty rings,
excessive valve stem guide clearance, etc.
Usually result from additives in fuel and oil. Can be cleaned
if powdery, but when glazed will short out charge.
Caused by overheating. Can be due to pre-ignition, cooling
system failure, improper fuel/air ratio, low octane fuel, over-
advanced ignition timing, improper plug installation or
defective heat riser valves.
They should be inspected annually and
replaced as needed. Faulty wires cause igni-
tion problems and a rough-running engine.
I AIR FILTERS
Paying the labor bill on installing an air fil-
ter is a waste of money, since this is one of
the simplest tasks for a d-i-yer. Air filters are
contained in the air-cleaning system which
may or may not be mounted on top of the
carburetor. If not there, it is connected to the
carburetor by a duct.
The filter requires inspection at least every
12,000 miles and should be replaced if light
will not show through it. It should also be
replaced if it shows wear such as tears.
I SHOCK ABSORBERS
Shock absorbers utilize a system that com-
bines a piston with hydraulic fluid to cushion
an automobiles ride, providing degrees of
stiffness and load-hauling capabilities. Several
varieties are available depending on how the
vehicle is used, such as driving conditions,
hauling and pulling requirements.
Changing shock absorbers is another task
that d-i-yers can handle without special tools.
You may want to suggest that they use pene-
trating oil before trying to remove the
absorbers and either caulk or silicone sealant
on the absorbers fasteners to guard against
rust after installing the units.
I HOSES
Hoses in a cars cooling system should
be checked at least twice a year for cracks
or other deterioration that can lead to
leaks and overheating.
When selling radiator and heater hoses,
make sure the customer purchases the size
and shape required for his automobile. Also
suggest clamps to fasten the hoses. Although
there are a variety of clamp styles, the worm
drive that uses a bolt to loosen and tighten
the clamps band is efficient and easy to use.
I BELTS
A system of belts and pulleys driven by a
main pulley connected to the motors crank-
shaft harnesses engine power to operate the
power steering pump, water pumps, fan, etc.
The most commonly used belt is the V-
belt, although there is another belt style that
utilizes grooves corresponding to grooves in
the pulley. Manufacturer programs offer a
selection of common belts and pulleys to fit
most of the cars on the road and target your
inventory investment to the most frequently
used items.
Consumers should be educated to check
the condition of all the belts on the car
and replace any that are cracked, slippery,
dry or brittle. Broken belts can cause the
engine to overheat.
I LIGHTING/ ELECTRICAL
In addition to headlights, taillights, turn
signals and license-plate lights, there are
numerous lights in the car interior that must
be replaced periodically.
Also, fuses occasionally need replacing.
Headlights
Sealed-beam headlights are the most com-
mon; many state laws require this type of
headlight. When a nonsealed headlight goes
out, only the bulb needs to be replaced.
Sealed-beam headlights must be replaced as
an entire unit.
In addition to conventional headlights,
quartz-halogen headlights offer nearly double
the candlepower but are also more expensive.
Exterior Bulbs
Although d-i-yers may have to remove
the light lens, a whole light assembly or
reach the light from under the fender or
bumper, exterior light bulbs are still rela-
tively easy to replace.
Usually, the only tool needed to reach a
defective exterior bulb is a screwdriver. To
remove the bulb, push it into its socket,
turn it and lift it out; then replace it with
a new bulb.
Interior Bulbs/ Fuses
There are several bulbs in an autos interior.
Replacement can be as simple as putting in a
new bulb to as difficult as disassembling the
dash and other components.
Fuses are usually easy to reach and replace.
Fuses prevent the electrical system from over-
heating. Fuses, which are either glass-tube
types or ceramic, blow as the result of shorts
in the system. Glass-tube types are in most
American cars; ceramic fuses are used in some
imports. When replacing a fuse, it is best to
suggest using a special fuse puller. Point out
that pullers are much easier and safer than
trying to pry out a fuse with a screwdriver.
I IGNITION SYSTEM
With the exception of very old model cars,
most cars have electronic ignition systems. In
general, the wire sets on electronic ignitions
need to be replaced every 30,000 miles due to
the high voltage (14,000 to 30,000 volts),
which breaks down the wire sets internally.
Also, the higher under-hood tempera-
tures of new cars deteriorate the wire sets
externally.
Autos equipped with electronic ignitions
have no need for points and condensers.
Distributor tune-up kits containing points,
rotor and condenser remedy ignition prob-
lems in cars without electronic systems.
AUTOMOTIVE
CHEMICALS
Automotive chemicals comprise everything
from windshield, muffler, tailpipe and trans-
mission sealers to windshield washer solvents
and represent a major segment of retail auto-
motive aftermarket sales in d-i-y stores.
I ANTIFREEZE
Almost all antifreezes are called perma-
nent and are made primarily from ethylene
glycol. Nonpermanent antifreeze is made pri-
marily of methyl alcohol, which evaporates.
The ethylene glycol, while preventing
water from freezing, also serves as a coolant
because of its high heat transfer qualities. As
an example, one major brand of antifreeze
mixed with equal parts of water will lower
the freezing point to -34F and raise the boil-
ing point to 260F. It can be used year-round.
Compact automobiles, with their high-
powered engines and low-capacity radiators,
require the use of coolants, and all major
automobile manufacturers add permanent
antifreeze at the factory.
Antifreeze containers should list the
amount of antifreeze required according to
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
4
radiator capacity and temperature level
required. Manufacturers recommend that
permanent antifreeze be changed every
two years.
I RADIATOR ADDITIVES
Cooling system additives include sealants,
rust inhibitors, lubricants and flush. Sealants,
rust inhibitors and water pump lubricants are
added to the radiator and used under normal
driving conditions. Sealing ability is restricted
to minor holes.
Radiator flush requires that the radiator be
drained after allowing the chemical to circu-
late through the cooling system. It is
designed to dislodge accumulations of rust
and other foreign materials that might
impede the flow of water. Manufacturers
instructions will indicate the length of time
the engine should be run prior to draining
the radiator and block of the vehicle.
I TRANSMISSION FLUID
Automatic transmission fluid functions as a
power-transfer fluid, hydraulic fluid and a
gear lubricant. The fluid must perform these
functions in a wide range of temperatures; it
has an SAE grade rating of 5W-20.
Automatic transmission fluid must be high
quality and fortified against oxidation caused
by high operating temperatures in an auto-
matic transmission.
Most vehicle manufacturers recommend
against using automatic transmission fluid in
power steering systems. It can cause deteriora-
tion of the connecting hoses.
I TRANSMISSION SEALANTS
Transmission sealers and conditioners are
added to the transmission fluid and used
under normal driving conditions to improve
operation and to seal minor leaks.
Usually, they include chemicals that retard
oil decomposition and improve stability.
They seal by softening transmission gaskets
and seals, closing up small leaks caused by
dried or cracked seals. This remedies only
minor leaks.
I OIL ADDITIVES
Oil additives are combinations of oil distil-
lates and other chemicals that make engines
operate more efficiently by freeing sticky
valves, sealing piston rings, retarding oil
breakdown, etc.
They are usually a form of extremely heavy
oil more resistant to change under high tem-
perature so that viscosity (thickness) is main-
tained at high speeds. Increased lubrication
and sealing capacities are attributed to greater
adhesion to engine parts.
The additives are usually added to the oil
and used under normal driving conditions.
Oil additives are not cure-alls. They can
improve engine performance by sealing leaks
into valves and combustion chambers. They
will prolong the life of an engine, but cannot
repair serious damage.
I CRANKCASE CLEANERS
Unlike oil additives, crankcase cleaners
or flush cannot be left in the crankcase.
Instructions are indicated on the contain-
er, but normally the chemical is added to
the crankcase and the engine is run for a
specific period of time to allow the chemi-
cal to circulate and break loose accumula-
tions in the oil pan.
The crankcase must then be drained and a
new oil filter installed along with a new sup-
ply of motor oil.
I WAXES AND CLEANERS
Cleaners include solvents and other
chemicals that remove road tar, dead pig-
ment and other materials without damag-
ing the cars finish.
Many car waxes include cleaning elements
to clean and wax in a single application.
Long-lasting liquid and paste waxes usually
cost more.
A stock of two or three varieties of liquid
and paste wax and cleaners will usually satisfy
most customers.
In addition to body cleaners and waxes,
there are also tire-cleaning compounds,
whitewall cleaners, tire blackings, vinyl-
top cleaners and conditioners, rug and
upholstery cleaners.
I WINDSHIELD CLEANERS
Windshield washer solvents are usually
made of methanol and other solvents to keep
the water from freezing as well as clean the
windshield. Available in concentrated form to
be added to water or in diluted form that is
ready to pour into the washer reservoir jar.
Ready-to-use solvents are usually rated to
about -30F.
I CARBURETOR CLEANERS
If a customer is having engine perform-
ance problems that he thinks are linked to
a carburetor, suggest that he try a carbure-
tor cleaner before he invests in a new or
rebuilt carburetor.
These cleaners can be applied several ways
such as a fuel-tank additive or poured into
the carburetor throat. Another cleaner con-
nects the contents to the fuel inlet after dis-
connecting the fuel line.
Whichever the consumer decides to use,
read the instructions carefully and make
sure the cleaner will not damage the cat-
alytic converter.
Similar additives clean fuel injectors.
BATTERIES
An automobile battery produces electricity
through chemical reaction. Two plates, made
of different metals, are immersed in sulfuric
acid (an electrolyte) which creates a flow of
electrons to produce electrical power.
Automobile batteries have several cells,
each of which produces 2 volts of power.
Most automobiles require 12V batteries
consisting of six cells. Each cell has its
own plates and electrolyte to produce a
portion of the total output of the battery.
These are wired in series to the positive
and negative posts of the battery.
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
5
BATTERY SAFETY TIPS
Batteries are filled with sulfuric acid
and therefore can be dangerous if han-
dled improperly. The acid can eat
through clothing and burn flesh.
Do not smoke or cause sparking near
an auto battery. Wear outer garments
including gloves and safety goggles
when working on a battery. If battery
acid comes in contact with skin or
eyes, flush with water for 15 minutes
and get medical attention.x
As current is drawn from the battery, the
acid is absorbed by the plates. When all the
acid is absorbed, the electrolyte becomes
essentially water and the battery can no
longer produce a current. Charging the bat-
tery causes the acid to move from the plates
back into the solution.
Ampere-hour capacity or electrical size are
terms referring to the number of plates per
cell or the size of the plates. Increasing size or
number means increased power capacity.
Wet/ Dry Charge
The terms wet or dry charge refer to
whether the electrolyte is in the battery when
it is shipped. If batteries arrive dry, the elec-
trolyte must be added and the battery given a
boost charge. The following procedures are
recommended:
o Fill each cell to the top of the separators
with electrolyte (water cannot be used).
o Boost charge until warm to the touch.
Electrolyte should be about 80F.
o Check specific gravity with hydrometer.
Should be minimum of 1.250.
o Add electrolyte to each cell to bring
level to appropriate level indicated by
manufacturer.
Shipping and storing dry batteries has
the obvious advantage of eliminating
spillage, etc. The disadvantage is the time,
labor and materials necessary to convert
dry batteries to wet.
Maintenance-free batteries are permanently
sealed; the unit contains fluid but provides
no access to it.
They are considerably more costly but
require no additional water throughout the
normal life of the battery. Special alloy grids
reduce water loss, and a greater reservoir of
electrolyte works with the grids to extend the
normal life.
Cranking Amps
Cranking amps, or cranking performance,
is a measurement of the power relationship
between batteries and engine size. One crank-
ing amp is recommended for each cubic-inch
displacement of the engine.
A cranking amps value of 400, for exam-
ple, is the minimum rating that should be
used for an engine with a 400-cubic-inch
displacement. High compression ratios,
extreme weather conditions or high-power
accessories would require an even higher
cranking amps rating.
Battery Testing
The battery charge can be tested with a
hydrometer, which measures the specific
gravity of the electrolyte. A specific gravity of
1.000 means that the liquid is essentially
water. A fully charged battery should have a
specific gravity reading of approximately
1.265. A reading of 1.220 indicates a half-
charged battery and 1.180 means the battery
is near total discharge.
Batteries must also be tested for variance
between cells. A reading showing a difference
of more than .050 between cells means the
battery must be replaced; less indicates it can
be recharged.
Batteries stored wet should be periodically
checked to ensure that the specific gravity
reading remains above 1.250. Every battery
should be checked prior to its sale.
Another test that should be made prior to
selling the battery is the load test. A meter is
connected between the negative and positive
poles to check the actual load produced. A
poor reading indicates that the battery is
either not fully charged or that it is defective.
Maintenance Tips
Fluid levels should be checked once a
month and cells filled to within 1/4 of the
bottom of the filler neck.
If it is necessary to add fluid, distilled water
should be used and the engine run for a time
if the temperature is below freezing.
Dirt and water should be cleaned from the
top of the battery and corrosion removed
from the terminals and clamps.
I BOOSTER CABLES
Booster cables are insulated conductors
with alligator clamps at each end to provide a
temporary booster charge from a live battery
to a low battery.
Copper-core cables are considered quality
with better conduction capabilities than alu-
minum conductors. Aluminum cables are fre-
quently used for promotional purposes.
I BATTERY CHARGERS
Battery chargers range from 1-amp-output
promotional models to commercial units
with amp ratings in excess of 100.
For normal home auto use, a 3- to 10-
amp rating is sufficient for slow charges
and 60 to 100 amps for fast charges. The
amp rating is the output of the charger
and controls the length of time required
for the battery to charge.
Most car batteries are rated around 50 to
70 amp/hours. A constant amp output
multiplied by the number of hours would
indicate the charge in the battery. Ten
amps output for five hours would equal 50
amp hours.
Most battery chargers, however, have
tapered charges, meaning that the output is
not constant. As the charge builds up in the
battery, the battery voltage retards the output
of the charger to as much as 50 percent
capacity. A 10-amp charger, then, might be
putting out only 5 amps as the battery nears
its full charge. Constant-output chargers are
available but have limited applications.
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6
LEAD ACID BATTERY ALERT
Lead acid batteries are the major
source of lead entering the municipal
solid waste system. Disposals of batter-
ies in landfills and incinerators can
result in human exposure to lead via
ground water, drinking water and
ambient air.
High levels of lead exposure can cause
brain and nervous disorders, anemia,
high blood pressure, kidney and repro-
ductive problems and even death.
Children are particularly sensitive to
the effects of lead poisoning.
Many states have enacted legislation
which bans the disposal of batteries in
municipal solid waste landfills and
incinerators. Most of these laws are
specific regarding how used batteries
are handled. Retailers selling a new
battery are required to accept and
recycle the old battery. In addition,
many states require that the secondary
lead smelter or state-authorized collec-
tion and recycling facility by the retail-
er who accepts used batteries.
Check to see if your state has such leg-
islation and be sure your store has a
copy of the law.
Another element found on some chargers
is the booster charge. This is a device that
converts household alternating current to
direct current, allowing the automobile
engine to start directly from the outside cur-
rent supplied. This eliminates having to wait
for the battery to charge before the engine
can be started.
Booster capacities are available in ratings as
high as 300 amps, but most cars require from
90 to 110 amps of cranking power. A 100-
amp booster element is usually sufficient for
normal home use.
Battery Voltage
Battery chargers specify the voltage of the
battery on which they can be used. Some can
be used only on 6V or 12V batteries while
others can be used on both types.
Manufacturers specifications should indicate
output at specific voltages.
Automatic Chargers
If a charge is applied to a battery after the
battery is fully charged, the amperage con-
verts to heat energy, causing the electrolyte to
evaporate. Automatic chargers eliminate this
problem by automatically switching off when
the battery is charged and back on again if
the charge decreases.
This is useful for people who own boats,
electric golf carts and other items used
occasionally. The charger can be attached
to the battery to keep it fully charged for
months at a time. Virtually all batteries
will lose their charge during a long period
of inactivity; an automatic charger keeps
them at peak efficiency.
A quality automatic charger should be
capable of keeping a battery fully charged
over a long period without causing electrolyte
evaporation or any noticeable increase in the
electrolyte temperature.
AUTO BODY REPAIR
PRODUCTS
Auto body repair lines are natural additions
to do-it-yourself automotive departments.
Popular items, in addition to basics such as
tack cloths, sandpaper, files, automotive
paint, etc., are:
Plastic filler and hardenermixes, spreads
and then dries extremely hard, but sandable,
for auto body repairs.
Glazing puttysands to smooth finish.
Used for small imperfections, dents, scratches.
Plastic applicatorsused to apply plastic
filler and for other spreading jobs.
Spray undercoatingrust prohibitor used
under fenders. Also comes as aerosol for
touch-up.
To repair fiberglass auto bodies, the cus-
tomer will need hardener, fiberglass resin and
either fiberglass mat or fiberglass cloth. The
mat builds up new surfaces and shapes; cloth
refinishes existing surfaces. Combined with
hardener and resin, both cloth and mat will
change from cloth-like consistency to a solid
surface in 30 minutes.
ACCESSORIES
When selling oil and oil filters, suggest an
oil drain pan to catch the old oil. Also, spe-
cially designed oil-filter wrenches make
changing the filters much easier and cleaner.
Pour spouts and funnels are excellent add-
on purchases for oil or other chemicals and
additives. Fender covers protect a cars finish
while a d-i-yer is working in and around the
engine compartment.
Working on a car raised on a jack is
extremely dangerous. Recommend that the
person use jack stands or drive-on ramps to
support the auto. It is suggested that jack
stands with a rating of 11/2 to 21/2 tons
should be used depending upon the size of
the auto. Also, ramps with a support rating of
21/2 to 4 tons are recommended.
Road safety items include emergency lights
and flares. Flat tires are less of a problem if
the consumer has an air pump. These are
available as either foot-operated types or ones
that plug into the cigarette lighter.
Auto emergency kits contain first aid prod-
ucts, aerosol tire filler and sealer, flares, a fire
extinguisher and a flashlight.
Interior Accessories
Portable vacuum cleaners that plug into a
cars cigarette lighter are convenient for clean-
ing up auto interiors. Car mats help cut down
on interior carpet wear. Interior accessories
such as compasses, litter baskets and beverage
holders appeal to most drivers.
Towing Equipment
In addition to chains, tow ropes (some
made of nylon or polypropylene) are specially
made for pulling vehicles. They are resistant
to oil, grease, etc., and come with braided
eyes, hooks and protective collars to guard
against cuts.
Additional Accessories
Some other basics in an auto department
include splash guards to protect a cars finish
from rocks, gravel and asphalt kicked up by
the tires. Snow brushes and ice scrapers are a
must for winter driving.
Chamois, polishing cloths and drop cloths
are also staples for add-on sales with car care
and clean-up products. Gas cans are steady
sellers in this department also, and you will
want to highlight garage door openers and tie
them into auto promotions.
Dont forget d-i-y auto repair books. Auto
d-i-yers are learning a new set of skills, and
the number of projects that they are willing
to undertake increases continually.
OUTDOOR POWER
EQUIPMENT
POWER UNITS
Power sources for lawn and garden equip-
ment fall into three categories: gasoline
engines, electric motors and battery-powered
electric motors.
For smaller equipment, the convenience of
cordless operation is a major selling point.
Not only has extended battery life con-
tributed to the popularity of cordless tools,
but lightweight gasoline engines on products
such as string trimmers allow the consumer
to move about freely without the fear of cut-
ting an electrical cord.
Starting cordless units powered by electrical
motors is easy, and battery charges will usual-
ly last through most typical yard jobs. The
unit can be recharged between jobs.
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
7
Increasingly, electric motors are being used in
a wide range of outdoor power equipment
and starter motor applications.
Larger power equipment is primarily gaso-
line powered.
I STARTERS
Recoil starters are most widely used, but
battery-powered starters have grown in use
over the years.
The batteries for electric starters can be
recharged either with chargers that connect
to electrical wall outlets or with electrical
chargers built into the engine, which recharge
the battery while the engine is operating.
Battery voltage may be 6V or 12V, and the
number of starts possible depends on the bat-
tery amperage rating and the output of the
engine charger.
The convenience and reliability of electric
starters are good selling points. Electric
starters may add $50 or more to the retail
selling price of a walk-behind mower and as
much as $150 to the price of a tractor.
I GASOLINE ENGINES
Gasoline engines are available in two- and
four-stroke cycle constructions. The four oper-
ating functions are intake, compression,
power and exhaust stroke.
In two-cycle engines, compression and
power are combined in one cycle, and
exhaust and intake are the second cycle.
A four-cycle engine uses valves and a two-
cycle engine utilizes intake and exhaust ports.
Lubrication for two-stroke cycle engines
comes from the oil being mixed with the
gasoline. The four-stroke cycle uses a reservoir.
Two-cycles are easy to start, but speed regu-
lation is usually limited. Some models have
fuel primers for easier starting.
When selling gas engines, features such as
visible oil and gas gauges may be stressed, as
well as the power-to-weight ratio and ease of
adding oil and gas. Salespeople will also want
to point out what grade and quantity of oil
and gas to add, how to mix oil and gas for
two-cycle engines and how to drain the oil
and clean the air filter.
Some gasoline engines have solid-state
ignition systems and improved carburetor
designs that can be stressed as well.
I SPARK PLUGS
Selling spark plugs requires knowledge of
exact engine specifications. Failure to use the
correct plug, or substitution, could result in
poor performance or engine failure.
Engine manufacturers specify spark plugs
for specific requirements and best perform-
ance. Some of the considerations made in
specifying spark plugs include heat range,
size, sealing features, materials, depth projec-
tion (position of electrode) in the cylinder
head and electrode shape/design.
Original equipment manufacturers can
supply data on the specific plug needed for
individual power equipment engines.
Manufacturer representatives can also supply
information such as charts and brochures on
use and interchangeability.
ROTARY MOWERS
The performance characteristics of rotary
mowers depend a great deal on the design of
the mowers deck.
Usually steel or aluminum is used in
deck construction. Steel decks cost less,
but can rust.
Fourteen gauge is the most common thick-
ness. If the steel is thinner, regardless of the
grade, the mower deck will flex easier, result-
ing in increased vibration.
Stiffness can be increased by properly shap-
ing the housing and adding reinforcements.
It should also be noted that the higher the
number used to denote metal gauge, the thin-
ner or lighter the product.
More suction is derived from extra-deep
decks; this decreases the possibility of objects
being thrown out from under the mower.
These mowers also permit cutting heavy and
tall growth.
However, deep decks require long
engine shafts, which are subject to bend-
ing and allow cut grass to pile up against
the decks underside.
Shallow decks have the advantage of a
short engine shaft that resists bending.
However, objects can be thrown out from
under shallow decks easily, and these engines
wont perform well in tall or heavy growth.
Rather than hitting objects head-on,
engine shafts may be bent when the blade
goes over or under objects like large tree roots
or rocks.
Decks also have additional safety features
such as trailing plates at the rear. All walk-
behind mowers comply with federal safety
standards, which require the blade control to
be held for the blade to turn and the blade to
come to a complete stop within three seconds
after the control is released.
To accomplish this, some mowers have a
blade-brake-clutch (BBC) mounted on the
engine crankshaft that will stop the blade or
turn off the engine.
If engine stop is chosen, the mower will
have either an electric starter to restart and a
battery that will be constantly charged while
the engine is operating; or the engine can be
manually restarted by a recoil starter if the
pull handle is located within 24 of the top of
the mower handle.
An exception allows the pull handle to
remain on the engine if the mower meets a
360 foot-probe test.
The pull handle also can remain on the
engine if the mower deck has extra guarding
around the outside.
The bottom edge of the front of the deck
should be lower than the cutting edge of the
blade. In order to meet recommended safety
codes, the blade cannot be exposed at more
than a 15 angle from the front of the mower
to reduce the risk of objects being thrown.
I BLADES
Quality rotary mowers must have properly
designed tempered-steel blades. If they are
not tempered in the middle, blades can twist
or bend and ends of long blades may flex up
or down when run at high speed. Range of
Rockwell hardness should be about 42 to 47.
Ask your source about the rating on his lines.
Rotary blades have a lip behind the cutting
edge that creates suction and throws cut grass
out the chute. A lip 1 or 2 long, with a
moderate angle, performs both functions
well. If the lip is too long or if the angle of
the lip is too steep, it will have a tendency to
throw the cut grass up against the deck
instead of out the chute.
If a blade isnt sturdy, it will vibrate
when run at high speed; this is especially
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A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
9
true of longer blades. For safety, the blade
tip must ride 1/8 or so above the bottom
edge and along the sides and rear of the
deck and it should ride 1/4 or so below
the top edge of the rod or bar across the
bottom of the grass chute.
It is necessary to take extra care to
maintain precision balance when a blade
is resharpened.
I CUTTING WIDTHS
Cutting widths vary from 16 to 22,
depending upon the blade length.
Smaller sizes cost less, can be easier to han-
dle and may use less gas. Some have 21/2-hp
engines, but most have 3 hp. The 21 and
22 models usually have 31/2 hp.
Persons who choose the larger mowers
because they have large lawns may be good
candidates for a move up to riding mowers
when they replace their old mower.
Mini-mowers with 16 cutting widths
are good suggestions for trimming or for
cutting small lawns.
I HANDLES AND WHEELS
Bow shaped, T-shaped or slanted T-shaped
with rubber or plastic grips are the basic han-
dle designs.
A handle attached at an angle that allows
the user to push forward instead of down pro-
vides easier operation.
Quality features to look for are easy attach-
ment and removal, height adjustment and
upright position locks for storage or trans-
portation in a car trunk.
Swing-over handles may be dangerous,
allowing the mower to roll back on the users
foot. Also, it encourages the user to run the
mower backwards half the time, and this
results in poor performance.
Wheels can be plastic or steel. Mowers with
larger wheels are more easily pushed. Wide
wheels are best; narrow rubber tires may leave
wheel marks or tracks.
Plain wheel bearings have steel, plastic or
nylon sleeves, requiring at least some lubrica-
tion. Sintered bearings require no lubrication.
Because sand will destroy plain bearings,
some are replaceable. Ball bearings, if shielded
or sealed, require no lubrication since oil can-
not get out and dirt cannot get in.
Wheels are held by a threaded stud or by a
bolt-and-nut arrangement.
I HEIGHT ADJUSTMENTS
Three types of height-adjustment mecha-
nisms exist. Removal of all four wheels is the
first. This system is inexpensive and used on
low-priced mowers.
The most widely used mechanism is a
lever-and-cam arrangement at each wheel.
The prime disadvantage is that it may encour-
age the dangerous practice of holding the
deck up with one hand and shifting the lever
with the other.
The third approach raises or lowers the
entire deck by adjusting a lever or turning
a knob. This costs more, but is convenient
and safe.
Many mowers have up to five height
adjustments. A height change from 1 to
31/2 is usual, with four to six heights avail-
able. In California, many prefer a mower that
will cut closer than 1.
I GRASS CHUTES
Grass-chute location determines
whether the mower is staggered wheel or
an inline model.
Rotary mower cuts are done in the 180
semicircle in the front half of the deck; with a
staggered-wheel model, grass is cut and eject-
ed instantly, much of it in a straight line.
If the chute is in the center of the right
side of the deck, little grass is ejected in a
straight line, and a hard object hit by the
blade has a good chance of hitting the deck
before it is thrown out, thus losing much of
its speed and danger.
Clogging is often the result of a thin deck
edge at the rear end of the chute and/or too
small a chute opening. If the engine isnt
stopped before the chute is cleaned, this can
be dangerous.
A baffle at the rear of a side-chuted mower
may help to prevent clogging, depending on
the design.
A rod or a bar across the bottom of a side
chute is necessary for safety to prevent the
blade hitting the ground.
Staggered and in-line wheel mowers trim
on the left side only since chutes must be
extended to meet foot-probe requirements.
Rear-chute mowers that bag at the back
offer several design advantages. They allow
the user to trim closely with either side of the
mower, since there is no bag or chute pro-
truding from the side and clogging is less like-
ly with their large discharge chute.
Also, the larger rear-bag size reduces the
frequency of emptying, which is an excellent
selling point.
I GRASS CATCHERS
Removing and reattaching grass catchers
should be both quick and easy for the user.
There are two types of discharge for grass
bagging. One utilizes the standard chute
opening; the other blocks the normal chute
and opens up direct entry into the bag, tend-
ing to fill it from back to front.
Leaf mulching does not require closing the
chute if the blade is properly designed and if
there is a baffle in back of the chute.
I MULCHING MOWERS
Mulching mowers eliminate the need
for bags altogether since they discharge
clippings into the lawn. Thatch buildup is
eliminated too because the enclosed deck
and cutting action converts grass clippings
into tiny pieces that filter into the lawn
without clumping.
Ecology-minded consumers like the idea of
the mulch produced by these mowers because
it decomposes rapidly, usually in about two
weeks, and returns valuable nitrogen to the
GET READY FOR NEXT YEAR
When the mowing season ends,
advise customers to get their lawn
mower in shape for next season by:
1. Disconnecting the spark plug wire
from the lawn mower.
2. Cleaning out old grass and dirt from
the blade and the mower surfaces by
brushing them with kerosene.
3. Draining gas and oil from the tank.
4. Removing and cleaning the spark
plugs.
5. Removing and sharpening the rotary
blades.
6. Tightening all bolts.
7. Checking and replacing the muffler if
it has rusted.
soil. In addition, some states are beginning to
ban community trash disposal of grass clip-
pings and leaves.
The closed deck or cutting chamber pro-
duces a powerful vacuum action that straight-
ens grass when cut and recirculates the clip-
pings until they are recut into the fine mulch.
In addition to the benefits that the
mulch contributes to the soil, mulching
mowers also mean less work since there
are no bags to empty.
It should be pointed out that mulching
mowers may be less effective in heavy, wet
grass, which may ball up and drop onto the
lawn in clumps. And in extremely tall grass,
the mulching action is less efficient.
Some manufacturers offer a mower that
can be converted from a mulcher to a stan-
dard rotary by opening a plate in the side of
the deck for discharge and changing to a
standard cutting blade.
I SELF-PROPELLED
MOWERS
Based on different engineering approaches,
a variety of driving mechanisms has taken
the push out of hand-propelled mowers.
This may involve front- or rear-wheel drive,
but most are driven by two pinions. Some are
driven by pinions that press against compara-
tively smooth-tread rear tires; but under some
conditions, these pinions slip and the wheels
dont turn. This can cause the mower to
become semi-self-propelled.
Cogged pinions which fit into grooved
notches on rear or front tires power other
models. This approach works well until the
pinion teeth become worn. If the pinions are
easily replaced, this presents no problem.
Some models are driven by metal pinions
with teeth that mesh into the metal cog
wheels attached to the inner sides of the
mowers wheels.
A different approach uses pinions like
those on a reel mower. These pinions are
on a shaft driven from a transmission.
This type of design usually costs more but
is very satisfactory.
Another approach is to use a variable-speed
transmission with a differential gear box
located on the rear axle.
Putting some self-propelled mowers into
gear may require raising the handle, while
pulling back on the handle disengages the
gear. This works well with rear-wheel drive,
which is usually less expensive.
Others are put into gear with a lever and
wire, or lever and rod, like a gas-throttle con-
trol. This is preferred with front-wheel drive.
When such a mower is standing with the
engine running, it cannot be bumped and
put in gear.
An engine-kill/electric restart deadman
control is available on self-propelled mowers.
This control bypasses the starter cord and
allows the operator to start mower at the flick
of a switch.
I BIG-WHEEL MOWERS
Often known as bicycle-wheel mowers,
these units have 14 to 24 rear wheels, 6 to
8 front wheels and 21 to 24 cutting widths.
They are designed to cut heavy or rough
growth and on uneven or rough terrain.
When seeking quality characteristics, con-
sumers should look for sturdy rear wheels
with strong spokes and rims, pneumatic tires
and shielded or sealed ball bearings. Some
engines are 31/2 hp but 4 or 5 hp are pre-
ferred, and engines are sometimes mounted
on marine plywood to reduce vibration.
Swivel-front wheels that can be locked if
desired are also offered. Most have blade
clutch, permitting the belt-driven blade to be
idle while the engine is running; rear-wheel
drive is used if self-propelled. Another feature
to consider is extra sturdiness in blades longer
than 21.
These mowers are used extensively in
the South.
There are also lighter units available with
14 to 16 rear wheels. These come with
pneumatic or semipneumatic tires and with a
regular rotary as the cutting unit. These cost
less and are applicable for fine lawns as well
as for rough cutting. Widths are 21 to 22.
I ELECTRIC ROTARIES
These models run at full speed and require
no gas, oil or starting mechanisms. However,
cords can present a problem in handling,
especially around trees, shrubs and other
obstacles. Also, some people will not use
them in wet grass.
Many have swing-over handles to make it
easier to reverse directions without tangling
the cord. Such mowers should have front and
rear baffles for operator foot protection.
Electric mowers meeting the Consumer
Product Safety Commissions mandatory safe-
ty standard have controls similar to those
required for gasoline-powered units. The
blade must stop when control is released and
this control must require two movements
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
10
A GUIDE TO BETTER MOWING
1. The lawn should not be wet when you mow.
2. Mow in the evening hours. Newly cut grass can be damaged by a hot sun.
3. Adjust the height of the mower blade on level ground with the power turned off. Cut
upright grasses at about 2, Bermuda grasses at about 1-1/2 and bent grasses at about
1.
4. Dont let yard debris injure you or damage your mower. Clean it up before mowing.
5. Mow once a week if rainfall is normal.
6. Keep mower oiled according to manufacturers specifications.
7. Tighten all mower parts periodically; any unusual rattle should prompt an extra check for
loose nuts, screws or bolts.
8. Grass should be upright, not freshly walked on, when you mow. Mow once or twice
around the perimeter of the lawn before cutting across. Change patterns each time you
cut, and mow with as few interruptions as possible (this helps the appearance).
9. Dont leave cut grass on the lawn. It sinks down and keeps moisture and fertilizer away
from soil and weakens grass. It also provides a bed for insects and fungi.
10. Clean mower after each use. Wipe grease, oil and grass from mower.
11. Always be cautious about using gasoline, whether fueling the mower, storing the fuel can
or storing the mower. Its a good idea to drain the fuel tank before storing the mower.
12. Never mow with a dull blade. Sharpen occasionally. Dull blades tear and injure a lawn.
before it can activate the blade. The two
movements are required to prevent accidental
blade startups.
POWER REEL
MOWERS
Whereas rotary mowers use a single blade
to slice off the grass, reel mowers utilize mul-
tiple blades to shear off grass blades (similar
to a hand mower).
The most efficient cutting results when the
cutting blade contacts the grass at an angle.
Reels cost more than rotaries and are heav-
ier. They are not well suited to cut tall or
heavy growth, although the lifetime of a reel
may be twice that of a rotary.
Proponents of reel mowers say that the
danger of flying objects thrown by a reel is
almost nonexistent and contact accidents are
minimized because revolving cutters are in
full view of the operator.
Most reels have five revolving knives and a
stationary knife. The angle at which the
revolving blades touch the stationary one is
of major importance. When one revolving
knife is about 3 away from losing contact
with the stationary knife, the next revolving
knife should just be making contact.
If the angle is greater than that, the revolv-
ing knife tends to push some grass away. If
the angle is less, the revolving knife doesnt
have a good shearing angle and whips instead
of cuts.
The frame that holds the blades in place is
called a spider. Eighteen-inch mowers should
have three or four spiders; 21 mowers
should have four or five spiders.
Proper adjustment can be tested by turning
the mower upside down and pulling it
toward you. The reel should turn and make a
smooth shearing sound.
Revolving cutters run on ball, needle or
tapered roller bearings. The drive is usual-
ly a belt from the engine to a small pulley
and a chain from the pulley to the revolv-
ing cutter, which has two pinions
attached to its shaft.
These drive 10-, 10-1/2- or 11-diameter
rubber-tired wheels, which run on plain or
roller bearings. Both reel and wheel bearings
require lubrication and should be equipped
with oil cups or fittings.
A cover for the belt and chain decreases the
danger of catching clothing in them.
Rollers are sectional and should be at
least 2 in diameter. Cutting heights range
from 5/8 to 2-1/2 or 3. These are deter-
mined by raising and lowering the roller.
On most mowers there is an adjustment at
the wheels also, so the mower remains
level at all heights.
Since reel mowers can be set to cut at less
than 1, many Californians prefer them to
rotaries because they are better suited to
grasses in that region.
The handle should be attached so that
when it is lifted, it will lift the roller off the
ground to pass over hard objects that would
damage the cutting unit.
Frames and wheels are usually cast iron
or steel.
HAND MOWERS
In recent years, sales of these mowers have
been increasing. Improved maneuverability
and a lighter-weight design combined with
smaller lots for new homes are some of the
reasons attributed to the renewed interest in
hand mowers.
The mowers are available in four-, five- and
seven-blade reel models. Some of these are
designed to cut specific varieties of grass.
Lower-end models have 14 cutting widths
with 81/2 wheels; higher-end models have a
cutting width of 16 with 10 radial tires.
Steel fabrication and composite materials are
used in all models to provide easy maneuver-
ing and lighter weight. Manufacturers claim
that the mowers cut better than their motor-
powered cousins and they are safe to use.
Consumers interested in hand mowers find
them appealing at several different levels:
o For the environmentally conscious, the
mowers do not pollute the air with
noise or emissions.
o For the health conscious, the mowers pro-
vide exercise. For those who prefer more
leisure time, the mowers have very low
maintenance requirements.
o For the economically minded, the aver-
age retail price for these mowers is less
than $100.
RIDING MOWERS/
TRACTORS
Riding mowers, which cut a swath 2 to 4
wide, are for homeowners with more than
half an acre of lawn.
Riding mowers and tractors fall into sev-
eral basic categoriesride-on mowers, lawn
tractors, garden tractors and small-acreage
tractors. Consumers need to look at the
engine power when comparing models.
They dont want a small engine which will
result in overburdening the unit. They need
an engine with sufficient power not only to
mow but to power the mower over uneven
and sometimes rough terrain.
Ride-on mowers are for mowing. They may
come in either front- or rear-engine models
with capability for light towing.
The traction drive (wheels) is a separate
transmission and differential connected by a
chain which is exposed to dirt in all but the
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
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HOW TO CARE FOR RIDING MOWERS
1. Store the unit under cover. If it is impossible to place under cover, be sure to cover the
exhaust system.
2. Block the unit up to remove the weight from the tires and to keep the tires from contact
with a moist floor.
3. Remove the battery and store it in a cool, dry place, or keep it fully charged in the unit.
4. Fill the fuel tank to the top to prevent condensation. The fuel should be treated with the
proper amount of fuel conditioner to prevent formation of varnish or gum. Run the engine
long enough to be sure all filters are filled with conditioned fuel.
5. When the unit is removed from storage, it should be serviced throughout, including drain-
ing and refilling the engine crankcase with fresh, clean oil.
most expensive models.
Attachments for ride-on mowers may
include a very light-duty snow blade; usually
the only power attachment for these models
is the mowing unit.
Lawn tractors can power optional snow-
throwing equipment in addition to the
mowing unit. The traction drive is a medi-
um-duty transaxle (transmission and dif-
ferential in the same housing), which is
fully enclosed and lubricated.
These provide increased performance
over ride-on mowers such as more towing
capacity and greater snow-moving ability
with a snow blade.
Although they are able to handle a variety
of simple attachments, they are distinguished
from garden tractors by their inability to han-
dle ground-engaging attachments.
Garden tractors are able to take more
sophisticated attachments such as tillers and
plows. They are equipped with heavy-duty
transaxles with three or four forward speeds
and have more ground clearance.
In addition to hitches for these ground-
engaging attachments, these units have built-
in lift systems and greater power to pull the
attachments.
Small-acreage tractors are more complex
and employ more automotive features than
any other item in the outdoor power-equip-
ment group. They are best suited for large
areas and small farm chores.
Unlike larger riders, engine power is
greater, ranging up to 20 hp. Cutting widths
of up to 6 or more can be accomplished by
using gang reels.
Extreme versatility is achieved through
attachments such as a leaf mulcher, plow,
snow thrower, snow/dozer blade, dump cart,
sweeper, tiller, power sprayer, aerator, lawn
roller, cultivator, front-end loader, fertilizer
spreader, flail mower and discing devices.
This is a complicated piece of equipment
and you must study the lines your store car-
ries in order to sell effectively.
Prices range from $1,000 to $2,000 for
smaller riding mowers and tractors and
from $3,000 to $5,000 for large lawn and
garden tractors.
Also, safety is an important factor when
selling this type of equipment. An indus-
try safety standard calls for riding mowers
to have three features:
o Models must be equipped with inter-
locks to ensure the engine cannot start
while the mower is in gear or when the
blade is engaged.
o Another feature is the blade-stop system
that stops the blade quickly when the driv-
er disengages it.
o Deadman switches connected to the
seat kill the ignition and engine and
stop the blade if an operator falls off or
climbs down from the seat while the
blade is still engaged.
Some mowers have other safety switches to
prevent accidents. These safety features offer
some selling points when educating the con-
sumer about equipment benefits.
I ENGINE PLACEMENT
The design characteristics of riding units
are major safety factors. Operating safety is
increased if the drivers seat is located as far
forward as possible. This is particularly impor-
tant when operating the machine on slopes
and for units with engines mounted behind
the operator.
Both the blade and the rear wheels are
powered by the engine. A few low-priced rid-
ers may have the blade attached to the
engine shaft, like a rotary mower, but most
models have a belt-driven blade, and usually
such mowers have a blade clutch.
Another belt usually runs from engine to
transmission and a chain runs from the trans-
mission to the differential.
On units with transaxles, the differential
and transmission are in one sealed housing.
These usually have two belts and no chain.
The accessibility of belts, chains and other
replaceable parts is an important feature to
look for when selling these units as is the
ability to remove cutting units easily so
attachments can be utilized.
Electric starters are available on many
models and are desirable for higher-horse-
power engines.
Some riding mowers can be upended and
stored on the rear or front end to save space
or to gain access to the mowing unit without
problems from oil or gas drainage.
I WHEELS
Front-wheel diameters range from 8 to
12 and rear wheels are usually 10 to 16
but may measure in at 20. Pneumatic tires or
semipneumatic tires are frequently used on
lower-priced models.
Turning radius for riding equipment is usu-
ally 32 or above, but can be as tight as 16
and consumers should look for both steering
ease and a ruggedly constructed steering gear.
All controls, throttle, transmission, posi-
tions, brakes, brake lock, blade clutch, height
adjustment and safety clutch (if so equipped)
should be easily accessible.
Transmissions vary from one speed for-
ward, neutral and reverse, to five speeds
forward, neutral and reverse, with most
models having three forward speeds.
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
12
SAFETY TIPS FOR POWER EQUIPMENT OPERATION
1. Never wear loose garments when operating outdoor power equipment. They may get
caught in blades, belts, chains, etc.
2. Always wear proper protective footgear when operating power machinery.
3. Never leave a power tool or machine running unattended.
4. Dont let small children play with power equipment. Many like to ride power mowers. If
the cutting unit doesnt completely detach, this is terribly dangerous. Even if it does, there
is some danger.
5. Take care not to throw a unit in gear accidentally and have it jerk ahead unexpectedly.
6. Beware when operating some rotary mowers with a staggered-wheel design. Grass can be
cut and ejected instantly at a very high speed. A rock can be kicked out at the same speed.
7. Rotary mowers with shallow decks are more apt to throw an object out from under the
deck. Take extra care when using these mowers.
8. Store dangerous tools under lock and key, where children cannot accidentally start
equipment.
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
13
Driving speeds range from 1 to 7 mph.
Three to 4 mph is usual operating speed.
I RIDER FEATURES
Suspension systems include a front axle
that pivots up and down, or side to side, to
keep the cutting unit level over uneven
ground, or the cutting unit may be free float-
ing. With a free-floating design, gravity is
supposed to keep the unit level, even when a
portion of the lower deck is not in contact
with the ground. Guardrails are available on
some units and run the full length of the
deck to prevent the deck from contacting the
ground and the blade from scalping ridges
and large mounds.
Wheel bearings range from plain steel on
lower-priced models to sintered iron, sintered
bronze, ball bearings or roller bearings.
Dealers may need to ask about bearing
construction because it may not be
included in manufacturer literature. Most
riding mowers are designed to meet
industry voluntary safety standards,
which require that the blade stop rotating
within five seconds after the blade is
declutched. If the mower doesnt meet the
voluntary safety standard B71.1 1986, and
the blade takes longer to stop than five
seconds, a warning to the customer is
advisable.
Braking the blade to an immediate stop is
a most important safety feature. Also deter-
mine whether the clutch can be eased into
the on position or does it grab and
sometimes kill the engine. Some riders are
equipped with a seat switch that prevents
the mower from moving unless the operator
is sitting in the mower seat or depresses a
foot pedal. Such devices provide extra safety
by shutting off the engine if the operator
gets off the machine without first declutch-
ing the blade and shifting the transmission
into neutral.
An automatic blade-stop mechanism, avail-
able on some models, brings the blade to a
stop after the pedal is released without stop-
ping the engine.
Cutting heights usually range from 11/4
to 31/2. Some still require the removal of
wheels or bolts or loosening of nuts and
retightening to change height. However, most
better models utilize a lever or crank to raise
and lower the deck.
Moderate pressure on the brake pedal
should stop the rider quickly. A conveniently
positioned brake lock should hold the rider
on a fairly steep slope.
Rider blades, being longer and subject to
more engine power than hand rotaries,
should be sturdier. When a blade is turning at
high speed, the tips will try to vibrate up and
down unless the blade is reinforced at its cen-
ter by a channel-shaped or heavy bar. It is
important that the center of the blade or its
reinforcement should not extend below the
cutting edge to prevent unnecessary rubbing
of the cut grass.
Seats on riding models are usually
adjustable to two or three positions, and the
cutting properties of riders depend on the
same quality features as on regular rotaries.
LAWN EDGERS
AND TRIMMERS
Electric- and gasoline-powered trimmers
give homeowners an economical way to slice
small trenches along sidewalks and driveways
or trim close to trees, flower beds, lampposts,
etc. One of the most popular types of trim-
mers whip-cuts grass and weeds with a
monofilament nylon line.
Unlike push-type trimmers with rubber
wheels and wide reels, string trimmers have
no wheels, guides, adjustments or blades. A
strong monofilament nylon line, spinning at
up to 12,000 rpm, is the cutting blade.
The line cuts both grass and weeds, but
inexpensive models are best suited for
smaller areas and lighter work like grass,
while heavier weeds and larger areas
require a heavy-duty, more expensive trim-
mer with more power.
Safety is a selling point for string trimmers.
COMMON QUESTIONS CONSUMERS ASK ABOUT MOWERS
1. WHAT SIZE MOWER DO I NEED? Consumers usually need help in matching a mower to
their yard. While most consumers, in the end, purchase a walk-behind mower with cutting
width of 18 to 21, sales personnel need to find out who will operate the lawn mower,
the property size and storage facilities.
2. HOW MUCH DOES IT COST AND IS IT A QUALITY PRODUCT? Although price is a major
concern of most customers, consumers are increasingly willing to pay more for a mower
with such features as being self-propelled, having an electric start or being equipped with a
rear grass catcher.
3. DOES IT HAVE A BAGGING SYSTEM OR IS IT A SIDE-DISCHARGER? Most consumers
prefer the rear bagging system, which allows you to mow close to trees, shrubs and walls,
and offers greater convenience and maneuverability. Less meticulous consumers choose a
side-discharge system that leaves the clippings on the lawn.
4. WHAT KIND OF ENGINE DOES IT HAVE? Consumers usually dont care about actual
horsepower, dealers say, but they want to be sure the machine has enough power so its
engine wont be overworked.
5. DOES IT START EASILY? Customers often want assurance that a lawn mower will start easi-
ly, remembering the past, when many engines were balky and temperamental. Although
manual starting today is much easier, dealers say many customers are attracted to the con-
venience of an electric start.
Another option, for customers who fear difficult starting, might be the electric lawn mower.
Usually equipped with a 100 cord set, an electric mower can be ideal for smaller lots (up to
one-third acre, about 15,000 square feet). Electric lawn mowers start with the flip of a
switch, have essentially no maintenance requirements, dont require handling gasoline or
oil and are lightweight.
6. IS THERE AN IN-HOUSE SERVICE DEPARTMENT? The ability to offer in-house service for a
customers lawn mower, dealers say, is a strong selling point. The customer who values
quality and service as much as price wants to be assured that parts will be available and
that the cost of service and time required for repairs will be reasonable.
Source: Aircap Industries Corp.
The filament or line wont cut shoes, clothing
or its own electrical cord, although the line
could raise welts or break the skin.
Protective goggles or glasses should be
worn because the spinning line can throw
debris. Electric-powered string trimmers
are lightweight and easy to operate.
Cordless models provide even more
mobility, but these are used primarily for
light cutting jobs and operating time is
limited. String trimmers allow users to cut
around posts, rocks, shrubs, etc., without
damaging the tool. The only wear is on
the nylon line, which may need to be
replaced as it frays. Some units have auto-
matic feed systems to play out more cut-
ting line.
The smaller electric units weigh about 3
lbs. with a 1/8- to 1/10-hp power source. The
cutting diameter is approximately 7 to 10.
Heavier-duty models weigh 4 to 8 lbs.
with up to a 3/4-hp motor. Cutting lines
are about .06 in diameter and can cut up
to a 16-wide swath. A second adjustable
assist handle is usually available to pro-
vide two-handed operation and more con-
trol. With the wider cutting radius and
more powerful motors, these models can
handle larger jobs more easily.
Gas-powered string trimmers were original-
ly made for commercial users and owners
with large acreage. These weigh about 14 to
25 lbs. and are powered by a two-cycle
engine.
Lighter, scaled-down models can be used
by homeowners; these models weigh about
10 to 14 lbs. and provide the operating free-
dom of a cordless trimmer.
The increased capacity of gas-powered
units allows the user to dig a trench between
the grass and the walk with the string. In
addition, metal bush-cutting blades are avail-
able as accessories for heavier cutting.
Optional accessories also include blade
attachments for other lawn and garden uses.
By tilting the head of the trimmer at about
a 30 angle, the tip of the line provides a
more efficient tool.
When selling these units, be sure to point
out the manufacturers safety instructions and
proper operating procedures, especially for
metal blade accessories.
LAWN SWEEPERS
If a homeowner is tired of raking leaves
and grass, a powered or hand-propelled lawn
sweeper or a riding-mower attachment may
be just what he or she is looking for. A rotat-
ing sweeping action picks up leaves, rocks,
clippings, etc. Clippings are held in a contain-
er until they can be deposited in the trash or
other area.
When looking for quality, the user should
consider an adequately powered engine, large
swivel-caster wheels for maneuverability,
solid-tufted steel-backed brushes, wide semi-
pneumatic tires with top traction for heavy
loads and brush height adjustment.
A consumer also may want a sweeper
with a wind apron to contain debris on a
blustery day.
LAWN VACUUM
CLEANERS
Another type of lawn cleaner uses the vac-
uum principle to handle debris. In addition
to lawn applications and picking up grass and
twigs, lawn vacuums can pick up paper, wood
shavings and other trash from parking lots,
factory or warehouse floors.
Two types of lawn vacuums exist. One is a
wheel-driven unit that is either pushed or rid-
den like a rotary mower. The other is a hand-
held unit that is carried around much like a
lawn trimmer.
Attachments like flexible hose kits allow
lawn vacuums to pick up debris in shrubs and
around growing plants and flowers without
the danger of damage from raking.
Flexible discharge hoses are also avail-
able on some models to load debris into a
mobile container, eliminating the need to
dump the bag.
Features in quality units include high-
capacity, self-discharging bags, interlocking
tubes, anti-vibration handles, enclosed
engines and grouped controls. On large units
look for suction force to pick up a variety of
debris; puncture-proof, semipneumatic tires
and a strong engine with direct drive.
Like many other types of outdoor power
equipment, lawn vacuums may prove to be
an excellent rental item.
SHREDDER-GRINDERS
As some states begin banning communi-
ty trash disposal of lawn clippings and
grass, these products may see increased
demand. Depending upon the model,
these machines shred, grind, tear and pul-
verize a wide assortment of materials such
as leaves, twigs, hedge clippings, brush,
branches and even thin metal.
Because of the variety of tasks performed
by these machines, you should stock those
best suited for homeowners in your market.
The basic design usually includes two
wheels, handle, intake hopper where the
debris is funneled into the cutting area,
blades and engine.
Ask the customer how he intends to use
the unit before selling a shredder-grinder.
Some shredders utilize high-speed rotating
blades to pulverize and blow debris into a
bag. These may be powered by lightweight
motors that can handle only dry debris and
bog down on damp material.
Avid home gardeners may require a heav-
ier-duty model to produce compost from
damp debris and leaves. These models shred
the debris and force it through a screen back
onto the ground.
Point out safety features such as shields
that guard against flying debris or keep the
consumers hands from touching the cutting
blades. Stress the manufacturers safety
instructions.
AIR BLOWERS
Instead of picking up leaves and debris, air
blowers use a strong blast of air to clean side-
walks, driveways, patios and garage floors.
The power unit is carried by the operator and
a hose or tube directs the air.
In addition to these uses, air blowers can
clear trash and leaves from around shrubs,
bushes, fences; they can blow leaves into a
pile instead of raking and they can blow away
light snow.
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
14
Gas-powered commercial models were
the first units on the market. Power is
derived from a heavy two-cycle gas engine
worn on the back of the operator. The
engine delivers a blast of air down a hose
which is connected to a rigid tube with a
handle to direct the air flow.
A lighter-weight version of this commercial
model, although still relatively heavy and
worn on the back, is used on large acreage
and commercial jobs.
Two-cycle gas engines power some of these
units and offer the convenience of being
cordless but are more expensive than a simi-
lar model with electrical power.
Several types of electric models are
lightweight. They are carried in the hand
and the complete one-piece unit is moved
to direct the air. Some blowers accept vac-
uum kits as an accessory.
Make sure that you ask the customer
what type of applications he will be using
the blower for so that you can suggest the
correct model.
POWER HEDGE
TRIMMERS
The most frequently sold hedge trim-
mers and shears are electrically and bat-
tery-powered units, although gasoline
models are manufactured.
Usually these tools have 14 or longer steel
blades and protective housings to guard
against shocks to the user.
Consumers should consider some of the
quality features in these tools when mak-
ing a purchase. Double-edge blades allow
the homeowner to cut in either direction
rather than in one direction as does a sin-
gle-edge blade.
Phenolic plastic housings or double-insu-
lated metal housings protect the operator
against electrical shock, and quality trimmers
are equipped with serrated or scalloped teeth
to cut through tougher stems.
The comfort of a wraparound handle is
an excellent selling point, especially since it
allows both right- and left-handed opera-
tion. Chrome plating is not just window
dressing; it protects exposed parts from rust.
While less-expensive trimmers may
have only one cutting speed, higher-
priced models usually have medium and
high speeds. Medium speed converts
power from cutting speed to cutting
power and provides better blade control,
less vibration, clean cuts, penetration of
heavy undergrowth and quicker, easier
cutting of thick branches. High speed is
better for trimming light hedges.
Trimmers should be balanced and light-
weight.
Heavy-duty models for professional use are
equipped with motors that develop more
than 1/4 hp. Clutch protected for all-day jobs,
they may have up to 200 extension cords for
access to a greater cutting area.
CORDLESS
GARDEN GOODS
Advances in battery technology, especially
in rechargeable nickel-cadmium and lead-acid
batteries, add to the appeal of cordless tools.
Units can be recharged more than 500 times.
Low voltage and a plastic housing protect
the user from electrical shock, and safety
switches prevent accidental starting.
Consumers can choose from hand or long-
handled models of cordless grass shears, and
some units are convertible. Blades come in
several sizes, and the larger the blade, the
faster grass can be cut.
Blade life is usually longer than one
season, especially since the majority of
them can be resharpened. Replacement is
required when they no longer cut cleanly
after resharpening.
Like other cordless tools, cordless hedge
trimmers eliminate the danger of slicing
through a power cord. A cycle charge will
usually last for about half an hour, while the
cutting time on larger models may be as long
as 45 minutes.
Interchangeable power packs that fit sever-
al cordless units such as grass shears, flash-
lights and trimmers encourage consumers to
build up a cordless workshop. They buy a sin-
gle power pack and add whatever attach-
ments they want. When selling these cordless
tools, it is important to make sure that con-
sumers dont expect to operate them like a
corded tool. Dull, dirty cutting edges decrease
operating time. Heavy-duty cutting with a
lightweight tool will drain the power source
quickly.
Make sure the customer understands these
facts and is aware of the operating time for
each tool he buys.
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
15
POWER BLOWER
OPERATING TIPS
1. Operate power blowers only at rea-
sonable hoursnot early in the
morning, late at night or at other
times when people are likely to be
disturbed. From 8:00 A.M. to 5:30
P.M. on weekdays, and from 9:00
A.M. to 5:00 P.M. on weekends.
2. Operate blowers at the lowest possi-
ble speed to do the job. Maximum
speed is seldom necessary.
3. Use only one piece of power equip-
ment at a time to keep noise levels
acceptable.
4. Make sure the power blowers muf-
fler is in good working order.
5. Use the full blower nozzle extension
so that the air stream can work effi-
ciently close to the ground, minimiz-
ing the spread of dust.
6. In dusty conditions, wet down sur-
faces or use mister attachments.
7. Use rakes and brooms to loosen
debris before blowing.
8. Before using a blower, check wind
direction. Look for open doors and
windows, freshly washed cars, chil-
dren or pets at play, and other things
that could be harmed by blowing
dust, leaves or debris.
9. After using blowers and other equip-
ment, clean up. Dispose of debris in
trash receptacles. Make sure none
has blown into neighboring yards.
10. Check the condition of your power
blower, including air intakes and air
filter to make sure the unit is operat-
ing properly.
11. Wear ear protection if you operate
a blower for more than two hours
per day.
Source: Echo Mfg. Co.
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
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CHAIN SAWS
Lightweight, less-expensive chainsaws
are a common homeowner purchase.
Chain saws are gasoline or electric pow-
ered, but gas powered are most common.
Power output is generally considered 1-
hp-per-cu.-in. displacement; however, pro-
fessional models have more horsepower-
per-cubic-inch displacement. At the bot-
tom end of the power-ratings chart would
be a lightweight model with as little as
1.4 cu. in. of displacement, while the pro-
fessional model will run as high as 7.5 to
8 cu. in.
Homeowners rarely need more than about
a 2.0- to 3.7-cu.-in. model.
Chain saws are direct drive and have chain
speeds from 3,000 fpm (ft. per minute) to
7,000 fpm. Advantages are lighter weight,
lower cost and faster cutting.
Weights usually are quoted as the dry
weight of the power head (with fuel and
oil tanks empty) and without the bar and
chain, which vary greatly by both type
and length. Most homeowner needs can
be satisfied with 8- to 16-lb. units. The
smallest saws may offer only a single bar
length as short as 10 or 12, while more
expensive units offer much longer inter-
changeable bars ranging from 12 to 42.
Electric chain saws, especially the smaller
models with 8 to 10 cutting bars, can be
used for trimming and pruning. Their low
cost is an especially important sales point for
occasional users. Heavy-duty extension cords
are an absolute essential.
There are quality differences that need to
be explained to customers. A sprocket-tip cut-
ting bar increases cutting speed because it
eliminates most of the friction around the bar
tip. It also keeps the chain from dragging
around the bar nose, thus eliminating bar
wear, and reduces chain stretch.
Safety is an important factor in chain saw
operation. The product must be treated with
great respect. Manufacturers are taking differ-
ent approaches to the safety problem.
You should become familiar with the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
B175.1 safety standard for chain saws. The
standard requires chain saws up to 3.8 CID
(cubic inch displacement) to pass a test limit-
ing the kickback of a saw and making at least
two separate antikickback devices a part of
each saw.
Kickback occurs when the top 90 per-
cent of the bar tip comes into contact
with an object. This may cause the bar tip
to violently kick back toward the opera-
tor. The standard is aimed at reducing the
potential harm to the operator.
Most manufacturers are meeting the stan-
dard by using a combination of low-kickback
CHAIN SAW SAFETY
It pays to instruct customers on safe chain saw operation. Here are a few rules:
1. Read the instruction manual before operating the saw.
2. Wear gloves and safety goggles when working with the saw.
3. Wear proper garments when operating the saw. Clothing should be loose enough to permit
free movement but not loose enough to snag on branches or get tangled in the chain. A
safety-toed boot is also recommended.
4. Always start the saw on the ground or other firm base and be sure the chain and bar are in
no danger of touching anything.
5. Stand to the side of the saw when cutting, never directly behind it.
6. Beware of rotational kickback, the sudden upward and backward movement of the saw
when the nose tip of the bar touches an object while the saw chain is moving.
7. Go slow in cutting. Chain saws cut so rapidly that it is easy to cut too deep or at the wrong
angle. Dont press down on the bar in an attempt to make the saw cut faster. A properly
sharpened chain will cut without pressure. Forcing it may damage the saw or injure the
operator.
8. Always stop the engine before handing the saw to another person or moving it to a new
location.
9. When finished with the saw, cover the bar and chain with a guard. If storing for a long peri-
od, empty the fuel tank.
10. Do not fill with gasoline when engine is either hot or running and do not smoke. Store the
fuel in a safe container.
11. Keep saw clean of leaves and sawdust and keep handle free of grease.
CHAIN SAW MAINTENANCE
First rule of caring and dueling of a chain
saw, whether gasoline-powered or electric,
is to follow recommendations of the man-
ufacturer. But some rules are common to
all power saws.
Manufacturers recommend a gas/oil mix
ratio from 16:1 to 50:1, depending on the
type of two-cycle lubricant used. Chain
and guide bars need frequent lubrication,
and many saws have a built-in reservoir
and dispensing system. Special bar and
chain oil is available which adheres to the
chain components longer, providing
greater protection against wear. On some
models a manual override provides addi-
tional lubrication.
Chains should last a long time, but they
will become dull eventually. The time to
sharpen a saw is when it first begins to
get dull. Sharpening kits are a good add-
on suggestion. Professionals charge about
the price of the kit each time they sharpen
a blade.
Semi-automatic chain sharpening systems
are available on some chain saws. With
these, a sharpening stone may be activat-
ed against a specially designed chain to
help operators avoid manual sharpening.
When a new chain is needed, the user will
find no difficulty in changing it if he fol-
lows manufacturers instructions. A new
chain may stretch slightly when first
used, so it should be operated initially at
partial throttle and then adjusted.
Adhering to chain saw safety rules (see
Chain Saw Safety in this chapter) will
protect the user and the saw. Its basic,
but worth mentioning: Be sure not to
touch the cord of an electric chain saw
with a blade when the saw is in operation.
chain and one other device such as a tip
guard, chain brake or low-kickback bar.
Low-kickback chain has extra links or
rakers added near the cutters which pre-
vent the chain from cutting too deeply
into the wood. This greatly reduces the
risk of kickback. These chains can be retro-
fitted to older-model saws.
The Consumer Product Safety Commission
points out that key features of the voluntary
standard include a test for measuring the
kickback potential of chain saws and the
establishment of a maximum computed kick-
back angle limit of 45 for gasoline-powered
chain saws under 3.8 CID.
The standard also requires that all such
chain saws must be equipped with a front
hand guard plus at least two of the following:
a low- or reduced-kickback saw chain, tip or
nose guards, chain brakes, reduced-kickback
guide bars or some other feature that will
reduce the risk of injury.
Reduced-kickback bars are designed with a
smaller radius, which reduces the kickback
area and contact area for cutters at the tip of
the bar. Bar tip guards eliminate the possibili-
ty of cutting with the tip of the bar, thus
eliminating the potential for kickback.
Another safety device is called a chain
brake. It is intended to stop the moving chain
on a running saw. When the saw begins to
kick back, the users hand, if correctly posi-
tioned, hits the chain brake to stop the saw.
Stress the necessity of reading the owners
manual before using the saw and the need to
regularly clean the brake of dirt and oil.
Other safety features include throttle latch-
es for safer, easier starting; safety triggers to
help avoid accidental acceleration; muffler
shields and chain catchers to prevent a bro-
ken or slipped chain from lashing back at the
operator; nonsymmetrical bars and low-kick-
back chains.
The cutting length of a saw without a tip
guard is greater than the bar length. It is actu-
ally twice the bar length. In other words, a
saw with a 10 bar can be used to cut
through a 20 diameter tree or log, half the
diameter from each side.
For specific details about saws carried in
your store, it will be necessary to study
manufacturer literature carefully. Features
differ from brand to brand. But a few gen-
eral points need to be stressed in conversa-
tions with customers.
Youll need to explain the proper mixture
of oil and gas and stress the importance of
keeping the saw chain oiled. Some saws have
automatic oilers; others require hand pump-
ing. The oil filter must be kept clean. The oil
and gas must be drained from the saw when
not in use.
The saw chain accessory market is growing
about as fast as the chain saw market. To
sharpen saws, consumers need a file guide,
depth gauge and proper files. Chain lubri-
cant, engine oil, gas cans with flexible spouts
and funnels are other good sellers.
For specific details about the saws and parts
needed, consult manufacturers literature or
ask your supplier.
LOG SPLITTERS
Efforts to conserve energy and cut utility
bills have brought the woodpile into sharp
focus; cutting fireplace and stove wood is
much easier with log splitters.
Manually operated log splitters drive a
splitting wedge into logs after the wedge is
hit with a sledge. Powered log splitters are
much quicker.
Engineering techniques may vary from
model to model depending upon the manu-
facturers, so you should familiarize yourself
with the company literature on the models
that you sell. Generally, hydraulic action pro-
vides the force to drive a splitting ram into a
log secured in the frame.
There are also screw models that are cone
shaped and turn or bore their way into the
wood to split the log.
Log splitters may be powered by gasoline
engines with as little as 3.5 hp. There are also
models with electric motors. More horsepow-
er doesnt necessarily mean more splitting
power. Splitting power is the result of a well-
matched pump, cylinder and engine, which
allows the system to operate more efficiently
with less horsepower.
To find out how well matched these three
elements are, extend the ram to the wedge
after starting the splitter. Keep the ram in this
position for five to six seconds and if the
engine stalls or labors heavily, the system is
not properly matched or adjusted. This can
result in less than optimum splitting power
for the amount of horsepower the unit has.
Engines may range from 5 hp to 25 hp,
and most units will split logs up to 24 long.
Some splitters can also be towed behind a car
to the woods to split logs.
A deadman neutral return control handle
is a desirable safety feature. Cycling times
vary with different models, but the faster the
cycle, the more wood you can split.
You may also want to offer these units on a
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
17
LOG SPLITTER GLOSSARY
The Logsplitter Manufacturers Association
offers the following list of terms to help iden-
tify and explain elements of the log splitter.
AIR GAPthe clear space remaining
between the ram and the cutting wedge
at the furthest outstroke of the ram drive
or wedge drive system.
DEADMAN CONTROL LEVERoperator
control lever that, when engaged into the
forward position, activates the drive sys-
tem of the piston; when released by the
operator, disengages all forward move-
ment of the drive system. When operator
releases the control lever, it will automati-
cally return to a neutral position.
HYDRAULIC RAM DRIVE WOOD SPLIT-
TERmachine that utilizes pressurized
fluid and a piston drive system to force
wood through a cutting wedge or a cut-
ting wedge through wood.
LOG TRAYS OR LOG HOLDERSsystem
to hold or position a log on top plate of
the log splitter.
MECHANICAL RAM DRIVE WOOD
SPLITTERmachine that uses a mechani-
cal ram drive system to force wood
through a cutting wedge or a cutting
wedge through wood.
RAM DRIVEa flat piece of steel mount-
ed to a driven piston system that forces
wood against a stationary or movable
wedge.
SPEED OF STROKEaverage rate of trav-
el of the ram or wedge drive system
through its splitting stroke under a no-
load condition.
WEDGE DRIVEcutting wedge that is
mounted to a piston drive system that
forces the wedge into a piece of wood,
thereby causing the wood to split. With
this system, the wedge moves into the
wood which is stationary on the unit.
rental basis, but be sure to provide adequate
instruction to ensure safe operation.
The Logsplitter Manufacturers Association
offers the following safety tips when operat-
ing one of these splitting systems.
o Both ends of each log should be cut as
square as possible to help prevent log from
riding out of splitter.
o Never place hands or feet between log and
splitting wedge or between log and ram
during forward or reverse stroke.
o Dont straddle the splitter when using it.
o Never split two logs on top of each other.
o Never load splitter while ram is in motion.
o Keep fingers away from any cracks that
open in log during splitting operation.
o Never move splitter while it is running.
o Operate splitter on level ground and
always block wheels to prevent movement
of the log splitter while in operation.
POWER RAKES OR
THATCHERS
Power rakes or thatchers may produce
more volume as rental items or commercial
sales than as consumer sales.
They are expensive, hard to store and infre-
quently used by most homeowners.
The power rake or thatcher brings up the
thatch so it can be gathered by a vacuum or
brush-type sweeper. Thatch is matted dead
grass imbedded in the turf lying just atop the
soil, and the material must be removed if fer-
tilizer, air and moisture are to penetrate into
the grass root system.
A tine-type reel will remove dead thatch
without disturbing the soil or removing live
grass. The action of a knife and flail reel is
much more severe, but is required when it is
necessary to depopulate or remove part of the
turf with the dead thatch.
Thatch removal also eliminates a breeding
place for lawn insects and fungus growth,
which cause damage to a lawn.
TILLERS
Tillers can be used in both large and small
gardens in addition to small-acreage farming
to prepare the ground for planting and to cul-
tivate the growing crop. After harvesting,
tillers can mulch refuse back into the soil.
Multiuse tillers can convert into snow-
plows or pushers for winter use.
Tillers are available in both front and rear-
tined models. Front-positioned tines are driv-
en by the engine and actually pull the tiller,
relieving the user of pushing it.
Rear-positioned tines are usually found in
larger units, which are more suited for multi-
acre gardens than backyard gardens.
Front-tined tillers can plow to within 1 or
2 of a walk, foundation or other plants, but
some rear-tined tillers need at least 8 clear-
ance. Others, however, can till up to a walk-
way and within 1 or 2 of a wall.
Mini-tillers are excellent for homeowners
with small gardens. They are relatively low
priced, lightweight and easily stored in a
garage or basement.
Electric mini-tillers or cultivators are even
smaller and are good to use around flower
gardens close to the house.
Mini-tillers are powered by 2-hp motors
and are generally chain driven. Tilling area
varies from 6 to 18 wide, while regular-size
tillers will handle areas up to 26 wide. Mini-
tillers weigh under 80 lbs., with some tipping
the scales at only 60 lbs.
Regular-sized tillers have 10 to 14 tines
which are driven by 3- to 5-hp motors. Some
are chain driven but many are gear driven,
and the units may weigh as much as 300 lbs.
Tining attachments can expand the tilled area
well beyond 26.
Many models have reverse as well as for-
ward drive, and a deadman control is a good
safety device on models with reverse drive.
Tines are available in a variety of designs,
but the most common has its cutting edge
slanted upward so it strikes the soil at an
angle, slicing into the soil, which decreases
root and vine entanglement.
Tine assemblies usually have four knives,
and if tines are detachable, all can point in
one direction or they can alternate. Tilling
widths range up to 26, depending on tine
directions and on whether two, four or more
tine assemblies are used. The best tillers for
backyard work will have adjustable widths,
narrowing to at least 11 for passage between
crowded rows. Top tine speeds are usually 75
rpm to 100 rpm.
Some tines merely scratch the surface while
others pulverize dirt as deep as 9.
Transmissions in top-quality tillers utilize
precision-fitted worm and ring gears, with
two ball or roller bearings on both the drive
and tine shafts. Some chain-driven models
are available.
Higher-horsepower motors enable the user
to till at slower speeds without stalling the
engine, and this is important when the going
is rough.
Chain-driven tillers have no ring and
worm transmission, and producers claim this
is an advantage because it eliminates trans-
mission heating. Another advantage claimed
is that since tines can be turned backward as
well as forward when not in gear, no reverse
gear is necessary.
SNOW THROWERS
Lightweight snow throwers or powered
snow shovels are very popular, especially in
regions that experience frequent, but moder-
ate, snowfall.
In congested urban areas and in the south-
ern fringes of the Snowbelt, these models are
big sellers, but in the primary Snowbelt, con-
sumers prefer heavier equipment.
The basic components of a snow thrower
are the engine, blades to break up snow,
auger or paddles to pull snow in, impellers to
eject snow and chutes to direct thrown snow.
The combination of these components
depends on whether the model is a single- or
two-stage thrower.
Single-stage units are lighter, easier to
maneuver and less expensive than two-
stage units. Single-stage units use one
action to break up snow, draw it in and
discharge it. Two-stage throwers use sepa-
rate augers or fans and impellers with the
former breaking up and pulling in snow
and the latter propelling it forward or out
to one side. Directional controls adjust
the discharge chute so snow is thrown in
the desired direction.
Two-stage units can maneuver as much as
one ton of snow per minute, throwing it up
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
18
A UT OMOT I V E & OUT DOOR P OWER EQUI P MENT
19
to 30. However, some high-performance sin-
gle-stage units can throw snow as far as small-
er two-stage units.
Heavy-duty units are all metal, have 3-
hp or larger engines (two- or four-cycle),
20 to 32 clearing widths and may be
able to throw up to a ton of snow a
minute as far as 40.
Lighter-weight, less-expensive models
are usually sufficient for ordinary home
snow clearing. These may have combina-
tion plastic (high-density polyethylene)
and aluminum construction, a 2-1/2-hp
engine and as small as a 14 clearing
width. These have the ability to clear a
50 driveway of 3 snow depth in about
10 minutes.
Gasoline-powered units offer 3 to 11 hp,
two- or four-cycle engines, cutting widths
from 14 to 32, automatic rewind or recoil
(optional electric) starters, two to five forward
speeds and one reverse speed (up to 2-1/2
mph).
Electric units have clearing widths of 16
to 18. Power units must be totally enclosed
to prevent snow and water from getting into
the motor.
Quality features to look for in snow throw-
ers are chain and gear drive, fully-enclosed
transmission and gear drive to eliminate
problems of snow and ice on drive train,
clutch control operating from handle,
adjustable rollers for paved surfaces and skids
for unpaved ones, heavy steel or good plas-
tic/metal construction, semipneumatic tires
(tractor treads recommended) and chains
available for use on inclines.
When consumers are shopping for a snow
thrower, find out how large an area they
intend to clear to help determine which
model best suits their needs.
For instance, in a region that experi-
ences frequent snowfalls of 6 or more, if
the customer has a large driveway to clear,
he may need an auger-type model. These
spiral blades spin like a screw, compact the
snow and throw it out the discharge
chute. These can come in both single-stage
and two-stage models.
Instead of the auger types, a paddle model
with two to three paddles made of hard rub-
ber or plastic mounted on a rotating drum
may be more appropriate for areas with
lighter snowfall. The paddles usually will not
dig as deeply as augers, which could force the
operator to make repeated passes over the
same area to remove a heavier snowfall.
Lightweight snow-thrower models, or
compacts, retail for about $250 to $500 and
heavier-duty, self-propelled units such as the
auger variety may run as high as $1,500.
Consumer Reports says that the typical
self-propelled thrower has two deadman con-
trolsone for the auger and one for the driv-
ing wheels. When the operator releases those
controls, auger and wheels automatically
come to a stop.
When selling a unit to a customer, rein-
force the safety story. Most injuries
involve hands used to unclog units. An
operator should never use a hand or a
stick to remove clogged snow or ice when
the machine is running.
An operator should avoid touching hot
mufflers, cylinders or fins; pull starter cord
rapidly to prevent kickback and allow the
engine to cool before adding fuel.
If the consumer has previously owned a
snow thrower with a manual starter or if the
person is elderly, an electric starter makes a
good add-on sale.
PORTABLE
GENERATORS
Portable generator sales have been sparked
by a growing homeowner and recreational
market. The majority of units sold are 5,000
watts (5 kilowatts) or below, which translates
into consumer and light commercial sales, an
ideal market for do-it-yourself retailers.
Electricity is generated by means of a gaso-
line-powered engine.
Portable or small stationary generators in
the 5-kilowatt-and-under category are prima-
rily bought for standby or emergency power
to the home, for recreational use, for con-
struction work and by farmers.
Standby units come in 1,200 to 5,000
watts, with the 2,000- to 3,500-watt models
the most popular. Some gasoline-powered
units are compact with low noise level and
put out 750 watts of power.
Prices vary depending upon the options;
some emergency power kits include a gen-
erator and accessories to put a complete
emergency power system together. The
system may include a generator, gasoline
storage cans, power-transfer switch, power
attachment to the house wiring and a
housing or cover. Battery-powered electric
starting may be added.
Other accessories include dollies to move
the units, covers, low-noise mufflers, conver-
sion kits that allow the units to run off liquid
propane or natural gas, battery chargers and
spark arrestors.
THE SAFE WAY TO
REMOVE SNOW
1. If using a snow thrower, be sure the
area is clean and avoid excessive
force. Let the machine do the work.
2. If shoveling, use a shovel that is pro-
portionate to your lifting ability. Use
arms and legs to do the work.
3. Avoid twisting and jerking motions;
they are the leading cause of back
injuries.
4. Dress in several layers of clothing
muffler, jacket, sweater, etc., so you
can take off outer layers as you warm
up to the job.
5. Be careful. Snow shoveling requires 6
to 15 times the energy required dur-
ing rest period. This is comparable to
running at a speed of nine miles an
hour.
To dig out a 50, double-car driveway
after a 4 wet snowfall, you have to
remove four tons of snow!
WHO GETS THE MOST SNOW?
Rochester, N.Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89.6
Denver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59.5
Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52.7
Hartford, Conn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52.0
Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46.8
Minneapolis/St. Paul . . . . . . . . . . .46.3
Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41.9
Detroit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40.5
Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39.8
Amounts are record mean snowfalls for
these cities.
CHAPTER TWO:
INSULATION MATERIALS
CEILING MATERIALS
ROOFING MATERIALS
VENTILATION PRODUCTS
GUTTERING
SIDING
BUILDING PANELS
DECORATIVE ITEMS
DOORS
WINDOWS
WROUGHT IRON
COLUMNS/POSTS
KITCHEN CABINETS
WALLBOARD
CLOSET LINING
PATCHING MATERIALS
WEATHER STRIPPING
FLOOR COVERINGS
TILE
UTILITY BUILDINGS
AND STRUCTURES
CHAPTER TWO:
INSULATION MATERIALS
CEILING MATERIALS
ROOFING MATERIALS
VENTILATION PRODUCTS
GUTTERING
SIDING
BUILDING PANELS
DECORATIVE ITEMS
DOORS
WINDOWS
WROUGHT IRON
COLUMNS/POSTS
KITCHEN CABINETS
WALLBOARD
CLOSET LINING
PATCHING MATERIALS
WEATHER STRIPPING
FLOOR COVERINGS
TILE
UTILITY BUILDINGS
AND STRUCTURES
BUILDING
Materials
2
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
I Energy efficiency remains an important
consideration when consumers choose
products such as insulation, doors and
windows, and employees should be pre-
pared to sell the conservation benefits of
one product over another.
The ENERGY STAR Windows program is a voluntary partnership
between the U.S. Department of Energy and the fenestration
industry to promote sales of energy-efficient windows, doors and
skylights.
All ENERGY STAR windows must be NFRC (National Fenestration
Rating Council) rated, certified and labeled for both U-factor and
Solar Heat Gain. The program establishes three climate regions
with one recommended product designation for each region. For
example, in the northern region, windows and doors must have a
U-factor rating of 0.35 or below, while skylights must have a U-fac-
tor rating of 0.45 or below. For more information, call the ENERGY
STAR hotline at (800) 363-3732 or visit its Web site at www.ener-
gystar.gov.
Building material products continue to be refined by manufac-
turers, who are developing enhanced and alternative products that
offer improved performance over the traditional offering. Today's
homeowners value products that require less maintenance and
offer functional yet decorative appeal.
Another important factor in the building materials category is the
employees need to know local building codes and product prefer-
ences in a particular town or region. The quality and applicability
of building materials for specific projects often depend on various
factorssuch as weights and stylesthat vary both by geograph-
ical location and the building itself.
BUILDING
Materials
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
2
INSULATION
MATERIALS
Most home heatingand with it, many
dollars in heating and cooling costsis lost
through the attic because warm air rises.
Therefore, the attic floor is one of the most
important places in a house for additional
insulation. It is also the easiest place to insu-
lateand it can help reduce the need for air
conditioning in the summer.
Fiberglass blanket insulation is the most
commonly used material for d-i-yers. Others
include mineral fiber, mineral granules and
reflective foil.
Although each kind of insulation has dif-
ferent characteristics and benefits, the effec-
tiveness of insulation is ultimately measured
in R-values. "R" refers to "resistance to heat
flow." The R-value of thermal insulation
depends on the type of material, its thickness
and density. The higher the R-value, the
greater the insulation effectiveness.
Effectiveness of an insulated wall or ceiling
also depends on how and where it is
installed. For example, insulation that is com-
pressed will not provide its full rated R-value.
Also, the overall R-value of a wall or ceiling
will be slightly less than the R-value of the
insulation itself since some heat flows around
the insulation through the studs and joists.
The Department of Energy recommends R-
values, based on type of fuel used and zip
code area. A computer program is available to
help homeowners calculate the amount of
insulation appropriate for their house. It
includes weather and cost information for
local regions defined by the first three digits
of each zip code. It can be found on the
Internet at www.ornl.gov/roofs+walls.
The minimum recommendation for attics
in homes heated by gas or oil in most south-
ern locations is R-19. The recommendation
for an electrically heated home in the same
location is R-30. The minimum recommenda-
tion for homes in the coldest climates
regardless of heating methodis R-49.
R numbers can be added together. For
example, two R-19 batts can be stacked
upon each other to create R-38 insulation.
(R-38 insulation is recommended for most
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
3
WHERE TO INSULATE
1. In unfinished attic spaces, insulate between and over the floor joists to seal off living
spaces below.*
1A. attic access door
2. In finished attic rooms with or without dormer, insulate...
2A. between the studs of knee walls;
2B. between the studs and rafters of exterior walls and roof;
2C. ceilings with cold spaces above;
2D. extend insulation into joist space to reduce air flows.
3. All exterior walls, including...
3A. walls between living spaces and unheated garages, shed roofs or storage areas;
3B. foundation walls above ground level;
3C. foundation walls in heated basements, full wall either interior or exterior.
4. Floors above cold space, such as vented crawl spaces and unheated garages. Also insulate...
4A. any portion of the floor in a room that is cantilevered beyond the exterior wall below;
4B. slab floors built directly on the ground;**
4C. as an alternative to floor insulation, foundation walls of unvented crawl spaces;
4D. extend insulation into joist space to reduce air flow.
5. Band joists.
6. Replacement or storm windows and caulk and seal around all windows and doors.
* Well-insulated attics, crawl spaces, storage areas and other enclosed cavities should be ventilated to
prevent excessive moisture build-up.
** For new construction, slab on grade insulation should be installed to the extent required by building
codes, or greater.
areas of the countrywhen a house is air
conditioned as well as heated.) It's also pos-
sible to add loose insulation on top of a bot-
tom layer of batts, and then add the two R
numbers together.
Insulation batts can also be added to attics
with some insulation, though the consumer
should be advised to use unfaced batts.
Generally, if an attic floor has less than 9" of
insulation, it needs more.
Homeowners should check the informa-
tion on the insulation label to make sure that
the product is suitable for the intended appli-
cation. A good insulation label should have a
clearly stated R-value and information about
health and safety issues. An informative label
should state:
o The type of insulation material;
o The R-value (measured at 75);
o The types of spaces that can be insulated;
o Safety precautions in application and use,
including any fire-hazard related restric-
tions;
o The quantity in the package;
o The name and address of the manufacturer
or distributor.
For more information, click (Saving
Money With Insulation).
Fire Retardation
Mineral wool batts, blanket and blowing
wool are non-combustible. Mineral fiber insu-
lation, including fiberglass and rock wool, is
formed of either molten glass, metal slag or
rockmaterials that won't burn.
However, brown paper or internal bub-
blepack vapor barriers on batts and blankets
are flammable and must be covered after
installation. Ordinary gypsum board is ade-
quate covering.
Cellulose is a paper product and there-
fore naturally combustible. When properly
treated with fire-retardant chemicals (rep-
utable manufacturers treat cellulose), cel-
lulose is a safer insulation, but it can still
burn when exposed to a heat source such
as recessed lighting, fireplace stacks or
other electrical fixtures.
You should check to ensure that whatever
brand you stock meets the Consumer Product
Safety Commission's regulations for cellulose
insulation. Also, point out to customers that
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
4
NEW INSULATION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR YOUR AREA
A. These recommendations are based on the assumption that no structural modifications are needed to
accommodate the added structure.
B. R-value of full wall insulation, which is 3-1/2 thick, will depend on material used. Range is R-11 to R-
13. For new construction, R-19 is recommended for exterior walls. Jamming an R-19 in a 3-1/2 cavity
will not yield R-19.
C. Insulate crawl space walls only if the crawl space is dry all year, the floor above is not insulated and all
ventilation to the crawl space is blocked. A vapor barrier (e.g. 4 or 6 mil. polyethylene film) should be
installed on the ground to reduce moisture migration into the crawl space.
D. Thermal response of existing space for cooling benefits does not suggest additional insulation.
NOTE: For more inforamtion see:
DOE Insulation Fact Sheet (DOE/CE-0180)
U.S. Department fo Energy
Technical Information Center
P.O. Box 62, Oakridge, TN 37830
Source: U. S. Department of Energy
CEILINGSBELOW FLOORSOVER B C
VENTILATED UNHEATED EXTERIOR WALLS CRAWL SPACE
ATTICS CRAWL SPACES, (WOOD FRAME) WALLS
BASEMENTS
CLIMATE ZONE ELECTRIC GAS OR ALL FUEL TYPES
RESISTANCE OIL
1. 49 49 19 11 19
2. 49 38 19 11 19
3. 38 38 19 11 19
4. 38 38 19 11 19
5. 38 30 19 11 19
6. 38 30 19 11 19
7. 30 30 (D) 11 19
8. 30 19 (D) 11 11
the word "fire-retardant" on product packag-
ing does not mean "fire-proof."
Vapor Retardation
Vapor from normal household water usage
naturally moves toward the exterior of the
home during cold times of year, when fami-
lies are heating their homes. A vapor retarder
is important to prevent condensation, which
occurs in the insulation or when the vapor
reaches a colder surface in the wall cavity
causing wood to rot and allowing mold and
mildew to grow over time. Siding and other
exterior materials can also cause condensa-
tion, especially when painted several times
and sealed.
Vapor-retardant facings on faced build-
ing insulation are the most common form
of material used to prevent condensation.
However, other materialssuch as treated
paper and metallic foilcan do the job as
well. Also popular is polyethylene sheet-
ing, which can be applied over unfaced
insulation.
Vapor retarders should be installed
toward the interioron the side of the insu-
lation that is warm in winter. In some
areasparticularly in the most hot and
humid areas in the deep Southvapor retar-
dation should either be omitted or placed
on the outer surface of walls. Retailers in
these regions should refer the customer to a
professional who can determine the best
place for installation of vapor retarders.
Batts and blankets can be purchased with
a vapor retarder attached. However, if new
material is being added to insulation already
in place, use batts or blankets that do not
have an attached vapor retarder. For loose-
fill insulation or for batts and blankets not
having an attached vapor retarder, heavy-
weight polyethylene plastic sheets are avail-
able in rolls of various widths for use as
vapor retarders.
Loose-Fill Insulation
Loose-fill is poured into walls and between
joists of the attic floor. It can also be blown
into finished walls either by a professional
contractor or a d-i-yer, although d-i-yers often
struggle when trying to get the right consis-
tency. Blowing equipment for attic/wall uses
is a good rental item.
Loose-fill can be spread with a rake or
board. It settles over the years, so customers
who once had well-insulated homes may
need more insulation.
Each bag of loose insulation is labeled
according to federal specifications for both
mineral wool and cellulose. The column on
the left of the label lists the R number. The
next column tells how many bags are needed
to cover 1,000 square feet of attic floor area.
The third column gives the minimum thick-
ness after completing the job.
Some manufacturers will have two
columns on thickness for loose-fill and cellu-
lose insulation. The second of these is labeled
"settled density"an important factor, since
cellulose settles quickly. Homeowners will
want to compensate to obtain the desired R-
value after settling.
For example, to achieve a performance rat-
ing of R-30, 30 bags for each 1,000 square feet
may need to be used. (These numbers vary
from manufacturer to manufacturer.)
To help customers determine how many
bags are needed, ask them to measure the
attic floor area. For instance, if the dimen-
sions are 30' x 40', or 1,200 square feet, you
divide that number by 1,000 and get 1.2.
Your customer needs 1.2 times the number
of bags of insulation shown on the label for
1,000 square feet.
Roll Insulation
Fiberglass blanket or roll insulation comes
in continuous rolls, which vary in width
and thickness. Roll insulation that has a
vapor retarder should be installed with the
vapor retarder toward the interior or heated
area. Torn vapor barriers can be mended
with tape.
Fiberglass roll insulation is available in R-
values of R-11, R-13, R-19 and R-25, and in
thicknesses from 3-1/2" to 8".
Batt Insulation
Batt insulation is either pre-cut or perforat-
ed into shorter lengths. Batts are suggested
where there are many cross beams or other
obstructions.
Batt insulation is available in R-values of R-
11, R-13, R-15, R-19, R-21, R-22, R-30 and R-38
(with thicknesses from 3-1/2" to 12"). Batts are
typically 93" for standard sidewall cavities, but
are also available in 90", 94" and 96". Shorter
batts are used in attics, ceilings and crawl
spaces. Attic batts are typically 47" or 48".
Batts installed in walls should not be com-
pressed to fit, but should fit snugly between
studs. Also, insulation should not be stuffed
behind wires; the insulation (not the facing)
should be cut to fit around the wire.
Encapsulated Insulation
Batts and rolls are also available in fabric-
encapsulated form, allowing easy handling
by the installer and reducing dust and other
irritants. Fabric encapsulation enables the
insulation to "breathe" and prevents con-
densation build-up.
In addition, non-woven encapsulating fab-
ric tends to stay in place better than plastic-
wrap insulation. Non-woven fabric products
should meet all building code requirements
for flame spread resistance because the prod-
uct is flammable.
Rigid Insulation
Rigid board insulation can be used on the
interior or exterior of the house. Various
materials are used for rigid board insulation,
which is often applied on basement walls,
especially when paneling is also to be applied.
All polystyrene and most polyisocyanurate
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
5
HOW THICK SHOULD INSULAITON BE?
R-VALUE GLASSFIBER ROCKWOOL GLASSFIBER ROCKWOOL CELLUSOIC REFLECTIVE
BATT/ BLANKET BATT/ BLANKET LOOSE-FILL LOOSE-FILL FIBER FILL
R-11. . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1/2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . .3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 . . . . . . . . . . .4 . . . . . . . . . . . .3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R-19. . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-1/2 . . . . . . . . . .5-1/4 . . . . . . . . . .8-9 . . . . . . . . .6-7 . . . . . . . . . .5 . . . . . . . . . . . .1
R-22. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 . . . . . . . . . . . .10 . . . . . . . . . .6-8 . . . . . . . . . .6 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R-30 . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1/2-10 . . . . . . . . . . .9 . . . . . . . . . . .13-14 . . . . . . .10-11 . . . . . . . . .8 . . . . . . . . . . . .2
R-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13 . . . . . . . . . .10-1/2 . . . . . . . . .17-18 . . . . . . .13-14 . . . . . . .10-11 . . . . . . . . . . .
sheathings must be covered with 1/2" gypsum
board for this basement application.
Fiberboard sheathings impregnated with
asphalt are popular because of their durability
and low cost. Fiberboard repels water, while
the asphalt coating eliminates the need for
building paper.
Polystyrene sheathings are available in
molded board (polystyrene beads) and
extruded board. Molded board dissipates
water vapor well. Extruded board is also very
resistant to moisture but is most highly rec-
ommended for below-ground use.
Polyisocyanurate sheathings are avail-
able with aluminum foil or glass fiber mat
facers. Polyisocyanurate sheathings have
the highest R-value per inch of thickness
of all insulation products.
The R-value per thickness of polyurethane
and polyisocyanurate sheathings is very high,
but this type of rigid form insulation is not
recommended for basement walls or base-
ment floors.
Foam Insulation
Spray foam insulation is easy to use and
resistant to both fire and moisture. It may
also have a higher insulating value than
blown-in materials. However, it is more
expensive, and some shrinkage may occur.
Spray foam insulation should be used only
in closed, properly vented exterior wall cavi-
ties and sealed to the inside with vapor- and
fume-resistant paints. This insulation is par-
ticularly well suited for sealing cracks around
windows, doors and construction seams.
The Consumer Product Safety Commission
bans insulation containing formaldehyde.
However, not all foam insulation is subject to
the ban. In fact, formaldehyde is only one of
five chemically distinct types of foam insula-
tion. The other four are made from
polyurethane, polystyrene, polyethylene and
polyisocyanurate.
Foam Insulating Sealants
Polyurethane foam is an aerosol product
that expands to fill holes and gaps such as
plumbing feed-thrus, as well as sealing
around electrical outlets, vents, etc. After cur-
ing, it can be trimmed, sanded and/or paint-
ed. Unlike with caulk, the area should only
be filled about 33 percent; the expanding
foam will fill and seal the rest of the area.
Specialized formulations include triple-
expanding seal for general-purpose sealing
and insulating; minimal-expanding for win-
dows and door frames; and fast drying for
multi-step projects such as filling a crack
before painting.
Caution the consumer to wear protec-
tive gloves and eye protection. Wet foam
should be removed immediately with ace-
tone or acetone-based nail polish remover
since cured foam is hard to remove from
skin and clothes.
Reflective Foil
Reflective foil insulation comes in two dif-
ferent types. One is made of foil and poly to
trap air between the sheets of foil, generally
with bubble pack. The second type is manu-
factured to expand when installed between
stud spaces. The resistance to heat flow
depends on the heat flow direction, and this
type of insulation is most effective in reduc-
ing downward heat flow.
Reflective foil insulation comes in long
rolls of various widths. The installation of
reflective foil is a simple project, requiring
neither special tools nor protective clothing;
all that is needed is a pair of scissors and
either glue, reflective tape or a staple gun,
depending on the application.
A sturdy, yet flexible, material, reflective
foil installs easily, in conjunction with many
different building materials, and can be cut to
fit any desired shape. It is versatile and can be
used with wood, block or metal building
materials. It is typically located between roof
rafters, floor joists or wall studs. If a single
reflective surface is used alone and faces an
open space such as an attic, then it is called a
radiant barrier. All radiant barriers must have
a low emittance (0.1 or less) and high
reflectance (0.9 or more).
Other Insulation
Homeowners often use specialty insula-
tions because they are quick and easy to
install. For instance, insulation for water
heaters consists of an easily applied covering
of fiberglass or reflective foil (commonly
known as a "heating jacket"). It is slipped over
the water heater and reduces the energy
required to maintain hot water in the tank.
However, some water heatersparticularly
those manufactured in recent yearsalready
have good insulation, and some of those
manufacturers even discourage additional
insulation. Be familiar with manufacturer rec-
ommendations for any tanks in your store,
and make sure consumers are aware of recom-
mendations for their existing tanks before
they buy.
Other additional forms of insulation
include pipe insulation, which controls heat
loss when pipes carry hot waterand con-
trols condensation and dripping. Pipe insula-
tion can be slit strips of expanded foam or
wrappings of fiberglass.
Duct insulation is similar to pipe insulation
but larger in diameter. Ducts are generally
wrapped because of their different sizes.
Installation Tips
Before a consumer leaves to start any insu-
lation project, make sure he or she has a
sharp utility knife, a step ladder for high
reaches, a staple gun, a straight-edge and
measuring tape and a disposable dust respira-
tor, to comply with Occupational Safety and
Health Administration standards. Consumers
also should be advised to wear a long-sleeved
shirt with collar and cuffs buttoned, gloves,
hat and safety glasses.
In the attic, installation should be started
on one side and worked toward the center.
Homeowners adding a second layer of insula-
tion should use unfaced products. Do not
cover attic vents with insulation.
Do not cover or hand-pack insulation
around bare stove pipes, electrical fixtures,
motors or any heat-producing equipment
such as recessed lighting fixtures.
To insulate a wall cavity, each length of
insulation should be measured and cut
slightly long, which ensures a tight fit.
Again, it should be installed with the
vapor retarder facing toward the warm-in-
winter side. Wedge the blankets snugly
between the studs. Staple the flange to the
inside of the wood studs.
For unfaced insulation, a vapor retarder
should be stapled over the insulation and
directly to the studs to prevent moisture
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
6
build-up. Do not leave faced insulation or
polyethylene uncovered; these materials are
flammable. Cover with an approved interior
finish such as gypsum wallboard.
In addition, installation in the floor must
not segregate the water and drain pipes of a
house. A problem for some homeowners aris-
es when they insulate in the crawl space area
to eliminate cold floors. Instead of insulating
under the flooring and separating the pipe
system from the heated area, d-i-yers can
insulate the crawl space wall. This retains
heat not only to warm the floor, but to guard
against frozen pipes as well.
If a new room addition is above an unheat-
ed basement or crawl space, the floor should
also be insulated. To insulate the floor, slip
faced insulation blankets between the floor
joists. Again, make sure the vapor retarder
faces up, toward the warm-in-winter side. The
insulation will stay in place temporarily.
However, since you won't have a flange to
staple, install metal rods (called "insulation
supports") or crisscross wires to secure the
insulation, lacing the wire around the nails in
the joists.
When installing insulation, d-i-yers should
also ensure proper ventilation to guard
against moisture in areas such as the attic.
Also, with insufficient ventilation and move-
ment of air, odors can become a problem in
the house.
For more information, click (Saving
Money With Insulation).
CEILING MATERIALS
Ceiling types include suspended ceiling
panels, ceiling tiles or ceiling planks. Ceiling
tiles are normally 12" squares. They are also
available in a number of designs and quali-
ties. Acoustical and sculptured tiles are avail-
able. Some have a vinyl coating that allows
them to be cleaned easily.
One method of installation involves a sys-
tem of metal tracks and clips that reduces or
eliminates nailing or gluing. This method is
often sold in kits.
Ceiling tiles can also be installed by sta-
pling the tiles to wood furring strips that are
nailed to the existing ceiling at right angles to
the ceiling beams. Or tiles can be installed by
cementing them to an existing sound drywall
or plaster ceiling.
Suspended ceilings can be used to lower
high ceilings and to cover open framing,
heating ducts and other pipes, making it a
popular choice for basements. Suspended ceil-
ing panels normally are 2'x 4' or 2' x 2' in
size. They are installed with metal runners
and cross tees, which are suspended from the
ceiling (usually by wire) and from the perime-
ter moulding of the room.
The 2'x 4' panels (often called "lay-in pan-
els") come in a wide range of surface designs
such as fiber and mineral board, fiberglass,
plastic or other translucent material. In fact,
electric light fixtures are designed to lie in
place of panels. Some of these panels are
specifically designed to absorb unwanted
noise, and many are fire-resistant.
Most tile and suspended ceilings provide a
small amount of insulation value, although
some are more effective than others.
Fiberglass suspended ceiling panels can be
backloaded with additional insulation.
A cover-up ceiling tile system is suitable
for remodeling and renovating jobs.
Installed easily over existing ceiling tiles,
cover-up tiles come in a variety of classic
and traditional design finishes such as
mahogany, cherry or paintable white. The
2' x 2' tiles are designed for use with stan-
dard T-grid suspension systems.
Ceiling planks offer a wood-grain texture
look to cover unattractive drywall or plaster
ceilings with pops, cracks or stains. Planks are
typically 48" x 6" and are installed the same
way as ceiling tiles.
Ceiling medallions are specially designed
with a solid core for ornamental use. They
can also be cut with a hole cutter or keyhole
saw to accommodate lighting or ceiling fans.
They come in a wide variety of decorative
styles and range in size from 5-7/8" in diame-
ter to 37-3/8".
Domes for new and existing ceilings
change the very shape and feel of a room.
Primarily decorative, domes increase the
height of a room and allow for larger light
fixtures. They are available in round and
elliptical shapes, from classic to contemporary
designs. They come in surface mount and
recessed mount styles.
For more information, click (Installing
Ceiling Tile) or (Installing
Suspended Ceilings).
ROOFING
MATERIALS
Shingles
There are two kinds of residential asphalt
roofing products: shingles and roll roofing.
For residential asphalt roofing, shingles
represent the most common roofing choice.
On roofs that have only one layer of shingles,
a new layer can be laid on top of the firstif
the current shingles are still lying flat. A pro-
fessional should also verify the soundness of
the roof deck underneath first.
Asphalt shingles have a base mat of either
organic or inorganic material. The mats are
then saturated or coated with asphalt and sur-
faced with ceramic-coated mineral granules.
The mineral granules protect the shingles
from the sun's drying rays, giving the shingles
added protection against fireand giving the
roof its color.
Most shingles have an inorganic base. And
for most inorganic-based shingles, glass fibers
are used in the base mat. (Some now have a
polyester and fiberglass blend.) Fiberglass
asphalt shingles feature a better fire rating
and often have a longer warranty. Since they
do not absorb water, fiberglass shingles resist
cracking better than organic shingles. Most
also come with seal-down strips; these strips
are most effective when applied in warm
weather, which allows the asphalt in the strip
to soften and adhere to the next shingle.
Although not as widely used now, organic-
based shingles are a good option in climates
that experience extreme cold. They have a
base of felt or cellulose and are easy to install.
Inorganic-based shingles usually have a
Class A fire-resistance rating from
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), which also
tests the performance of asphalt shingles
against high winds. To qualify for the UL
wind-resistant label, shingles must withstand
test winds of at least 60 mph continuously for
two hours without a single tab lifting. Self-
sealing asphalt shingles that bear the UL
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
7
wind-resistance label have a factory-applied
adhesive strip. The adhesive bonds the shin-
gles to the adjoining course of shingles when
exposed to the sun.
Three-dimensional or laminated asphalt
shingle roofs are characterized by a more
rugged texture than standard three-tab shin-
gles. They also tend to weigh moreand
cost morethan standard shingles. They are
made of two or more layers that are lami-
nated to create that three-dimensional look,
which gives it an appearance closer to wood
or slate roofing.
The design life of most asphalt shingles
ranges from 15 to 40 years. Generally, the
heavier, three-dimensional shingles have the
longest life expectancy.
Many shingle manufacturers offer shingles
that are treated to resist fungus and algae,
which darken the surface of the finished roof.
These shingles are treated with copper-clad
granules. The water running off the roof dur-
ing rain will wash over the copper, which
kills the microscopic elements that form algae
and fungus.
When homeowners ask about the need to
replace their existing roof, youll need to
explain the symptoms of a worn roof that
needs replacement.
What should a homeowner look for?
Shingles that are blistered, broken or cracked,
an uneven roof surface or flat-looking shin-
gles. A certain number of granules will wear
off and collect at the bottom of downspouts.
Some of this should be expected, but exces-
sive loss should be a clue to keep close tabs
on a roof.
For more information, click (Applying
and Repairing Shingles).
Roll Roofing
Roll roofing is less expensive than shingles
and is usually applied to a lower-sloped roof
or as a supplement to shingles. It comes with
either a smooth or a mineral-covered surface.
It is composed of a heavy felt base that has
been saturated with asphalt and then coated
on both sides with more asphalt.
Roll roofing is easy to install. A cus-
tomer merely rolls it out and nails it
down, then cements the laps and covers
nail holes, leaving no space for damage
from wind, rain or snow.
A typical roll roofing, known as 90-pound
granule-coated, will cover 100 square feet. (In
roofing terminology, a "square" is a 10' x 10'
area.) A 45-pound smooth roofing, without
granules, will also cover a square. Those two
rolls, plus a smooth 65-pound roll, will suffice
for roll roofing needs. Properly applied, roll
roofing should last from 10 to 20 years.
To produce an even longer-lasting roof, the
consumer might want to use two rolls: a 45-
pound or similar smooth roll without gran-
ules that is nailed down and a 90-pound roll
placed over the smooth surface and set with a
cold asphalt-based adhesive.
For any customer interested in roll roofing,
be sure to suggest roofing nails as well as roof
coatings or cements as add-on products.
Metal Roofing
A wide variety of metal roofing options are
available that feature different fastening and
coating systems. Because of steels price and
supply stability, steel housing components
have become more popular in recent years.
The broad range of available sizes and thick-
nesses allows steel to be used in virtually any
roof system.
Steel panels are designed with either
exposed or hidden fasteners. Customers with
steel roofing must watch for rust, which can
be prevented with a coating of zinc or a mix-
ture of zinc and aluminum. The best steel
panels are manufactured with zinc.
Other Roofing Materials
Clay tile is known for its durability since it
can last for up to 50 years. Clay tile can be flat
or rounded in shape; it can even feature a
glossy surface. Clay tile available in the famil-
iar reddish brown color, but also in blue and
green. Tile can also be made of concrete.
Wood shingles and wood shakes are typi-
cally made of cedar, although composite
wood shingles are also available. Unlike
shingles, which are sawn and have a flat
shape and smoother texture, shakes have a
rougher texture. And while shingles are 1/2"
thick, shakes can be 1/2" or 3/4" thick.
Wood roofing is more expensive and more
difficult to install than asphalt shingles, and
fire-retardant treatment reduces but does
not eliminate its flammability.
Slate roofing offers excellent durability, low
maintenance and fire-resistance but is very
expensive. Color options include gray, green
and red. Like clay tile, slate roofing can weigh
three to four times that of asphalt, and not
every home can support that extra weight.
Corrugated asphalt sheets and tile systems
provide the look of metal, clay or cement tile,
but without the weight and installation cost.
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
8
ROOFING GLOSSARY
BUCKLING The distortion of asphalt shin-
gles due to the movement of the roof deck
on which they are applied.
COURSE Each successive row of shingles.
The row beginning at the eaves is the first
course.
DECK, DECKING OR SHEATHING Wood
roof surface on which the roofing material is
applied.
DRIP EDGE L-shaped weather-resistant
metal installed at exposed roof edges (eaves)
to help shed water and to protect the roofs
wood parts.
DORMER A framed window unit project-
ing out from the side of a sloping roof.
EAVES Overhanging horizontal edge of
roof structure where water runs off and gut-
ters are normally installed.
EXPOSURE When referring to shingles, it is
the surface of the shingle actually exposed to
the weather, measured by the distance from
the butt edge of one shingle to another.
FELT Building paper composed of a
tough, fibrous base saturated with asphalt.
FLASHING Strips of sheet metal or roof-
ing material used to make waterproof joints
on a roof.
GABLE The end of a wall that comes to a
triangular point under a sloping roof; also a
type of roof.
HIP The sloping line formed when two
roof decks meet; also a type of roof.
METRIC SHINGLES Slightly larger than
standard 12" x 36" shingles, typically meas-
uring 13-1/4" x 39-3/8".
RIDGE The topmost horizontal line
formed where two slopes or roof surfaces
meet.
SOIL STACK A vent pipe that passes
through the roof and requires flashing.
SQUARE The amount of roofing material
required to cover 100 square feet (10' x 10')
of roof surface.
VALLEY The trough formed where two
roof slopes meet.
They are made of organic cellulose fiber, total-
ly impregnated in asphalt, sealed with
melamine resin and painted with a primer
and finish coat.
Roof Coatings and Cements
Cold-applied roof coatings and cements are
easily applied direct from the container, and
with little or no heating necessary for applica-
tion. They employ a variety of resin technolo-
gies ranging from bituminous resins (asphalt
or coal tar) to polymeric resins (acrylic, neo-
prene and others).
Cold-applied roof coatings and cements
include the following types:
Reinforcing fabrics are used primarily with
roof cement to add strength and flexibility to
any surface repair.
Plastic roof cement is a trowel-grade, gener-
al-use sealing compound that makes flash-
ings, seams or patches in roofs and gutters
water-repellent.
Wet surface plastic roof cement is similar
to plastic roof cement but has additional
components that allow it to be applied to dry
or wet surfaces. It is a great universal product.
Fibered roof coating is used to coat the
roof's entire surface to protect against water
and weather damage.
Cold process lap cement roof adhesive
is designed to form a water-resistant and
waterproof bond with most coated roll
roofing products. Some manufacturers
offer all-temperature products, while some
products are designed for specific seasons.
Roof coatings should be stored at room
temperature and never applied to a surface
covered with ice or frost.
While roof coatings can add years of life to
a roof, they will not provide optimum per-
formance unless all damaged areas are proper-
ly repaired prior to coating. All surfaces must
be clean and free of surface rust, scale or any
other loose material. Also, drains should be
properly connected and cleared so water can
drain properly.
VENTILATION
PRODUCTS
Building codes require 1 sq. ft. of vent area
for every 150 sq. ft. of attic floor space and it
must be "balanced" or split between high and
low vent. The low vent acts as a fresh air
intake and the high acts as a moist or hot air
outlet. If a vapor barrier is present, then the
requirement goes to 1 sq. ft. for every 300 sq.
ft. of attic floor space and it must also be bal-
anced. Every shingle manufacturer now
requires adequate ventilation, otherwise their
warranty may be voided.
Ridge vents serve to vent exhaust from the
attic. Typical widths are 9" and 12". Ridge
vents prolong the life of the roof, keep the
attic dry and cool, reduce air conditioning
costs and help prevent ice dams. It is the most
effective but usually is installed when a house
is built or re-roofed. Shingle-over ridge vents
incorporate shingles that match the roof and
are nailed over the vent. Pre-drilled holes
make installation easy. Most feature baffles
because ridge vents without baffles can allow
wind and moisture to enter the attic.
For more information, click (Installing
Attic Ventilation).
To balance the flow of air, intake vents
are also needed in the soffit or eaves. Soffit
vents are usually made of either aluminum
or PVC. Reversible soffit vents can be flush
or recessed mounted.
Gable vents are designed to complement
most brands of vinyl siding. They can be
installed before or after the siding and require
little maintenance. They typically feature
open louvered joints and built-in screens to
keep out bugs and birds. Gable vents come in
a variety of shapes such as octagon, pentagon,
round, square, half-round or rectangular. If
you want gable vents to work as exhaust
vents, be sure to place them high in the gable.
Power vent systems offer a mechanical
device to control the air change in the attic.
Power ventilators are usually equipped with
automatic thermostats that activate the unit at
a predetermined temperature. They shut off
when the temperature has been reduced. In
winter, an optional humidistat can activate
and deactivate the unit. A roof unit coupled
with undereaves ventilators comprise an effec-
tive system.
A compromise-type ventilator is a wind-
driven turbine. This provides powered ventila-
tion without a motor. It is less expensive, uses
no electricity but is a larger projection from
the roof and requires a breeze to operate.
Aluminum, steel or plastic foundation vents
are used to ventilate basements and crawl
spaces. They can be used with brick, block or
frame construction.
Dryer vents provide dryer and exhaust
ventilation on siding. Most models feature
flaps or louvers that remain closed when
not in use.
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
9
BUCKLED SHINGLES
The Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers Association points out that buckling is the distortion of asphalt
shingles due to the movement of the roof deck. Homeowners with this problem or preparing to
replace an aging roof should be advised of this information.
CAUSES:
Changes in moisture content can lead to movement of wood deck. If the movement of the
shingles is great enough, it can cause buckling.
PREVENTION:
1. Use only non-veneer decking of approved exterior-grade plywood properly conditioned to be
at moisture equilibrium with the job site environment.
2. Prevent non-veneer or plywood decking from getting wet before and after application.
3. Cover wood deck with an asphalt-saturated felt shingle underlayment or with No. 1 non-per-
forated asphalt-saturated felt and apply shingles.
4. Ensure adequate attic ventilation based on FHA minimum requirements.
5. Apply shingles in accordance with shingle manufacturers recommendations.
CORRECTION:
It is necessary to ventilate the attic space to eliminate excess moisture. Exhaust fans may be nec-
essary. When buckling persists, due to roof deck movement, remove fasteners and refasten or
replace all distorted shingles.
Replacement vents can be installed over
existing siding to add ventilation or replace
old vents. A flexible flange tucks under the
siding to provide easy installation.
Roof louvers can be used for bathroom
fan exhausts, kitchen duct outlets and attic
ventilation. They are typically made of alu-
minum, although plastic roof louvers are
also available and becoming more popular.
Midget louvers help contain moisture in
sidewall construction or other areas. Wall
louvers have louvered vanes and can be
flush or recessed mounted.
Mounting blocks offer a waterproof surface
for installing outlets, lighting and plumbing
fixtures with new siding. They can be used
with wood, aluminum, vinyl, stucco, brick or
shake siding.
Range hoods come in many styles, but are
either downdraft or updraft. Downdraft
hoods are built into the stove or surrounding
counter, but are less efficient than updraft
hoods, which hang above the cooktop and
easily vent air outdoors. The most efficient
kitchen ventilation duct systems lead air out-
side on a short and straight path.
GUTTERING
Guttering is typically made of aluminum,
galvanized steel or vinyl. Wood and copper
are more expensive options, while plastic is
the least expensive alternative. Vinyl is direct-
ed specifically at the do-it-yourself market.
Galvanized box guttering comes in 4", 5"
and 6" sizes. Larger sizes will handle heavy
rainfall from large roofs. Rainfall capacity of a
guttering system is largely dependent on the
size and number of downspouts rather than
strictly gutter size.
Galvanized guttering is sturdy, but it's
unpainted and will require some type of fin-
ish. Since this is the traditional type of gutter-
ing, however, a long line of accessories is
available. Regular cleaning of galvanized steel
gutters is especially important for their long-
term endurance. Metal roof paint and alu-
minum paints are options for customers wor-
ried about rusting on the insides of galva-
nized guttering.
Aluminum guttering weighs less, but con-
sumers generally end up happiest when they
select the thicker versions, which are stronger.
A full line of prefinished accessories must also
be stocked, including endcaps, inside and
outside miters, downspouts, tees, elbows and
connectors. White blind rivets may be used to
secure metal parts together and aluminum or
nylon pin anchors secure downspout straps
to brick and masonry walls.
Vinyl guttering systems can be snapped or
glued (solvent-welded) together, depending
on the system; however, both types are easy
for the d-i-yer to install. Vinyl guttering
comes in 4" and 5" sizes. High-velocity-drop
outlet fittings enable the installer to satisfy
the needs of larger roofs without increasing
the sizes of the gutters, thanks to the
increased carry-away capacity these fittings
add to the downspouts.
Wood guttering can take a lot of wear
and tear, but it must be oiled regularly for
maximum durability. Wood guttering can
be a nice complement to a home featuring
wood siding.
Plastic guttering is the least expensive
option but is not very durable. Prolonged
cold and hot weather can cause plastic gutter-
ing to be damaged.
Gutters should be cleaned out in the spring
and fall, either by flushing out with a hose or
scooping out debris by hand or rubber uten-
sil. Gutters should be inspected for damage;
leaks can be filled with caulk, while sagging
gutters can usually be repaired by replacing
some of the fasteners.
Several products have been developed to
keep leaves out of gutters, and they make
excellent add-on sellers. Some are designed to
be installed over existing guttering, while oth-
ers are designed as complete guttering sys-
tems. One is a plastic mesh that covers the
gutter, allowing water in but keeping leaves
out. Plastic gutter guard is rust- and rot-proof,
and its UV-resistant. Several aluminum prod-
ucts operate on a similar principle. Another
model is sloped so rain water is dispersed
away from the home and leaves wash away
without gathering.
Mounting brackets are available in a
variety of styles, including an "invisible"
bracket system. These brackets hold the
gutter from the inside, giving an unbroken
look to a run of guttering.
Manufacturers make vinyl guttering sys-
tems in several colors. The fitting compo-
nents are injection-molded in the appro-
priate color. Vinyl systems can also be
painted a different color, although paint-
ing is not necessary.
To make installation easier, some manufac-
turers make available a slip agent such as sili-
cone liquid to assist in snapping the guttering
components together. Although not required
for the successful functioning of the finished
system, this slip agent speeds up the installa-
tion process.
Vinyl gutter systems are usually made of
rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which is
subject to expansion and contraction as
much as 1/4" in 10' due to extremes in
temperature. Manufacturers, however,
allow for their products to accommodate
expansion and contraction.
For more information, click (Hanging
Gutters) or (Repairing Gutters and
Downspouts).
SIDING
Siding is a crucial part of a homes appear-
ance. Each geographical area has favorite
materials. Weather conditions also dictate
which material will work best. Vinyl is the
most popular siding material and it continues
to pick up market share. Other siding options
include aluminum, wood, steel and concrete
or cement fiber.
Vinyl siding has risen in popularity as the
technology used to produce it has improved.
Another reason is that the color can penetrate
the material, making it less likely to come off
in flakes or chips. Other advantages to vinyl
siding are low maintenance and easy installa-
tion. It also comes in a wide variety of colors,
textures and profiles, including grains that
closely resemble real wood. Panel thickness of
about 1/20" is available in various widths up
to 12" in lap style. This siding must be
allowed to expand and contract slightly with
temperature changes; the factory-made nail
holes are slotted to permit movement.
Architectural accessories replicating tradi-
tional aesthetics are now available to help
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
10
homeowners match their vinyl siding with
other exterior elements such as gables, door
and window surroundings, crown moulding
and soffits.
For more information, click (Installing
Vinyl Siding).
Aluminum siding is used less frequently
these days. Although it attaches strongly
to the house, it has a tendency to dent
easily and fade in color. Aluminum siding
has a baked-on enamel factory finish that
fades over time and needs to be repainted.
It can be installed over wood, stucco, con-
crete block and other surfaces that are
structurally sound. Aluminum siding's
durability is affected by its thickness,
which is not the case with vinyl siding.
Steel siding is made of galvanized steel
with a prefinished vinyl finish. With the tex-
tured pattern of wood and the strength of
steel, it is generally more expensive than alu-
minum and vinyl.
Aluminum and steel siding materials
need to be grounded with a No. 8 or larger
wire to the cold water service or the elec-
trical service ground.
Wood siding is available in many different
species and patterns. Redwood and red cedar
are the most popular species (with pine,
cypress, spruce, Philippine mahogany and
others also used). Redwood naturally ages to a
driftwood gray. Cedar clapboard can be left to
"weather" to a light gray color, but the even
color of a light stain is generally preferred.
Wood siding can be finished naturally,
stained or painted. Wood is a natural insula-
tor and adds to the R-value of the wall.
Retailers should store wood siding off the
ground where it will stay dry.
Wood has been losing popularity
because of its high maintenance, so manu-
facturers have developed wood siding that
requires less maintenance, is easier to
install and results in less waste. Architect
Knotty Cedar siding is a premium, high-
performance wood siding that is kiln dried
and coated for longer life. It is available in
plain, rabbeted and finger-jointed profiles.
One of the newer types of siding is con-
crete or fiber cement. Fiber cement siding
looks, feels and installs similar to wood. This
siding is created by mixing Portland cement,
sand, clay and wood fiber and forming it into
siding panels with various textures including
wood grain, smooth or stucco texture. It usu-
ally comes primed and ready to paint. Fiber
cement has a class 1 (A) fire rating and resists
rot and wood-boring insects.
Brick remains a premium siding choice,
with installation reserved for professionals.
Other terms to be familiar with are the out-
side corner posts, which are used to receive
siding and provide a more finished appear-
ance at the outside corner of adjoined walls;
inside corner posts, which do the same at the
inside corner; starter strip, which is used to
secure the first course of siding to the wall; J-
channel, which provides a finished appear-
ance around doors and windows; soffit, the
material that encloses the underside of an
eave; and fascia, the material that encloses
the front of an eave.
BUILDING PANELS
Building panels are used primarily for
color- and light-transmitting properties in
awnings, over patios, carports, windows and
porches. They are made of fiberglass/plastic,
vinyl or polycarbonate. Translucent and shat-
terproof, the products combination of
strength and light weight provide excellent d-
i-y opportunities.
In the residential field, the most popular
shapes are 2-1/2" corrugated (usually 26" wide
for overlapping on rafters spaced on 2' cen-
ters) and 4" x 5/8" rib (always 26" wide).
Standard lengths are 8', 10' and 12', with
some types available in 14' and 16' lengths.
Panel weights per square foot for residen-
tial use are usually 4 oz. or 5 oz. The 6 oz.
sells well in areas that get heavy snows.
Lighter panels cost less, but they also require
more understructure to meet building codes.
Flat sheets of fiberglass are often used to
replace glass in an existing sash. They come
in 24", 30", 36" and 48" widths and in 8', 10'
and 12' lengths as well as 50' rolls.
Installation of panels requires ordinary
hand tools.
Weather-resistant vinyl and polycarbonate
panels come in two styles: opaque (to block
the suns rays) and translucent (to provide
soft light). These panel types should be stored
out of the sun, preferably indoors, so no dam-
age occurs from heat build-up. Polycarbonate
is the strongest material and provides the best
snow load capacity. Vinyl translucent and
clear panels are to be installed for use in
milder weather conditions only and are not
recommended for locations with high UV or
surface temperatures. Do not overlap or apply
over existing roofing or lattice.
Accessory items contributing to add-on
sales include corrugated, rib-shaped redwood
filler strips; special aluminum nails; water-
proofing sealant and aluminum flashing.
DECORATIVE ITEMS
Decorator Beams
Decorator beams are made from wood pulp
or plastic with a hand-hewn look finished to
match most decors. Whether made of plastic
or wood, the beams are usually a square U-
shape, with the open part of the "U" going
against a ceiling or wall.
Plastic beams can be nailed or glued
against existing surfaces; wood beams can be
nailed or suspended on U-shaped mounts.
Joints where pieces fit together are difficult to
detect in either style. Both plastic and wood
can be sawed, drilled and nailed.
Solid decorative wood beams or posts are
manufactured to support mailboxes and out-
door lamps.
Simulated Brick and Stone
Imitation brick and/or stone wall facings
are made of plastic or fiberglass. Some brands
come in interlocking panels; the best-selling
ones come in individual pieces. Quality differ-
ences are difficult to detect, so the most
important difference to the customer will
generally be a realistic appearance.
Panels, for instance, are less expensive,
but theyre used less frequently because
they generally don't look as realistic. They
also cannot be cut easily to fit smaller
areas or odd corners.
Depending upon whether a panel or indi-
vidual bricks are sold, grouting between
bricks might be needed. Usually, single bricks
are attached with a ready-mixed adhesive that
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
11
looks like real mortar, thereby eliminating the
final grouting step. They can be attached to
plastic, wood or drywall surfaces.
Remind customers to follow manufacturer
instructions when installing these products
around fireplaces.
Spindles
Spindles are common decorative items.
They are turned wooden posts that come in
various diameters, shapes and lengths. They
are used as room dividers, between cabinet
bases and hanging cabinets, on stairs, as d-i-y
candle holders, as shelf supports or even as
floor and table lamp bases.
Diameters generally range from about 1-
1/2" to 4". Lengths range from 6" or 9" up to
as much as 72". Shorter spindles can be
screwed together, thus minimizing inventory
requirements and allowing the customer to
mix shapes or lengths. Prefinished spindles
are available in shades to match most home
decor needs.
Components include finials (tops), spacers,
base blocks and threaded connectors. Each
spindle sale should lead to the sale (or at least
the suggestion) of stains, paints and all their
related sundries.
Quality is apparent in the smoothness of
sanding, the ease of assembly and the fine-
ness of the woods grain.
Shutters
Exterior shutters can be made of primed
wood or plastic, and are either louvered or
raised panel. Exterior shutters are for decora-
tive purposes and are not normally operative.
Plastic shutters are weather-resistant and do
not require repair.
Standard-size shutters come in many color
choices, in 15" widths and in lengths between
25" and 81". Custom shutters range in size
from 25" to 144" and style options include
center rail, straight or arch top, no-center rail,
offset center rail, two-panel and three-panel.
With improved manufacturing process for
shutters, baked-on colors will not chip, peel
or flake. The material will not warp or rot.
Interior wood shutters can be used to cover
interior windows or as cafe doors between
rooms. Besides the conventional louvered
shutter, open frame panels are available so
that fabric inserts or translucent plastic can be
inserted. Most interior shutters are made from
pine. Louvers should move smoothly, and the
finish should be reasonably smooth and
devoid of splinters. Customers can use stains
(liquid or aerosol) or regular paints to finish
them to match room decor. Aerosol finishes,
though somewhat more expensive than liq-
uids, are often preferred for louvers because
they go on easier.
Interior shutters are stocked in widths
from 6" to 12". Heights range from 16" to
48". They are available unfinished and pre-
finished pre-hung, with hardware attached
and ready to use.
Lattice
Wood or plastic lattice panels are decora-
tive items for both exterior and interior appli-
cation. Lattice panels can be used as trellises
for climbing plants or as stylish entryways,
among other things. Basic panel sizes include
2' x 4', 2' x 8' and 4' x 8'.
Room Dividers
Two common types of room dividers or fili-
gree panels are made of wood or of translu-
cent polystyrene plastic. Pressed wood or
hardboard is usually about 3/16" thick and
sometimes veneered. Translucent plastic pan-
els which look like stained glass are available
with and without frames and are sold by the
sheet. If framed, they are ideal for room
dividers. In sheet form, they can be cut and
used as drawer and door inserts. Polystyrene
panels are 1/8" thick and usually come 2' wide
and 4' or 6' long.
Ordinary woodworking tools are used to cut
them. These plastic panels also are frequently
used as inserts for open interior shutters.
DOORS
Doors are made of wood, steel, fiberglass or
composite material.
With consumers becoming more con-
cerned with energy conservation yet still con-
fused by their options when purchasing
doors, retailers should educate them about
the rating system developed by the National
Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC). NFRC
labels enable builders and homeowners to
easily compare the energy efficiency of differ-
ent doors.
For more information, click (Framing and
Hanging Doors) or (Installing
Replacement Doors).
Wood Doors
There are two basic kinds of doors: solid
core and hollow core. Solid doors can be pan-
eled, carved or plain, while hollow-core doors
often have a plain front.
Hollow-core doors actually have wooden
or cardboard ribs inside for stability. Because
most hollow-core doors will warp and disinte-
grate from weather, they serve primarily as
interior doors. Some are made with exterior
glue; however, for replacement doors you
should recommend solid doors for exterior
use. Hollow-core doors generally are 1-3/8" to
1-3/4" thick, and most inside doorways are
30" or 36" wide. Common height is 80".
Doors should be sealed top and bottom so as
not to absorb moisture.
Solid doors can be made of tempered hard-
board, wood or particleboard, with or without
a veneer, and from several kinds of solid
wood. Mahogany is a common veneersuit-
able when a stained finish is chosen.
Particleboard doors are often purchased when
elaborate woodcarving and/or panels are to
be included in its design. Ash, birch,
mahogany, hemlock and pine are commonly
used for solid doors.
Solid doors come in standard widths for
front and rear entrances. Narrower widths
sometimes are used between house and
garage and/or breezeway. Solid doors are
more fire-resistant than hollow core doors,
and particleboard is more fire-resistant than
natural wood. It also resists warping because
of its higher density.
Wood door styles also come pre-hung. Pre-
hung doors are hinged in a framework that
includes the header and side jambs of the
door and the casing trim. The door may also
be predrilled for the lockset. Doors bought
separately for new construction require a
jamb kit along with the hinges and lockset.
Consumers should look for wood doors
that have top-quality stiles and rails that are
wide and solid, making them more stable and
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
12
able to prevent heat loss better.
Steel Doors
Steel doors are enjoying increased popu-
larity because they offer greater insulation,
durability, fire-resistance and security than
wood doors.
Insulated doors usually have galvanized
steel facing with polystyrene, polyurethane,
wood or particleboard cores. Insulated doors
have thermal R-values of up to 15, making
their core four times better than a wooden
door. The steel exterior provides structural
strength and eliminates cracking and warping.
However, the doors are still relatively light-
weight. They are primarily used as exterior
doors. Steel security plates at deadbolt and
passage provide added protection.
For more information, click (Installing
Steel or Fiberglass Entry Systems).
Fiberglass Doors
Fiberglass doors are becoming more popu-
lar as well. They offer greater insulation than
wood doors. Fiberglass doors are easy to
maintain and require less time to refinish.
They will not rot, crack or split.
New designs provide extra security. Most
manufacturers produce prefinished, paint-
grade and stain-grade finishes. Fiberglass
doors come in a variety of styles including
sidelites, transoms and beveled and obscure
or etched glass. Some sidelites are also hinged
to provide a wider opening.
I DOOR TYPES
Folding Doors
Folding doors come in two basic styles:
woven and laminated. Woven doors, used
when ventilation is necessary, are usually slats
of natural wood or polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Laminated doors, the more durable of the
two, are usually PVC-laminated to steel.
The most common size is 32" x 80". Two
units or an expansion set can be combined to
fit larger openings.
Bifold Doors
A bifold door comes in two sections. Each
section is hinged to its side of the doorway
with a single fold down the center of each.
When closed, they meet in the middle of the
doorway. They are usually designed for an
extra-wide doorway between rooms and on
closets. They can be constructed of metal,
wood or composite wood. They can also fea-
ture decorative glass or mirrored glass for dec-
orative effect.
Louvered bifold doors are an assembly of
slatsor sometimes a combination of panels
and slatsthat slope downward to permit
ventilation while preserving privacy.
Swinging Doors
Also called "cafe doors," swinging doors are
hinged to attach to each side of the doorway
and swing freely without a latch. They are
easily installed by a homeowner. This is a
product that can be sold by suggestion.
Patio Doors
There are three types of doors that are
often lumped together under the category
"patio doors."
Sliding doors are made with safety or insu-
lated glass and come with a screen for hot-
weather use. Low-E glass offers protection
from ultraviolet rays and is more energy effi-
cient than regular glass. Frames are wood, alu-
minum, fiberglass or PVC vinyls, with a vari-
ety of finishes to match the inside decor of
the house. Aluminum patio doors are general-
ly the least expensive because they are the
least durable and energy efficient. In the past
wood was considered premium quality. This is
now changing as customers develop their own
preference. Some sliding doors have a multi-
point locking system for extra security. The
locking system uses tempered-steel rods to
lock doors at the top and bottom of the door
as well as in the middle.
Sliding doors may be two, three or four
panels wide. A two-panel sliding door con-
tains one active (sliding) panel and one
inactive (stationary) panel. A three-panel
door has one active and two inactive panels.
A four-panel door typically has two active
panels in the middle and two inactive pan-
els on the outside.
Also called "cafe doors," swinging doors
are hinged to attach to each side of the door-
way and swing freely without a latch. They
feature two or three panels and are available
in wood, PVC vinyl or insulated steel or
fiberglass. They tend to be more secure and
energy efficient than sliding doors and are
easily installed by a homeowner.
French doors (also known as "garden doors"
or "French windows") are made of wood, fiber-
glass or steel. They now come in a wide range
of glass styles. Homeowners can select
between full glass, caming, grilles and much
more. French doors are hinged at the outside
of the unit and contain at least two active
panels that swing in or out from the center.
French doors are traditional in detailing,
although they may be used to great effect in
modern architecture. The advent of three-
point locking systems that secure the door to
the head jamb and sill has improved the secu-
rity of French doors.
For more information, click (Installing
French and Patio Doors).
Dutch Doors
Dutch doors are divided into a top and a
bottom half so you can open and close either
half. They may be used as exterior or interior
doors. If exterior, they are usually rear-
entrance or doors to a kitchen.
Storm Doors
Storm doors provide extra security, protect
the main door against weather and stop
drafts and heating/cooling loss through door
openings. They can also provide ventilation
in the summer.
Storm doors are either made of solid wood
or have a wood or foam hollow core inside
an exterior skin of metal, aluminum or vinyl.
Look for some type of structural reinforce-
ment in the corners to ensure the door
remains square and does not sag. Glass
should be tempered safety glass, while fiber-
glass screens offer durability and do not rust.
Storm doors are manufactured in standard
sizes, although most manufacturers can
accommodate custom orders. Other than the
solid-wood doors, which can be painted,
storm doors are available in a wide variety of
colors, including white, black, almond, green,
blue, sandstone and brown.
Among the most common styles are
full view, full lite, crossbuck, traditional
and security.
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
13
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
14
Storm doors can be either interchangeable
or self-storing. Self-storing models store the
windows and the screen at the same time,
with many models allowing ventilation at the
top or bottom or have the entire opening
glassed in. The advantage is that the home-
owner does not have the hassle of changing
and storing the glass. With an interchange-
able model, the glass and screen are remov-
able to allow ventilation through the entire
opening. Some models have snap-in retainer
clips, while other models incorporate thumb
screws or other methods.
Installation instructions are usually includ-
ed with storm doors, and a d-i-yer with some
experience can usually complete the job in a
few hours.
Accessories include grilles and keyed exteri-
or deadbolts. In addition to their decorative
purpose, grilles act as a partial barrier against
breakage. Better models offer adjustable bot-
tom expanders and vinyl sweeps to help seal
out drafts.
Be sure the storm doors you stock meet
state and federal safety regulations.
Garage Doors
Hinged panels allow overhead garage doors
to roll up and down with ball-bearing rollers
and rope pulley on a steel track. Some have
polystyrene and/or air space between panels
to insulate and deaden sound.
Some doors feature steel frame construc-
tion and wood-grain raised-panel design,
while others combine hardboard panel with
wood frame.
Most models come with extension springs
to help the door lift and balance, as well as
safety containment cables to guard against
injury. Some automatic garage door openers
feature reversing systems that reverse a clos-
ing door if it strikes an object or fails to close
within 30 seconds to provide further safety
protection. Vinyl or aluminum bottom
weatherseal counteracts uneven garage floors
and protects against weather intrusion.
Most garage door openers come with auto-
matic controls that open with the press of a
button or with a sound emitted by a trans-
mitter. Garage door openers are packaged
with installation instructions. Universal
remotes that work with most garage door
brands are available.
For more information, click (Installing a
Garage Door Opener).
WINDOWS
Window sashes can be made of wood,
vinyl, aluminum, composite wood or wood
clad in vinyl or aluminum.
Windows that feature low-emissivity (or
low-E) glass can provide meaningful energy
savings. Low-E glass uses a thin metallic
coating that lets in sunlight while also
blocking ultraviolet (UV) light and infrared
light. UV light is the type most responsible
for the fading of upholstery. Low-E glass
also reduces condensation and prevents
radiant heat from escaping. The metallic
coating itself warms the inside surface of
the window, which makes the nearby areas
of a room more comfortable in winter. The
coating is on one of the inner surfaces of a
double-pane window or suspended between
the panes on a thin film.
Low-E coatings are also available for exist-
ing windows; a coated film is available to be
applied to the inside surface, similar in princi-
ple to window films that block sunlight.
New to the market is self-cleaning glass for
windows. A special hydrophilic coating is
applied to the glass surface that causes water
to sheet off the glass instead of bead, which
makes dirt wash away and enables windows
to dry without spots. Look for more window
companies to begin offering this glass option.
Wood Windows
Wood windows, which generally cost more
and require more maintenance than windows
made from other materials, come in a variety
of styles. Some of the most common are:
Double-hung have a two-sash system,
each sash sliding vertically in a channel in
a common frame. They open from top and
bottom.
Single-hung slide vertically, with one
sash remaining inoperative.
Casement have a single sash hinged at
one side to swing open by means of a crank
or lever.
Awning similar to a casement window,
but the window opens at the bottom by turn-
ing a hand-held crank.
Bow and bay add architectural interest
to a home. Bow windows are actually made
of four or more windows that, all together,
form a shape that curves out. Bay windows
are made of three windowsone large unit in
the middle and two flanking units, which
usually are placed at 30- to 45-degree angles.
Hopper feature a sash in which the
top portion swings down to the inside of
the room.
Picture (fixed) are used for view purpos-
es. They have no moving parts or sashes and
do not open.
Geometric can be either operative or
non-operative. They are available in a variety
of shapes, including oval, arch, ellipse, octa-
gon and circle.
Gliders slide horizontally and are great
when space is at a premium.
Vinyl Windows
As with vinyl siding and soffits, vinyl has
emerged in the window category as a growing
alternative to wood. Vinyl windows use a
strong but non-rigid vinyl instead of wood.
They offer low-maintenance as well as resist-
ance to condensation. Although vinyl does
not truly insulate like wood, the design of a
vinyl window adds greatly to the frames
insulating value. As a rule, air infiltration is
even more important than insulating quality
in preventing heat loss.
Vinyl does not require painting and is free
of rotting, rust, flakes or corrosion. As vinyl
window technology has advanced, more
styles, shapes and designs have been devel-
oped by manufacturers, including designs
that emulate the look of wood. Among the
styles are single-hung, double-hung, case-
ment, awning, geometric, gliders and hopper.
Most come in white and almond, some with
woodgrain overlays inside.
Vinyl windows offer the same features
found on other top-quality windows such as
decorative glass, tilt-out sash on single- and
double-hung units, divided grids, high-effi-
ciency locking systems, brass hardware and
configurations such as circle tops, bay and
bow units.
Quality differences depend on the win-
dows vinyl formulation, frame design and
glazing. Manufacturers now use PVC without
plasticizers to minimize expansion and con-
traction during temperature swings, and they
developed additives that help resist the ultra-
violet rays in sunlight. Windows with welded
frames tend to be sturdier and more energy
efficient than frames that are screwed togeth-
er. Modern vinyl windows are available with
the same high-tech glazing used in top-quali-
ty wood windowsinsulating glass with low-
E coatings and filled with argon gas to
increase insulating value.
Vinyl is a good replacement window
choice and a relatively easy d-i-y project. Old
windows do not have to be removed com-
pletely because vinyl replacement windows
are custom sized to fit in the frame opening.
Some replacement windows have sloped
extrusions on the bottom that match the
sloped sill of the old window; others are flat.
If the bottom of the new window is flat, a
piece of wedge shim can be used as a support
for the exterior edge of the window. If not,
the homeowner or installer will have to make
an angled support strip that does not interfere
with an additional exterior trim piece.
A slight variation of the vinyl window is
the vinyl-clad window. Vinyl is applied over
the base material, which is usually metal. This
combines the strength of a metal frame with
the convenience of a vinyl window.
For more information, click (Installing
Vinyl Replacement Windows).
Storm Windows
An exterior storm window can be con-
structed from rigid or roll plastic fastened to a
frame. The end result is less expensive than
permanent glass storm windows, but it also
may not last as long.
Outdoor kits are often sealed with tacks
or small nails, and with waterproof mould-
ing rolled into the edges of the plastic
sheet. The top and bottom edges should
be fastened firstthen the sides, pulling
the plastic tight to minimize wrinkles.
Other fasteners include double-sided tape
and special two-piece plastic mouldings
that clamp the window material into place
so that it can be removed and replaced.
Interior storm windows create a dead-air
insulating space between the regular outside
window and the storm window itself. This
can be accomplished with rigid or roll plastic
and framing or tape. Several manufacturers
pack these materials in storm window kits.
Otherwise, the roll plastic can be sold from
the roll in 36" and 48" widths.
One type of interior storm window kit
contains rigid clear sheet plastic and a
snap-in mounting that attaches to the
inside window frame. The other type con-
tains clear plastic film and clear mounting
tape. Both offer reasonably clear vision
with little optical distortion.
Snap-in storm windows offer the additional
advantage of removal for cleaning.
Some indoor window sealers are installed
with double-sided tape. Other kits use double-
sided tape and are heated to shrink tight.
The quality of a window kit is best meas-
ured by the clarity of the window material
and the performance of the tape. One quick
method for gauging quality is to hold a
piece of the window material at arms
length and look through it. It should be
clearly readable. Also, tape should hold
securely, allow for repositioning during
installation and be removablewithout
residuein the spring. Caution customers
that tape should not be applied over wallpa-
per, weak paint or printed wallboard.
The quality of roll plastic materials is best
measured by the gauge of the plastic. The
thicker the plastic, the more durable it is
although the thickness of the material does
not increase the energy-saving value.
Skylights
Improved flashing systems have made sky-
lights weather-resistant as long as they are
properly installed. In general, you should
have one square foot of skylight for every 20
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
15
ENERGY RATING LABEL LETS CONSUMERS COMPARE PERFORMANCE
Energy ratings provided by the National
Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) allow
consumers, contractors and architects
another way to evaluate the energy per-
formance of doors and windows.
A non-profit coalition of manufacturers,
builders and code officials, the NFRC creat-
ed a label that is placed directly on the
product to show customers its specific ener-
gy-performance qualities. The system is also
helpful in marketing and selling different
products.
The information provided includes:
MANUFACTURERS NAMElocated in
the label-wide horizontal box just below
the NFRC logo.
INDEPENDENT AGENCY
DESIGNATIONlocated in the upper
right-hand corner, next to the NFRC logo. This is reserved for the name and logo of the inde-
pendent agency that has certified the products fulfillment of NFRC standards.
PRODUCT DESCRIPTIONlocated on the right-hand side of the label.
ENERGY RATING FACTORSdisplays the specific energy-saving qualities of the product. Each
factor has two numbers: one for residential versions of the product and one for non-residen-
tial versions.
U-FACTORmeasures the heat that escapes through the product. The better the products
heat-loss prevention, the lower the U-factor will be. U-factor certification is required for all
NFRC certification.
SOLAR HEAT GAIN COEFFICIENTmeasures how well the product shields from the sun and its
absorption/reflection of solar heat. The lower the number, the better the products protection.
VISIBLE LIGHT TRANSMITTANCEthe percentage of visible light allowed. The higher the num-
ber, the more light it lets in.
square feet of floor space.
In addition to traditional skylight construc-
tion, venting skylights or skywindows are also
available. These "window" sections open and
close and are installed on the roof. A venting
skylight allows fresh air and sunshine into a
home without sacrificing privacy. It provides
outside exposure even for rooms located away
from exterior walls and ventilation without
exhaust fans. Venting skylights are popular in
bathrooms, kitchens and other areas that can
benefit from ventilation as well as natural
light. All venting units have screens.
If the skylight will be installed in a high
ceiling or difficult-to-reach location, opening
and closing may require a long pole. Some of
these skylights have motorized modules con-
trolled by an electric wall switch.
The skylight frame should be made of
strong insulating materials. Vinyl frames insu-
late better than aluminum or metal frames, so
they work best in colder climates. Aluminum
skylights work best in warm or hot climates.
Wood is more expensive and requires more
maintenance than other materials. If the sky-
light is placed in a humid area, such as a
bathroom, check for deep, built-in condensa-
tion gutters to catch moisture.
A standard compiled by The National
Wood Window and Door Association estab-
lishes comprehensive performance require-
ments for materials, construction and assem-
bly of skylights and roof window units.
Polycarbonate frames are an economical
choice for functional areas such as garages
and sheds. They are available in self-flashing
or curb-mount designs.
Roof windows are also available. These fea-
ture sash rotation, which allows the interior
and exterior glass pane to be cleaned from
the inside. They are designed to be installed
within reach, and opened and closed at the
homeowner's discretion. Vertical windows
with this feature are called "tilt" windows.
A self-flashing or curb-mounted roof win-
dow works best with asphalt or fiberglass
shingles. Deluxe wood curb roof windows
integrate a wood curb with the roof window
and require flashing. Roofs with cement or
clay tiles, wood shake or slate require a
curb-mounted roof window, a site-built curb
and flashing.
Tubular skylights are designed for rooms
where a larger, standard skylight may not be
practical and where ease of installation is a
key factor. They are available in 10", 14" and
21" diameter models. One-piece flashing
systems eliminate the possibility of leaks. A
light kit can be installed with a tubular sky-
light to light up dark areas of the home.
Extension tubes are available to complete
installations over 48".
Quality roof windows, venting skylights
and fixed skylights are available in a variety
of sizes and materials. For trouble-free instal-
lation, look for units that provide mainte-
nance-free cladding for exterior protection.
Keep in mind that a skylight will be directly
subjected to the elements.
Warm air rises, so energy efficiency is espe-
cially important with windows located up
high. Guide customers toward skylights with
a low "U-Factor," which measures the heat
that escapes from the window. The lower the
U-Factor, the better the thermal performance.
Meanwhile, step flashinga thin strip that
diverts wateradds excellent moisture-resist-
ance and is preferable to caulking.
When used in skylights, glass tends to be
more durable and provides a clear view with-
out the fading and scratching that occurs in
some plastics. Manufacturers offer many
choices of glass, including high-performance
or Low-E glass with argon injection.
Operator poles are available for venting
skylights and roof windows. They come in
fixed and telescoping models. For easier
operation, a rechargeable motorized han-
dle is also available.
For more information, click (Installing
Skylights).
WROUGHT IRON
COLUMNS, POSTS
Wrought iron rails, posts and columns add
strength, safety and beauty to homes, both
inside and out, and create attractive mailbox
mounts. Top-quality material is chemically
cleaned and phosphate coated before it is
painted to ensure a good bond. Black or
white prime coats are used for a flat finish.
Quality can be determined by weight, which
reflects the gauge of the metal. Look for
strong welds, no rough edges and thorough
paint coverage of all parts.
Manufacturer literature will provide addi-
tional details on styles, installation, etc.
Most parts require no welding and can be
assembled with common household tools.
Materials are adjustable to any pitch to fit
platforms, steps or patios. Lag screw
anchors, metal sleeve anchors and alu-
minum drive pin anchors may be used to
secure railings and posts to concrete patios
and brick and masonry walls.
KITCHEN CABINETS
Cabinet types include base cabinets, wall
cabinets and tall cabinets. Some "sub" types
include corner cabinets, sink bases and fronts,
range bases and fronts, drawer bases and
fronts, lazy Susans, peninsula and island cabi-
nets, microwave cabinets and pantry cabinets.
The two basic styles of cabinets are
American and European, described as follows
by Family Handyman magazine: "A traditional
cabinet may have any door design from colo-
nial to contemporary, but that door will
always be hinged to a wooden frame which
is, in turn, attached to a wooden cabinet box.
In a traditional cabinet, the frame is visible;
the doors dont cover it." With a European
design the doors fit flush to each other on a
frameless box. These doors "completely cover,
or overlay, the cabinet box." A frameless cabi-
net is identified as European regardless of
where it is made. In addition to decisions
about color or style, advise customers to con-
sider these features when purchasing cabinets.
Cabinets are generally classified as stock,
custom or semi-custom. Stock cabinets are
mass-produced in modular sizes while custom
cabinets are built to fit the customers specific
space requirements. Semi-custom cabinets are
similar to stock cabinets, but tend to offer
more style and finish options. The benefit of
stock cabinets is the immediate availability in
your inventory.
Cabinet doors come in several material
options, including hardwood, softwood, lam-
inate and veneer. Many people select solid
wood cabinet doors, sometimes even mixing
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
16
two woods for decorative effect.
Hardwood cabinet doorsmade of oak,
cherry, birch or mapleare popular because
they look good with almost any kitchen style,
and they can be painted or stained. They do
change somewhat in color as they age.
Softwood cabinet doors are made of a
wider grain and therefore tend to scratch or
dent more easily than hardwood. Like with
hardwood cabinets, they have a tendency to
warp when exposed to prolonged moisture.
Veneer cabinet doors feature a fine layer of
wood atop a substrate. They are generally less
expensive than wood cabinet doors.
Laminate cabinet doors correspond to flat-
panel door styles. Although durable and easy
to maintain, laminate cabinets often must be
refaced or replaced when dented.
Cabinet doors are available in a wide vari-
ety of styles, including flat, glass-front, raised
panel (square or curved) and recessed panel.
A number of accessories or features can be
added to customize the cabinets, including
cutlery dividers, bread and flower boxes, pull-
out shelves, dishwasher front panels, plate
and wine racks, concealed hinges, mouldings,
valances and dove-tail drawers. Open-shelf
cabinets serve as showcases for decorative
pieces and are becoming more common in
stock cabinet sets.
Here are some other considerations to
point out to customers:
o Drawers receive the most frequent use.
They should be sturdy and have a drawer-
and-tray slide system that supports the
weight it will need to hold. Look for a
quiet, wobble-free system.
o The drawer box may have sides made of
wood or particleboard. Both materials are
durable and functional; some people pre-
fer solid wood, which costs more. Real
wood sides with dovetail construction
makes a stronger box and adds to the life
of the drawer.
o Hinges and hardware should be conven-
ient and durable.
WALLBOARD
Gypsum wallboard, also known as plaster-
board and Sheetrock, is a core of gypsum
plaster covered with two sheets of heavy
paper. The panels are 4' wide and range in
length from 6' to 16'. Thicknesses include
1/4", 3/8", 1/2" and 5/8". The 1/4" boards are
normally used for recovering old walls and
ceilings. The 3/8" board is used in two-ply
construction and the 1/2" and 5/8" boards are
used in single-ply (new) work. The 5/8"
boards provide better fire resistance and
sound control.
Drywall is used extensively in residential
construction because of its low cost and ease
of installation, and the plain-papered face
provides an excellent surface for paint or
wallpaper.
The edges of gypsum drywall are made in
square, tapered or beveled form. The tapered
edges along the length are made with a slight
depression, which allows for a filled and
taped joint.
For more information, click (Installing
Drywall) or (How to Patch and
Repair Drywall).
CLOSET LINING
Aromatic red cedar closet lining comes in
tongue-and-groove boards, about 3/8" thick
by 4" wide. They can be nailed over existing
wall surfaces to provide mothproofing protec-
tion for blankets, clothes, etc. Many con-
sumers do not know about this product or
how easy it is to apply, so it is a good item to
merchandise and promote. Closet lining
comes in bundles covering 32 sq. ft.
PATCHING
MATERIALS
Premixed Concrete
Many retailers sell premixed concrete in
volume because they have discovered that the
market is open to more than the d-i-yer who
needs a bag or two to do repairs, set a post or
replace a section of sidewalk.
Homeowners use premixed concrete for
construction as well as repair projects. Some
types are designed strictly for patching minor
cracks in concrete and mortar joints.
For more information, click (Pouring
Concrete) or (Repairing and
Patching Concrete).
Concrete Patching Materials
Latex patching cement comes as powdered
cement and latex liquid, which is mixed to
uniform consistency. Some types harden
quickly, so advise customers not to mix more
than they need for each job.
It can be applied in thin layersdown to
1/16"so it works well for smoothing rough
surfaces and repairing hairline cracks.
Vinyl patching cement is a powder that is
mixed with water. Like latex cement, it has
greater adhesive strength than cement and
sand mixtures and greater resistance to crack-
ing and chipping. It is not affected by repeat-
ed freezing and thawing. Vinyl patching
cement can be troweled to 1/16" thickness
and bonds to brick, tile, marble and concrete.
The vinyl patches consist of a cement-like
powder containing a dry vinyl polymer that
is activated by adding water. The latex patch-
es have separate powder and polymer liquid
components that are mixed to form the fluid
mortar. No water is added that would dilute
the polymer.
The more polymers a patching product
contains, the better it will bond. The latest
products use acrylic latex polymers that
are especially effective. The strong, con-
centrated polymers cost more, but the user
gets greater durability.
Polymer patches can be applied as thick
sections to repair broken edges or as feather
edges required to repair surface spalling.
High-polymer patches repair concrete cracks
effectively if the concrete is stable. Power
washing is an effective way of removing sur-
face contamination and weak surface layers.
Epoxy patching cement is fortified with
epoxy, making it the toughestand most
expensivemasonry patcher. It comes in a kit
of emulsion, hardener and a bag of dry
cement. The emulsion and hardener are
mixed; then cement is stirred in. It bonds
ceramic tile, glass and steel, plus sets flag-
stone, slate, tile or brick. It is probably not
the ideal choice for minor patching jobs.
Surface preparation for these three
patchers involves removing dirt, grease
and dust. Roughening the old surface is
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
17
not necessary. Ordinary concrete patcher
is a combination of cement and fine sand
that is mixed with water. It is used mostly
to repair cracks and holes in concrete
walks, foundations and chimneys.
Although waterproof cement paint, avail-
able in both powder and ready-mixed vari-
eties, stops moisture penetration inside and
outsideand both above and below the
groundhydraulic cement is required to plug
running leaks in masonry surfaces.
Hydraulic cement stops water leaks under
pressure and will work under water. It is fast-
setting and can be used inside or outside and
above or below the ground.
Other products include mortar mix;
plastic cement, used where a waterproof
finish is needed such as backyard pools,
fountains, etc.; asphalt patch; stucco patch
and topping mix.
Coverage varies with the size of the bag,
but a good rule of thumb is that two 60-lb.
bags of concrete mix will cover a 3-sq.-ft. area
4" thick.
Blacktop Sealer
Outdoor asphalt surfaces require periodic
treatment with a sealer to provide maximum
life and minimum damage.
Keep in mind that two thin coats are
always better than one thick coat. Thick
coats lead to problems such as tracking,
cracking and discoloration. Apply sealer in
a side-to-side motion, which enables all
pores to become sealed and creates a more
consistent surface.
The asphalt binder used in the paving
material is subject to damage from the
ultraviolet rays of the sun. Once the sur-
face cracks, moisture and ice compound
the damage.
Coal tar blacktop sealers protect asphalt
driveways against oil, tar and gasoline and
keep water from settling in pores, where it
would freeze and buckle the pavement.
Ideally, they are applied at 70F or higher and
usually require 24 to 48 hours to dry before
they can be driven on.
Surface preparation is the most important
point to stress to your customers. Clean sur-
faces will provide proper bonding of sealer
and the longest-lasting protection. Surface
preparation usually calls for washing or scrub-
bing the surface. The sealer is then applied
with a long-handled roller or squeegee. The
sealer will usually heal hairline cracks, but
larger breaks require a special caulking or the
addition of another material to the sealer to
give it more body. Caulk is available in car-
tridges or pails.
Oil spots should be treated with a cleaner
or primer to prevent adhesion failure. An oil
spot primer penetrates oil stains and pro-
motes bonding in problem areas.
Coal tar sealers often need yearly resurfac-
ing, while acrylic sealers, which cost more,
last approximately four years. In addition,
sealers developed from coal tar may contain
hazardous chemicals. Some acrylic sealers are
non-toxic and environmentally friendly.
For more information, click (Repairing
and Maintaining Asphalt Driveways).
Wood Patching Materials
Putty has been traditionally used for prep-
ping weathered and rotted exterior wood for
painting. Auto body fillers and epoxy patch-
ing materials are other alternatives. More
recently, polymer-based patching products are
being used to make structural repairs and for
resurfacing weathered and blister-prone wood
such as window sills.
Both the epoxy and polymer products
involve two-part processes. The latter is water-
based and requires that rotted wood be
removed so that the patch can bond to solid
wood. There are penetrants that can be inject-
ed into rot to restore its structure.
Introduced recently is a sun-activated,
epoxy exterior filler that requires no mix-
ing. The single-component filler cures by
the rays of the sun and can be sanded,
cut, stained or painted and will hold
screws or nails without splitting.
Metal Patching Materials
Various sealants, applied like paint, are tra-
ditional for restoring rusty surfaces by sealing
the surface against air and moisture. Auto
body repair kits repair rust holes and dents
but require heavy prepping. Polymer-cement
products resurface and patch, can be applied
over tight rust and are effective in preventing
further rusting.
WEATHER
STRIPPING
Weather stripping is a thin strip of felt,
metal, wood or other material used to cover
the joint between a door or window sash and
the jamb, casing or sill. It is used to prevent
drafts and heat loss around doors, windows
or other small openings, and to keep out dirt,
dust, moisture and noise. To determine if an
area needs weather stripping, check for drafts
on a windy day. Most types are easy to install,
but efficiency and durability vary.
Felt strips are the least expensive type of
weather stripping, but they also have the
shortest lives, generally lasting one to two
years. They are nailed, stapled or glued to
frame or moulding around doors so the door
will close snugly and quietly against them.
They are also used around windows. Felt is
especially practical when appearance is of no
concern. It cannot be painted, for example,
and it has low moisture-resistance. It is avail-
able in various widths, thicknesses and quali-
ty. Reinforced felt is sturdier and designed to
last longer.
Adhesive-backed foam tapes are simply
pressed into position and stick permanently.
They require no nails and no tools. Different
kinds of tapes are available for various jobs.
Pressure-sensitive sponge rubber tape is suited
for larger problem areas. Pressure-sensitive
foam is used where appearance is most criti-
cal. Pressure-sensitive vinyl foam or felt is for
average sealing.
"V" type weather strips (tension strips) are
one of the most durable types of weather
stripping. Once the door is closed, the open
ends of the "V" close together, with one end
of the "V" touching the door and the other
adhered to the door. This compression action
forms an airtight seal. Spring-metal tension
strips are more difficult to install than adhe-
sive-backed tension strips made of vinyl, but
are the best permanent type.
Clear wood moulding with vinyl foam fac-
ing works well around doors and windows and
is one of the largest selling rigid do-it-yourself
weatherstrip products. This rigid moulding
requires less nailing and installs easily.
Caulking cord works well for temporary fill-
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
18
ing of large gaps around windows. It consists
of soft, rope-like strands of weather strip with
the consistency of modeling clay. It can be
easily applied by hand and remains pliable so
it can be removed when the weather warms
up. It can be painted.
Polyethylene tape is clear, wide weather
stripping used around windows, bridging
openings without marring appearance.
Aluminum and vinyl weather strip for
tops and sides of overhead garage doors is
now available.
Nylon pile works well in storm door and
window applications, although it has a ten-
dency to flatten out over time. The soft nylon
pile permits easy sliding action for the open-
ing and closing of storm windows.
Door jamb weather strips are a common
form of weather stripping. They are used to
seal the sides and top of a door to shut out
drafts, water, insects and sometimes smoke.
There are many different styles and finishes
available, including roll-formed and extruded
aluminum with vinyl bulbs or flaps.
Door sweeps are an easy but effective way
to seal the bottom of an exterior door, pre-
venting drafts, water, noise, light and insects.
Door bottom sweeps are usually made of alu-
minum extrusions with vinyl flaps. They
screw into the door, and some feature
retractable sweeps that lift automatically
when the door is raised.
There are several other types of sweeps.
One sweep is an aluminum extrusion with a
neoprene seal for cold weather climates.
Another is an aluminum extrusion with a
rain-drip flange to prevent the flow of water
off a door from collecting on a threshold and
flowing under a door. Yet another is an adhe-
sive-backed plastic door sweep.
Door shoes are constructed of extruded
aluminum and vinyl. These are applied to the
bottom of a door to help form a seal between
the door and the threshold. Door bottom
shoes are primarily used in conjunction with
a smooth-top aluminum threshold to form a
proper seal.
Installation Tips
For felt weather stripping, tack all four cor-
ners, starting at the upper left and working
clockwise. Cut off excess strip. Go back and
tack every 2" to 3", pulling the felt tight
before tacking. When applying any pressure-
sensitive tape, do not remove all the protec-
tive paper at once. Strip 1" off the end, set in
place and then start pulling off paper with
one hand while firmly pressing tape in place
with the other hand.
If the opening is not completely sealed,
build up layers of tape until the right
thickness is achieved.
To measure door bottoms, open the
door halfway, set the door bottom in place
from the hinge side of the door to the out-
side edge. Pencil mark the overhang and
cut off the excess. To install tack-type door
bottoms, close the door and line up the
bottom edge of the metal strip to the bot-
tom edge of the door.
Tack both ends to hold in place. For screw-
type door bottoms, close the door. To hold in
place, tack both ends. Pencil mark prebored
holes, remove the strip and punch the pencil
marks with a nail. Replace the door bottom
and secure with screws. Adjust height to com-
pensate for opening. Tighten the screws.
For a garage door bottom, measure and cut
the proper length of strip. Nail one end, plac-
ing nails every 4" and pull it tight so that the
strip lies firmly against the door bottom.
For garage door tops and sides, open the
door halfway and install the same way as
door-bottom weather-strip.
For more information, clcik (Weather-
proofing Your Home) or (Conserving
Energy).
FLOOR COVERINGS
Carpeting
Carpet remains the most popular floor cov-
ering, accounting for more than two-thirds of
floor covering sales. Carpet tiles, indoor-out-
door carpet and roll carpeting are durable
enough for use in high-traffic areas such as
recreation rooms, family rooms, basements,
porches and patios. There are even special car-
pets designed for the garage.
Carpet is usually made of nylon, although
polyester, wool, acrylic or polypropylene
(olefin) are also used. In addition, a number of
different styles are available such as level loop
pile (Berber), multi-level loop pile, cut and
loop pile, cut pile and sisal.
Carpeting, which is usually produced in 12'
lengths, varies in quality and grade because of
its exposure to wear. A simple test of carpet
quality is to bend back a sample and examine
the closeness of construction. The less backing
you see the denser the pile. And the denser,
the better.
Another factor in carpet quality is the
"twist." This refers to the number of fibers that
have been intertwined to make the yarn. The
tighter and more well defined the twist, the
more durable the carpet will be.
Chemical treatments of the carpet fibers
can make them "stain-free." However, con-
sumers should follow the carpet manufactur-
ers instructions when removing spills from
these carpets.
Carpet tiles offer ease of installation and
convenience. They can be inexpensively
replaced if badly worn or stained. Damage to a
room-sized piece of carpet can be quite costly
to repair or replace.
If carpeting has no self-adhesive backing,
several methods of installation are available.
Adhesives include double-faced tape or a wet
adhesive that is troweled onto the floor. When
double-faced tape is used, a grid is laid down; it
consists of a strip around the edge of the room
and crisscrossing strips across the entire floor.
The strips should match the edges of the tile
being applied to keep them from turning up.
If roll carpeting has an integral backing of
foam or sponge rubber, the material should be
glued directly to the floor to ensure a solid
backing. Applying it over a pad, linoleum or
other surface that is not fastened to the floor
will cause the surface to ripple or turn up at
the corners.
Tools needed for installation include a
sharp razor-type knife, chalk line, edge, seam
cutter guides and the adhesive. If a wet adhe-
sive is used, the customer will need a notched
trowel and a solvent for cleanup.
Padding should be suggested because it pro-
longs carpet life and adds to residents com-
fort. Padding is usually made from felted cush-
ion, urethane, foam rubber or sponge rubber.
Weight, density and thickness vary by type
and the amount of traffic in the area to be
carpeted. Roll-type coverings and paddings
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
19
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
20
usually available in 36", 54", 72", 108" and
144" widthscan be installed with double-
faced carpet tapes.
Retailers should also have metal moulding
for doorways and other open areas; 36"
lengths are sufficient for most jobs.
To determine how much carpet is needed,
multiply the rooms length (feet) by its width
and then divide by 9 to get square yardage.
Then add 10 percent to that figure to account
for odd shapes in the room.
To make it easier for consumers to buy and
compare the cost of carpet, some manufactur-
ers and retailers have begun to price carpet by
the square foot instead of by the square yard.
Area rugs and runners are growing in pop-
ularity and are easy to merchandise and sell.
With more styles and patterns available, they
complement hardwood floors with a decora-
tive flair.
Resilient Flooring
Resilient flooring most commonly sold by
home improvement retailersand most easily
installed by d-i-yerscomes in 12" square tiles,
which are usually self-adhesive. There are also
sheet goods that are 6' or 12' wide and elimi-
nate the need for frequent seaming.
For more information, click (Laying
Resilient Floor Tile).
Manufacturers of flooring that requires an
adhesive should provide literature that guides
customers through the installation process,
including necessary application materials (the
proper adhesive, spreaders, etc.).
Two main kinds of sheet vinyl flooring are
inlaid (in which the pattern goes through the
entire thickness of the material) and rotovinyl
(in which the pattern is printed on and then
covered with clear vinyl or urethane). Inlaid
flooring is not recommended for d-i-y installa-
tion. However, laser technology is making the
inlaid flooring quicker to make and more
affordable for consumersand helping to add
stock inlaid flooring to the traditional cus-
tomized product that comes from craftsmen.
Neutral colors and patterns remain the most
popular, although many new patterns and tex-
tures have been introduced to the market due
to advances in technology.
Kits are also available that contain every-
thing to make a pattern of the room, transfer it
to the flooring and cut the flooring to fit.
Most floor coverings have a no-wax surface,
either vinyl or urethane. However, most manu-
facturers recommend application of specially
formulated floor finish to enhance or restore
shine and provide added protection.
A urethane surface is tougher than vinyl no-
wax. A vinyl no-wax floor will lose its shine
eventually; the floor is not harmed if nothing
is done, but if the customer wants a shine on
the floor, floor finish is necessary.
While often confused with vinyl flooring,
linoleum is distinctly different in composition
and features. Linoleum is made of all-natural
ingredients, comes in a wide variety of colors
and possesses excellent durability if sealed and
maintained regularly. Linoleum comes in tiles,
sheets or decorative area rug-like strips that are
stuck to the floor with adhesive.
Proper care is necessary to maintain all types
of resilient flooring. Resilient flooring, especial-
ly cushioned flooring, is susceptible to indenta-
tions from furniture, and it is advisable to use
furniture rests under all heavy pieces. Textured
or deeply embossed floors must be scrubbed
occasionally to remove accumulations of soil
or wax in embossed patterns.
A few other important factors:
o Wear will be determined by the quality of
the material as well as the thickness of the
vinyl covering. All else being equal, a thick-
er coating ensures a longer life. Urethane
lasts longer than vinyl.
o Resistance to scratching and staining is also
important. Most common household sub-
stances should not stain or discolor resilient
flooring; however, care should be taken to
remove spills immediately. Most manufac-
turers provide stain evaluation charts that
indicate materials resistance to staining.
o Resiliency or the ability to withstand or
recover from dents is important. With cush-
ioned vinyl, resiliency is doubly important.
For the most part, todays resilient floors are
better able to withstand dents, scratches and
discoloration while retaining their gloss.
o Most flooring can be affected by expansion
and contraction of the subfloor. With prop-
er installation procedures, this can be mini-
mized or alleviated. If material is not proper-
ly installed, seams or joints might open or
buckle, making the floor unsightly and
allowing the dirt and germs to be trapped.
For more information, click (Laying Sheet
Vinyl Floor Covering).
Hardwood Flooring
A wide selection of styles, shades, patterns
and textures of hardwood flooring is available.
Two popular types are nail-down and glue-
down. But for ease of installation for the d-i-
yer, a self-stick is available with self-adhering
foam backing.
Planks and parquet tiles are also a hardwood
option and come in a range of sizes to accom-
modate almost any room.
Hardwood floors should never be cleaned
with water or self-polishing waxes that contain
water. The best way to clean most hardwood
floors is with a quality, solvent-based wood
floor cleaner and wax. All hardwood floors
should be cleaned and waxed only when need-
edand dry-mopped between cleanings.
Sweeping or vacuuming regularly also keeps
the floors looking nice and in good shape.
The National Oak Flooring Manufacturers
Association (NOFMA) has set flooring grades.
NOFMAs appearance-based standards pertain
to oak and other species of flooring and are
determined by character marks. NOFMA
grades include Clear, Select, No. 1 Common
and No. 2 Common. The Clear and Select
grades are further identified by sawing
method. NOFMA also maintains separate grad-
ing standards for prefinished oak, maple,
beech, birch and pecan flooring.
Stenciling decorative designs onto hard-
wood floors is a low-cost method of achieving
a custom look.
Decorative inlays are another option.
Decorative inlays are most often constructed
from a combination of hardwood compo-
nents. Once the design is created, components
are laser-cut from hardwood flooring planks,
typically 5/16" thick. The components are then
joined with glue or urethane adhesive. When
the inlay is dry, edges are routed to match the
tongue-and-groove joints for the rest of the
hardwood floor, and the inlay is set in place.
Bamboo flooring is becoming more popular,
particularly in the South. It tends to be more
dimensionally stable (expands and contracts
less) and more durable than other species of
hardwood. Bamboo boards, which can be
nailed or glued down, are typically 3 or 6
long and 3 wide. Most bamboo flooring is
installed prefinished and should be kiln dried
and treated.
Engineered flooring has become a popular
alternative to traditional hardwood flooring.
The surface veneer is made of hardwood such
as maple or oak, while tongue-and-groove
strips are constructed of plywood. While it is
not less expensive than hardwood flooring,
engineered flooring is easier to install because
it can be installed without a subfloor and
requires no sanding or finishing. Some types
do not require glue because they snap together.
The size of the veneer will determine the floor-
ings durabilityhigh-quality engineered floors
feature surface veneer of 5/32" to 1/6".
Laminated Flooring
Laminated flooring has improved in popu-
larity in recent years as product developments
enhanced its look and performance.
Laminated flooring consists of thin layers of
wood or paper products that are adhered to a
resilient foam core. It can be designed to look
like wood, stone or marble. A coating of alu-
minum oxide provides hardness for the floor-
ing, which is installed over a subfloor or an
existing floor. Its primary advantages are the
fact it is hard to scratch, stain or dent. It is also
easy to maintain.
Laminated flooring can be vacuumed or
cleaned with a damp mop. Cost is similar to
that of other hardwood flooring. However,
since laminated flooring can swell when
exposed to water, it is not recommended for
installation in bathrooms.
Seamless Flooring
Seamless flooring is liquid floor covering
applied over any paintable surface in a number
of coats. Usually a base coat covers the old
floor. A layer of color flakes is then applied and
sealed with a transparent liquid that dries to a
highly durable finish.
While seamless flooring can be applied over
almost any surface, the flooring itself is only as
good as its base. If the flooring is applied over
peeling or cracking linoleum, the new coating
may peel; if the base is red concrete, the red
may begin to bleed through.
Floors can be renewed after traffic patterns
develop by application of an additional coat of
acrylic plastic glaze. Seamless flooring does not
require waxing.
I ROLL LAMINATES
Roll laminates are the do-it-yourselfers ver-
sion of countertop materialsthey are
smooth, easy-to-clean, and somewhat scratch
and burn resistant. Many people know materi-
als of this type by the brand name, Formica,
although there are other brands.
Roll laminates come in 39"- or 36"-wide
rolls. The kind you stock will be lighter weight
than that used in factory installation, a neces-
sity for easier do-it-yourself gluing.
To install roll laminates, a customer must
carefully measure the surface to be covered,
apply contact cement to both surfaces, and
then press the laminate in place, leaving a suf-
ficient overhang to be trimmed later.
Since contact cement holds permanently
when both objects have been coated, extreme
care is necessary in positioning the laminate.
Excess material is then trimmed off and edges
can be filed or planed to remove sharp edges.
If a customer is interested in roll laminates, be
sure to suggest contact cement, proper cutting
tools, a shaping tool or file for smoothing
edges, etc.
For more information, click (Installing
Plastic Laminate Countertops).
TILE
Tile can be used on the floor or the wall for
great decorative effect. Floor tile can be made
of ceramic, marble, slate, limestone, brick,
porcelain or granite. It is typically sold in 12"
x 12" or 13" x 13" pieces, but comes in all
sizes. Accent tiles come in 2" x 2", 4" x 4" or
6" x 6" squares.
Ceramic tile is more durable and easier to
maintain than vinyl or wood flooring.
Ceramic tile is divided into two major cate-
gories: glazed and unglazed. It is made prima-
rily of clay that has been fired at very high
temperatures in kilns. The firing process
makes both color and shape permanent, and
the surface becomes resistant to stains, burns
and scratches. Ceramic tile normally carries a
durability rating. Most manufacturers give
their tile a rating number from 1 to 4+,
according to the results of the Porcelain
Enamel Institute abrasion test. Class 1 is the
least durable, while 4+is intended for com-
mercial applications with heavy traffic.
Ceramic mosaic tile is small, usually
with a mesh backing. It can be used for
both floor and wall installation and is
available glazed and unglazed.
Marble tile is slick and easily scratched,
although it can be buffed out. Its stunning
appearance leads to it being considered a pre-
mium product. Marble tiles need to be sealed
after installation. Types of marble include
travertine (good for exterior use), white
(translucent) and green (usually installed with
water-free epoxy mortars).
Chips are less apparent with porcelain tile
because it is not glaze-coated like ceramic.
Porcelain tile can be used for either floor or
wall installation. It is a pressed tile allowing
numerous finishes.
Glazed floor tile is made of clay that has
been single fired at a high temperature,
which lends itself to highly durable glaze
applications.
Limestone tile is highly porous so it can be
used indoors or outdoors. It must be sealed,
but treating it can bring out the rocks natural
tones. Some very compact limestones may be
polished to a high luster.
Granite tile is similar to marble, but it is
harder, denser and more durable. Granite tile
has more of a pebble-stone appearance and
normally features no veining. It must also be
sealed. Granite tile is commonly used on
countertops. While it is more difficulty to
harm than marble, it is also more difficult to
restore when damaged.
Slate tile is cut directly from the rock so
each piece is varied in look. It is composed of
shale with natural cleft finish. The quarrying
process causes the surface texture. It does
have some chips and bumps naturally, so it
needs to be sealed.
Quarry tile features a shale body, extruded
then cut to size and sometimes with edges
that are ground smooth. It can be glazed, but
is usually used unglazed. Quarry tile is very
durable, so it is used most often in institu-
tional settings.
Pavers are popular for patios and walkways
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
21
but can also used indoors. They come in red
brick color as well as wood, sand, rust and
other colors. Similar to quarry tile, except it is
pressed rather than extruded. Paver tile is more
susceptible to staining than quarry tile.
Decorative thin wall tile features soft miner-
al body or red clay body (terra cotta). It is used
in areas where durability is not required.
White body tile is a soft mineral body tile
generally used for wall applications. It accepts
high-gloss glazing treatments and lends itself
to decorative applications.
Tile is usually priced by the square foot
instead of per piece to allow comparison of
prices of different-sized tile. Tile can be
smooth or textured. Textured tile is less slick,
so it works better for bathroom floors or high-
traffic areas. Natural stone tile should be
sealed with a penetrating sealer/impregnator
to prevent water, dirt and grease penetration.
Tile, stone and grout require different types of
cleaners. Cracked tiles should be replaced and
set with a flexible, high-strength, cement-
based, thin-set mortar.
Wall tile pieces are smaller than flooring tile
pieces. Tile for kitchen backsplash is typically
4" x 4", with hand painted or colored strips
used to accent the decor. In the bathroom, 4" x
4" or 4" x 6" pieces are used in walls, tubs and
showers; floor pieces are 12" x 12" or 8" x 8".
Smaller pieces are harder to clean.
Grout adds the finishing touch to the
appearance of a tile installation and comes in a
wide range of colors. Most grout is made of
cement and is either sanded or non-sanded.
Some grouts are polymer-modified. Pre-mixed
tile grout is available in white and used only
for repairs in dry areas. Ceramic tile caulk can
be used instead of grout to fill tile joints at the
junction where tiles change plane, where tile
abuts other surfaces and joints between tiles
set over different surfaces. White dry tile grout
is a non-sanded grout to be used with marble
and porous-bodied, high-glazed tiles.
Tools that d-i-yers will need for tiling
include a straight edge, tape rule, chalk line,
carpenter's level, rubbing stone, sandpaper,
sponge and cleaning rags. Special tools include
a tile cutter, notched trowel, rubber grout float
or squeegee and tile nippers.
Remember to emphasize these points when
recommending ceramic tile:
o Bright glaze finish on the floor will wear
away if walked on a great deal.
o Sell a sufficient number of tiles at one time.
Tiles purchased later may not match.
o Use proper adhesive material and grout to
fill in and anchor tiles.
o Be sure the tile purchased is appropriate for
the intended area of the home. High-traffic
areas require suitable tiles. Never use a wall
tile on the floor because it will show wear
very quickly.
Tile Surface Preparation Products
Concrete backerboard is an underlayment
for horizontal and vertical installations of tile
and stone. It replaces the traditional mortar
bed method of tile installation, allowing the
use of thin-set mortars and making tile instal-
lation easier. Fiber cement backerboard is
increasing in popularity for flooring and coun-
tertop installations. It is not recommended for
shower stalls and other areas that receive a lot
of moisture.
Self-leveling underlayments are used
after the surface has been primed to level
and smooth floors prior to installation of
floor coverings.
Waterproofing and anti-fracture membranes
are applied to the surface when waterproofing
is required prior to applying a bonding adhe-
sive. It also helps prevent tile from cracking
due to minor surface movement.
UTILITY BUILDINGS
AND STRUCTURES
Storage Buildings
Utility buildings are used for innumerable
outside storage purposes, and their prime sell-
ing seasons are spring and fall in the North
and year-round in the Sunbelt.
They are constructed of wood or metal and
usually come in kit form. However, some deal-
ers offer assembled wood buildings delivered
on a truck or fully assembled on site by the
retailer or installer. Metal buildings are usually
from 6' high at the peak and range from 28 sq.
ft. to more than 400 sq. ft.
Style is an important element in their sales
appeal. Barn-shaped (high gambrel) roof
designs have proven to be the best sellers.
Doors available include the sliding-type, solid
hinged doors and overhead garage-type doors.
Roofs are usually peaked for extra head-
room, and doors can be padlocked. Floor kits
are generally an extra. Shelving, workbenches
and lights are also available from most manu-
facturers. Finishes can be unpainted galvanized
or prepainted colors or wood stains.
Kit buildings are pre-engineered and can be
assembled by do-it-yourselfers. Manufacturers
say two people can assemble a large metal shed
in three to six hours, using a few standard
hand tools and following step-by-step instruc-
tions from the manufacturer.
Walls, roof and doors are packaged
together, and a second carton holds long
frame members.
Pieces are fastened with stainless steel self-
tapping screws that fit into prepunched holes.
Greenhouses
A steady interest in home gardening has
built the market for greenhouses, either factory
developed units that can be sold in a package
and assembled at home or do-it-yourself green-
houses that are built from components sold by
do- it-yourself retailers.
Because styles, types and materials vary
greatly according to manufacturer, the
prime source of good information is manu-
facturer literature.
But to best serve customers who inquire
about these, you should know quality factors.
These include the amount of framing (for stur-
diness); the kind and thickness of the material
(again for long-lasting life); rust resistance or
rustproofing on exposed hardware; anchoring
devices; and general stability.
Kits and instructions for do-it-yourself
greenhouses are available from, and in some
cases are supplied by, tool manufacturers.
Patio Covers and Carports
Patio covers and carports can be constructed
from kits comprised of sections of aluminum
or fiberglass for the cover and supports of
wrought iron, steel or aluminum.
All holes are predrilled, and no special
tools are needed by the homeowner. Some
packages come combined with materials for
a small utility building as an attached stor-
age compartment.
BUI L DI NG MAT ERI A L S
22
CHAPTER THREE:
ELECTRIC HOUSEWARES
HOME ELECTRONICS
TELEPHONES & ACCESSORIES
ELECTRICAL
HOUSEWARES &
Home Electronics
3
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
2
ELECTRIC
HOUSEWARES
I SMALL APPLIANCES
COFFEEMAKERS
Home-use coffeemakers include percolator
and drip models.
Drip coffeemakers are easy to use. A filter
containing coffee is placed in the filter bas-
ket, the decanter is placed on the warming
unit and water is poured into the reservoir.
Brewed coffee begins to drip in about 30
seconds and the pot is done in about nine
minutes. Grounds are thrown out with the
disposable filter. The carafe of brewed coffee
is kept hot for serving and, most important,
coffee does not continue to be flavored by
the grounds, getting stronger and stronger;
nor does it have the sediment sometimes
found in perked coffee.
Most recent models feature timers that
allow consumers to begin brewing automati-
cally at a preset time, automatic drip-stop to
help prevent leaks onto the warmer, and
brew-strength control to regulate how much
of the grounds are soaked with water.
Under-the-cabinet models are popular for
saving counter space. Consumers should be
cautioned about the dangers of leaving
nearly empty or empty carafes on a heated
warming unit. This has caused an alarming
number of home fires. Percolators have three-
to 12-cup capacity. They are made with a
chimney heating element which stands up
in the center of the perc, a rope element
(coiled on floor of unit), or a ceramic warming
unit (in side walls for longer life).
Some percs have an 11-hour timer which
permits delayed starting. Better percs are
heavy-gauge, polished aluminum, stainless
steel, chrome-plated copper, glass-ceramic or
heat-resistant glass. Some have non-stick inte-
riors and/or colored exteriors, either bonded
ceramic coating or anodized aluminum.
Percolators ensure good coffee because a
thermostatic heat control allows coffee to
brew without boiling, keeps brewed coffee at
drinking temperature (about 185 degrees)
without re-perking and brew selectors control
coffee strength automatically. Percs require
special handling when it comes to care and
cleaning. Few percs can be immersed in dish-
water; those that can are marked "immersible."
Infrequently used percs should be chemically
cleaned before being stored. These cleaners are
perfectly safe for stainless steel, but may pit or
darken anodized aluminum. One warning for
customers: Don't let a perc run dry. Put water
in before plugging it in, and unplug it as soon
as it is empty.
Party percs have 18- to 100-cup capacities
and well heating elements located in the
base. Like the smaller percs, these have
either rope or ceramic warming units. Most
percs are heavy-gauge, polished aluminum,
the remainder stainless steel. The most pop-
ular sizes are 22- and 35-cup. Party percs
have most of the features of household
percs, with the addition of a recessed base
and spigot positioned high enough to allow
a cup and saucer to slide under and back
out without tipping the full cup.
Glass-ceramic percs are completely
immersible except for the cord. They do not
have a brew-strength control. They are,
however, one of the easiest percs to clean
because they can be washed with other
dishes and because their non-porous surface
rejects coffee stains. The surface also pre-
vents carry-over of stale coffee flavors.
Heat-resistant glass percs consist of a glass
carafe that fits into a base containing the heat-
ing element. The carafe can be lifted out of
the handle and base, the basket assembly
removed from the carafe and all pieces (except
base) washed.
One-serving beverage makers will heat as
much as 12 oz. of water in 90 seconds for
tea, hot chocolate and other instant drinks
or soups.
BLENDERS
When it comes to food preparation, there
are some jobs nothing but a blender can do
and some jobs a blender will do, but not as
well as another appliance.
Blenders will crush, liquefy, stir, mix, puree,
crumb, chop, grate, grind, whip, frappe and
blend at up to 20 speeds. Unless equipped
with attachments, blenders will not beat egg
whites, mash potatoes, crush ice, knead bread
dough, mix batter, grind raw meat or extract
juices. They can be used to whip cream,
although a mixer is better, or to grind coffee,
but a coffee mill is better.
Blenders are built with either conventional
or solid state controls. Motor rating usually is
350 to 1,000 watts. Cutter blade gear, driving
four or six tempered stainless steel blades, is
either metal (which is most durable), hard
rubber or plastic. Because stainless steel is rust-
resistant, all parts should be stainless for a
longer, maintenance-free life. The main fea-
tures of a blender container are its heat-, stain-
and odor-resistance, cup or ounce markings,
comfortable handle and pouring lip.
Containers come in 32- to 48-oz. capaci-
ties and are 10 1/2" to 16" high. Stability
depends on the way the container is seated
on the baseit should be locked or fastened
securely during operation.
Glass containers are strong and heavy
enough to endure normal use. Plastic contain-
ers may scratch or discolor.
Blender costs are predicated on number of
speeds, container capacity and features such as
a removable container open at both ends for
easy cleaning, removable blade assembly and
automatic timer.
Blend and store covered containers are
well-suited for juices and batter, since they
come in sizes from 12 oz. to 48 oz. and can be
stored in the refrigerator. A low-silhouette is a
selling point if the customer has a storage
problem, as it can be pushed under overhead
cabinets. Portable or cordless models may be
attractive for the same reason.
Blenders that cannot be disassembled for
cleaning should be filled with soapy water,
run at low speed for a few seconds, rinsed
and dried. To remove last traces of damp-
ness, run empty blender at low setting for a
few more seconds.
FRYPANS
There's a fine line between frypans and
cookers, because they do many of the same
jobs. Frypans (also called skillets or buffet fry-
ers) roast, fry, stew, bake, simmer and pan
broil (which a cooker can't), in addition to
warming food for table serving.
Promotional skillets usually are thin-gauge,
stamped aluminum that may warp with pro-
longed high-heat use or scratch when scoured.
Better quality frypans are heavy-gauge, pol-
ished or porcelainized cast aluminum or stain-
less steel with an aluminum core for better
heat distribution.
Aluminum won't scratch with scouring and
the smooth finish of steel reduces chances of
food sticking. Some have non-stick cooking
surfaces such as SilverStone and Teflon.
Neither should warp unless mistreated.
Brown stains on the underside of frypans
caused by carbonized greasecan be removed
with a commercial cleaner.
Other quality features are proper fitting,
dripless lid and smooth edges on both lid
and pan; vented lid to release steam; cook-
ing chart on lid or handle; indicator light
on thermostat and removable liner also suit-
able for use in oven. Additional features
include 11" square or; 7 3/4" x 11" rectangle;
3 1/2 to 5 1/2 qt. capacity; deep dish (high
sides) or low base; buffet or stick handle;
standard (1 1/2" deep) or high dome (5"
deep) lid; removable or built-in thermostat.
Some frypans are available with crockery
inserts that can cook as long as 10 hours as
slow-cookers. Two types are offered: an open-
bodied ceramic insert or partitioned to pro-
vide two or three separate cooking areas.
The addition of steaming racks extends the
usage for food preparation. A high dome
cover adds room to roast larger meat cuts,
while a standard cover almost limits a pan to
frying and some baking.
Lower-priced dome covers are separate from
the pan; better ones are hinged with one, two
or three tilt positions. Clear, see-through cov-
ers on some models are for cooking conven-
ience and buffet serving. Broiler covers are
available on some models. Removable ther-
mostat and water-sealed heating elements
make a frypan immersible; a built-in thermo-
stat (usually in handle) means the skillet is
not completely immersiblethe handle must
not get wet.
ELECTRIC COOKERS/ FRYERS
Electric slow cookers are attractively
designed electric casseroles that can be set at a
low temperature so that food begins cooking
in the morning and cooks all day with no
attention from the cook. They may also be
used as serving dishes.
Available in 1- to 6-qt. capacities, some
are porcelain or non-stick finished alu-
minum pots on a separate heating base.
Others are ceramic crocks with a wrap-
around heating element encased in metal.
Either type may offer a removable liner for
easy clean-upsomewhat of a chore with
the non-immersible, one-piece units.
Be sure to explain that slow cookers will
not overcook, even though cooking time may
be prolonged by as much as two hours. Also
point out that cooking temperatures are rela-
tively low but still sufficient to kill bacteria.
While most cookers offer only low and
high heat settings, some do vary by degrees.
In either case, shoppers will appreciate your
pointing out that they should be careful to set
the dial exactly on target; being slightly off
can cause it to not heat up.
Also find out where the shopper intends to
use the cooker, as there are model variations
in cord length.
Other electric cookers include deep fryers,
electric Dutch ovens, electric kettles or remov-
able crockery vessels to slow-cook stews,
soups, roasts or vegetables; deep fry potatoes,
chicken or seafood; pop corn; warm rolls,
buns or bread; steam puddings; blanch veg-
etable for home freezing, and bake casseroles.
Most have a 5-qt. capacity, polished alu-
minum or porcelainized exterior, with or
without non-stick interior, and come with a
deep-fry basket.
Mini-versions of these deep fryers have 2
1/2 to 5 cup capacity. Some electric cookers
function as double-cookers with separate
cooking units on the same base, with sepa-
rate controls for each unit. Features to point
out include warming controls to keep food
at eating temperature but not continue
cooking; wide simmer range; clearly visible
heat indicator light that shows when preset
temperature is reached, and a large, well-
balanced and sturdy fry basket that won't
let food drop into fryer.
Some cookers have removable thermostats
and sealed heating units for safe washing.
Those with built-in controls must be cleaned
by putting a small amount of warm soapy
water in the cooker.
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
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SAFETY AND CARE TIPS FOR APPLIANCES
Always read the manufacturers instruc-
tion book.
Use the appliance for what it was
designednothing else.
Never place small electric appliances on a
range or store them in an oven.
Never touch electrical cords or fixtures
when hands, feet or shoes are wet; cords
should never come in contact with water.
Plug small appliances directly into wall
outlets whenever possible. When using an
extension cord, the electrical rating of the
cord must be no less than the wattage of
the appliance. Do not overload outlets.
Turn off an appliance before unplugging
it. If it has a detachable cord or control,
plug into appliance first, then into wall
outlet, disconnect at wall first, then from
appliance.
Hold the plug itself to disconnect; dont
yank on the cord.
Operating appliance should not be left
unattended, particularly if children are
around. Small appliances are not intended
to be used outdoors.
Unplug heating appliances as soon as fin-
ished and allow to cool.
Replace worn or damaged cords imme-
diately.
Clean after every use.
Always clean underside of appliance; if
brown stains develop, use commercial
cleaner.
Dont put water in hot pan; it will warp.
If pan is greasy, wipe with paper towel
while pan is still warm.
Dont immerse an appliance unless the
label says you can; if it is immersible, always
remove the heat control immediately after
using and wipe with damp cloth.
Light scouring is permissible for metal sur-
faces; NEVER for non-stick coatings.
Always wash and condition non-stick
finishes before use and occasionally use
commercial chemical cleaner (specifically
for the purpose) on non-stick surface to
clean stains.
Always remove partswaffle grids, knife
blades, beaters, can opener cutting wheels,
etc.from motor housing to wash them.
They can safely be put in dishwasher. Never
immerse the motor housing; wipe clean
with damp cloth.
Whatever the kind of cooker, advise your
customer to read manufacturer tags and book-
lets with cooking and handling instructions.
Some cookers perform best with foods
requiring some liquid; others may require a
lower temperature than oven cooking because
the food is in direct contact with the heating
element in the bottom of cooker.
A few variations on the basic cooker
include:
o Electric sauce pan4 to 5 qt. capacity in
polished aluminum with non-stick lining.
Has deep-fry basket and thermostat-con-
trolled heating element with warm setting.
o Electric casserole2 to 3 1/2 qt. capacity
with removable insert that can also be used
on top of stove. Primary function is baking
and roasting; will not brown meat. Has 150
degrees warm setting.
o Electric egg cookerboils or poaches eggs.
Boiling rack will hold up to eight eggs.
Poaching insert holds four eggs (insert can
have non-stick coating). Visible or audible
signal when eggs are done.
WAFFLE BAKERS AND GRILLS
Waffle bakers are round, square or rectan-
gular; come with or without non-stick finish;
have plain waffle pattern grids or fancy design
grids; include four or six waffle sections, and
make regular waffle size or large, family size.
Round bakers and less expensive rectangu-
lar ones are wafflers. The rest convert to a
griddle by changing plates or reversing waffle
grids. In any case, grids are made of heavy cast
aluminum and are removable for washing.
They usually have a chrome-plated exterior.
Other features common to some units are
overflow rim on waffle side and grease drain
spouts on grill side; thermostat reaching 485
degrees that shuts off when preset tempera-
ture is reached; signal light that comes on
when waffle is done or when unit is preheat-
ed; light/medium/dark settings, and expand-
able hinges that allow movement of upper
grid as waffle rises.
As griddles, they can be used flat as a nor-
mal grilling surface or closed to grill sandwich-
es. Belgian wafflers make thicker waffles with
indentations up to 1" deep to hold more syrup
or other toppings. They generally have no sec-
tions as traditional waffle bakers do and are
equipped with greater heat adjustment con-
trol and non-stick surface.
Automatic grills provide a large (about 200
sq. in.) grilling surfaceenough to hold 15
hamburgers, eight to 10 pancakes or to cook
two entirely different foods at the same time.
They can also be used to heat frozen dinners,
as a roll warmer or warming tray. Most grills
are cast aluminum with or without non-stick
finish and have a detachable thermostat with
range of 150 degrees to 450 degrees, light indi-
cator, drain hole with grease cup, cooking
guide on grill and low side rim. Some have a
domed cover.
Electric crepe pans have a small, circular,
non-stick grill surface with long-life tubular
heating element. Just dip pan in batter and
turn right side up, wait a few seconds and
gently pry loose with a spatula for wafer-thin
crepes. Crepe makers can often be turned and
used as gourmet frying pans for sauteing and
frying. The base surface can also be used as a
hot-plate. They are energy-efficient, too, using
only about 750 watts.
Emphasize to buyers the importance of
preparing batter of exact consistency and care-
fully adhering to suggested dipping times
when making crepes. This is an ideal product
for dynamic in-store demonstrations.
BUFFET RANGES
Buffet ranges have one or two burners
and cook anything that can be cooked on a
kitchen range, only more slowly. A single-
burner range reaches maximum heat of
1,100 watts; a double-burner unit has one
fast, high-heating burner (1,100 watts) and
one slow, medium-heating burner (550
watts) and dual controls.
Higher-priced ranges have variable heat
control; chrome-plated, enameled or porce-
lainized steel cabinet; chrome cooking surface;
front- or top-mounted controls; lift-up ele-
ments; and removable chrome drip pans.
They have sealed rod heating elementsinsu-
lated wires sealed in a metal tube that looks
like a flat spiral (like burner on an electric
range). They are electrically safe because no
wires are exposed, although in high humidity,
dampness may penetrate to wiring and pro-
duce a mild shock hazard.
Less expensive buffet ranges have only
off/on switch, galvanized sheet metal cabinet
and chrome or enamel top. These models fre-
quently have open coil elements, which
means heating coils are laid in grooves on the
surface of a ceramic plate. Open coils are
potentially hazardous because the live wire is
exposed. Although a double pole switch
ensures that element is not electrically alive
when unit is turned off, it does not eliminate
the danger of accidentally touching the wire
when unit is on.
A few other questions to answer about the
units you carry include:
o If controls are located on top of range, can
setting be changed without brushing
knuckles against a hot pan?
o Can setting be accidentally changed if
bumped while moving pans on burners?
o Does the range heat up on the sides and
around the controls?
o Do the control knobs or buttons stay cool
enough to touch while range is on?
o If a two-burner range, are high and low
heat burners identified?
o Will it maintain a low warming temper-
ature?
o Are burners far enough apart to hold two
large pans?
o How thick is chrome plating?
o If thin, it may be susceptible to scratch-
ing and rusting, especially in high-
humidity areas.
TOASTERS
When a customer walks into your store to
buy a toaster, there's a wide variety to choose
from. Two-slice or four-slice? Square or slim
line? Single or double control? Reflector?
Toaster-oven combination? Under-cabinet or
counter-top model?
Two- and four-slice pop-up toasters toast
one to four slices and automatically lift
toast when done. Square toasters have sin-
gle or double pairs of slots side by side; slim
line toasters have slots end to end; under
cabinet models mount so that toast pops
out of the front.
Selling features include adjustable light/dark
settings; hinged crumb tray; toast lift that rais-
es toast high enough to remove without
reaching into slots; bread wells wide enough
for most thicknesses of bread, frozen waffles,
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
4
etc.; and an easily cleaned finish.
Each slot has two heating elements (better
ones are made of nichrome wire wrapped on
mica for longer life) and holds bread an equal
distance from element.
All toasters have toast release to interrupt
toasting cycle if desired, and some have a
heat-sensing device to warm up cold toast
without further darkening it.
Some models have energy-saving switches
that cut out one bank of elements, especially
in four-slice units, so that one side of the ele-
ment arrangement heats up when only two
slices of bread are being toasted. Others have
separate controls for each pair of slots.
Timing mechanisms on better toasters heat
and cool quickly, automatically compensate
for voltage variations, and toast bread to same
degree of selected color in the same amount
of time, regardless of number of slices toasted
successively.
Wattage reduction-control toasters allow
user to regulate wattage in the outside ele-
ments for toasting pastry foods with sugar-
glazed coatings that would otherwise melt
inside the toaster. Adjustable-width slots will
toast a variety of different-sized breads and
pastries without concern that they will warp
or stick inside the toaster.
FOOD MIXERS
Speed and power are the major differences
between portable and stand mixers. Many cus-
tomers prefer portable mixers because they are
usually less expensive, more compact and can
be stored conveniently. But even those with
12 speeds won't serve as well as a stand mixer
if your customer has a large family, entertains
frequently or does a lot of baking.
The portables simply do not have enough
power to perform adequately in large, heavy
mixturesstand mixers have 50 percent to 75
percent more power.
Neither kind of mixer should be forced
beyond its motor capacity. If it can't cope with
the mixture, the motor will slow or stall, then
overheat and burn out.
Portable mixers will stir, mash, mix, cream,
beat and whip. Stand mixers perform these
functions plus handle heavy dough or batter
and larger quantities of other foods.
All mixers have either conventional or solid
state motors, and the better conventional
motors are governor-controlled.
The major advantage of a solid state motor
is that it maintains full power at lower speeds.
Governor-controlled conventional motors
offer the same advantage plus maintaining
full and steady power at all speeds.
Some selling features apply to both portable
and stand mixers: adequately controlled
motor power; selective or variable speed con-
trol; beater ejector positioned for one-hand
operation; mixing guide on head or handle;
and open-center, chrome-plated, tightly lock-
ing beaters with plastic tips to prevent scratch-
ing the bowl.
Other features that apply only to portable
include light weight (less than three lbs.); bal-
anced handling; comfortable handle (must be
held through mixing job); detachable cord if
plug-in or recharging unit is cordless; and
under-cabinet mounting.
Stand mixer features include sturdy and
well-balanced stand unit; method of detach-
ing head from stand; 12 speeds varying
from 150 rpm to 1,200 rpm; one, two or
three glass or stainless steel bowls in gradu-
ated sizes from 1 1/2 to 4 qt.; bowl shift
lever or two-position turntable mounting;
ball-bearing or other smooth-operating
turntable; bowl-contoured beaters that cover
full diameter of bowl; detachable cord; and
instant extra power button that delivers
increased speed to mix tougher batter.
Included among the attachments for
stand mixersanother selling point, since
portables won't operate these attachments
are can openers, food choppers, vegetable
slicers, dough hooks, juicers, knife sharpen-
ers, drink mixers, blenders, silver buffers
and ice cream freezers.
ELECTRIC KNIVES
An electric slicing knife consists of two 9" or
12" serrated blades linked at the tip and
locked into a handle containing a motor
which is activated by pressure on a trigger to
drive the blades back and forth.
Blades are hollow-ground stainless steel,
some tungsten carbide tipped. They should fit
tightly together so that food scraps don't catch
between them as they cut. Motor housing is
heavy-duty plastic unaffected by heat generat-
ed by the motor.
Retail price depends on some of the follow-
ing features: tapered blade tips to trim and cut
around bones; extra set of shorter blades for
paring; well-balanced, comfortable handle
that helps user direct the blades; grease guards
on blades; table rest on handle to keep blade
from tipping forward onto table; two cutting
speeds; fingertip blade release button; wall-
hanging storage rack and/or detachable cord
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
5
SELLING TIPS FOR
ELECTRIC APPLIANCES
TRY ANSWERING THESE QUESTIONS
ABOUT THE APPLIANCE YOU ARE
SELLING:
Are they easy to operate?
Are controls accessible and marked clearly?
Are materials suitable for the appliances
intended use?
Is there any feature of the appliance that
may create a hazard for the customer who
uses it?
Are handles sufficient to move the appli-
ance without chance of dropping it or harm-
ing the user?
Are feet and handles heat-resistant?
Is base insulated to protect tabletop or
countertop?
Do appliances have non-marring feet or
bases?
How easy are appliances to clean?
Point out removable parts and accessories,
surfaces that wipe clean with little effort.
Do you understand the warranty well
enough to answer any questions?
What happens if the appliance needs
repair? How readily available is service? And
from whom?
THEN ASK YOUR CUSTOMER A FEW
QUESTIONS BEFORE YOU BEGIN
SELLING:
What size will fulfill the need?
What equipment does the customer
already have? Try to sell an appliance that
doesnt duplicate.
How often will it be used? This indicates
whether a heavy-duty, long-wearing appli-
ance is better, whether storage is a factor,
whether customer will pay more for a better-
quality item.
for plug-in knives, recharger stand for cordless
ones; and safety blade lock to keep blades
from cutting even when the knife is plugged
in but not being used.
It is not a good idea to use any electric
knife to cut through bones or frozen foods;
use kitchen saws for that. It is best to carve on
a wooden board, since blades may scratch din-
ner platters or metal pan surfaces.
CAN OPENERS
Why grind away on a tough can when a
small, powerful motor will do it for you? This
is the way to sell electric can openers. They
cost more than manual ones, but the effort
and time they save may be worth it. Can
openers operate one of two ways: 1) single
lever pierces lid, activates motor and requires
constant hand pressure to keep motor run-
ning; 2) cutting begins automatically when
can is clamped into place and stops when can
is open.
A popular feature is a removable turning
gear that allows the opener to be cleaned
completely. The cutting assembly can be
removed without tools, and the gears that
turn the can while the lid is being severed lift
out to be cleaned.
Features to point out include: steel cutting
blade attached to removable unit; the opener
cuts irregularly shaped cans and is high
enough to cut large juice cans; cans lock into
cutting position and a magnet holds severed
lid (if it isn't aluminum); unit is properly
weighted, so weight of can won't tip it;
retractable cord or cordless option offer con-
venience; and under-cabinet or countertop
storage saves space. Presence of these features
is a major factor affecting price, as is the mate-
rial from which the housing is made.
A brushed chrome-plated or enamel hous-
ing withstands tougher use and protects the
motor better than a plastic housing.
Other appliances commonly combined
with a can opener include a knife sharpener,
ice crusher, fruit juicer or bottle opener. Each
of these works off the same motor as the can
opener and is usually located on the opposite
side of the housing.
IRONS
Whatever the job, whatever the preferred
price range, there's an electric iron to fit it. In
regular irons, you can step up from a
steam/dry iron to a spray/steam/dry iron,
corded or cordless. In travel irons, it's either
dry or steam and dry.
A few points apply to all irons. Soleplates
can be polished cast aluminum or non-stick
finished to resist starch pick-up. Soleplates
on less expensive irons are less durable and
may scratch easily. An iron should never be
used on rough surfaces like zippers, pins,
snaps, etc. A scratched metal plate can be
smoothed with fine sandpaper and rubbed
with paraffin or waxed paper to replace its
finish; a non-stick finish shouldn't be ham-
pered by small scratches.
Some irons turn off automatically if they
are not picked up for several minutes. They
usually give an audible warning signal before
they shut off.
Metal plates can be cleaned with mild, non-
gritty powder and rubbed with waxed paper
to clean off any foreign material. Non-stick
finishes should be wiped with soft cloth.
Never use abrasive cleaners.
Most manufacturers say that unless the
customer has extremely hard watermore
than 180 parts per million of dissolved
mineralstap water is fine to use with
steam or spray/steam irons. However,
many consumers may prefer to use dis-
tilled water. (Hard tap water contains lime
and other minerals that, in time, clog the
steam chamber, duct and vents.)
A commercial cleaner will dissolve these
deposits but may also damage internal parts of
the iron (follow manufacturer recommenda-
tions on this point). Self-cleaning irons uti-
lize an extra burst of steam to blow sediment
out of steam ducts and vents.
Steam/dry irons are fitted with an electrical-
ly heated water chamber that should hold
enough water for a half-hour's normal iron-
ing. A push-button should open the steam
duct to release steam through soleplate vents.
Others have water chambers in the base. They
take about 30 seconds to heat, two minutes
for steam to develop and weigh 3 to 4 lbs.
Steam/spray/dry irons are constructed gen-
erally like steam/dry irons but have a second
push-button that produces a fine mist spray
that does not leave water spots. Some irons
have two sprays, fine and medium, and some
offer an extra puff of steam for badly wrinkled
areas. They need about the same time to heat,
weigh about the same as steam/dry irons and
are more expensive than steam/dry irons.
Manual spray can be used at any fabric set-
ting and requires thumb-pumping to produce
spray. Power spray works only on steam set-
tings and provides a continuous spray as long
as the push-button is depressed. The impor-
tant factor is not the number of steam vents
but whether they provide complete coverage
over the soleplate.
To store any of these irons, empty reservoir,
wrap cord if it has one loosely around handle
(after iron cools) and store on heel rest, never
on soleplate or in carton. Some have
retractable cords.
Other features that help sell irons include
heating element and thermostat that main-
tain steady temperature at any setting for long
periods; tip-proof heel rest; comfortable, heat-
resistant handle with thumb rests on either
side (for right- or left-handed people); cen-
tered cord lift; fingertip adjustment of temper-
ature selector and steam/spray buttons; fabric
guide on handle or saddleplate; wide-
mouthed, funnelled fill opening; water win-
dow or fill guide; chrome-plated shell with
smooth edges and tight fit; permanent press
touch-up setting; and button nooks.
Cordless irons rest in a recharging stand
that is plugged in while the iron is in use.
When the user stops ironing to adjust
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
6
SAFETY WARNING
One point to make to the purchaser is not
to plug in more than one heat-producing
appliance on a 15-amp (normal house
current) circuit at one time. It will proba-
bly overload the circuit and blow a fuse or
trip a circuit breaker.
Extension cords are not advisable on
heavy current pullers, but if one is
absolutely necessary, use nothing smaller
than a #16 gauge.
Always caution the user about the hazards
of using electric personal care appliances
around water. These appliances can cause
electrocution when plugged in, even
when not in use. Recommend use in the
bedroom or other room besides the bath-
room, especially for children.
clothes on the board, the iron is placed in
the stand to recharge for a few seconds.
Light to medium ironing loads can be
done in one recharge; heavy jobs may
require a second recharge. Travel irons,
are naturally, more compact and light-
weight to take up minimum room in a
suitcase. They usually have a full range of
fabric settings and a handle that is either
built low or folds flat.
Some have a built-in water reservoir,
while others have a plastic water bottle
that screws into the iron. Travel irons will
usually tolerate tap water. They frequently
come with overseas adapters and voltage
adjustment bars and are packed in a serv-
iceable travel bag. As with other irons,
they shouldn't be used on rough surfaces
and should be thoroughly drained and
dry before packing.
AIR PURIFIERS
Electric air purifiers function with a fan
that draws air from beneath or behind the
unit, through a filter and blows the purified
air through the top or front. Top quality
units will have two or three fan speed set-
tings, a quiet motor and the capacity to filter
a large room or several rooms. Filters for
these units are made predominantly of char-
coal with fabric coverings and may be scent-
ed. Another type of air cleaner, which does a
better job of removing pollen and microscop-
ic particles from the air, uses an ionizing fil-
ter. This filter gives the particles passing
through it a positive electrical charge and
traps them on a negatively charged precipita-
tor plate, which then may be removed for
cleaning every four to six months.
This type of unit is much larger and more
expensive than the charcoal filter type.
Some are attachable to furnace ducts or
replace normal furnace air filters. This unit
may be useful to consumers with severe
allergies or breathing impairments, since it
helps remove a number of different aggra-
vating particles from the air.
POPCORN POPPERS
Two- to 6-qt. poppers rest on the heating
base. Most have non-stick linings and see-
through covers. Automatic poppers turn off
when popping is done; non-automatics
require user to remove bowl and unplug the
unit when popping stops.
Special dispensers in some models will but-
ter popcorn as it pops. See-through covers
usually double as 4-qt. serving bowls. A hot air
popper pops corn with heated air, not oil.
Called continuous flow units, most hot air
poppers feature built-in thermostats, butter
melters and premeasured bins for loading the
correct amount of corn. Not all hot air pop-
pers will pop gourmet popping corn; check
manufacturer's literature.
FOOD PROCESSORS
Food processors are multi-purpose kitchen
appliances that perform a wide variety of food
preparation functions in a few seconds.
Functions most food processors perform are:
slicing; chopping; grating; shredding; minc-
ing; crumbing bread, crackers, cookies, cereals;
kneading bread; pureeing; and mashing. Mini-
processors generally perform the same func-
tions but have a smaller capacity. A serrated
cutting blade is used for heavy-duty chopping
of meat and kneading bread; slicing disc uni-
formly slices vegetables, fruits, etc.; shredder
disc shreds and grates; and a plastic mixing
blade whips, blends and kneads larger
amounts of bread.
Features on better models include: cover
locking tabs and bowl locking rims so that
motor will operate only when bowl is covered
and locked into position; cover with food
chute to add liquid or dry ingredients while
processor is in action; food pusher used to
direct food in chute into discs and bowls;
thermal overload protection device that auto-
matically cuts off the motor in seconds if
overheating occurs; three-position switch
(on/off/pulse); sturdy housing; and a base
with suction feet.
OTHER APPLIANCES
The following glossary lists other portable
appliances generally sold by do-it-yourself
retailers:
Coffee grindersusually consist of an
upper container for coffee beans and a lower
container to catch ground coffee. Have grind
setting and measure marks on coffee container
or cup-measuring device.
Cookie/ candy gun a cylindrical press that
produces cookies, canapes and candy at the
press of a trigger. Also useful for stuffing mani-
cotti and cream puffs and making decorative
garnishes. Comes with up to 11 attachments.
Electric meat slicerssimilar to the meat
slicers seen in delicatessens, but down-sized
for home use, meat slicers can be of die-cast
metal with chrome finish or plastic. Blades
measure 6 3/8" to 7 1/8" in diameter, and are
made of serrated stainless steel. Slicers have
adjustable thickness control from paper thin
to a half-inch. Units should always have a
thumb guard and should be held steady by a
table lock or non-skid feet.
Freezer-bag sealerseals up fresh and
leftover foods in air-tight freezer bags.
Electric unit seals bags in five seconds. Bags
come in three sizes: 8-, 24- and 32-oz. Some
even have compartments for sealing several
foods in one bag for instant meals. The unit
can be wall-mounted or used on counter-
tops. Other features include: recessed cord
storage, on indicator light and instant on-
off without warm-up.
Ice cream freezersconsist of tub, can and
driving mechanism much like hand-operated
freezers, but an electric motor drives the
cranking mechanism. Tubs are frequently
made of fiberglass. Can is suspended in tub
and holds ingredients; tub is packed with ice
and salt. Newer models offer 2-qt. makers that
will prepare two flavors at the same time.
Most units will freeze ice cream in 30 minutes
to an hour.
Meat grindersoperate much like an
attachment for a food mixer but are in their
own housing and have their own motor. They
have coarse and fine cutting discs and come
with a hardwood pusher; they also chop or
grind vegetables, cheese, nutmeats, etc.; and
may have a salad-maker attachment, or
slice/shred vegetables, fruits, etc.
Warming trayslook like serving trays but
have warming unit under shatter-resistant
glass surface to keep food warm for serving;
cannot be used as cooking surface. May have
shallow drawer for rolls, pies, etc. Can also be
used to melt butter, chocolate, etc. Food
should not be placed directly on tray, always
in serving dish. Some have high, low, and
normal settings.
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
7
I PORTABLE OVENS
TOASTER/ TABLETOP
OVENS/ BROILERS
These mini-ovens have a wide range of
kitchen uses, including toasting, browning,
heating and baking. Features common to
most portable ovens include temperature
range from 200-500 degrees; separate con-
trols for each function; removable doors,
crumb trays, racks, heating elements and
rotisserie assemblies; automatic timer;
adjustable door position; chrome-plated
housing; and metal accessories.
Toaster oven/broilers have smaller capacities
and are capable of toasting bread on both
sides at the same time. Tabletop oven/broilers
are much larger and will toast only one side at
a time. While some models have top and bot-
tom elements for baking and broiling, some
come with only one element. This one-ele-
ment unit stands with the element in the top
to broil; when entire unit is turned over, the
element is on the bottom to bake or roast.
These appliances are useful as second ovens
or can be used in place of a large oven to
reduce energy consumption. However, capaci-
ty is obviously limited and food preparation
results may be less consistent than a conven-
tional oven. Toaster ovens come in different
sizes, some with a signal bell that rings when
food is done. Some models pop up toast from
the top, like a regular toaster.
Those that offer "slow heat" cooking have
low wattage current constantly flowing
through top and bottom elements so different
foods can cook simultaneously. Other models
provide two shelves for baking, but heat distri-
bution may be uneven. Other toaster oven
features include a special defrost cycle and
porcelain catalytic finish that cleans itself con-
tinuously at normal cooking temperatures.
Related to the table broilers/ovens are the
smokeless broilers and broiler rotisseries which
have no covering but are safe for indoor cook-
ing because they do not smoke or spatter. Two
reasons explain this:
1. Infrared heating element reaches a
temperature well above smoke range and
forms a heat shield around the element;
grease disintegrates as it strikes the element,
without smoke.
2. A stainless steel reflector pan under the
broiler rack or spit has water in it (about 3/4").
Should drippings fall through the element,
they land in the water without spattering.
Most smokeless broilers have aluminum
frame and chrome-plated grilling rack, spit
and skewers. They disassemble for washing.
MICROWAVE OVENS
Microwave ovens use very short electro-
magnetic waves to cook foods in a short
timeabout 10 minutes per pound for most
meat cuts. All basically cook the same, so it's
usually a matter of directing customers to the
right size with the right features to suit their
needs. Microwave ovens offer a variety of fea-
tures including digital timer, automatic
cycling defroster, variable power dial for
changing cooking speed and automatic food
temperature control (oven stops automatically
when internal temperature of food reaches
temperature set on indicator).
Other things that must be considered are:
1. Placement of oven. Will the customer
need a left-hinged or bottom-hinged model?
How about the vent? A front-vented model
can be placed under an upper cabinet, but a
back-vented appliance must have air space of
2" from the wall.
Space requirements vary. Newer
microwaves have been down-sized without
sacrificing interior cooking space. Under-cabi-
net models also solve some counter-space
problems.
2. Kind of cooking to be done. If the oven
will be used mainly for defrosting and reheat-
ing, a smaller, lower-priced, two-power model
will be fine. The compact microwaves available
may require slightly longer cooking times but
are good for one-or-two-person households.
A top-of-the-line model with variable power
settings and temperature sensor probe is
preferable for extensive, full-meal cooking.
Check the wattage output, which will range
from 300 to 700 watts. Cooking will take
twice as long in a 300 watt, and most
microwave cookbooks are written for 600- to
700-watt models.
3. Timers. Since a lot of cooking will be
done by counting seconds, digital timers are
good. If it has dial timers, is one marked off in
15-second increments? Touch timers (those
that are sensitive to finger heat) require fewer
repairs than dial timers.
4. The megahertz (one megahertz equals
one million microwave cycles per second).
Most microwave ovens operate on 2,450
megahertz.
5. Browning option. Some foods cooked for
a short time with microwaves will not brown
as in conventional cooking. (Foods with a
high fat content, such as bacon, will brown in
a short cooking time.) Is it worth more money
to have a unit with a browning coil? (A few
minutes in a conventional oven can finish the
job. So can a microwave browning dish that
costs much less.)
6. Power setting. There are models with
three to 10 power settings. Lower settings are
needed for egg and cheese dishes, less tender
meats, baked products, softening butter, melt-
ing chocolate and defrosting.
Models with phase cooking make it possible
to set both low and high power at one time,
which is useful for those who cannot stay
with the microwave to reset the timer when
switching from defrost to cook. Many models
are also equipped with a memory function.
User can preset the time the oven turns on, at
what power and for how long. This feature is
particularly useful for families where both par-
ents work outside the homemeals can be
cooking with nobody in the kitchen. In addi-
tion to cooking foods from scratch, the oven
is also useful for heating beverages, soups, pre-
cooked casseroles, sandwiches, leftovers,
canned vegetables and baked goods.
Microwave ovens are a safe and convenient
appliance, provided that purchasers know and
follow some guidelines:
1. Do not tamper with the safety interlocks,
which prevent a microwave oven from operat-
ing when the door is open. Operation with
the door open may result in harmful exposure
to microwave energy.
2. Do not place any object between the
oven front face and door or allow soil or
cleaner residue to accumulate on sealing sur-
faces.
3. Do not operate if unit has damaged door
(bent), hinges or latches (broken or loosened),
door seals or sealing surfaces.
4. Microwaves should be adjusted or repaired
only by properly qualified service personnel.
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To clean, use a mild detergent, water
and a soft cloth. Commercial cleaners
specifically for microwaves are also avail-
able. Odors can be eliminated from inside
by boiling a solution of one cup of water
and several tablespoons of lemon juice in
the oven for five to seven minutes. These
are the most important guidelines that
you as an employee can provideempha-
size to customers that they thoroughly
study manufacturer's information before
operating their microwave oven.
CONVECTION OVENS
Convection ovens use electrical energy as
do conventional ovens, but more efficiently.
The air inside a regular oven is almost static,
and cooking depends on the gradual conduc-
tion of heat from the outside to the center of
food. Convection ovens use a stream of
power-driven air produced by a high-speed
fan that swirls continuously over a standard
heating element.
This results in uniform temperature
throughout the oven, which not only speeds
cooking but saves up to 50 percent of the
energy used by conventional ovens. Because
of the constantly circulating air inside convec-
tion ovens, they remain efficient when filled
to capacity, even with foods touching each
other and the oven walls.
In fact, convection ovens are more efficient
than microwave ovens for larger amounts of
food, though they too lack the size of conven-
tional ovens. Some can be used as slow cook-
ers or to dehydrate fruits and vegetables.
Foods can be cooked at lower temperatures
for shorter periods of time in convection
ovensin many cases, temperatures may be
lowered by up to 75 degrees when baking, and
roasting time is cut by about one-third. Frozen
convenience foods, such as TV dinners, can be
cooked in half the recommended time with a
25 degree temperature reduction. Since con-
vection ovens give off less heat than conven-
tional ovens, the kitchen remains cooler when
they are in use.
Convection ovens need no special adapter;
regular household current may be used. They
are easy to cleanmost have either remov-
able, dishwasher-safe components or continu-
ous clean interiors, or both. Optional tempera-
ture probes are also available.
I PERSONAL CARE
Every customer wants to buy quality items
for personal care, be it a shaver or a blow
dryer. And that's where you come in.
Remember, you are selling what the product
does, not just a piece of machinery. When a
customer buys, he or she is usually looking for
a model with a special feature. Because so
many different models are available, color,
styling and storage provisions may be decid-
ing factors. A study of the appliances in your
store will tell you what features you can point
out. Don't forget the men and teenagers in
your merchandising efforts.
Teenagers are especially susceptible to the
advertising media's efforts to promote a better
appearance. By advertising personal care
items, you can get these segments of your
market coming into your store regularly. A
quality personal care product will have a
small, quiet, powerful motor to do the job
well; a well-sealed housing with few or no
crevices to collect dirt; will handle easily; and
has clearly readable, easily set controls.
HAIR DRYERS, STYLERS
Consumersboth men and womenare
opting for carefree hair styles and equipment
to keep their hair looking good with a mini-
mum of time and effort. Hand-held blower
dryer/stylers are a sure seller, and there are
many to choose from. Pistol-type models fea-
ture relatively high wattage (1,000-1,250) to
dry hair rapidly.
Styling is done by simultaneously shap-
ing the hair with a brush. Compact, light-
weight, hand-held dryers, averaging 8" long,
are usually mid-range wattage, generally
about 1,200. Often, handles fold down for
storage and travel.
Other models combine the drying feature
with comb, brush or detangler attachments.
They usually offer 850-1,000 watts, but some
offer adjustable power from 300-1,000 watts
and air flow control from fast drying to soft
styling. Either kind provides from two to five
temperature settings and can be used to style
wet or dry hair.
New models have added safety features to
help prevent electrocution should the dryer be
immersed in water. If you merchandise these
dryers, the safety factor will be a major selling
point, particularly to customers with children.
There's also a hair care center consisting of a
power center with detachable hose which can
be hooked up to a bonnet, pistol-type nozzle,
brush or comb. It features 1,000/700/575 watts
with three comfort settings: low speed/low
heat, high speed/medium heat and high
speed/high heat. Soft- and hard-bonnet dryers
share a few selling points: quick heating and
drying (about 20-25 min.); number of heat set-
tings (usually fourhigh, medium, low and
cool); quiet operation; variety of accessories;
light-weight and durable carrying case; and
ease of set-up and dismantling.
A soft-bonnet dryer usually averages 300 to
400 watts and consists of a large, soft bonnet
with elasticized headband. The small
heater/blower unit is attached to the bonnet
with long, flexible hose or is built into the
bonnet with remote temperature control, in
luggage-style carrying case, either hatbox or
handbag shape.
Accessories for bonnet dryers include nail
polish drying slots on blower, brush and
comb, mirrors, hair rollers or spot-drying
unit that is cup-shaped to fit over one roller
at a time. Salon or hard-bonnet dryers con-
sist of a rigid plastic hood attached to base
ENERGY SAVING TIPS
Dont piggy-back appliancesplug-
ging in more than one appliance into the
same outlet. The circuit could overload,
plus it takes both appliances longer to do
their jobs.
Operate appliance away from drafts so
they dont have to overwork to maintain
temperature.
Keep appliances ship-shape. Worn, fraz-
zled electric cords can use extra energy
and make other appliance parts work
overtime to compensate.
Dont use extension cords unless you
must. Theyre not energy-efficient.
Pressure cooking, pressure frying or stir-
frying cuts cooking time and adds up to
energy savings.
Follow directions carefully. Use a timer so
you know when cooking time has
elapsed.
Always follow manufacturers instruc-
tions for product capabilities and helpful
hints.
containing heater/blower by angled, col-
lapsible support arm.
With most of these dryers, arm folds into
base and hood fits down over base to form a
carrying case. These dryers average 900 to
1,000 watts. The base also holds a mist unit,
cord storage compartment, any other
attachments plus extra storage space for
rollers, pins, etc.
HAIR SETTERS
Hair setters usually consist of a kit including
heating base fitted with thermostat-controlled
heating posts that hold hair rollers, clips and
small foam pads to cushion rollers so they
don't feel hot against scalp.
Rollers heat in eight or nine minutes, then
can be rolled into dry hair and left for six to
15 minutes to set hair. The longer the rollers
are left in, the firmer the set. Fifteen minutes
is about maximum since rollers will cool.
Rollers should not be used in wet hair, nor
should they be used every day, for they tend
to leave hair dry and brittle. In some hair set-
ters, all posts are heating posts; in others,
some are storage posts.
When rollers are hot, readiness is indicated
by an indicator light on the heating unit or by
a temperature-sensitive paint dot on each
roller which turns dark when roller is hot.
After indicator says rollers are ready, they con-
tinue to heat a while longer, then temperature
stabilizes. Price depends mostly on number of
rollers, variation of size of rollers and whether
or not the setter has mist or steam feature.
Features indicating better-quality hair setters
include quick warm-up, evenly heated rollers,
low readiness temperature, carrying case with
mirror, and lighted on/off switch.
CURLING IRONS
Curling irons operate on the principle of
wrapping hair around a heated element. They
feature thermostat-controlled even heat, cool
handles and long cords. Some have a mist
spray for firmer set and non-stick coating to
prevent pulling hair (this also prevents rusting
in mist spray).
A heel rest is usually included or incorporat-
ed into the base of the wand. An expanding
barrel on some irons lets a woman choose the
size of curl she wants without the use of addi-
tional attachments. Some irons are cordless;
they plug into a base heat source. Or, they
may fold down to fit into a purse or suitcase.
Models often have swivel cords to prevent
cord tangles.
SHAVERS
Men's and ladies' shavers are basic to any
personal care line. Certain features are com-
mon to bothplug-in or cordless, detachable
cords, removable shaving heads, vibration-
free, smooth shaving without nicking, pulling
or scraping.
Shaving heads on men's shavers are flat,
curved or rotary; those on ladies' shavers
are usually flat. Flat or curved heads pro-
duce a back and forth motion with steel
or stainless steel blades. Rotary heads
have two or eight circular cutting heads
all turning in the same direction.
Most shavers offer a grooming feature for
beards, mustaches and sideburns. Some mod-
els will automatically adapt to any interna-
tional current by means of a built-in charger.
Ladies' shavers are smaller and may be styled
in various colors with small lights. Models
have separate or reversible shaving heads
and/or adjustable comfort bars (some with up
to 5 settings) that provide the right degree of
closeness for underarms or legs. Cordless
shavers will recharge in eight to 24 hours.
LIGHTED MIRRORS
One problem women often encounter
when applying makeup is that the result
changes in appearance under different light-
ing conditions. Lighted mirrors provide shad-
ow- and glare-free light around regular and
magnifying mirrors in several settings to simu-
late indoor, outdoor, office and evening light-
ing. These mirrors, depending on construc-
tion, swivel or tilt to preferred positions.
Lights, either incandescent or fluorescent, are
across the top or on either side of rectangular
or square mirrors or encircle a round one.
SUN LAMPS, HEAT LAMPS
Sun lamps produce the same tanning
rays as the sun, and because the density
of these rays can be several times stronger
than the sun, users should be careful with
exposure times and distances. Users
should follow manufacturer recommenda-
tions on time and distance carefully to
avoid burns. Infrared heat lamps provide
warmth to relieve aches and pains, but
also pose danger of serious burns if not
used properly. Lamps are rated by hours
of performance, from 2,000 to 5,000
hours, with the higher-rated lamps being
more expensive.
HEATING PADS
Heating pads are another source of warmth
for relieving minor aches and pains. Usually
they have three to six settings ranging from
110 degrees to 145 degrees, a rubber or plastic
inner cover to protect heating wires from
moisture, illuminated control panel, and cloth
outer covers. Regular size pads are 12" x 15"
and king size are 12" x 24". Flexible band
styles measure 6" x 20" and are equipped with
straps to fasten around the body. Moist heat
types come with sponge pads that can be
dampened and fit next to the heating pad
with a terry cloth clover.
MASSAGERS
Hand-held massagers offer several vibrating
speeds from flat surface vibration to slower,
penetrating motion. Infrared massagers add
heat to vibration and usually have three heat
settings but only one vibration speed. They
can be used with or without heat. Swedish
massagers fit on the back of the hand and the
vibration is transmitted through the user's
hand. They have single or dual speeds. Foot
massagers provide relief through the vibration
of warm, swishing water.
DENTAL HYGIENE APPLIANCES
Electric toothbrushes have a power handle
that drives individual brushes up and down,
back and forth or in an orbital motion. They
can be plug-in or cordless, and come with
stands that hold the power handle and four or
six individual brushes. Cordless brush stands
contain the recharging base while plug-in
stands function only as storage. The power
unit is sealed against water but should not be
left in standing water.
Most brushes have serrated bristles to work
in and around teeth. Replacement brushes are
available as are wall brackets and removable
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
10
travel chargers. Oral lavages use a jet of water
to flush out food particles and to massage
gums. These devices are especially good for
cleaning partial dentures, bridges and ortho-
dontic appliances. Usually the lid of the unit
is turned upside down to become a reservoir
for water or mouthwashes and to which is
attached a retractable plastic hose that holds
the sprayer nozzle.
HOME HEALTH CARE
A continuing interest in health and fitness
and high technology have combined to create
a personal home health care category. Items
such as digital thermometers and electronic
blood pressure monitors are now available for
home use.
Digital thermometers are available in one-
and two-piece styles. One-piece thermometers
resemble pencil-type glass thermometers, with
the readout on the end of the unit. Two-piece
styles feature a small, lightweight probe,
linked to the readout by a flexible cord. Some
feature beeper signals when the thermometer
has reached peak temperature.
Electronic blood pressure monitors feature
a digital readout meter with a connected arm
cuff. No stethoscope is required with the
units. Higher-end features include blood pres-
sure reading printout, automatic inflation of
arm cuff, pulse meter and clock. Units operate
on penlight batteries.
Humidifiers relieve common winter prob-
lems connected with dry air, such as
swollen sinuses, sore throat and dry skin.
Although this is not a new category, recent
technological breakthroughs have brought a
new type of humidifier to the forefront
the ultrasonic humidifier. While warm mist
humidifiers use heat to create the steam,
and cool mist units use paddles and air
pumps, the ultrasonic units break up the
water with sound waves.
Ultrasonic units are priced three to five
times higher than conventional humidifiers,
but they generally offer quieter operation and
few refills. Remind customers that no matter
what type of humidifier they buy, water
should be changed often and the unit should
be cleaned frequently to remove any bacteria
from standing water and ensure proper opera-
tion of the unit.
I CLOCKS AND WATCHES
Clocks and watches are fashion items and
should be given proper treatment in your
store. Sell fashion to your customers, not just
a timepiece. Don't be afraid of price. There is
such a wide price range that customers can
easily find a timepiece in the style and price
range they want. Customers aren't afraid to
pay for quality. Manufacturers oblige by offer-
ing clocks and watches in every conceivable
style and decorator scheme.
CLOCKS
Clocks operate one of three waysspring-
wound, battery-operated or electricand fall
into four general categories depending on
usealarm, wall, occasional and travel.
Clock OperationAll spring-wound (or key-
wound) clocks must be wound by hand.
Many of the smaller, less costly ones, like
alarm clocks, will run for 40 hours (72 hours if
alarm is not used) without winding. More
expensive strike and chime clocks, sometimes
called eight-day clocks, need winding once a
week. Anniversary clocks, often sold as gifts,
require winding once a year.
Battery-operated cordless electric clocks
operate on a single flashlight battery, which
provides enough electric current to wind the
mainspring. Technological advances have
improved time-keeping accuracy of battery-
operated mechanisms. Time-keeping accuracy
of both types depends on the owner. Spring-
wound clocks must be wound regularly,
preferably at the same time (morning or
evening for 40-hour variety and same day of
week for eight-day clocks).
Cordless electric models need a battery
change about once a year. Besides fashion-
able styling, spring-wound and battery-oper-
ated clocks can be used anywhere, regard-
less of availability of electricity. Electric
clocks operate on a 60-cycle, 110-volt cur-
rent, but will run satisfactorily on 95- to
125-volts. Accuracy of electric clocks
depends on the power source.
Only a major disruption in the power line
should stop the clock or cause it to lose time.
Although styling of electric clocks can be
equal to that of battery-operated clocks, home
decorators prefer the latter because they need
not worry about placement near an outlet or
an unsightly cord.
Digital ClocksLight emitting diodes (LED),
better known as digitals, come in all price
ranges. The modern look and convenience of
digital clocks make them necessary to clock
selections. They operate on household current
and perform all the functions of other clocks,
even clock radios. They feature a solid state
unit with no moving parts and a battery-oper-
ated auxiliary power supply in case of house-
hold power failure.
Wall ClocksHere is where fashion really
counts. People don't buy wall clocks, even for
the kitchen, just to be able to tell time; they
want the clock to blend with room decor
themes. Wall clocks can be battery-operated or
electric, but the former are the most popular.
If your customer prefers an electric clock but
doesn't want the cord to ruin a carefully
planned room, you might suggest a recessed
wall outlet immediately behind the clock, and
refer the customer to the electrical department
for the necessary equipment. Kitchen clocks
have joined the ranks of under-cabinet appli-
ance. These models can be coordinated with
other under-cabinet appliances if the con-
sumer is interested.
Occasional ClocksOccasional clocks
include expensive, highly decorative, finely
made table, mantel or shelf clocks, such as
strike and chime pieces. Traditional strike and
chime clocks are automatically compensated
to strike the correct time within one hour
after setting or resetting. They chime every
quarter-hour and strike each hour, but some
can be adjusted to strike only on the hour.
With their gracious styling, modern or tradi-
tional hand-rubbed hardwood cases, these
clocks can be quite expensive. Cordless elec-
tric occasional clocks with wood or metal
cases carry lower retail prices.
Alarm ClocksMost electric alarm clocks
have a buzzer alarm, although more expensive
ones may have a bell alarm or blinking light
that accompanies or replaces the ringing
alarm. Many offer a snooze featurethe alarm
rings once, then rings again several minutes
later. Lower-priced clocks are simply the time-
keeping and alarm mechanism enclosed in a
plastic case. Medium-priced clocks will have
plastic or metal cases, illuminated dials or
lighted alarm-set indicators.
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
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Higher-priced models may have metal
or hand-rubbed wood cases, blinking light
alarm indicator and metallic-finished
bezel and dial. Better electric and spring-
wound alarms have shatterproof crystals,
sweep alarm and/or second hands, sepa-
rate setting and winding keys on the back.
A few electrics have alarm bars on the
front which set and turn off the alarm. A
more enjoyable form of alarm is a clock
radio. Instead of sounding a bell or
buzzer, the clock turns on the radio. Some
clock radios can be set to turn off at night
and to turn on again in the morning.
Better models combine all quality features
of portable radios (see Home Electronics)
and alarm clocks, and some combine
clock/radio and telephone in one unit.
Convenience features include reversible
time-setting, snooze function and bright-
ness control. The radios are limited in
quality of sound mostly due to size, but
some higher-priced models deliver better
tone quality.
Travel ClocksCompact travel clocks, aver-
aging about 3" in opened height, fold down to
a small 1" depth for packing. All have alarms,
and better ones incorporate the snooze fea-
ture. The more extras added to the clock, the
more dollars added to the price.
WATCHES
Digital watches feature no moving parts to
wear out, need little or no service or repair,
and are far more accurate (within one minute
per year) than the most expensive mechanical
watches. They offer as many as five func-
tionssecond, minute, hour, day and date.
Most digital watches do more than tell the
time. Many also act as stop watches and have
dual night-viewing lights. The digital watch
operates with four battery-powered compo-
nents. The battery causes a quartz crystal to
vibrate rapidly, and an integrated circuit
divides the vibrations into one pulse per sec-
ond and accumulates the pulses to compute
seconds, minutes, hours and days.
The circuit transmits signals to the display
to illuminate appropriate parts to show time
or date. Most watches sold in the United
States incorporate light emitting diode (LED)
glowing numerals which are turned on by
pushing a button. But an increasing number
use liquid crystal display (LCD) that provides
continuous reflected light. Two silver oxide
batteries will provide enough watch power for
at least a year.
Experts say there are negligible working dif-
ferences in efficiency between the lower-
priced digital watches and more expensive
models, since neither involves moving parts.
As for mechanical watches, one of the most
frequently used descriptions of better watches
is the number of jewels. Jewels are used in a
watch mechanism as bearings at friction
points. Watches without jewels have only
metal at these points, and metal will wear out
in time, while jewels will not. The more jewels
in a watch, the more friction points are pro-
tected, the longer the watch will lastand the
more it will cost.
HOME ELECTRONICS
Home electronics products are frequently
sold as components of a system rather than as
single items. Electronics industry observers say
that the next development in this field will be
a gradual combining of products: for example,
a "unified control" for TV, VCR, stereo and cas-
sette player or audio and video elements com-
bined with computers and telephones.
In fact, systems that allow users to go from
music to movies with the flick of a switch are
already reaching the market. So is interactive
computer software for mystery and science fic-
tion games and this is expected to lead to
interactive movies.
These new systems carry high price tags,
from $1,000 up. They do not yet make exist-
ing elements obsolete because they will accept
current equipment as components of the larg-
er system.
Selling these sophisticated home electronics
products and systems requires special expert-
ise. People who are willing to spend the kind
of money to pay for these high ticket items
also want to know exactly what they are get-
ting, how to use it and to be assured that they
can always come back for additional advice,
instruction and service. They want to know
that if something goes wrong they can come
back to the store where they purchased the
system and be taken care of with minimum
trouble. That's why electronics specialty stores
have been so successful in some markets. Not
only do they play a price game, they project
the image of being experts with the equip-
ment they sell.
Salespeople talk confidently; they demon-
strate the units with ease; they assure cus-
tomers who are unfamiliar with some of the
more sophisticated equipment that anyone
can make it work. This is what it takes to sell
electronic products.
The information that follows is only a
beginning in acquiring the expertise and
confidence to sell this kind of merchandise.
From this basic information, salespeople
will need to become totally familiar with
the specific lines they are sellingread
manufacturer literature, talk to salesmen,
actually use the equipment themselves so
they can demonstrate it with ease and con-
fidence. And last, make it a point to keep
current on changes in the merchandise.
I VIDEO SYSTEM
TELEVISIONS
Color TV remains the dominant factor in
home electronic sales, but black and white
has a lot of appeal as a second or third set.
Extremes seem to be bringing more options
to television viewing. Sets range from the
very small 1 1/2" to 4" mini-TVs to 7 pro-
jection TVs. Other developments are slim-
ming down the size of sets and, at the same
time, offering more viewing area. A picture
tube with squared off corners is both slim-
mer and provides a larger screen. For exam-
ple, a picture tube with a 22" squared screen
can fit in a set smaller than the convention-
al 19" set but offers 28 percent more view-
ing area. These newer tubes come in 20",
22", 26" and 27" sizes.
Stereo sound is also being built into
newer TV sets. Called MTS (multi-channel
TV sound), this feature will carry stereo
broadcasts. In many areas, there are few TV
stations set up to transmit stereo programs,
but MTS stereo sets provide better sound
quality even during mono broadcasts. Tuner
attachments can be connected to existing
TV sets to feed sound through a stereo sys-
tem if MTS is available. Remote control is a
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EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
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feature much in demand. More than half
the color sets sold have remote controls;
most of the VCRs now on the market have
remote control and there is also strong
acceptance of remote-controlled audio
equipment, especially compact disc players.
Unified control is gaining more accept-
ance, too. This is a single remote control for
all audio and video machines in the home.
Color TV features include solid state, modu-
lar chassis; the black-matrix color tube; solid
state (electronic) tuning and comparable VHF-
UHF tuning, and the full-year parts-and-labor
warranty on selected models. Projection TV
units project a regular size image on wall or
screen up to 7' from corner to corner, in much
the same way that a slide projector magnifies
images. One-tube and three-tube lens systems
are available. With brightness the key in the
projection TV concept, three-tube systems are
said to be 20 percent brighter than one-tube
lens systems.
These projectors are still higher priced than
other video items and remain outside the nor-
mal shopper's price range. Since most dealers
who handle television sales carry only one
brand, it's important to understand the manu-
facturer's claims and use them as sales tools.
The most important aspect of any TV is pic-
ture quality, and a major element in selling a
TV set is the demonstration. No one can argue
about the quality of color reproduction if the
set is turned on and producing a beautiful
color picture.
Consumer magazines often rate the quali-
ties of new television sets, and one rating is
reception under various conditions. Some tele-
visions apparently are better at pulling in
weak broadcast signals, which could be impor-
tant to customers who live in rural areas and
don't have cable TV. To get maximum demon-
stration quality, make sure you have an anten-
na system that will pick up available stations
with maximum effectiveness. A high-quality
antenna could be a small investment if it
helps to sell TV sets. If you're selling portable
sets with built-in antenna, it's a good idea to
experiment with the antenna beforehand to
find out in which position it gets maximum
reception. It could save embarrassing
moments in front of the customer when the
set won't function properly because of faulty
AUDIO-VIDEO GLOSSARY
AMPLIFIER Control panel for the entire sound system. Receives a signal from the tuner, tape
deck, CD or phone cartridge and magnifies the signal until it is powerful enough to drive the
loud-speaker. Quality of an amplifier is determined by amount of continuous power it can deliv-
er relative to how much it distorts the original signal.
BIAS Voltage fed to the recording head during record to minimize distortion.
CROSSOVER NETWORK Channels the correct range of audio frequencies from the audio
amplifier stage to the woofer, tweeter and mid-range speakers. Woofer handles low-frequency
audio (bass); tweeter reproduces high-frequencies (treble); and mid-range handles those audio
frequencies lying between bass and treble.
CROSSTALK Audio interference from one track of a stereo tape to another. Poor head align-
ment often causes this.
DB Abbreviation for decibel, a measure of sound density.
25 DB quiet conversation
55 DB noisy room
95 DB busy downtown street
110 DB nearby thunder
120 DB deafening sound, threshold of feeling
DIODE Two-element receiving tube or semiconductor device.
FEEDBACK Squeal or howl from speaker caused by speaker sound entering microphone of
same recorder or amplifier.
FLUTTER In recording equipment, a high-speed tone variation caused by tape moving over
head at uneven rate of speed. In phone equipment, distortion of reproduced sound caused by
variance in speed of turntable.
HAND-WIRED CIRCUIT Traditional TV wiring method using wires as conductors between
contacts. Easier to service but usually requires larger chassis.
HEAD Encased magnetic coil that erases, records or picks up a signal on a tape.
HZ Abbreviation for hertz, a unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second (cps). One kilo-
hertz (KHz)=1,000 cps; one megahertz (MHz)=1,000,000 cps.
HUM A background tone caused by improper shielding of audio components or inadequate
filtering of line voltage entering the equipment.
MID-RANGE A speaker covering frequencies between those picked up by the woofer and
tweeter in a three- or four-way speaker system.
OVERLOAD More audio output power than the speaker (or microphone of a recorder) can
handle.
POWER AMPLIFIER Circuit used to boost extremely weak signals to levels acceptable to audio
amplifier.
PRE-AMPLIFIER Circuit used to boost audio signals to power levels sufficient for speaker oper-
ation.
PRINTED CIRCUIT Uses strips of solder bonded to panel to act as conductors rather than reg-
ular wiring.
RECEIVER Single component that combines the functions of both tuner and amplifier.
SOLID-STATE CIRCUIT Use of solid state components in place of vacuum tubes. Eliminates
heat generation, less fragile and more compact than vacuum tube design.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR Motor controlled in speed of the frequency of the current which
runs it. Normal frequency for U.S. power is 60 cycles per second.
STYLUS A tiny jewel that follows the grooves on a record. Diamonds are most often used and
outlast others.
TWEETER Loudspeaker that handles only low frequencies.
WOW A type of distortion in recorders and turntables resulting from variation in speed, creat-
ing a low-pitched, wavering sound from the speaker.
antenna positioning.
VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDERS,
CAMERAS AND VCRs
The success of video cassette recorders
(VCRs) proves the profound impact TV view-
ing has on American society. By dropping a
cassette into the recording machine and push-
ing a button, the viewer can record a TV show
or play back one he has already recorded. He
also may edit what he records with one of the
numerous features currently available for
VCRs, or hook one up to a black and white or
color movie camera and produce home
movies instantly on his television screen.
In addition, old Super-8 footage or color
slides can be copied onto a magnetic tape
cassette and be viewed on the TV screen.
Most video tapes in use today are VHS or
Beta format. These two formats are not
interchangeable, but both use 1/2" video
tape. Latest entry in the video market is an
8-millimeter wide tape.
Cassettes are smaller but do not fit the mil-
lions of VCRs already in use. The narrower
tape, however, does open the door to smaller
VCRs. One of the best selling features of the
VCRs is they are easy to use, provide lasting
enjoyment and are no more difficult to con-
nect than a stereo set. VCRs are used primarily
for time-shifting, taping a television broadcast
to watch at a different time. If this is what
your consumer wants to do, recommend
models that are easy to program. Another
consideration is the lack of pre-recorded
shows available on Beta tapes. Some people
only want to watch pre-recorded tapes. If this
is the case, the most basic VCR may suffice.
A higher priced VCR does not necessarily
mean a better quality picture. For example,
many people believe that more heads are bet-
ter, but that is not necessarily the case. A basic
VCR must have two heads, and for hi-fi
sound, the top of the line for Beta and VHS
recorders, two additional heads are needed.
For slow motion viewing, stop action, and
slow tape speeds, additional heads are
required. Picture enhancements are also avail-
able. On VHS machines, this is referred to as
HQ, and Beta machines have SuperBeta.
Cable-ready VCRs require no cable-con-
verter box to hook the recorder up to non-
scrambled cable services. Several formats are
currently available, each offering slightly
different features and recording times of five
to six hours. Features common to most
VCRs include:
Audio dub lets viewer erase a sound track
and record new one without erasing the origi-
nal picture. It is useful in adding soundtracks
to home movies and slide shows.
Double speedlets viewer switch the pic-
ture to fast motion.
Memory(or scan system) lets viewer set
tape-counting mechanism to find selected part
of a program automatically, without running
the tape back and forth innumerable times.
Programmerlets viewer set VCR to turn
on and off and even change channels auto-
matically to make several recordings while he
is away. Machines feature from three-day pro-
gramming to up to 365-day programming.
(Programmable machines are not to be con-
fused with machines equipped with timers.
Timers may turn a machine on to record a
single program while viewer is away but won't
change channels.)
Remote pauseallows the viewer to stop
and start the VCR silently to edit out commer-
cials as it records a TV show. An accessory
called a "rabbit" transfers the image from the
VCR to any TV in the home as long as it
works off the home's electrical wiring. Portable
VCRs that work for an hour on a rechargeable
battery are also being marketed. They are espe-
cially useful to home movie makers, since the
one-hour period is equal to shooting more
than a dozen rolls of Super-8 film. They are
light enough to be carried around to use with
a video camera.
CAMCORDERS
Home video cameras make home movies
easier; but they are unhandy. Making home
video tapes requires several pieces of equip-
mentcamcorders, video recorders, micro-
phones, tripods and cable. Camcorders change
all that; these video products combine camera,
video recorder and microphone into one piece
of equipment. The camcorder produces video
tape that can be played back immediately
(unlike film which must be developed after
shooting). It rests on the user's shoulder and is
used by viewing through a lens and punching
a button.
Most have an electronic viewfinder on the
camera that permits the user to see what he's
recording; all play back through a TV set. A
video tape can be viewed through a cam-
corder as long as it is the same formatVHS,
Beta or 8mmas the camcorder. This elimi-
nates the need for a VCR for viewing; cam-
corders will not, however, record TV programs
without additional equipment. Camcorders
can be used in conjunction with VCRs to edit
video tapes, again as long as the camcorder,
VCR and tape are the same format.
Consumers are enthusiastic about home
video equipment, but it requires in-depth
knowledge of the specific product in order
to sell it. And changes come rapidly. It
would be wise to study all the literature
about the lines you sell and learn to operate
the equipment expertly before trying to sell
it. This equipment demands demonstration
and instruction.
VIDEO GAMES
Video games, games that can be played on
the television set, operate by means of a small
converter attached to the back of the TV set.
When the owner wants to play, he switches
on the game at the back of the set and on the
playing device. Whatever is on the television
will black out and the game will appear on
the screen. The playing device usually consists
of a few knobs that can be rotated or turned
back and forth to make the figure on the
screen move to do whatever the intended pur-
pose of the game is. Most games are intended
to be played by one or two people and up to
as many as four. It's unlikely that normal use
of TV games can damage the TV set if left on
for long periods. However, if the game is left
on for several days at high contrast, it may
burn the phosphor coating off the picture
tube, in effect etching itself on the screen.
If a customer shows concern, tell him he
can lessen the likelihood of a burn by playing
the game at the low contrast option offered
on most games. Some don't use potentially
damaging, bright white light at all; the games
show up in muted colors. A minor color dis-
coloration can right itself after a few days of
rest, and even severe burns are usually visible
only when set is off. Some video games offer
the option of additional cartridges that make
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
14
it possible for customers to add extra games to
the basic unit. This is a great way to add on
sales of the game during the Christmas/holi-
day season and keep them all year long, too.
Another way is to let customers play the game
in your store. Turn on a game and let the
demonstration sell the TV video game for you.
I AUDIO SYSTEMS
STEREO SOUND SYSTEMS
Basic components of a stereo sound sys-
tem are receivers, speakers, turn-tables and
cartridges, cassette decks and compact disc
players. The configuration of each system,
as well as its cost, is determined by what the
customer wants. Real sound buffs may want
a complete system and every component of
the best quality. Others may simply want a
system that will give them good quality
reproduction for pleasant listening. Cost of
these systems can range from $500 to sever-
al thousand dollars.
RECEIVERS
The receiver, in some forms called the
tuner, controls the stereo system. It holds the
AM/FM radio and controls for volume, tone
and balance; it also holds the mechanism that
switches from radio to phonograph and the
jacks for connecting tape decks and disc play-
ers and up to two speakers. Factors that
increase the cost of receivers include more
power in the form of greater volume or the
ability to hook up more than one set of speak-
ers; the ability to pick up radio stations with
weaker signals or from greater distances;
acceptance of more than one tape deck; dual
function of copying tapes and listening to the
radio at the same time.
SPEAKERS
The quality of a stereo system is in the
speakers. They produce the sound, and better
speakers produce sound that more closely
duplicates the original sound. Efficiency is
another guide to evaluating speakers. It is not
the same as volume. Efficient speakers pro-
duce more sound with less power. The most
efficient speakers are vented or open box type
that produce the booming sound rock musi-
cians like. Closed box or acoustic suspension
speakers produce a flatter sound that is more
to the liking of classical music listeners.
Another difference in speakers is in the num-
ber of sound elements. A two-way speaker has
two elements for high and low tones; a three-
way speaker adds a third element for middle
tones. Both kinds offer quality music repro-
duction.
TURNTABLES AND CARTRIDGES
Turntables and cartridges make up the
component that plays traditional phono-
graph records. Turntables should be bal-
anced so that normal movement near the
player will not cause the needle to jump
and damage the record. Belt-driven turnta-
bles are considered better than direct-drive
turntables because they produce sound dis-
tortion. Most turntables play one record at a
time. The automatic models that hold sever-
al records and drop one at a time onto the
turntable are available, but the single record
variety are much more popular. These have
some automatic features, such as raising and
lowering the arm at the push of a button.
Cartridges hold the needle and their main
function is to follow the groove in the
record to produce sound. This makes them
almost as important to sound quality as the
speakers. Better needles pick up sound
vibrations from the grooves and relay them
to the speakers without undue distortion.
TAPE DECKS
Tape decks add versatility to stereo systems.
In addition to playing pre-recorded tapes, they
can record music. They will tape radio broad-
casts, copy a tape or record and can combine
portions of several tapes onto one tape. To do
all this, they have record level controls,
meters, buttons to play, to pause, to fast-for-
ward, to rewind. Many tape decks also have a
review feature to search for specific recordings
on the tape, or a timer feature to start playing
or recording at a specified time. Some decks
have an automatic tape selection feature
which resets itself to accept the kind of tape
cassette inserted. Decks should also have two
noise reduction circuits to reduce background
noise during playback of pre-recorded tapes
and during original tapings. Another feature
to note is frequency response which shows
the range of frequencies a deck can handle.
Mid-priced machines usually range from 40 to
17,000 Hz.
COMPACT DISCS AND PLAYERS
Compact discs are laser discs; they differ
from standard records in that electronic
data on the disc is read by a laser beam
inside the disc player rather than by a nee-
dle coming in contact with grooves. The
greatest appeal of compact discs is the clari-
ty of the recorded music; there is next to no
distortion. The recorded sound is almost
identical to the live performance. The discs
are harder to damage than conventional
records and they never wear out. There's no
wear on them because only a laser light
beam touches the disc unlike the needle
moving in record grooves. They should be
handled carefully though, to keep finger
prints, dust and scratches off the playing
surface. They make a long recording; a 4 3/4"
disc holds 75 minutes of recorded music.
Discs are easier to use than records; they are
inserted into the player and the touch of a
button starts them playing. Compact disc
players can be plugged into most stereo sys-
tems. However, hooking one to an old sys-
tem may distort some of the clear sound if
the amplifier or speakers on the old system
are flawed or worn.
All compact disc players have a filter to
keep out unwanted signals when the digital
information on the disc is converted on an
analog system that can be played through the
stereo system. Quality differences come in the
machine's resistance to vibration and the
physical features such as convenience of the
control panel and ease of using it. Other dif-
ferences include the speed with which the
player can accept the disc and begin playing
and the ability to select certain portions of the
disc rather than playing the entire side. There
is great variety in the quality, function and
performance of each component of a stereo
system. This is particularly true of compact
disc players. The best advice one can offer to
persons selling this kind of equipment is to
learn everything about the specific lines they
are selling, and to be able to demonstrate
them and to talk confidently about each com-
ponent and how to combine them into the
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EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
16
COMPUTER GLOSSARY
BIT The smallest unit of information in a binary system.
BOARD A card that contains circuitry for one or more specific functions
such as memory, peripheral device interface. Most repair of computer
equipment is done by exchanging malfunctioning boards for working
boards.
BYTE Technically, the smallest unit of addressability of main memory.
By common practice in the computer industry, this has come to mean 8
bits of information. New 16-bit technology is coming on strong
CATHODE RAY TUBE (TERMINAL) A device capable of displaying
information on a screen. Usually, CRT refers to terminal with a video dis-
play and keyboard for data entry. A common CRT display screen is 24
rows by 80 columns.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT Any device capable of performing a
series of instructions automatically. The series of instructions to be per-
formed are stored in primary memory which is not part of the central
processing unit. Central processing units may be as small as a single inte-
grated circuit that forms the basis of a microcomputer to a complex elec-
tronic system found in larger computers. The central processing unit is
the heart of any computing system.
COMPUTING SYSTEM Any configuration involving a computer and/or
software data and peripheral devices.
CORE A form of memory which uses small iron cores (doughnut
shaped pieces of iron) to store information. A bit of information is stored
by magnetizing the iron core.
DATABASE Any collection of information that is organized in such a
manner that it can be accessed, updated and retrieved in a generalized
manner. The interpretation of this definition varies within the computer
industry. Database systems vary significantly in the generality and flexibil-
ity they offer to the user. Database systems are offered on microcomput-
er systems and usually cost a few hundred dollars. Database systems on
larger systems can cost up to $100,000.
DATA PROCESSING All analysis, communication, manipulation, stor-
age and retrieval of information done by computer.
DISK, MAGNETIC An information storage device that stores data on
an iron-oxide surface. Such disks typically rotate at high speed and are
capable of accessing data within a relatively short period of time.
ELECTRONIC FILING The process of storing assorted information with
the intention that the information may be referred to in the future.
FILE Any set of similar records, such as an employee file, customer file,
or inventory file.
HARD COPY DEVICE Printed report on paper or microfilm.
HARDWARE The electronic circuitry and mechanical devices that com-
pose a computer system; excludes programs and operating systems
(software).
KILOBYTE (KBYTE) Approximately a thousand bytes; actually 1024
bytes.
MEGABYTE (MBYTE) Approximately 1 million bytes; actually
1,048,576 bytes.
MICROCOMPUTER Any computer in which the central processor is
contained on a single integrated circuit.
MINICOMPUTER A computer of intermediate size and capability
between a microcomputer and a main frame system.
MODULES (SOFTWARE) Relatively independent programs that can be
applied in different contexts to perform commonly required functions.
MODEM Any device that sends information from one point to another,
such as over telephone lines.
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer. Anyone who purchases and
packages computer equipment and/or software to meet specific need.
Normally an OEM adds value to a computer system by including appli-
cation software and/or specialized equipment.
PERIPHERAL DEVICE Any device connected to, but not part of, the
central processing unit of a computer. There are two major categories of
peripheral devices: 1) auxiliary memory devices, e.g., disks, tapes; and 2)
input/output devices, e.g., card readers, printers, terminals.
PRE-PACKAGED SYSTEM Hardware-software or software systems
capable of performing desired tasks with little or no programming effort
by the users of the system.
PRIMARY MEMORY (STORAGE) Information storage, connected and
directly utlilzed by the central processing unit. Typically, primary memory
devices are forms of high speed, random access memory.
PROGRAMMER A person responsible for writing, testing and maintain-
ing computer software.
READ ONLY MEMORY Information (usually pre-defined programs)
that may be accessed but not altered at relatively high speeds and usual-
ly connected directly to the central processing unit.
SCROLLING The property of some CRTs to move the entire visual dis-
play upward when the screen is filled.
SECONDARY MEMORY (STORAGE) any information storage device
other than primary memory which is an integral rather than optional
part of a computer system. Examples are card read/punches, disk and
magnetic tape devices..
SOFTWARE A general term referring to programs, data and operating
systems.
SOFTWARE PACKAGES Collections of programs that are designed to
automate a set of related functions. Supportive data may or may not be
included. Examples of software packages are accounts receivable pack-
ages, general ledger packages and inventory control packages.
TERMINALS, COMPUTER Devices typically consisting of a keyboard
and paper or video display; units that are used to enter data directly into
a computer and produce limited reports.
TEXT PROCESSING A term referring to the editing, analysis and pro-
duction of textual material using a computer.
WINCHESTER DISK A type of magnetic storage device that attains
high storage capacity and performance at relatively low costs. Its disad-
vantage is that the disk medium is not removable, thus requiring more
complex backup/restore procedures.
WORD PROCESSING Activities related to the electronic filing, editing
and production of textual material.
kind of system the customer wants.
RADIOS
Radio technology changes little, but the
products themselves seem to grow continually
smaller. AM/FM stereo radios are as small as a
credit card! Otherwise, this most common of
home entertainment devices offers a wide
variety of sizes, styles and price points.
Weather radios tune into regional govern-
ment-operated weather frequencies to receive
up-to-the-minute forecasts 24 hours a day. The
weather band is also designated by the federal
government as the emergency broadcast chan-
nel for communicating disaster or attack
warnings directly to the public. Many radios
have weather buttons which can be pre-tuned
to receive the nearest weather channel.
Multiplex or stereo radios have receivers
that allow two or more separate signals to be
received on a single frequency. This provides a
stereo effect by channeling each of the signals
into a separate speaker. Two-channel multi-
plex is the only commercially feasible receiver
since most stations broadcast a maximum of
two signals.
Multiplex stereo works only with a station
broadcasting the special multiplex transmis-
sion. In addition to tone fidelity and freedom
from interference, FM provides a wide array of
broadcast selections, generally has fewer com-
mercials and offers a wide choice of jazz, clas-
sical music and other arts. Few households are
without at least one AM receiver. Styles range
from simple units to more complex, digital
units that combine with FM or offer such con-
veniences as a clock radio.
Some clock radios come with fluorescent
time readouts tied to the 60-cycle alternating
current, while others come with flashlights,
bed lamps and an endless number of varia-
tions to provide a competitive edge. Beeper
radios or paging units have also developed
into price ranges acceptable to consumers.
Most radios are transistorized, ranging from
six to more than 14 transistor units. The
greater the number of transistors, the greater
the range and channel selectivity of the radio.
CITIZENS BAND RADIOS
Not only are CBs, citizen band radios, fun
to use, they provide a measure of safety on
the highway. Help is a CB call away, and CB
operators keep each other informed about
accidents, weather, road conditions and
even speed traps. There are two basic types
of CB radiosmobile and base units. Base
units are used in one place. They require
roof antennas and most use stand-type
microphones. They rest on a flat surface like
a radio. Mobile units are installed either
under the dash of an automobile or in the
dash along with AM/FM radios, where they
are more protected from theft.
Mobile units that are powered through a
cable connected to the cigarette lighter are
made to take in and out of an auto. Mobile
units outsell base units by about four to one.
Differences in quality, reception, transmission,
lighted dials, etc., determine differences in
price. There are also several classes of CB
radios. Class refers to particular frequency
bands and types of service.
Most CB radios bought by consumers are
licensed for class D operation, working 40-
channel units. Class D sets operate under cer-
tain restrictions: No more than four watts out-
put to the antenna, AM operation only, five-
minute operation except in cases of emer-
gency, etc. Forty-channel units receive all
channels currently available, but lower-priced
models are also available which receive fewer
channels. Most of those that receive fewer
channels will accept crystals that enable them
to receive up to five additional channels.
Class E CBs use VHF frequencies of 218 to
220 megahertz with FM equipment, at a high-
er transmitting frequency. Another advantage
to class E is freedom from interference and
skip. Interference is caused by sunspots, and is
the one major problem for class D operation.
Manufacturer literature can be most helpful
in pointing out the many features of each
individual radio as well as differentiating qual-
ity and style points.
CB MONITORS AND MONITOR
RECEIVERS
CB monitors do not permit two-way com-
munication, but do allow the listener to mon-
itor channels and listen to what is being said.
Models are available which connect to the car
radio. By pushing one of the radio buttons,
the driver can tune in CB channels. Monitor
receivers monitor the Public Service Bands
(PSB). Besides the police and fire department,
other often monitored are government agen-
cies, businesses, ship calls, etc. PSB receiving
equipment ranges from massive, multi-chan-
nel models to pocket-size units with a choice
of fixed or turntable models.
A turntable receiver can be operated over a
band of frequencies using a variable capacitor
system much like the standard FM radio. A
fixed receiver is one which operates on a
selected frequency. Most of these feature scan-
ningeach channel is automatically tuned for
a second or less. If there is a station on the
channel, the receiver automatically locks to
the channel and releases the squelch, allowing
the user to hear the station. As soon as the sta-
tion stops transmitting, or after a short delay
to allow hearing the other station, the scan-
ning resumes until it seizes another channel
with a signal.
The FCC does not control receivers or their
use and no license is required. Scanners are easy
to merchandise for this reason, but they oper-
ate on completely different frequencies than
CBs. An understanding of them is necessary, so
study the chart that accompanies this section.
ACCESSORIES
Antennas are the most important accesso-
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
17
MONITORING RECEIVING
FREQUENCIES
LOW BAND VHF, 30-50 MHz. Lowest and
oldest of monitor bands. On this band a
town or city may have almost any type of
public safety activity; police, fire, civil
defense, etc. Frequencies can be received
at greater distances.
HIGH BAND VHF, 150-174 MHz. Created
to take the overflow from low band.
Beside public safety, includes marine VHF
radio and two-meter ham bands. User can
be mounted on vehicles roof.
LOW BAND UHF, 450-470 MHz. Large
number of police and fire frequencies.
Antenna is a toothpick, about 4" tall.
HIGH BAND UHF, 470-512 MHz. Has
been created to take overflow from low
band UHF.
AIRCRAFT BAND, 108-136 MHz. Not a
major band. Used by aircraft communica-
tion over short distances, usually 200
miles and under. Considerable activity
because of number of planes in flight.
ryno CB radio is complete without one.
Models for mobile units mount on hood,
trunk or roof. Base unit models mount on
the roof top of a building. Today, many
consumers are looking for antennas that
attach to their car with a magnetic base or
clip onto the car's rain gutter. Microphones
for mobile or base units improve transmis-
sion of messages. They plug into the unit
just like a regular CB microphone.
Telephone headsets plug into the set to
give the user privacy and to help screen out
distracting noises. Speakers also plug into
the unit to improve reception and amplify
messages if the unit is being used in a noisy
environment.
TAPE RECORDERS/ PLAYERS
Open reel tape recorders continue to sell
because of greater capacity and versatility, but
the convenience of cartridge tape recorders
makes them highly popular. The cassette car-
tridge consists of a length of tape attached to
two separate reels. The tape can record or play
back in either direction.
Cassette tape units run at only one speed,
but open reel units usually offer speeds
ranging from 1 7/8" to 15" inches per sec-
ond. All things equal, the greater the tape
speed, the greater the fidelity (or frequency
response) of the tape unit. Another impor-
tant feature on a tape unit is capstan drive.
This ensures a constant speed of the tape for
proper reproduction and recording of
sound. Reel sizes are 3", 5" and 7" and repre-
sent a greater length of tape on a larger reel.
Some portable open reel units have capacity
for only the smaller size reels.
MINI AND MACRO RECORDERS
Microcassette recorders are becoming an
invaluable tool for many businessmen. They
are primarily regarded as dictation and cor-
respondence tools. Mini-recorders are a little
larger and offer a little less quality, and are a
little less expensive. Mini-cassettes offer
wide access to a variety of low-priced stan-
dard cassettes. Microcassettes come in two
different micro formats, capstan and spindle
drive. Capstan drive products can use one of
three different size tape cartridges. These
aren't interchangeable with cassettes
because of their dimensions. Microcassettes
are produced in a variety of ways to entice
customers, such as a microcassette recorder/
AM/FM combination unit.
MODULAR COMPONENTS
One of the key trends in sound repro-
duction equipment is the modular unit.
This equipment is compact and versatile.
Modular units, with separate turntables,
speakers, tape decks, etc., can be arranged
on bookshelves, under end tables, and
other out-of-the-way places, making them
easier to fit into the room decor. Also,
modular units allow the customer to
upgrade his equipment in smaller invest-
ments, since each component can be
replaced individually. Micro stereo com-
ponents are scaled-down versions of full-
size stereo systems. Apartment and condo-
minium dwellers will be interested in
their space-saving advantages, and the
performance quality of micro stereos has
been rated equal to their full-size counter-
parts. A basic system includes amplifier,
pre-amplifier and tuner.
I COMPUTERS
Home and personal computers have
turned into a steady market. Game-oriented
home computers can use a television screen
to handle display of the information, but
more sophisticated personal models have a
special video display screen as part of the
peripherals of the system. Other peripherals
include printers which are available in letter
quality or dot matrix, and a number of
printing speeds. To store information,
devices such as disk drives use floppy disks
which are magnetized. Also, some systems
use cassette tapes instead of floppy disks to
store information.
The more powerful professional or per-
sonal computers need at least two disk
drives. To sell computers effectively, you
must discover the knowledge level of the
consumer shopping for computers and
what they want to do with the computer.
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
18
CALCULATOR GLOSSARY
ACCUMULATIONS sums, differences, products and quotients run in total.
ADD MODE assumes the logic of an adding machine for decimal use.
AUTOMATIC CONSTANT user can multiply or divide a series of numbers by the same divider
or multiplier without re-entering each time.
CAPACITY number of entries that can be handled in one operation: usually corresponds to
maximum number of digits in display.
CHIP tiny silicon unit that carries electronic circuitry.
CLEAR remove all components of a calculation.
CLEAR ENTRY remove only the last number, not the entire calculation.
CLEAR MEMORY KEY removes what is stored in the memory register.
DISPLAY numerical read-out.
DROP-OFF when a decimal is required in the answer, digits to the right of the decimal exceed-
ing the calculators capacity are dropped without rounding off.
FIXED DECIMAL user is limited to established decimal category; can be preset for specified
number of places in the answer or pre-set so that numbers are entered as they would be written.
FLOATING DECIMAL user can calculate any decimal category; decimal may or may not be
present; if present automatically positions itself correctly in the answer.
MEMORY ability to retrieve a number from storage register for further use.
OVERFLOW when capacity of calculator is exceeded, a signal (usually a light) so indicates.
PERCENTAGE KEY figures percentages automatically.
ROUND-OFF allows last number of an answer to be increased by one if the next lower number
is 5 or larger or dropped to the next-lower number if it is less than 5.
SQUARE ROOT KEY automatically determines square root of entered number.
ZERO SUPPRESSION allows non-significant zeros to be dropped from end of answer.
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
19
Some know exactly what they want and
need, and others are complete novices and
require a strong sales and product knowl-
edge effort. Initially, find out what the
consumer wants to do with the computer.
Does he want to work at home? Is he pri-
marily interested in budgeting and finan-
cial management? Is he or she looking for
word processing? Or are the shoppers
interested mainly in computer games?
With all of the excitement in the com-
puter market, it should be easy to find an
employee who is interested in this prod-
uct category. This is important because of
the rapid changes in the market not only
in hardware, but in areas such as software
like games and educational programs.
Better business software programs can cost
from $200-$400. Game software is much
less expensive, ranging from $25-$70. In
addition to software, a variety of comput-
er accessories will build add-on sales and
margins in this department. Some include
video game dust covers, activating sticks
and command buttons for games,
game/computer switches. Since computers
are susceptible to power surges, computer
surge protectors are strong add-ons as are
computer cooling fans.
I CALCULATORS
Calculators are as common as credit
cards, and about the same size. Many
have extra features that have nothing to
do with calculating. Slim-lined LCD
machines are packed with added features
and stylized cosmetics such as stop watch-
es or alarm clocks; some are attached to
notebooks. Calculators have three basic
components, one or more tiny integrated-
circuit chips, keyboard and display. Most
use semi-conductor light-emitting diodes
to provide a read-out, although some use
power-saving liquid crystal read-outs.
Models range from those with the four
basic mathematical functions (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division)
to those with highly complex functions
used by professionals. Hand-held or pock-
et models are the most popular and gener-
ally the least expensive. Size varies from
the card calculator, which is about the
size of a business card and not much
thicker, to larger briefcase models.
Desk-type models are larger and more
expensive. Some calculators produce
printouts of their computations. When
selling calculators, several questions need
to be answered. What will the calculator
be used for? If the customer plans to use
it mainly for household needsbalancing
checkbooks, checking a grocery bill and
the likethe simple four-function model
will satisfy his or her needs. But for a
slight additional cost, extra features can
greatly increase its usefulnessfloating
decimals, automatic constant, memory,
etc. (See accompanying chart.) Where will
it be used? Display figures must be easily
readable in an office's fluorescent light,
when sitting at a desk or when calculator
is held at an angle. What kind of batteries
does it use? Or is it light activated?
Many calculators can be operated by
batteriesdisposable, rechargeable or
both. Most can be operated from a wall
outlet with an adapter. The length of time
a calculator will operate before being
recharged varies widely. Those activated
by light turn on when natural or artificial
light strikes the face of the calculator. If
the unit is to stand open most of the
time, light activation may be undesirable.
Some models are equipped with a fade
circuit which blanks the numbers after
they have been illuminated for a certain
number of seconds to save the batteries;
in this case, a symbol appears during the
wipe-out to alert the user that the calcula-
tor is still operating and a push-button
restores the numbers. Encourage cus-
tomers to try operating the calculator to
make sure keys are spaced comfortably
and make sure you know the purposes of
all the special keys.
TELEPHONES AND
ACCESSORIES
I TELEPHONES
Consumers look at telephone purchases
much the same way as they look at other
home electronics purchases. They want a
quality product sold by a reputable retail-
er. Service back-up is important because
telephone owners are responsible for their
own repairs, just as they are for any other
kind of equipment they own. If the tele-
phone breaks, they take it back to the
store that sold it.
Telephones are becoming electronic
devices in much the same sense that com-
puters are. They contain microprocessors
and other electronic parts. New and more
sophisticated features are being added,
such as automatic dialers. As telephones
become more complicated, they require
more sales attention. Consumers need to
be shown how to use the additional fea-
tures. If they are into installing, replacing
or rewiring, they may need instruction in
these areas, too. To stock the telephones
and accessories most needed in your mar-
ket, study the demographics of the area.
Cordless phones may work well in subur-
ban and rural homes, but are subject to
interference in urban areas. Affluent areas
may be a good market for accessories such
as telephone answering devices, while low-
cost compact electronic disposable phones
may appeal more to a middle class market.
Beyond the basics, consumers can buy cord-
less phones, automatic redialing phones and
combination clock-radio phones. Here are
important points to keep in mind when
selling phones and accessories.
Telephone companies require con-
sumers to report their ringer equivalency
number (REN). This REN is published on
the instruction sheet or phone unit hous-
ing. Standard AT&T phones have REN rat-
ings of one. Compact, low-cost models
may have as low as .7 REN or as high as
1.3 REN. If the REN on one line exceeds
four, the phones will not ring. There are
three basic types of phones: rotary, push-
button tone and dial pulse. The dial pulse
phone looks like a push-button tone, but
its push-buttons technically dial the
phone. It doesn't process a call as fast as
the push-button tone.
Dial pulse gives the convenience of the
push-button tone type of dialing without
higher monthly cost. It should be noted too
that push-button tone type phones are
required to access long distance services.
Consumers should also be aware that
installing a push-button tone phone
means they must also be receiving this
type service from the phone company.
Cordless telephone systems incorporate a
base station connected to telephone line
and a wireless handset. The distance a
cordless phone will work away from the
base station varies. It may be as little as
50' or phones with antennas may work as
far away as 1,000'. Elevating the base sta-
tion and placing it away from other recep-
tion barriers can improve cordless phone
performance.
One word of warning: In most cordless
phones, ringers are located in the earpiece.
The ring registers near 130 decibels, and if
the phone is picked up and the switch not
turned from standby to talk position, a
phone ring could damage hearing. Cordless
phones are powered by rechargeable nick-
cadmium (nicad) batteries.
The length of time required to recharge
and the length of time between recharg-
ings seems to vary; it is necessary to read
the instructions with the individual prod-
uct to see how long the charge and how
sensitive the battery is to frequent
rechargings. Some nicads will "remember"
how much time elapsed between charg-
ings and if they are recharged too often,
will shorten the length of time they hold
a charge. Eventually the batteries will
have to be replaced, but most phones will
take several hundred chargings.
ACCESSORIES
Accessories are available in either "con-
ventional" or "modular" designs. Installation
of a conventional system requires no more
than a screwdriver. Accessories are used in
conjunction with standard telephones, using
standard four-prong plug configuration, spade
tipped wires or hard wiring.
All wiring in the phone base, hand-set
and wall receptacle can be replaced by
matching the colored wires. But it is
important that store employees know
enough to help d-i-yers with wiring infor-
mation and connection procedures on
the models you stock. Plugs and jack pro-
vide the connection for standard tele-
phone and extension cord hook-ups.
They may also be attached to existing
cords, adding versatility to existing
phones. No tools are needed for modular
connections; the system was designed to
allow "snap fit" connection of miniature
plugs with mating hardware.
The following connections are available
using the snap fit modular concept:
Coil Cords old cords can be removed by
depressing a clip and pulling the plug out of
the phones base and handset. The new cord is
then pushed into place until it locks.
Straight line cordsplugs are clipped into
the base of the phone and the wall receptacle.
Extension cordscords are equipped with
modular plugs that snap into wall receptacle
while modular jack accepts the line cord
from the existing telephone.
Modular adapterallows phones with
modular line cords to be plugged into four-
pronged conventional plug that matches
the holes of conventional telephone jacks.
Modular plug and conventional jack
allows connection of conventional four-
pronged plug extended line cords to modular
jacks so that conventional phones can be
plugged into modular connections.
Modular couplerallows connection of
modular plug ended cords to each other for
easy extension of phone system.
Duplex modular adapter allows two modu-
lar extensions to be run off one modular unit.
Used to connect telephone answering devices.
Retrofit modular adapterallows conven-
tional telephones with spade tipped conduc-
tors to be connected to modular jack assem-
blies without tools.
Surface wall mount jack assemblyallows
conversion of conventional terminal blocks to
modular jack.
Portable wall mount jack assembly allows
connection of modular plug ended line cords
in any location to convert four-hole jack to
modular design.
Flush wall mount jack assemblyallows
flush mounted connection of plug ended
modular line cords for initial installation or
conversion from existing wall receptacles. Can
be connected in parallel when more than one
jack is required.
Wall mount modular patio jack weath-
erproof assembly accepts plug end modu-
lar line cords.
TELEPHONE ANSWERING DEVICES
The kind of telephone answering device you
recommend will depend in large part on the
kind of use the customer expects of it. Models
vary by price and optional features. Basic units
require a tape recorder to handle incoming
messages, as do some of the more expensive
models. In most models, total answer time is
limited, but more sophisticated units will allow
for messages of varying lengths.
There can be a hidden charge in these
devicessome require the purchase of an
Authorized Protective Connection Module
that plugs into the telephone jack. The tele-
phone company demands these if the
recorder could produce excess voltage on the
telephone line, thus damaging equipment or
creating spurious signals.
Some models requiring APCMs include
them and they add to the retail price. If units
do not include APCMs users will have to pay
for installation as well as a monthly rental fee.
Features which differentiate models include:
o Leaving messagessome units permit the
user to leave a tape recorded message.
o Dictationsome units double as dictating
machines with no time limit on record-
ing. A switch will stop and start the
answer tape.
o Announce onlyfor messages which
require no response, announcements of
when owner will return, for example.
o Ring response adjustmentallows machine
to wait to answer call until phone has rung
up to 10 times. An advantage since it elimi-
nates connecting and disconnecting unit
each time owner leaves and returns.
o Remote pick-upallows owner to pick up
messages from a distance by telephoning
the answering unit.
o Extended recordingallows user to record a
complete two-way conversation without
being cut off after allotted message time.
o Monitorallows user to listen, undetected,
to incoming messages as callers leave them.
Listener can pick up phone and interrupt
recording message if desired or simply let it
be recorded.
EL EC T RI C A L HOUSEWA RES & HOME EL EC T RONI C S
20
CHAPTER FOUR:
LIGHTING FIXTURES
ELECTRIC MOTORS
LIGHT BULBS
WIRE AND CABLE
CORDS
WIRING DEVICES
BATTERIES
TELEPHONES & ACCESSORIES
ELECTRICAL
Supplies
4
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
2
I The consumer trend in the elec-
trical category is shifting toward
higher-end products that have
model variety and energy-saving
features. Energy-efficient lighting
products are finally beginning to
catch on with consumers, long after the 1992 passage of the National
Energy Policy Act, which required lighting manufacturers to replace
outdated lamps with brighter, more energy-efficient models.
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association, using money
from manufacturers, has boosted demand by conducting a nation-
al promotional campaign to inform consumers about the benefits
of energy efficiency.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) further helped matters
in 1997 by creating its Energy Star

label, which manufacturers may

voluntarily display on energy-efficient lighting fixtures if they meet
program guidelines. Fixtures carrying this label can trim the cost of
lighting high-use areas, such as bathrooms and kitchens, by 50 per-
cent to 60 percent. In addition, bulbs and lamps for these fixtures last
three times longer than incandescent bulbs.
Another key trend in the category is increased demand for low-
voltage outdoor lighting. Motion-sensor lights are popular with
consumers concerned about home security.
Many consumers are scared of electrical projects, and for valid
reasons. Retailers should remind consumers of the dangers posed
by household electrical systems. For example, tell consumers to
shut off electrical power at the fuse or circuit breaker box before
beginning any wiring project. And make sure they consult local
building codes before embarking on an electrical project.
ELECTRICAL
Supplies
LIGHTING
FIXTURES
I INTERIOR LIGHTING
Interior lighting must satisfy two require-
ments: function and design. A customer
replacing an existing fixture will be con-
cerned mainly with the design, whereas a
person remodeling or adding a room may be
concerned with both function and design.
Along with design and function, many cus-
tomers are becoming more concerned about
conserving energy. Lighting takes only 12
percent to 15 percent of the electricity used
in a home. Customers are finding ways to
reduce this expense by using more efficient
lighting and advanced lighting controls.
Task lighting gives localized light for specif-
ic activities such as reading, writing, sewing
and food preparation. The light should cover
the entire task area and be located so shadows
are reduced to a minimum. Under-cabinet
lighting is a popular form of task lighting in
kitchens or under shelves.
General or ambient lighting provides
comfortable background brightness in a
room. Light reflected from walls and ceilings
or from large sources overhead reduces light-
ing contrasts and contributes to the comfort
of the environment.
Accent or specialty lighting cre-
ates a mood and adds interest to a
room. This kind of lighting is pri-
marily for decorative effects and
should be used in conjunction
with task and general lighting.
Track lights, a system of movable
lights wired to a metal track, make
a great accent lighting choice for
living rooms, bedrooms and din-
ing rooms. Track lighting is avail-
able in many colors, sizes and
shapes, is easy to install and flexi-
ble since the lights can be moved
around and repositioned.
Recessed can lighting and sur-
face-mounted fixtures are one way
to provide ambient lighting.
Increased amounts of light are
achieved using additional fixtures.
This should be strictly observed
because of the heat produced. Maximum
wattage limitations are indicated on all fix-
tures and should be followed. Recessed light-
ing is good for rooms with low ceilings and
can be used to supplement existing light in
kitchens and bathrooms.
No-glare lighting is also available in over-
head fixtures, undercabinet lights and desk
lamps. No-glare lighting fixtures are
designed with a louver that cuts off high-
angle light to provide glare-free, true-color
lighting. No-glare lighting works well to pre-
vent eye fatigue in home offices where com-
puters are used. For more information, click
(Installing Wall or Ceiling Fixtures)
The following guidelines suggest lighting
standards for various rooms.
Living Areas
Permanent lighting fixtures are not a
major consideration here because so many
homes depend on table or floor lamps. Wall
lighting (fluorescent tubes shielded by a cor-
nice or valance) and recessed down lights
are frequently used permanent fixtures.
Track lighting is also applicable.
Place light sources at various heights with-
in the room to add visual interest. Use
translucent shades on table lamps to con-
tribute to the ambient light level. Use a
halogen, floor-mounted directional fixture
under a large plant to create an artistic pat-
tern on the ceiling.
A room larger than 225 sq. ft. will require
separately controlled wall lights along two
walls or multiple ceiling fixtures rather than
a single light source.
Bedrooms
Bedrooms under 150 sq. ft. use a total of
120 to 200 watts in a ceiling fixture, 4' to 9'
of wall lighting or one 150-watt recessed fix-
ture. Over 150 sq. ft. use 120 to 200 watts in
a ceiling fixture, 12' to 16' of wall lighting,
or five to eight 20- to 75-watt reflector bulbs.
For closets, use a 40- to 60-watt fixture
and 60 to 100 watts in walk-in closets. These
should be ceiling mounted at least 18" from
clothing or stored items, or use a 20-watt
fluorescent above the door header.
Bathrooms
Overall lighting should consist of at least
one recessed 75-watt unit for each curtained
tub or shower area. If the lavatory counter is
wider than 3', overhead fluorescent tubes
should be installed along the entire length
of the counter in a soffit extending at least
18" from the wall. Smaller lavatory areas
need 20-watt fluorescent tubes mounted on
either side of the mirror and cen-
tered 60" from the floor.
A ceiling fixture over the lavato-
ry mirror can provide extra light.
Kitchens
Every 50 sq. ft. of floor space
needs about 150 watts of incan-
descent or 50 watts of fluorescent
light from a ceiling fixture.
Additional fixtures should be
installed over sinks, work areas,
etc. A 20-watt fluorescent tube,
mounted under cabinets above
the countertop, is considered ade-
quate for every 3' of counter space
to be lighted. Light the sink area
using recessed halogen or fluores-
cent valance lighting. Fluorescent
strip lights can be concealed
above cabinets to provide soft,
indirect illumination. Suspend
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
3
GENERAL LIGHTING SUGGESTIONS
Here are a few general guidelines to help consumers begin their planning.
The light sources, lighting fixtures and construction of the home, as well as
the materials and colors of the furnishings, will affect the lighting plan.
INCANDESCENT BULBS
14, 15 wattsUse in multiple-socket hallway fixtures, small decorative
wall and table lamps, recessed aisle or step lights.
40, 55, 60 wattsWall fixtures and sconces, multiple-socket ceiling
fixtures and floor or table lamps, pole and tree lamps, recessed shower
lights, single- and multiple-socket bathroom mirror fixtures.
70, 75, 95, 100 wattsCeiling, wall and pendant fixtures.
150, 200 wattsSingle-socket ceiling fixtures; floor, table and desk
lamps where three-way flexibility is not desired.
170, 250 wattsPortable table, floor and desk lamps with single-
setting sockets.
THREE-WAY BULBS
30, 70, 100 wattsPortable dresser, table and hanging wall lamps.
50, 100, 150 wattsFloor, desk, table, double-dresser portable lamps.
100, 200, 300 wattsLarge floor lamps with mogul (large) sockets.
decorative pendant lighting with compact
fluorescent globes over the table or island
for visual interest and energy savings.
Dining Areas
A single ceiling fixture or hanging lamp
with at least 150 watts of incandescent light-
ing will usually suffice for an average dining
area. However, layering with light from a
variety of sources will provide flexibility for
creating different moods. The best choice is
to install a dimmer switch to control light
levels. Chandeliers with open sockets should
contain decorative bulbs. When using down
lighting over the dining room table, be care-
ful not to create dark shadows that might be
unbecoming to guests. Halogen directional
bulbs can be used in adjustable accent lights
to highlight plants, artwork or special fur-
nishings. In addition, china cabinets can be
lighted from within with small halogen or
miniature fluorescent bulbs.
Recreation Areas
Relatively even lighting throughout the
room can be accomplished with one
recessed incandescent box, with a 100-watt
bulb for every 40 sq. ft. The number of fix-
tures can be reduced by using fluorescent
tubes, which produce as much as four times
the light of incandescents.
Hallways
Use ceiling-mounted fixtures with 75 to
100 watts for every 10' of hall or one
recessed fixture with 75 to 100 watts for
every 8'. Locate fixtures near closets or pow-
der rooms. For halls that need light all day,
recommend fluorescent fixtures; this saves
energy and reduces bulb replacement. Wall
sconces can add a warm, welcoming touch
to a foyer. Place wall or ceiling-mounted
lights and switches at the top and bottom of
stairs for safety.
Laundry Areas
Center a diffusing fixture with 60 to 80
watts of fluorescent or 120 to 150 watts of
incandescent light over appliances.
I OUTDOOR LIGHTING
Outdoor lighting primarily serves a securi-
ty function. There are four basic types of
outdoor lighting: area, motion, landscape
and entrance/ exit lighting.
There are a wide variety of systems for
outdoor lighting, including: highintensity
discharge (HID) systems for mercury, metal
halide and highpressure sodium light
sources; incandescent and tungsten halogen
fixtures; low-voltage lighting systems; and
incandescent or halogen PAR spotlights and
floodlights.
HID lighting provides considerably greater
illumination than other lighting commonly
available. Its cost is also higher, although
operating costs for lumens output is general-
ly less. Lumens are the measurement of light
output. Locate fixtures at both ends of the
house for better spread of light over the
entire yard. Many outdoor lighting units are
equipped with a photoelectric cell to turn
the fixture on at sunset and off at sunrise.
Timers are also available for outdoor units.
Fixtures to be used outdoors must seal
moisture and dust from wiring and switches.
Photocells provide automatic activation
from dusk to dawn.
Brass, aluminum, copper and baked-finish
metals as well as non-metallic products will
withstand extremes of outdoor exposure best
and offer long product life.
Outdoor lighting options have expanded
with the advent of low-voltage lighting. A
low-voltage system of six fixtures, for exam-
ple, usually uses less electricity than a 60-
watt bulb. It makes maximum use of elec-
tricity by splitting the light source.
A power pack is the heart of the low-
voltage system and should be located out-
doors by installing a weatherproof outlet
cover to keep snow and rain out. Because
of the low voltage, users will not receive
an electric shock even if they touch the
bare wires or cut a buried cable with a
garden tool. Consequently, these systems
are harmless to children and pets and do
not require cables to be buried. Power
packs typically range from 88-watt capaci-
ty up to 900-watt capacity.
To determine which transformer you will
need, add up the wattage of all the lamps
you plan to useotherwise known as the
total nominal wattage (TNW). The total load
wattage of the lamps should not be less than
half of the transformers TNW or volt-
amperes (VA) rating, nor should it exceed
the transformers maximum capacity. If the
TNW is too high, divide the electrical load
between two transformers, or use a more
powerful one.
The first fixture should be installed at
least 1' above the ground and at least 10'
from the power pack. Low-voltage cable
transmits the electricity through a weather-
resistant, self-sealing stranded copper wire
between 12-gauge and 18-gauge. On runs
over 150' or when 10 or more lamps are con-
nected to one line, consider using heavier
cable (12- or 14-gauge), which reduces volt-
age drop and produces greater efficiency
from the lamps. A cable connector is used to
quickly join separate cable lengths or to split
cables going different directions.
The low-voltage lamp can be one of sever-
al types. Bayonet base lamps feature a cop-
per base that twists into the fixture socket,
while the wedge base lamp plugs into the
socket. Halogen lamps provide the most
energy efficiency. Remote photo control
automatically turns lights on at dark and off
during daylight hours. For more informa-
tion, click (Installing Outdoor
Wiring/ Lighting).
Area Lighting
Spot and floodlights, along with tradi-
tional yard and security lighting, are used as
decorative lighting for landscaping, architec-
ture or holiday decorations. Colored lenses
can enhance different features; a green lens,
for example, will brighten foliage while
detracting from reddish objects.
Weatherproof sockets are essential here
because the fixture is often mounted near
the ground and pointed upward, exposing
the socket opening to rain and dirt. Most
outdoor lighting fixtures should be installed
only when the ground is completely dry,
although low-voltage systems can often be
installed anytime. Always consult the manu-
facturers instructions.
Well lights are designed to be buried,
and they cast light upward to create spe-
cial effectsfor example, highlighting
landscaping.
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
4
Motion Lighting
Motion sensors are popular accessories
to low-voltage outdoor lighting. They
attach to a power pack and mount on
walls or fences 6 to 8' above the ground.
By detecting heat and motion up to 40'
away, they can cover 600 sq. ft. of proper-
ty to guard against intrusion.
Motion sensors are used with incandes-
cent, halogen and fluorescent bulbs.
When used in combination with a switch,
the user can manually switch on the
motion detector light.
Indoor motion sensors are also available
that automatically turn on a light when
someone enters a room.
Landscape Lighting
Landscape lighting is designed to accent
or light steps and pathways. It also serves a
decorative function and is relatively easy to
install. Advise customers not to hook up
landscape lighting with extension cords,
which are for temporary use only.
Mushroom lights, named for their sloped
shades, are commonly used along pathways
or in gardens. The bulb ranges from 5 watts
to 60 watts, and light is reflected downward
to give a soft illumination to the immediate
area near the fixture. Opaque, tiered lens
attachments shield light from the eyes and
direct it downward.
Bollard lights are cylindrical in shape,
with the faceted lens being part of that
cylinder. The lens diffuses light in a 360
pattern to create a soft glow. Lens shields
can limit lighting to a 180 range.
Globe lights have spherical lenses, so they
cast light in all directions, providing subtle
illumination that can cover a large area
without glare. They are often used around
outdoor living areas.
Deck lights are designed to fit under
steps, benches and railings. They can be
mounted in many other ways as well.
Many other kinds of fixtures are also
made to be recessed into steps or planters
to directly illuminate pathways.
What follows are some common lighting
techniques used in landscape lighting.
Down lightingshines light down from
large trees or eaves onto surfaces below
the light source to create safer passage-
ways at night. Down lighting is used to
outline driveways and walkways, mark
garden paths and flowerbeds, and to
accent patios and decks.
Uplightingplaces fixtures in the ground
and directs light upward to create a dramatic
focal point that accentuates the detail in a
trellis or archway, illuminates fountains and
statuary or highlights small trees and shrubs.
Front lightingpositions light sources in
front of an object to highlight important
features and details.
Back lightingilluminates objects or
plants from the back to highlight architec-
tural features and eliminates darkened areas
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
5
WHERE TO USE BULBS
SPECIAL-PURPOSE BULBS
TYPE AND WATTAGE WHERE TO USE
Reflector Bulbs (2-1/2" dia.) Pole and tree lamps. Track lighting and recessed downlights
(cans).
Reflector Floods (3-3/4" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlights (cans).
Reflector Spots (3-3/4" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlighting (cans).
Reflector Floods (5" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlights (cans).
Reflector Spots (5" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlighting (cans).
Floodlight Bulbs (4-3/4" dia.) Exposed weatherproof sockets under eaves, on garages,
porches and other outdoor locations. Bullet-shaped outdoor
floodlight fixtures.
Bug Lights (yellow coating) In fixtures on patios, porches and entrances to houses.
Post Light Bulbs For post lights and coach lanterns.
Plant Lights Special color bulb finish enhances plant appearance,
helps growth.
Rough Service Workshop, utility area, garage. Usually used on trouble
light extension cord.
High-Intensity Bulbs Replacement bulbs for high-intensity portable lamps, they
provide supplementary lighting for sewing, manicuring,
hobby work and other close-up tasks.
Night Lights Use in plug-in fixtures in bedrooms, bathrooms and hallways.
Garage Door Opener Bulb Built to take shock and vibration.
Appliance Bulbs For ovens, refrigerators, freezers, microwaves, saunas and
range hoods.
Showcase Tubular Bulbs Approximately 6 long, frosted and clear. Use for picture
lights, piano lights, aquariums, range hoods. Regular (medi-
um) base.
Always check the fixture for required diameter and wattage limitations before recommending any of
these bulbs. In general, floods are used for wide area lighting, spots are used for accent lighting.
FLUORESCENT BULBS
TYPE AND WATTAGE WHERE TO USE
Cool White Use for work areas only.
Warm White Good for living areas. Will harmonize with incandescent light-
ing. Not for use where color discrimination is important.
Soft White The recommended fluorescent for living areas, baths,
kitchens. Good color rendering. Harmonizes with incandes-
cent lighting.
Different wattage tubes are different lengths. It is important to purchase the right length tube to fit
the desired fixture. Fluorescent tubes come in a variety of white colors. Use these guidelines to select
the correct white tube for your use.
SOURCE: GE LIGHTING
behind large bushes and around doors and
windows for security purposes.
Area lightinguses a floodlight or anoth-
er source of wide light to illuminate large
areas for evening entertaining.
Safety lightingprovides light for certain
areas, such as paths or steps, so people can
navigate safely.
Also available are landscape boulders that
blend naturally into the environment and
glow from within, casting illumination for
pathways. The faux boulders contain low-
voltage lamps and UL-listed components
that are easy to wire, can be installed on
their own system or added to an existing
low-voltage system.
Entrance/ Exit Lighting
Light each entrance to illuminate the door
and to identify callers clearly. Recommend
wall lanterns, 25 watts to 60 watts, on each
side of the front door, centered 66" above
standing level.
For secondary entrances, recommend a
single fixture on the latch side of the
door. Lanterns with concealed downlights
light up wall-mounted house numbers as
well as the lock.
Suspended or over-door lanterns should
allow the light to flow downward. Wall-
mounted lanterns above doors should
accommodate 75 watts to 100 watts;
lanterns suspended from a ceiling 100
watts to 150 watts. With shallow, close-to-
ceiling fixtures for a porch, recommend
60 watts to 100 watts.
Exit or emergency signs are used to
identify exit areas in commercial build-
ings. Internally lighted models are the
most common.
LIGHT
BULBS
There are three main types of light bulbs:
incandescent, fluorescent and high-intensity
discharge (HID). Generally, the higher the
wattage, the greater the light output.
Bulb Finishes
Originally, only clear glass was used to
make incandescent bulbs, which left the
bright filament exposed and resulted in a
harsh, glaring light. To remedy this, special
finishes are used to reduce the glare by dif-
fusing the light.
Clear glass is still used in applications
where accurate light control is desired and
in decorative lighting.
A frosted finish used to be the most com-
mon. Light loss averages less than 0.5 per-
cent due to the frosted finish.
Today, light diffusion is usually accom-
plished by applying a coating of fine powder
to the inside surface of the bulb. This coat-
ing provides a softer, more even distribution
of light and reduces glare. Inside-coated
bulbs are made in colors as well as white. A
variety of colors are available in outside-
coated bulbs which can be either transparent
or translucent.
Bulbs can be made to direct the light by
applying a reflecting material to the inside
surface of the bulb, or in the case of R, PAR
and sealed beam, light can also be directed
by beveled cuts on the surface of the bulb.
General Classes of Light Bulbs
Bulbs come in a variety of shapes, sizes
and designs, each with a different purpose.
Bulb shapes have letter codes that corre-
spond to a general guideline. For example,
"C" refers to cone-shaped bulbs and "T" to
tubular bulbs.
General service is the Type A (arbitrary)
bulb used for lower-wattage bulbs from
about 15 watts to 200 watts. This type is
normally used for home lighting.
Vibration service is used on machinery or
where continuous vibration could cause
early failure of the filament. These bulbs
have lower lighting efficiency.
Rough service bulbs withstand shocks and
bumps. The relatively long filament is securely
mounted with many supports but has a lower
efficiency than general and vibration service
bulbs. They are used in workshops and
garages and with trouble lights.
Appliance bulbs are for ovens, refrigerators,
freezers, microwave ovens and range hoods.
Special coated bulbs are covered with a
Teflon or silicon protective material to
prevent shattering and to resist breakage
upon contact with water. They are recom-
mended for use in trouble lights and out-
door fixtures.
Decorative bulbs with clear or coated flame-
shaped glass, smooth B-type glass, C-line glass
with bent tip bulbs and globe-shaped bulbs
are useful in chandeliers and wall bracket fix-
tures where fashion is important.
Reflector

bulbs are usually made of soft

EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
6
CHECKLIST FOR
OSHA STANDARDS
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration) standards affect the physical
facilities of retail stores, but some of the rules
make good safety sense for customers who
are embarking on do-it-yourself electrical
projects. Following are 10 OSHA rules that
can be adapted as safety tips for consumers.
1. Be sure all electrical installations are
in accordance with the National
Electrical Code.
2. All live parts of electrical equipment
operating at 50V or more must be
guarded against accidental contact.
3. Protect all equipment against over-
current.
4. Overcurrent devices in damp and
wet locations must be of the type
approved for this use.
5. Fuses and circuit breakers must be
located and shielded to prevent
burns or injuries.
6. All fixed electrical equipment must
be grounded.
7. All electrical equipmentair con-
ditioners, sump pumps, portable
tools, othersmust be effectively
grounded.
8. All boxes and fittings in wet locations
must be waterproof.
9. All electrical outlet boxes must be
durably and legibly marked with the
manufacturers name and/or trade-
mark. They must be rigidly and
securely fastened to the surface to
which they are mounted. All outlet
boxes must have a cover.
10. Flexible cords must be in a continu-
ous length when used-without
splices. They cannot be worn,
frayed or taped. They must be con-
nected so that tension will not be
transmitted to joints or terminal
screws. Flexible cords cannot be
used where fixed wiring is required.
glass for indoor service as a directional light
source with a built-in reflector. These are
available as spot or floodlights.
Projector (PAR) bulbs are made of hard
heat-resistant glass molded into a reflector
and lens that are sealed together. Most are
weather-resistant.
Elliptical reflector bulbs are shaped differ-
ently than the parabolic reflector bulbs,
bringing light to a focus a couple of inches
in front of the bulb. Less light is wasted in
deep-baffle fixtures, and glare is reduced in
downlight fixtures.
Light Bulb Bases
Light bulbs come with a variety of bases
for use in different fixtures. The following
are the most commonly used base types:
Candelabra is a screw base used for spe-
cialty chandeliers and decorative lighting. It
is the smallest base for 120V lamps.
Intermediate is a screw base with applica-
tions similar to the candelabra bulb.
Medium is a screw base, standard on most
general-service bulbs of 300 watts and under.
It has a high degree of interchangeability in
bulb applications.
Mogul bases are used for larger, heavy-
duty bulbs rated at 300 watts and higher.
Skirted screw base is used on bulbs where
the neck is too large to fit into the desired
size base or where additional space between
filament and bulb terminals is desired.
Three-contact bases are used for three-
way bulbs that contain two separate fila-
ments in one bulb. They are similar to other
screw bases, but use an extra ring contact to
light wattage filaments separately or in com-
bination for three light levels.
Bayonet bases are used on specialty lamps
such as vacuum cleaners, sewing machines
and low-voltage bulbs. It provides a more
secure contact by using two small protrud-
ing pins on the sides of the base that fit into
slots in the socket.
Medium bi-post base is used for higher-
current bulbs.
I INCANDESCENT BULBS
Incandescent bulbs produce light by pass-
ing current through a thin coil of wire called
a filament. As the wire heats, it becomes
white hot and emits visible light.
Incandescent bulbs come in two types:
vacuum filled and halogen gas filled.
They are mainly used for general and task
lighting around the house.
Incandescent bulbs offer many advan-
tages: a concentrated light source that is easy
to direct; instant lighting; a wide assortment
of sizes, shapes and colors; easy mainte-
nance; and low initial cost.
Moreover, incandescent lighting is flexi-
ble, particularly since light levels (propor-
tional to wattage) for a given bulb-holder
can be changed simply by using the desired
wattage bulb. However, users should be care-
ful not to exceed bulb wattage recommenda-
tions for a fixture. Underwriters Laboratories
(UL) tags on fixtures designate the maxi-
mum allowable wattage. A mercury or fluo-
rescent system is typically limited to a single
bulb size.
An incandescent bulb can operate on
either direct current (DC) or alternating cur-
rent (AC). Wattage indicates the amount of
electric power used by a bulb to produce
light. Roughly speaking, the higher the
wattage, the greater the light output. Some
bulbs, however, produce more light output
per watt than others do.
Standard household bulbs have an aver-
age life of 750 to 1,000 hours, which can
be lengthened or shortened by the treat-
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
7
1. Single-Contact Bayonet Incandescent Base
2. Candelabra Incandescent Base
3. Double-Contact Bayonet Incandescent Base
4. Intermediate Incandescent Base
5. Medium Incandescent Base
6. Medium Skirted Incandescent Base
7. Three-Contact Medium Incandescent Base
8. Mogul Incandescent Base
9. Three-Contact Mogul Incandescent Base
10. Circline Florescent Base
11. Medium Bi-Pin Fluorescent Base
12. Four-Pin Fluorescent Base
13. Recessed D.C. Fluorescent Base
14. Two-Pin Single-End Fluorescent Base
15. Four-Pin Single-End Fluorescent Base
6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5
9 10 11
12 13 14 15
LIGHT BULB BASES
COMPARING LAMP EFFICIENCIES
Support
Wires
Exhaust
Tube
Base
Fuse
Heat Deflecting
Disc
Button
Lead-in
Wires
Stem Press
Filling
Glass
GLASS BULB
Filament
LAMP TYPE LUMENS PER WATT
Incandescent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Halogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Mercury Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Fluorescent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Metal Halide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
High Pressure Sodium . . . . . . . .140
Low Pressure Sodium . . . . . . . .200
ment they receive. For example, a 120V
bulb operating on a 125V circuit may pro-
duce more light but wont last as long as
one on a 120V circuit.
Long-life bulbs, which may last up to
twice as long as ordinary bulbs, have heavier
filaments that do not burn out as quickly.
However, these bulbs do not produce as
much light as standard bulbs.
Manufacturers disclose average light out-
put (in lumens) and average bulb life (in
hours) on package labeling.
The filament vaporizes as a result of cur-
rent flowing through it, and generally, the
bulb burns out. Three-way bulbs lose two
light levels when one filament burns out
because two filaments are used in the bulb
separately for two of the levels and together
for the third.
Bulb designations denote size and shape.
The figure following the bulb shape letter
designation is the bulbs maximum diameter
in eighths of an inch. Thus, A-19 would
mean an A-shaped bulb with a diameter of
19 x 1/8", or 2-3/8".
Most standard bulb envelopes are made of
lime glass, but bulbs that must withstand
greater heat are made of harder, heat-resist-
ant glass. Hard-glass envelopes are used in
many high-wattage bulbs and in bulbs rec-
ommended for outdoor use where there is
danger of thermal shock from condensation.
Incandescent bulbs turn black as they
near the end of their lifetimes. Customers
should consider replacing darkened bulbs, as
they use the same amount of electricity to
produce less light.
I HALOGEN BULBS
Halogen bulbs are technologically
advanced incandescent bulbs used in resi-
dential and commercial applications. As
with incandescent bulbs, light is produced
by passing current through a coiled tungsten
wire, but the tungsten wire is enclosed in a
small quartz or high-temperature glass tube,
which is then filled with gases, including a
halogen gas.
The advantages of tungsten halogen bulbs
compared with standard incandescent bulbs
include less loss of light over lamp life;
smaller physical size for better directional
light control; whiter, brighter light; more
light per watt; and longer life. Like incandes-
cents, halogen lights have the advantage of
instant-on light. They are easy to use with
dimmers for energy savings.
Typical halogen lamps last 2,000 to 4,000
hours compared to 750 to 1,000 hours for
incandescent lamps. Wattage levels for home
use run from 5 watts to 500 watts.
Halogen bulbs are more energy-efficient
than standard incandescent bulbs. They gen-
erate up to 30 percent more light for the
same electricity. In addition, because their
bulbs blacken much less than incandescents,
they stay brighter as they age.
Halogen bulbs are available for accent and
task lighting and for general lighting appli-
cations. Since their brilliant, white light reg-
isters true colors, they are excellent for dis-
plays. Shading is important because of halo-
gens intense brightness. They are available
in A-type equivalent bulbs, PAR spotlights
and floodlights in a variety of sizes, as well
as low-voltage spotlights and floodlights.
Advise customers not to touch the glass
on halogen bulbs.
I FLUORESCENT BULBS
The two main types of fluorescent bulbs
are tubular and compact fluorescent.
Fluorescent bulbs are used in commercial,
institutional, industrial and residential light-
ing. The popularity of the fluorescent bulb is
due to its high efficiency in producing light,
resulting in low lighting energy costs.
Fluorescent bulbs produce up to 105 lumens
per watt, compared with a 100-watt, type A
incandescent, which produces around 18
lumens per watt.
A fluorescent also has long lamp life,
relatively low brightness and low heat
content and glare compared with incan-
descent lamps. Fluorescents work well for
area lighting, especially in kitchen, bath
and task areas.
In a fluorescent bulb, current flows
through an atmosphere of inert gas and
mercury vapor, producing ultraviolet ener-
gy that is invisible to the human eye. A
phosphor coating on the inside of the
tube transforms the ultraviolet energy
into visible light.
Fluorescent bulbs can vary from straight
tubes 6" to 96" long to U-shaped tubes and
circular tubes. Wattages for home use range
from 4 to 75 watts.
Tubes also come in a variety of diameters.
Several common types are available in
reduced-wattage versions that consume 15
percent to 20 percent less energy.
The most common tube is the 1-1/2" used
in most bulbs from 15" to 96" long. The
smallest diameter is 1/2", used in low-
wattage twin tube designs. The largest is 2-
1/8" used for some high-wattage, non-resi-
dential installations.
Fluorescent bulbs are available in many
shades of white, as well as colors determined
by the type of phosphor used in the bulb.
These colors are indicated by the color ren-
dering index number printed on the bulb.
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
8
COMPACT FLUORESCENT SHAPES
INCANDESCENT SHAPES
A Type Flame
PAR-30
Reflector
(indoor)
R-40
Reflector
Tubular Bulge Tube
(LT-10)
Screw Base
Lamp
Screw Base
Bulb
PAR-30
Reflector
(outdoor)
LIGHT BULB SHAPES
HID SHAPES
Screw Base
Circular Tube
E BT
The higher the number, the more accurate
the color produced. Soft white fluorescent
bulbs are recommended for living areas,
baths and kitchens since they offer good
color rendering. Warm white bulbs, 3000K
and lower, emphasize reds and yellows and
are good for living areas, although not in
areas where color discrimination is impor-
tant. Cool white bulbs, 4000K and higher,
emphasize blues and greens and are used for
work areas.
There are a few important limits to the
use of fluorescent lamps. Because they use a
ballast, they can be dimmed only with spe-
cial equipment that is relatively expensive.
Standard household fluorescents are also
sensitive to temperature and therefore work
best indoors. High-output fluorescents are
for outdoor use and commercial application.
Ballasts have sound ratings A is the
quietest; C is the loudest. If a customer is
complaining about the noise made by fluo-
rescent bulbs, suggest replacing the ballast.
The main objection to fluorescents in the
past has been their unflattering color. New,
color-corrected tubes overcome this draw-
back with recent developments in phosphor
technology. Premium types use rare-earth
phosphors to offer superior color that blends
beautifully with incandescents.
Electrical connections to the bulbs are
made to the bases at each end. The most
common is the two-pin base, designated
miniature bi-pin for small diameter bulbs,
medium bi-pin for average-size bulbs and
the mogul bi-pin for industrial bulbs. Single-
pin bases are used for instant-start bulbs,
and recessed double-contact bases are used
on rapidstart bulbs longer than 48".
Ballast Operation
Because fluorescent lamps are arc dis-
charge devices, they require special auxiliary
equipment to provide reliable starting and
to assure proper electrical operation. The
principle function of the ballast is to hold
operating current within proper limits and
to provide enough voltage to start the lamp.
Initially, all fluorescent lamps used a
starter or time-delay switch, which
allowed the electrodes to heat up prior to
the lamp starting. The starter is a small sil-
ver-colored cylinder found mostly in older
fluorescent lamps. When the lamp in an
older fluorescent begins to flicker, both the
tube and the starter should be replaced.
Starterless operation is achieved with
instant-start and rapid-start ballast designs.
Instant-start ballasts provide sufficient volt-
age to start fluorescent lamps without pre-
heating and are commonly used with single-
pin lamps and some special lamp types.
Rapid-start ballasts heat the cathodes con-
tinuously from a low-voltage transformer
within the ballast. This is the most common
type of ballast in use today for 40-watt
lamps and for all lamps that use recessed
double-contact bases.
Reduced-wattage lamps operate on most
existing ballasts, which can reduce wattage
14 to 20 percent. In addition, new ballasts
developed to minimize the wattage con-
sumed by the ballast itself further reduce
electrical consumption.
Compact Fluorescents
Compact fluorescent bulbs offer different
style and performance from standard fluo-
rescent bulbs. Their color nearly equals Soft
White incandescents, and they offer superior
energy efficiency and long life.
The new compacts can be used in many
household fixtures. Circular units are
already familiar in ceiling fixtures and
artists lamps; new applications are wall
sconces, table lamps, lanterns, desk lights
and outdoor fixtures. Compact fluores-
cents feature sizes and shapes to match
most incandescent bulbs including one
that resembles a standard household bulb.
They can be as small as 4.5" long, and
some are the same size as their incandes-
cent counterparts. Not all fixtures
designed for incandescents may have
enough room inside the shade or glass for
the bulb.
Compact fluorescents cannot be
dimmed. Their life will be maximized if
they are used in locations where a light
stays on for hours at a time.
Compact fluorescent lamps typically last
7,000 to 10,000 hours, which is nine to 13
times longer than comparable incandescent
lamps. Energy efficiency can go up to 105
lumens per watt. Wattages for home use
range from 7 to 27 watts.
Reflector-shaped compact fluorescents can
replace standard R30 and R40 shaped incan-
descent reflector bulbs. Globe-shaped com-
pact fluorescents can replace standard G25
bath and vanity globes or G30 decorative
globes that are used in pendants. Decorator
or flame-shaped bulbs can replace similar
incandescent bulbs in chandeliers, sconces
and outdoor fixtures. Stick-shaped compact
fluorescents can replace standard Type A
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
9
GLOSSARY OF ELECTRICAL STANDARDS
ULUnderwriters Laboratories Inc. is a not-for-profit independent testing laboratory.
Manufacturers submit products to UL for testing. UL-listed means that the merchandise meets
minimum safety standards and is suitable and safe if used for the purpose for which it was
intended by the manufacturer.
ANSIAmerican National Standards Institute is a non-profit organization that coordinates the
voluntary development of national standards by industry, establishes national consensus stan-
dards and represents United States interests in international technical standardization. Its stan-
dards are developed and used voluntarily, becoming mandatory only when adopted by govern-
ment bodies, such as the Consumer Product Safety Commission.
NEMANational Electrical Manufacturers Association writes performance standards for prod-
ucts. These standards are formed by committees that reach a consensus on individual matters. A
typical committee consists of manufacturers, industries that will use the product, Underwriters
Laboratories and other standard-setting groups. Consumer organizations are also on the com-
mittee where matters that apply to them are considered.
NECNational Electrical Code is based on safe, functional wiring methods and is updated every
three years. Many cities and states require that wiring conform to NEC specifications. Local and
state codes and ordinances also supplement the NEC.
CSACanadian Standards Association is an independent, not-for-profit Canadian organization
that is similar to UL of the United States.
bulbs in portable lamps, while twist-shaped
compact fluorescents can replace standard
Type A bulbs in virtually any application.
There are also household-shaped compact
fluorescents that make ideal replacements
where the bulbs are visible in the fixture.
When choosing a compact fluorescent
bulb to replace an incandescent bulb,
compare the lumen output of the two
bulbs. For maximum energy efficiency,
select a bulb with the highest lumens and
lowest wattage combination. For example,
replace a 100-watt incandescent house-
hold lamp that produces 1,600 lumens
with a 25-watt compact fluorescent lamp
that also produces 1,600 lumens.
I HIGH-INTENSITY
DISCHARGE LIGHTING
High-intensity discharge (HID) bulbs pro-
duce light in a manner often described as
lightning in a bottle. As in fluorescent
bulbs, current flows through a conducting
gas and ballasts are required to start the
bulb and to control its operation. Unlike
fluorescent, most of the light comes from
the arc itself rather than through the
work of the phosphor.
The highest-efficiency light sources (the
most light per watt) are members of HID
families. The four basic HID types are
mercury vapor, metal halide, high-pres-
sure sodium and low-pressure sodium.
HID bulbs are primarily used for area
and security lighting. They feature a lifes-
pan of 20,000 to 24,000 hours. They come
in a variety of shapes and in medium and
mogul bases.
Mercury vapor lighting is used for exte-
rior area and security lighting, such as
dusk-to-dawn residential lighting.
Mercury vapor lamps provide twice the
light output per watt as incandescent
lamps. Along with the higher output, they
also have a longer lamp life, in some cases
up to 30 times as long. They are also more
expensive than incandescent or fluores-
cent. Mercury vapor bulbs produce a
bluish white color.
Self-ballasted mercury lamps can be
used with a ballast in incandescent fix-
tures and are available for 120V systems
in the lower wattages (up to 250 watts)
and for 240V systems in both lower and
higher wattages. These lamps deliver
slightly more light output per watt as the
incandescent lamps but have the long life
of mercury lamps.
Lighting systems that provide three to
six times the light output per watt of
incandescent lamps can replace incandes-
cent, mercury and self-ballasted mercury
systems. These metal halide and
highpressure sodium (HPS) lamps require
specific ballasts, but offer major energy
savings to users.
The metal halide lamps feature medium
efficiency, with 50 to 110 lumens per
watt. They provide good color characteris-
tics (similar to cool white fluorescent
lamps) along with higher light output.
The high-pressure sodium lamps pro-
vide even higher light output per watt
than metal halide (50 to 150 lumens per
watt), with a golden yellow light.
Residential applications include security
and landscape lighting.
Low-pressure sodium bulbs feature the
highest efficiency, with 100 to 180 lumens per
watt. They produce an orange light.
When replacing HID bulbs, it is neces-
sary to use the exact bulb.
Energy-Saving Bulbs
Compact fluorescent bulbs can be
screwed into a standard incandescent
base. In addition to energy savings, their
main advantage is longevity. The lamps
give as much or more light as an incan-
descent bulb, with about 1/4 the wattage.
The bulbs life is approximately 7,000 to
10,000 hours.
Energy-saving incandescent bulbs general-
ly provide nearly the same amount of light
output as conventional 60- and 100-watt
bulbs but use fewer watts.
Energy-saving PAR spot and floodlights
combine a special reflector design with
lower wattage to provide almost the same
amount of useful light, using considerably
less electrical energy.
Lighting takes approximately 12 percent
to 15 percent of the electricity used in a
home. However, the following will help cus-
tomers economize on the lighting portion of
an electricity bill:
o Turn off lights when you do not need
them.
o Use dimmers, when desirable.
o Use photoelectric cells or timers to turn
outdoor lights on and off automatically.
o Use reflector bulbs, especially for task and
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
10
SELLING TIPS FOR ELECTRICAL PROJECTS
You can further both your sales and your know-how image by making sure the customer has every-
thing needed for the job. Here is a checklist of items to go over in the store.
CABLEAre they buying enough to reach the distance of the circuit? Allow at least 10 percent
excess to accommodate bends. Also, make sure the wire will handle the amount of amperage it
will be expected to draw. Explain that lower resistance wire, while more expensive initially, will
save money by reducing power loss or blown fuses and will increase safety.
BOXESGo over the proposed circuit with the customer. They will need a box for every outlet,
fixture, splice or other break in the cable.
WIRE CONNECTORSAt least two of these are required at every cable splice. Most light fixtures
are pre-wired and must be spliced onto the circuit cable. Sockets and switches do not require
connectors since cable is usually mounted directly to the device.
INSULATED STAPLESThese will be needed to mount the cable to the studs. Make sure they
are the right size for the type of cable being used.
INSULATED TAPENecessary for wrapping splices or taping any electrical wires.
TOOLSWire cutters, strippers stapler and screwdrivers are all part of the electrician's toolbox.
WALL PLATESDoes the customer have the right number and configuration of wall plates to
match the fixtures being installed?
LIGHT BULBSMost lighting fixtures are sold without bulbs. Does the customer have the prop-
er size and number for the fixtures being purchased?
Two-Conductor Cable
Two-conductor cable has one black wire
and one white wire. The black wire is always
the hot wire and must be fused. The white
is always neutral and must never be fused.
When current bridges the gap from the
110V hot wire to the neutral, it results in a
110V input to the appliance.
Three-Conductor Cable
Three-conductor cable contains a red
wire in addition to black and white. The
black and red wires are hot, carrying
110V each, and both must be fused. The
white remains neutral.
Bridging either 110V wire to the neutral
wire produces 110V. Bridging both 110V
wires results in 220V. This three-wire circuit
is increasingly common in home wiring; it
accommodates major 220V appliances, such
as ranges and air conditioners.
Grounding Wires
Both two- and three-conductor cables can
carry grounding wires, which provide a path
of least resistance from the frame or case of
an appliance to the ground to guard against
electric shocks.
The electric motor in a refrigerator, for
instance, might develop a current leak to the
frame of the appliance. A person touching
the refrigerator could create a path for the
current to pass to the ground. Consequently,
he would receive a shock.
A grounding wire, attached to the frame
of the refrigerator and directly to the
ground, would provide a lower resistance
path than the person. The electricity could
then pass safely to the ground.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) was
changed in 1996 to require a separate
ground wire for certain appliances to ground
their frames. If your customers are wiring for
120/240V or 120/208V ranges, wall-mount-
ed ovens, counter-mounted stoves or clothes
dryers, they need the separate ground wire.
Thermostat Cables
Thermostat cables are used in low-voltage
control, alarm and communication systems.
Most common types are braided, twisted
and plastic-jacketed types.
All three use solid copper conductors and
are twisted and insulated with plastic.
Twisted cable, which has no outer braid,
is used in doorbells, burglar alarms, intercom
telephones and public address systems.
Braided cable is covered with cotton
braid and is used primarily in thermostat
controls and other low-voltage, remote
control circuits.
Plastic-jacketed cable is also used in simi-
lar low-voltage applications.
Although thermostat cable is low voltage,
it carries a UL-listing for being flame-retar-
dant since it is installed in the wall. Wiring
used in security alarm and smoke detection
systems must be UL-listed.
TV Wire and Accessories
Television lead-in wire connects the
receiving set to the antenna. Good quality
300-ohm wire is used for both VHF and
UHF receivers.
A TV set coupler is a loss-producing device
for connecting two or more TV receivers to
the same antenna. The loss introduced into
the circuit is small, but can be critical in
fringe area reception. In such areas, cus-
tomers should be told of this small loss and
to expect a slight reduction in signal
strength at the receiver.
A lightning arrestor mounts on the out-
side of the house as close to the TV receiver
as possible to protect the receiver against
lightning damage. The lead-in wire is
attached to proper contacts and the ground
rod to ground connector. Lightning will
jump the gap inside the arrestor and flow
into the earth if the circuit is properly
installed.
Home Networking
Multiple computers in the home, satellite
dishes, cable TV, sophisticated audio systems
and home theaters have given rise to the
desire for home networks.
The heart of these systems is the network-
ing hub. Usually thought of in conjunction
with computers, the home network hub dif-
fers in that it provides central control of
computers, peripherals, phones, TVs and
audio components. This is the unit where
most of the wiring from different locations
comes together to meet.
Most home networks use coaxial,
Category 3 and Category 5 cable. Coaxial
cable is used for TVs, VCRs and satellite
equipment. Category 3 cable is used for
telephones while Category 5 is used for
telephone, fax and computer systems.
Some cables combine different functions
into one cable.
Structured wiring refers to a bundle of
cables that runs from the networking hub to
meet a homes future information-carrying
needs. This wire bundle may consist of some
combination of Category 5 cables, fiber-
optic lines, Category 3 cables and coaxial
lines. New home construction and renova-
tion jobs should try to accommodate wiring
in this fashion to meet the bandwidth needs
of digital transmissions.
Jacks are used to terminate the cable.
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
12
USE COMMON SENSE TO AVOID ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Stress to your customers that they use common sense when working with electricity. Before
proceeding with any electrical work, make sure the main disconnect on the service entrance
panel is at the off position or pull the main fuses if the panel is the cartridge fuse type.
When working on individual receptacles or light switches, turn off the circuit breaker for the cir-
cuit being worked on, and test with a test light before handling bare wires.
Other tips:
Never stand on wet or damp floors when working at the service entrance on any electrical
device. Wear rubber gloves and stand on a rubber mat for added safety.
To avoid overloaded circuits, never use a fuse which has a higher amperage rating than the
rating on the wire for the circuit.
Never run more appliances from one receptacle than the amperage rating for that outlet.
Never use a penny or tinfoil in a service panel instead of a fuse.
There are different jacks for telephones,
computers, satellite, audio and video equip-
ment. Many of these jacks and cable connec-
tors require special tools for installation.
Patch cords are used to connect different
computer and audio/video devices with one
another or with a central networking device
such as a hub.
Binding posts are used to connect bare
speaker wire, while F-Connectors are used
with coaxial cable.
Home Wiring Testers
New tools and testers are making the job
of installing and maintaining household
wiring and home networks easier and safer.
Non-contact voltage testers allow you
to see if a line is carrying current without
touching the line. Features include audi-
ble and visual alarms, battery-checking
circuitry and a size that is small enough
to fit into a pocket.
Circuit analyzers and receptacle testers
are designed to determine if circuits are
wired properly. They plug into any grounded
electrical receptacle and test receptacle
wiring and grounding in standard and GFCI
outlets. A convenient chart and lights tell
you if the circuit is wired properly, if the
wiring is reversed, the ground is not working
or if there is an open line.
A ground fault receptacle tester and ana-
lyzer performs the same functions for GFCI
receptacles plus it also tests the ground fault
feature. Similar tools are available for tele-
phone and computer lines.
Circuit trackers easily locate circuits with-
out turning off breakers or fuses. They fea-
ture a transmitter that is plugged into a live
outlet. A receiver is used at the service panel
to identify the circuit into which the trans-
mitter is plugged. Some models incorporate
a visual and an audio indicator. Adapter kits
allow you to identify light switches and light
bulb sockets.
An in-wall pipe and wire detector
locates metal objects and live unshielded
conductors behind drywall, paneling and
plaster walls.
I CORDS
Electrical cords provide a path for current
to travel from a fixed outlet to an appliance.
The type of cord needed for a given job
is determined by the amperage drawn by
the appliance, whether the appliance is
grounded and the degree of physical pro-
tection required.
Extension Cords
Extension cords are for temporary power
only. Make sure the customer uses the right
size for the application. Outdoor and
indoor/household types are available, as well
as commercial cords with heavier gauges,
higher amp ratings and extra flexibility.
Indoor extension cords come in two-
wire and three-wire cords in lengths from
6' to 15' with 6' and 9' being the most
popular lengths. White and brown are the
basic colors.
Outdoor extension cords are used for out-
door power tools and exterior lighting. They
come in 16/3, 14/3 and 12/3 wire, and the
most common lengths are from 25' to 100'.
Heavy-duty extension cords should be used
with high-wattage appliances. Be sure to
match the construction of the cable to the
job. SJT round cord is better able to with-
stand the constant flexing of use with power
tools than SPT2.
Any UL-listed cord will carry a UL label
near the female end. Many companies are
now using an alternative method of label-
ing allowed by UL, which permits the UL
markings to be molded into the cord
ends. This ensures a permanent marking
that cannot be provided with a label. It is
important to check for this UL insignia,
whether it is a label or a permanent mark-
ing. Non-listed cords can be similar in
appearance to listed ones.
To be UL-listed for outdoor use, three-wire
round cords must have connector and cap
molded to the cord and a lip on the end of
the connector to prevent misuse. Beginning
in 1998, UL-listed outdoor cords began
appearing with the SJTW marking on the
cord, not SJTW-A as was previously used.
For a period of time, either marking will be
acceptable for outdoor use.
Grounding cords are available in both
heavyweight and heavy-duty construction
differing from standard cords, because they
have three conductors instead of two and
are equipped with a three-prong grounding
plug and connector.
An assortment of specialty extension
cords includes:
Step-saver cordshave built-in pendant
switches to control appliances and lamps
across the room.
Wind-up reelskeep tangled, foot-catch-
ing cords off the floor.
In recommending a proper extension cord,
pass along these buying and safety tips:
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
13
TYPES OF CABLE AND CORD
Non-Metallic Sheath Cable
Armored Cable
Type SPT Cord
Type S and SJ Cord
Type HPD Cord
AMPERAGE RATINGS FOR CORD
AWG WIRE # MINIMUM AMPERAGE
0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
14
CORD, WIRE AND INSULATION
DESIGNATOR TYPE OF INSULATION GENERAL USE
WIRE
R Rubber All-purpose building wire, 600V, 60C.
RH Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat resistance to 75C.
RW Rubber Same as R with moisture resistance.
RHH Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat resistance to 90C.
RHW Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat and moisture resistance to 75C wet or dry.
RH/RW Rubber & cotton braid Same as R but 75C dry and 60C wet.
T Thermoplastic vinyl All-purpose building wire, 60C.
THW Thermoplastic vinyl Same capacity as RHW.
TW Thermoplastic vinyl Same as RW.
WP Cotton braid Weatherproof for suspended outdoor use.
NONMETALLIC CABLE
NM Paper overlaid with cotton For dry use only, 60C. Braid or plastic
NMC Plastic or neoprene coating Wet or dry use, 60C. Only cable approved for barns.
USE Rubber & neoprene Underground service entrance. Fusing or additional covering not required.
UF Thermoplastic Underground feeder and branch cable. Can be buried but must be fused.
ARMORED CABLE
ACT Armored cable on plastic Branch circuits and feeders. Insulated wires.
ACU Armored cable on rubber Same as ACT. Insulated wires.
CORDS
C Rubber & cotton braid Lamps and portable appliances in dry areas, 300V and 600V, 60C.
HPN Neoprene Same as HPD with moisture resistance.
SP-1 Rubber Lightweight for lamps, clocks, etc., 300V.
SP-2 Rubber Same as SP-1 with heavier construction for more general use, 300V.
SP-3 Rubber Heavier construction than SP-2 for use with refrigerators, air conditioners, etc., 300V.
SPT-1, SPT-2, SPT-3 Thermoplastic Correspond to SP-1, SP-2 and SP-3.
S Rubber and jute twine Heavy duty for power tools, battery chargers, etc., 600V.
SJ Rubber and jute twine Same as S but only 300V.
SJO Rubber and jute twine Same as SJ but oil resistant, 300V.
AWG 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Actual Size
Maximum
amperage 125 95 70 55 40 30 25 18 13 10
Actual size of copper wires and maximum amperage allowed in permanent installation.
o Advise customers to follow manufacturer
recommendations for outdoor use and to
not use a household extension cord out-
doors.
o Damaged or worn extension cords should
be replaced, not repaired. Replace older
cords that are non-polarized and dont
have safety closures.
o Know the length of cord needed and elec-
trical load it can carry. Cord should reach
easily from wall outlet to appliance. Never
put two short cords together to obtain
needed length.
o Only use an extension cord that has been
tested by a nationally recognized testing
laboratory such as UL, CSA or ITS.
o Keep cords out of the reach of children
and out of high-traffic areas where people
might trip over them.
o Never remove the third prong or cut
down the blade of a plug to fit a non-
polarized receptacle.
o Do not cover cords with carpet, furniture
or appliances.
o Cord should be permanently bonded
to the plug and the connector to
ensure a good connection and no
exposed wiring.
Appliance Cords
Appliance cords combine cord and con-
nector. The difference between cord sets can
be in type of connector and/or cord used.
Free-end attachment cord sets without
connectors are used in re-wiring direct
attachment irons, toasters and similar small
appliances. They have pre-tinned ends to
speed up wiring.
Range and Dryer Cords
Range and dryer cords are free-end types,
commonly called pigtails, attached direct-
ly to the appliance. Free ends are fitted with
cable terminals that connect to screw termi-
nals of the appliance to assure positive con-
nections. A metal clamp attached to the
cable serves as a strain relief at the point
where the cable enters an appliance and a
cord protector.
Heavy-duty attachment plugs for
ranges and dryers are much larger than
standard attachment plugs. Most are L
shaped with a power cord feeding out
the side of the plug.
Sizes range from 30 amps for dryers and
small ranges to 50 amps for larger ranges.
The different amperage attachment plugs are
not interchangeable because of a difference
in their configuration.
A recent change in the National
Electrical Code requires new range and
dryer receptacle installations to be 3-pole,
4-wire grounding receptacles. The neutral
(grounded circuit conductor) can no
longer be used to ground the frames of
electrical ranges and dryers.
Heating Tapes
The primary function of heating tape is
to protect pipes from freezing. Today
there are heating tapes to warm the soil
for growing plants as well as tapes for pre-
venting water damage caused by snow
and ice buildup. They are all designed for
quick and easy installation.
Tapes are automatic, constant-heat or self-
regulating. A thermostat controls an auto-
matic tape. Constant-heat tape must be
manually turned on and off as the tempera-
ture changes. A self-regulating tape is made
of semi-conductive plastic that adjusts to
outside temperatures.
Other Cords
Plastic parallel cord can be sold off the roll
for use with lamps, radios and other small
appliances. Plastic bell wire is used for bells,
buzzers, chimes, toy electric trains and other
similar systems and hook-ups.
I WIRING DEVICES
Wires and cable form circuits to carry
electricity through a building. Wiring
devices described here are used to control
current flow and provide access points so
electricity can be used to power appli-
ances and lights.
Switches
A switch controls power to lights and
devices by turning off the hot side of the cir-
cuit. Selection depends on design and load
capacity. For more information, click
(Installing or Replacing Electric
Switches).
Conventional Switches
A conventional switch makes or breaks
contact when a mechanically connected
tumbler or toggle bridges or breaks the line
contacts in the switch.
A single-pole switch is simplest and most
frequently used in the home, controlling
current on one circuit from one point. It fea-
tures two terminal screws.
Double-pole switches have four termi-
nal screws.
A three-way switch controls one circuit
from two separate points, such as a garage
light that can be turned on or off from the
house or the garage.
Four-way switches are used in connection
with three-way switches to control one cir-
cuit from three or more points.
Single-pole and three-way switches are
available with lighted handles that glow in
the dark.
Dimmer Switches
Dimmer switches control the amount of
current in a lighting circuit, allowing the
user to control the degree of light from off
to full capacity.
Some dimmers control the amount of
voltage going to the lamp, increasing or
reducing the amount of light given off.
Other dimmers control a portion of each
alternating current cycle applied to the
lamp. This means a solid state dimmer turns
the light off and on approximately 120
times per second. The on-off rate has no
noticeable effect on the life of the bulb or
on the eyes of persons in the room.
One undesirable side effect of this on-off
cycle is interference on AM radios. Some
dimmers have radio/TV filters and printed
circuitry. There are table lamp dimmers and
dimmers that wire parallel into the lamp
cord. In addition, use of a dimmer will cause
some light bulbs to hum. The sound is cre-
ated from the turning on and off of the A.C.
sine wave. The rapid switching causes the
tungsten filament to resonate. Filament hum
is typical with inexpensive lamps that are
commonly installed in new construction.
The hum can be greatly reduced by upgrad-
ing to a lamp with a heavier filament.
It is also normal for a dimmer to get warm
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
15
during operation, which is why dimmers are
built with a heat sink. If the load is not over
the wattage rating of the dimmer and is a
proper load for which the dimmer is
designed to control, the dimmer does not
need to be replaced.
There are several styles of wall dimmer
switches available. The most popular include
a push on-off/dial-to-dim type, a rotary full-
range type, a slide type and a toggle type
that offers full-range control but uses toggle
motion instead of a dial.
Dimmers also come in single-pole or
three-way construction. If two, three-way
switches are involved, only one of them can
be a dimmer. Otherwise, the setting will not
work, although some toggle dimmers allow
two three-way switches to be used.
An air gap switch is built into all dim-
mers as a safety feature to ensure that
power can be removed to the outputthis
is a UL requirement.
Specialty Switches
Rocker switchused in place of a stan-
dard wall switch, it is activated with a push-
button mechanism. Useful near a doorway
or area where hands might be full or for
appearance and for range hood and appli-
ances.
Delayed-action switchcircuit remains
active for a few minutes after switch is
thrown. Useful in garage or breezeway,
allowing individual to get into the house
before light goes out.
Programmable memory switchset to go
on and off at specific times for security or
safety purposes.
Photoelectric switchoperates by light
striking cell. Usually used on yard lights.
Daylight turns circuit off; it goes back on at
dusk. Circuit usually has a delay device to
prevent passing headlights from turning
light off.
Motion switchturns the light on as you
enter the room. Used for both convenience
and security. Can be used to replace existing
wall switches.
Illuminated switchis available in two
types. One has a small light that is on when
the switch is off so it can be easily found;
these are usually used at entrances to rooms
and in hallways. Pilot light switches are on
when the light is off and usually used for
out-of-sight lights such as those in the base-
ment, garage and attic.
Outdoor switchenables electrical power
to be used for outside applications. They fea-
ture a turning lever inside a weatherproof
box cover with a toggle switch.
A second type of tamper-resistant outlet
utilizes an overlapping shutter system
that limits improper access to its ener-
gized contacts.
Voice-activated switchoffers a hands-
free approach to illuminating dark areas
quickly and safely. Voice-activated switch-
es incorporate the latest technology in
speech recognition to enable homeowners
to control the brightness of the lights.
Used in place of any standard wall switch,
they can be programmed with any com-
mand or language.
Silent switchprovides the same operation
as many of the other switches with little or
no noise. Silent switches are either mechani-
cal or solid state. The mechanical switch is
almost identical to the regular switch except
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
16
Single Pole
Switch
Two Switches Grounding
Outlet
Double Outlet
OUTLETS AND SOCKETS
Keyless Ceiling
Lampholder
Pull Chain
Socket
Pull Chain Ceiling
Lampholder
3-way
Socket
Push-Through
Socket
Weatherproof
Pigtail Socket
Duplex receptacle
2-pole, 3-wire
grounding
Cord switch
OFF
L O O P H O L E
STRIP#14 W I R E S T R I P #12 WIRE
STRIP#14 W I R E S T R I P #12 WIRE
L O O P H O L E
Single-pole
grounding switch
Three-way lighted
toggle grounding
switch
TOP
S T R I P #12 WIRE
STRIP#14 W I R E
2 single-pole switches 3 single-pole
switches
Weather
protective cover for
single receptacle
TOP
Single-pole AC
quiet switch
Three-way AC
quiet switch
K
E
Y KEY
S T R I P # 1 4
WIRE STRIP
# 1 2 W I R E
6A 125V AC, 3A 25 0V AC, 3A 125VT
SWITCHES
for an extra bumper to reduce the noise. Prior
to 1991, silent switches contained mercury
and used no springs or mechanical devices.
This resulted in smooth, silent operation and
long life. Due to health concerns they were
removed from the market.
Receptacles
The wall receptacle, or outlet, taps the cir-
cuit to provide electrical power at a given
location. The slots in the outlet are designed
to match the plug blades of the appliance or
extension cord. Building codes specify num-
ber and spacing of outlets.
Receptacles come in flush- and surface-
mounted designs. Flush-mounted (recessed)
is the style most commonly used for perma-
nent installations.
Configuration of a receptacle refers to the
arrangement of slots or openings on the face
of the outlet. These arrangements vary
according to voltage and current rating of
the receptacle.
The most common configuration is three-
wire grounded. The most common outlets
used in homes are standard 15-amp, 125V,
three-wire designs. All outlets must be
grounded (three prongs).
A single- or double-wipe contact refers to
the area of the inserted prong on which con-
tact is made. In the case of a double wipe
contact, contact is made on both sides of
each blade.
All outlets should have a faceplate to help
prevent exposure to live wiring.
There are three basic ways to terminate
wiring in wall receptacles. First is the con-
ventional binding-screw method where
wires are stripped, looped and placed under
binding screws and then secured by tighten-
ing down screws.
Second is the pressure-lock method,
which eliminates binding screws. In this
method, connection is made by inserting a
stripped conductor, which pushes the con-
ductor into and against the terminal chan-
nel for a strong connection. Release slots
permit easy removal of conductors.
A third method involves clamp-type ter-
minals. Stripped wire is inserted into an
open clamp beneath a screw that is then
turned down to lock connection.
Some receptacles have small pilot or
guide lights. Appliance receptacles consist of
one vertical slot and two slanted slots and
are designed to be surface-mounted.
Specialty receptacles include twist lock,
childproof, surge suppressor, isolated ground
and RV.
Any flush-mounted receptacle may be
installed outdoors if covered by a protective
plate. These weatherproof covers have
hinged or threaded caps that cover the out-
let face. A self-sealing gasket fits between
the plates and the wall surface to add fur-
ther protection.
Safety outlets have spring-loaded caps to
prevent children from inserting objects into
them. To insert an attachment plug, its
prongs must be placed into the slots of the
protective cap, then turned 90 degrees or
until the slots of the outlet are exposed.
When the plug is withdrawn, the cover
automatically returns to its original protec-
tive position. A slight variation of this uses
an overlapping shutter system.
A second type of safety outlet utilizes a
cam to make an internal electrical con-
nection only when both blades are prop-
erly inserted.
Ground Fault Circuit
Interrupters
Even with proper wiring and fusing or cir-
cuit breaking equipment, danger exists from
ground faults, which are the most common
cause of electrical shock.
Ground fault occurs when a person comes
into contact with a live
electrical wire. This can
happen by touching an
exposed wire, or by operat-
ing a faulty appliance or
power tool. Worn insula-
tion, hidden damage or
faulty connections can
make the metal housing of an appliance a
hot electrical conductor. Technically, this
happens when a wire develops a small leak
that will flow to the ground through any
path, including a human body. This can
cause serious shock, even death. Ground
faults can also cause electrical fires.
This hazard is so serious that the National
Electrical Code requires all new homes to be
equipped with ground fault circuit inter-
rupters (GFCI) in bathroom, kitchen, work-
room, outdoor, basement and crawl space,
garage and swimming pool receptacles. It is
a good idea to suggest that homeowners
install such a device in older homes. The
GFCI interrupts power quickly enough to
help prevent someone from receiving a
lethal dose of electricity.
GFCIs are available in receptacles, mod-
ules, breakers and extension cords.
Receptacles work for 15- or 20-amp circuits.
GFCIs should be tested monthly to ensure
they are working properly.
For convenience, a portable GFCI can
be plugged into any existing outlets,
either two-wire or three-wire, without
rewiring. Circuit breaker GFCIs can be
added in electrical panels to replace ordi-
nary circuit breakers. They should be
installed by a qualified electrician.
Surge Suppressors
With increasing use of home computers
and other sensitive electronic home enter-
tainment equipment, there is a growing
need for protection from voltage surges,
often called spikes or transients. Surge pro-
tection is also needed because of the sheer
number of
potentially
destructive
spikes and
surges that occur in the home every day.
Surges can cause equipment to malfunction
and in severe cases cause catastrophic dam-
age or fire.
A surge is a transient increase of current,
voltage or power on an electrical system.
The larger, more destructive surges, generally
caused by lighting, can reach thousands of
volts. Surges can also come from utility
transformer switching, air conditioner opera-
tion, inductive and power switching, distant
lightning strikes and static discharges. They
put extreme stress on solid-state compo-
nents. Unchecked, such surges can quickly
destroy wiring, appliances, telephones and
other electrical devices.
Transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS)
help protect sensitive electronic equipment.
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
17
1
5 1
2
3
4 23 5 1
2
3
4
Surge protector power strip
Ground fault
circuit interrupter
Surge protectors limit surge voltages by
discharging surge currents to ground.
Proper grounding is the strongest prereq-
uisite for proper surge protection.
The key component in almost all surge
protectors is metal oxide varisters (MOVs).
Under normal conditions, MOVs offer
high resistance to currents, preventing
normal currents from discharging to the
ground. Under surge conditionstypically
115 percent or more of a normal cur-
rentthe MOVs resistance drops within
nanoseconds, creating a path with far less
resistance than the facilitys wiring for the
current to flow to the ground.
Basically, there are two types of sup-
pressors. Onealso known as a surge
stripis similar to a grounding adapter,
and the appliance plugs into it at the wall
outlet. Surge strips are not capable of sup-
pressing a powerful surge. The other type,
designed primarily to prevent lightning
damage, is mounted at the service panel
and protects the home where the electric,
telephone and cable lines enter. The
Institute of Electronics and Electrical
Engineers recommend whole-house surge
suppression as the most effective way to
protect against damage in the home.
Some of these suppressors also feature
filters that reduce or eliminate line noise
distortion that is picked up on radios, tel-
evisions and tape recorders. These filters
also help guard against accidental data
loss in home computers triggered by
spikes or line noise.
A whole-house surge protector mount-
ed at the service panel also protects sec-
ondary distribution wiring and electrical
appliances such as ovens, air condition-
ers, dishwashers and refrigerators from
most sudden power surges. To
increase the protection of elec-
tronic equipment, it is also rec-
ommended that a plug-in surge
suppressor be installed at the
point of use to supplement a sec-
ondary surge arrester.
Surge protectors are rated in
Joules and clamping voltages.
Once surge protection has been
provided at the maximum levels,
the unit must be replaced. Look for audi-
ble or visual indicators.
When selling surge protection devices,
stress the low cost of these products com-
pared to the high cost of repairing or
replacing branch wiring and electrical
appliances and equipment. However, a
surge protector will not protect against a
direct lightning strike.
Transfer Switches
Transfer switches have become more
popular for new construction and after-
market installations due to weather
storms or accidental power outages.
Transfer switches are wired up to specific
load center circuits that will be utilized
when there is an emergency power out-
age. A portable generator is then plugged
into it and the switch transfers generator
power through the homes existing electri-
cal circuits. There is no backfeed when
power is restored. Transfer switches elimi-
nate unnecessary extension cords and are
easy to install. Available in choice of
watts and number of circuits, plus option-
al accessories.
Lampholders
Lampholders are devices with a screw
base that hold light bulbs. Some have
switches to turn them on and off.
Lampholder sockets come in two basic
styles: single and multiple holders. The
most popular styles are twin light,
adapter, keyless, pull-chain tap socket,
push switch and turnkey.
A socket has three principal parts: shell,
cap and interior. The cap has three basic
styles: pendant, nozzle and side outlet. A
pendant is used with a suspended socket;
a cord enters through the top. Side outlet
fits cords coming through the side. Nozzle
caps are used on table lamps where cord
feeds through the bottom.
The shell is the body of the socket. It can
be brass, brass-finished, nickel-finished alu-
minum or plastic. Shell liner, interior and
cap may be disassembled for wiring.
Other sockets include pigtail weather-
proof, which comes with two short leads
for splicing into a power source.
Similar to the pigtail is the pin type,
but tightening down the top and forcing
contact pins into wire makes contact.
The most common size sold is medium
base (such as on 60- and 100-watt bulbs).
Other principal sizes are large-base mogul,
used on three-way floor lamps; and inter-
mediate, which is used on outdoor
Christmas tree bulbs, candelabra and
some night lights.
Appliance and Heater
Connectors
Connectors are used to connect older
style, heat-generating, small household
appliances with heat-resistant neoprene-
type HPN cords.
The connectors are molded of strong,
heat-resistant materials and come in a vari-
ety of styles, such as switchless, armored (or
heavily protected), side outlet and monop-
ull. All have spring cord protectors.
There are two standard sizes: 11/16"
and the miniature 1/2". Standard 11/16"
connectors generally fit on irons and
toasters. The 1/2" connectors are for cof-
feemakers, corn poppers, some electric
skillets and other similar appliances.
Bulb Life Extenders
Extenders have different
designs. One screws into a reg-
ular socket like a socket
adapter; the other is a small
disc placed in the base of the
socket before the bulb is insert-
ed. Bulbs last up to 30 times
longer than in standard sock-
ets; extenders should be recom-
mended for use where the bulb
burns continuously.
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
18
Lampholder with
pull cord
Keyless lampholder
Fluorescent
lampholder
LAMP HOLDERS
Boxes, Fittings and Conduit
According to the National Electrical
Code, every break or termination in an
electric cable must be enclosed in an
appropriate box. This rule applies to
switches and fixture connections as well
as to splices and junctions.
Wall boxes, ceiling boxes ( junction
boxes) and weatherproof ( outdoor) boxes
are the main types of electrical boxes.
The three types of boxes are switch and
outlet, ceiling and utility boxes. Some are
made of galvanized steel with knockouts
to bring cable into the box. Non-metallic
(plastic) boxes are also available. Clamps
are included in some boxes to hold cables
in place.
Switch boxes are 2" x 3" in size and can be
used to house receptacles (outlets) as well as
wall switches. Switch boxes are designed so
that two or more may be fastened together
to form a larger box. The side walls must be
removed where the boxes join.
Octagonal ceiling boxes are used primarily
in ceilings to hold overhead light fixtures
and splices.
Utility boxes are used for the same pur-
pose as switch boxes, but their rounded cor-
ners make them suitable for surface wiring.
All boxes require covers. Box covers can
be made of metal or plastic and come in sev-
eral different shapes. The box covers may be
solid or feature knockouts for receptacles.
Electrical fittings are used to couple, con-
nect, fasten or ground conduit or cable.
Refer to local codes for requirements.
Cable is sometimes held in place by straps
or staples that are designed to handle differ-
ent sizes and is terminated by the use of
cable connectors. A number of other fittings
are available for service entrance installa-
tions, for grounding purposes or for haz-
ardous locations. Fittings can be installed
easily with a screwdriver, hammer or pliers.
Conduit is a raceway in which wires are
installed and protected. Types of conduit
include metal, non-metallic and flex. Each
conduit and size requires its own family
of fittings.
Metal conduit can be electrical metallic
tube (EMT); intermediate metallic conduit
(IMC); rigid or surface raceway.
Non-metallic conduit can be surface race-
way or polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Flex conduit types include flexible
(steel and aluminum); electrical non-
metallic tube (ENT); and liquid tight
(metallic and non-metallic).
Conduit can be held in place by a variety
of straps and hangers that are designed to fit
a specific size diameter. The diameter of rigid
and EMT conduit differs, so the correct strap
or hanger must be specified. Lengths of con-
duit are joined together by couplings (either
rigid or EMT) and terminated by connectors.
Couplings and connectors generally are
either a set-screw type, threaded for rigid
conduit or rain-tight compression type for
damp locations.
PVC, EMT with rain tight fittings, liquid
tight, rigid and IMC conduit can be used
outdoors. For underground applications,
only PVC and rigid conduit can be used.
Surface Wiring Devices
Surface wiring switches, receptacles, lamp-
holders, etc., are installed entirely on the
surface of the wall as opposed to a normal
flush-mounted installation.
The device includes a box, cover and elec-
trical device in one unit. The unit is molded
of an attractive and sturdy plastic insulating
material, which makes it suitable for use in
the home as well as in barns, garages and
basements.
On-the-wall wiring systems created for
do-it-yourselfers allow the consumer to
run electrical wires to the point of use in
the home without breaking into the wall
or ceiling.
These systems have adapters that alter
existing outlet boxes, so consumers can tap
wires off them and snap together vinyl
channels that carry the wires to the new
outlet or switch. The channels hide unsight-
ly wiring and can be painted to blend into
any decor. Quick and easy installation and
economy are its major advantages.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers
A fuse or circuit breaker box, commonly
called a main service entrance panel or load
center, is located between incoming power
lines and house wiring. It divides the main
power line into branch circuits. Load center
applications vary, depending on local codes.
Fuses and circuit breakers are safety
devices that break an electrical circuit
when it is overloaded. The fuse or circuit
breaker is sized to protect the branch cir-
cuit wiring between the breaker and the
outlet and does not protect anything
plugged into the outlet.
Circuit breakers come in three main types:
single, double and thin.
You can generally tell if a fuse is blown
by looking at it. If the fuse is blackened,
that indicates a short circuit has occurred;
if the metal is melted, then an overload
has occurred.
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
19
WET LOCATION ONLY
WHEN COVER CLOSED
Weather protective cover for
duplex receptacle
3-hole outlet box 4-hole outlet box
5-hole outlet box
BOXES AND COVERS
Switch Box
Utility Box Cover
BOXES AND ACCESSORIES
Octagon Box
Utility Box
There are several types of fuses. Plug fuses
are available in 5- to 30-amp sizes and are
the most commonly used fuse.
Another fuse is the Type S, which pro-
vides a minimum time delay for the starting
of small household motors. Type S fuses pre-
vent anyone from replacing a lower-rated
fuse with a higher one. It consists of two
parts: the fuse and the adapter, which has a
different diameter for each fuse ampere rat-
ing. Once an adapter of a particular size has
been inserted into the fuse socket, it cannot
be removed and only the same rating fuses
can be used in that socket.
Cartridge fuses are used in high-current
applications, such as the main service box
and in clamp- or bar-type fuse boxes that
serve electric ranges, water heaters, clothes
dryers and air conditioners. Round cartridge
fuses have ratings to 60 amps; greater capaci-
ty (to 600 amps) requires a cartridge fuse
with knife-edge contacts.
A screw-in breaker can replace a fuse.
When a circuit malfunctions, a button on
this device pops out; it must be pushed in
to reset.
A circuit breaker contains a bi-metal strip
that breaks the circuit when current exceeds
a predetermined rating. A broken circuit is
indicated by the breakers switch being in
the mid-point position. This is commonly
referred to as a tripped breaker.
After the overload has been corrected, reset
the circuit breaker by switching it to the off
position and then to the on position.
Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters
Existing circuit breaker technology does
not protect against an occurrence known as
an arc fault. Arc faults are believed to cause a
significant percentage of the more than
43,000 electrical home fires, 330 deaths and
1,800 injuries annually.
An arc fault can occur when insulation
around cords, wires or cables is damaged or
deteriorates. In many cases, arc faults are the
results of aging wire. Arc faults can flare at
temperatures in excess of 10,000F, igniting
surrounding combustible material.
In many cases, conventional circuit break-
ers do not respond quickly enough to arc
fault situations. By the time a circuit breaker
responds, a fire may have begun to smolder.
An arc-fault circuit interrupter (AFCI) is
a device that recognizes the unique char-
acteristics of many types of arcing faults
and acts instantly to interrupt the circuit.
In some devices, the arc-fault circuit inter-
rupter is integrated into state-of-the-art
circuit breaker design.
In 1999, the National Electrical Code
mandated that arc-fault interrupters be
installed on all 15- and 20-amp circuits in
bedroom outlets in new home construc-
tion starting in 2002. Some states mandat-
ed the change earlier.
Now available is a combination
AFCI/GFCI circuit breaker that is certified
by Underwriters Laboratories. The breaker
protects against electrical fires and dan-
gerous electrical shock hazards, enhancing
electrical safety in the home. It also sim-
plifies the installation process for electri-
cal contractors since there is no need to
wire two separate devices.
Wall Plates
Wall plates include all plates used to fin-
ish or cover switches, receptacles or combi-
nation devices. Standard plastic wall plates
are constructed with durable, smooth sur-
faces. Builders in new homes often install
inexpensive ones. There are also designer
and decorator plates, switches and recepta-
cles with smooth plastic faces in contempo-
rary colors.
Chrome-plated wall plates are made of
steel and brightly finished for lasting appear-
ance and durability.
Decorative wall plates come in many
styles and materials such as ceramic, alu-
minum, brass, wrought iron, stainless steel,
copper, wood and die-cast metals. Die-cast
products include switch and receptacle
plates made in finishes and designs to match
other functional hardware items such as
door handles, cabinetware and bath fixtures.
Timers
Timers turn on lights and appliances at
specified intervals and times, making them a
useful security product. They are available
for outdoor or indoor applications and can
be electronic or mechanical. Spring-wound
timers for bath fans and spas have a manual
on-off switch.
Doorbell Equipment
If not battery operated, doorbells require
AC step-down transformers to reduce house-
hold voltage to the proper operating voltage.
Standard doorbells operate at 10V or 16V.
Some doorbells may require other voltages,
depending on the design. Step-down trans-
formers should be UL-listed. The doorbells
themselves are safe, low-voltage devices that
do not require UL inspection.
Single or multiple-stranded bell wire is
used between the doorbell, the transformer
and the push buttons.
Push buttons are easily installed and
replaced. Bulb life for lighted push buttons is
approximately three to five years, and
replacement bulbs are available. Push but-
tons are available in lighted or unlighted,
recessed or surface-mounted styles.
Non-electric chimes are also available.
Wireless doorbells are all on the same fre-
quency, although some offer adjustable fre-
quencies. For more information, click
(Installing Doorbells).
Plugs, Adapters and Taps
Plugs connect devices to the power sup-
ply through a receptacle. The typical plug
includes two blades or prongs, a molded
plastic body holding the two blades apart
and a blade/cord connection within the
plug body. When inserted into an outlet,
the blades become energized. Electricity
flows through the blades, through the
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
20
Toggle Switch Plate
Weatherproof Outlet Plate
WALL PLATES
Combination Wall Plate
Double Outlet Plate
blade/cord connection and through the
cord, thus energizing the appliance.
Plugs come in polarized and non-polar-
ized varieties. Polarization helps reduce
the potential for shock. With polarized
plugs, one blade is wider than the other.
Three-conductor plugs are automatically
polarized because they can only be insert-
ed one way. Two-prong plugs do not have
a grounding pin.
Older homes may not have polarized
receptacle outlets. If not, the receptacles
will not accept polarized plugs. A quali-
fied electrician should replace the old
receptacles and put in wiring consistent
with polarization.
Choose the plug based on the gauge of
wire on the appliance or tool. Male plugs
have prongs while female connectors
have slots.
There are plugs for different applica-
tions, such as exterior, interior and
marine. A twist lock prevents accidental
disconnection.
Attachment plugs fit on the ends of
cords of portable appliances and permit
them to be connected to wall receptacles
or extension cords. Plugs and connectors
are used to build extension cords or for
replacement on extension cords.
The arrangements of slots and blades
on connectors, receptacles and plugs must
match the configuration of the devices
with which they will be used. The number
of slots or prongs on these devices must
be the same as the number of wires in
associated cords.
Socket adapters screw into the socket,
while taps plug into the outlet.
Adapters are generally used for tempo-
rary application to provide two outlets
where a light socket is in use.
Taps are used to increase the number of
attachment plugs that can be used on a
single receptacle face.
Caution must be exercised when tap-
ping additional attachment plugs into the
same line. If the power rating of the cir-
cuit is exceeded, fuses will blow (if the cir-
cuit is properly fused).
Multiple taps plug into existing outlets
and can accommodate four to six plugs.
Some come with built-in surge protectors.
Other types of taps are table and cube.
Plug-in strips feature multiple outlets
placed at regular intervals. If used in a
workshop, it should have grounded out-
lets and be attached to a grounded circuit.
Quick-Clamp Devices
Quick-clamp devices do away with
screw terminals and the necessity of strip-
ping wire. If a plug needs replacing, insert
the cord into the clamping mechanism as
shown on the instructions. The clamp
forces the cord into the proper position
and onto sharp contact points that pierce
the insulation and make contact with the
conductors.
Clamp devices include both attachment
plugs and cord connectors of various
styles. They are used with portable lamps
and small appliances. They cannot be
used on kitchen or large appliances
because of their low amperage rating.
Wire Nuts/ Connectors
Insulated wire nuts or connectors are
used to connect wire ends that have been
twisted together inside a lighting fixture
or box. The size of the wire nut or con-
nector must correspond to the size wire
being used. Connectors are used to con-
nect heat-generating, small household
appliances with heat-resistant neoprene-
type HPN cords.
The connectors are molded of strong,
heat-resistant materials and come in a
variety of styles, such as switchless,
armored (or heavily protected), side outlet
and monopull. All have spring cord pro-
tectors. An offset wing design on some
models provides increased torque with
reduced wear on fingers. A hex head
enables nut driver and automated use.
There are two standard sizes: 11/16"
and the miniature 1/2". Standard 11/16"
connectors generally fit on irons and
toasters. The 1/2" connectors are for cof-
fee makers, corn poppers, some electric
skillets and other similar appliances.
TELEPHONES AND
ACCESSORIES
I TELEPHONES
Consumers look at telephone purchases
much the same way as they look at other
home electronics purchases. They want a
quality product sold by a reputable retail-
er. Service backup is important because
telephone owners are responsible for their
own repairs, just as they are for any other
kind of equipment they own. If the tele-
phone breaks, they take it back to the
store that sold it.
Telephones contain microprocessors
and other electronic parts. New and more
sophisticated features are being added.
As telephones become more complicat-
ed, they require more sales attention.
Consumers need to be shown how to use
the additional features. If they will be
installing, replacing or rewiring, they may
need instruction in these areas, too. To
stock the telephones and accessories most
needed in your market, study the demo-
graphics of the area. Cordless phones may
work well in suburban and rural homes,
but are sometimes subject to interference
in urban areas.
Affluent areas may be a good market for
accessories such as telephone-answering
devices, while low-cost compact electronic
disposable phones may appeal more to
a middle-class market.
Beyond the basics, consumers can buy cord-
less phones, automatic redialing phones and
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
21
Straight plug Grounding adapter
6-outlet tap
C t N 4402
3-outlet tap
PLUGS AND TAPS
combination clock-radio phones.
Here are important points to keep in mind
when selling phones and accessories.
Telephone companies require con-
sumers to report their ringer equivalency
number (REN). This REN is published on
the instruction sheet or phone unit hous-
ing. Standard AT&T phones have REN rat-
ings of one. Compact, low-cost models may
have as low as .7 REN or as high as 1.3 REN.
If the REN on one line exceeds 4.0, the
phones will not ring.
There are two basic types of phones:
pushbutton tone and dial pulse. The dial-
pulse phone looks like a pushbutton tone,
but its pushbuttons technically dial the
phone. It doesn't process a call as fast as
the pushbutton tone.
Dial pulse gives the convenience of the
pushbutton-tone type of dialing without
higher monthly costs. It should be noted
too that pushbutton-tone phones are
required to access long-distance services.
Consumers should also be aware that
installing a pushbutton-tone phone
means they must also be receiving this
type of service from the phone company.
Cordless telephone systems incorporate
a base station connected to the telephone
line and a wireless handset. The distance
a cordless phone will work away from the
base station varies. It may be as little as
50' or phones with antennas may work as
far away as 1,000'.
Elevating the base station and placing it
away from other reception barriers can
improve cordless phone performance. One
word of warning: In most cordless
phones, ringers are located in the ear-
piece. The ring registers nearly 130 deci-
bels, and if the phone is picked up and
the switch not turned from standby to
talk position, a phone ring could dam-
age hearing.
Cordless phones are powered by
rechargeable nickel-cadmium or nickel-
metal hydride batteries. The length of
time required to recharge and the length
of time between rechargings will vary.
Therefore, it is necessary to read the
instructions with the individual product
to see how long to charge and how sensi-
tive the battery is to frequent rechargings.
Some nickel-cadmium batteries will
remember how much time elapsed
between chargings and if they are
recharged too often, will shorten the
length of time they hold a charge.
Eventually the batteries will have to be
replaced, but most phones will take sever-
al hundred chargings.
I ACCESSORIES
Accessories are available in either mod-
ular or conventional designs.
Installation of a conventional system
requires no more than a screwdriver.
Accessories are used in conjunction with
standard telephones, using standard four-
prong plug configuration, spade-tipped
wires or hard wiring.
All wiring in the phone base, handset
and wall receptacle can be replaced by
matching the colored wires. But it is
important that store employees know
enough to help d-i-yers with wiring infor-
mation and connection procedures on the
models you stock.
Plugs and jacks provide the connection
for standard telephone and extension
cord hook-ups. They may also be attached
to existing cords, adding versatility to
existing phones.
No tools are needed for modular con-
nections; the system was designed to
allow snap-fit connection of miniature
plugs with mating hardware. The follow-
ing connections are available using the
snap-fit modular concept:
Coil cordold cords can be removed by
depressing a clip and pulling the plug out of
the phones base and handset. The new cord
is then pushed into place until it locks.
Straight-line cordsplugs are clipped
into the base of the phone and the wall
receptacle.
Extension cordscords are equipped
with modular plugs that snap into a wall
receptacle while a modular jack accepts
the line cord from the existing telephone.
Modular adapterallows phones with
modular line cords to be plugged into a
four-pronged conventional plug that
matches the holes of conventional tele-
phone jacks.
Modular plug and conventional jack
allows connection of conventional four-
pronged plug extended line cords to mod-
ular jacks so that conventional phones
can be plugged into modular connections.
Modular couplerallows connection of
modular plug-ended cords to each other
to extend the phone system.
Duplex modular adapterallows two
modular extensions to be run off one
modular unit. For instance, allows you to
connect a telephone and telephone-
answering device to the same phone line.
Retrofit modular adapterallows con-
ventional telephones with spade-tipped
conductors to be connected to modular
jack assemblies without tools.
Surface wall-mount jack assembly
allows conversion of conventional termi-
nal blocks to a modular jack.
Portable wall-mount jack assembly
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
22
ENVIRONMENATL
CONCERN ALERT
Many states are enacting legislation con-
cerning dry-cell and rechargeable batteries.
Current legislative topics include mercury in
batteries, batteries for cordless tools and
appliances and battery recycling.
Mercury will have to be eliminated from
batteries. This will probably reduce the per-
formance and increase the cost. Batteries
in cordless power tools and appliances will
have to be removable. And nickel-cadmium
batteries will have to be recycled through
battery retailers.
Be sure you know the laws regarding these
topics in your area.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
CYLINDRICAL BATTERIES
AA (Penlight) . . . . . . . . . .1.2**, 1.4*, 1.5
AAA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.5
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2**
D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2**, 1.4*, 1.5
N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.5
*Mercury cell
**Nickel-cadmium cell
allows connection of modular plug-ended
line cords in any location to convert four-
hole jack to a modular design.
Flush wall-mount jack assemblyallows
flush-mounted connection of plug-ended
modular line cords for initial installation
or conversion from existing wall recepta-
cles. Can be connected in parallel when
more than one jack is required.
Wall-mount modular patio jackweath-
erproof assembly accepts plug-end modu-
lar line cords.
I ANSWERING DEVICES
The kind of telephone answering
device you recommend will depend in
large part on the kind of use the cus-
tomer expects of it. Models vary by price
and optional features.
Basic digital units do not require a tape
recorder or tape to handle incoming mes-
sages. In most models, total answer time
is limited, but more sophisticated units
will allow for messages of varying lengths.
Features which differentiate models
include:
Leaving messagessome units permit
the user to leave a digital or tape-recorded
message.
Dictationsome units double as dictat-
ing machines with no time limit on
recording. A switch will stop and start the
answer tape.
Announce onlyfor messages that
require no response, such as announce-
ments of when the owner will return.
Ring-response adjustmentallows
machine to wait to answer call until
phone has rung up to 10 times. An advan-
tage since it eliminates connecting and
disconnecting unit each time owner
leaves and returns.
Remote pick-upallows owner to pick
up messages from a distance by telephon-
ing the answering unit.
Extended recordingallows user to
record a complete two-way conversation
without being cut off after allotted mes-
sage time.
Monitorallows user to listen, unde-
tected, to incoming messages as callers
leave them. Listener can pick up phone
and interrupt recording message, if
desired, or simply let it be recorded.
Some phone companies still require an
Authorized Protective Connection
Module, if the answering device could
produce excess voltage on the telephone
line. The APCM plugs directly into the
phone jack.
I BATTERIES
General-purpose and heavy-duty battery
systems serve a variety of functions.
General-purpose batteries provide 1.5V to
510V. They have good shelf life but
decreased efficiency at high-current
drains. They drop voltage gradually with
use and operate poorly in low tempera-
tures. They are available in a variety of
shapes from small pen cells to huge emer-
gency lighting batteries. Their uses range
from camera flashbulbs to radios and
flashlights.
General-purpose and heavy-duty batter-
ies are designed for light moderate to
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
23
GLOSSARY OF ELECTRICAL TERMS
ALTERNATING CURRENTAbbreviated AC. A current of electricity that alternates at a rate of
60 hertz (cycles per second). It flows first in one direction, then in the other. Only at very low fre-
quencies is this charge visible to the eye through the flickering of lamps.
AMPEREAbbreviated amp. A measure of the flow of electrical current through a wire.
BALLASTA form of transformer used in fluorescent lamp circuits to control current and keep it
within specific operating limits.
CANDLEPOWERA measure of the intensity of light produced by a source. One candlepower
corresponds approximately to the light produced in any one direction by an ordinary candle.
DIRECT CURRENTAbbreviated DC. A flow of electric current continues in one direction as
long as the circuit is closed.
FOOTCANDLEThe unit used to measure how much total light is reaching a surface, such as a
wall or table. One footcandle is the amount of illumination falling on a one-square-foot surface
from a standard candle located 1 foot away.
FUSEA replaceable safety device used to break the flow of current when a circuit becomes
overloaded.
GROUNDINGConnects the electrical system with the earth to prevent damage or shock.
Ground wires are usually bare.
HOT WIREA power-carrying wire (usually in red or black) as distinguished from the neutral
wire (usually white).
KILOWATT1,000 watts. From watt and Greek word kilo, meaning 1,000.
KILOWATT HOURSAbbreviated kwh. A 1,000-watt lamp burning one hour will use one kilo-
watt hour of electricity. If the rate were 3 cents per kwh, the cost would be 3 cents per hour to
operate.
LAMPTechnical word meaning light bulb or tubethe part that shines until it burns out. It
can also refer to a type of fixture, such as a desk lamp.
LUMENA unit that expresses the total quantity of light given off by a source regardless of
direction. A lumen is defined as the amount of light falling on a surface of one square foot, every
point of which is one foot away from a source of one candlepower.
NEUTRAL WIREA wire that runs from an appliance or device to make uninterrupted connec-
tion back to the power source. The opposite of a hot wire that carries power from the electri-
cal source to the appliance.
NOMINAL LAMP LIFEA rated average bulb life that is obtained through closely controlled
tests.
OHMA unit of electrical resistance. (Electrical resistance is the opposition by a material to the
flow of electrical current.)
TRANSFORMERSteps up or steps down amount of alternating current available from circuit to
that required by the appliance.
VOLTAmount of pressure needed to push electricity through a wire.
WATTThe unit of measurement of electrical power. Calculated by multiplying volts times
amperes. For instance, 746 watts equal one electrical horsepower.
heavy-current drain equipment. They, too,
are available in a variety of sizes and
shapes providing from 1.5V to 9V. They
have a good shelf life and maintain volt-
age better under load than general-purpose
batteries. They are used in flashlights, calcu-
lators, motor-driven toys, electronic games
and portable compact disc players.
Alkaline batteries are the longest-lasting
all-purpose batteries. They are designed
for high- and continuous-current drain
applications. Voltage ranges from 1.5V to
9V. The average cell holds 90 percent of
its energy for two to three years on the
shelf. Alkaline batteries are disposable and
operate well in low temperatures. Uses
include tape recorders, remote controls,
portable communications systems, radios,
television sets and shavers.
Lithium batteries are more expensive but
can hold their power for eight to 10 years,
unused. They are designed for cameras,
watches and other items that use a small
amount of current repeatedly over a long
period of time. They are available in 9V.
Heavy-duty batteries have a short life
compared to alkaline batteries and work
best for low-drain applications such as
remote controls and wall clocks.
Miniature zinc air batteries are designed
to provide power to miniature hearing aids.
They can be directly substituted for silver
oxide or mercuric oxide batteries in most
hearing aid applications. They are activated
by removing the covering from the air
access hole. They are available in common
hearing aid battery sizes.
Improved cell construction and advanced
use of titanium and lithium technology
have resulted in new premium batteries that
offer long-lasting performance for use in
high-drain devices.
Nearly 80 percent of all batteries sold
are in the AA and AAA sizes. Some batter-
ies come with a gauge-style tester so the
user knows how much power remains in
the battery.
Household batteries should be stored in
a dry place at room temperature. Make
sure not to mix battery types in the same
device and never mix new and old batter-
ies in the same device. Do not dispose of
any battery type in a large group since
they can come into contact with one
another. Always take precautions when
handling exposed battery chemicals.
Battery chemicals should not be placed
near the eyes or ingested by any means.
Mercury Batteries
Mercury (and silver) batteries are used to
power hearing aids, electronic watches, cal-
culators and other electronic equipment
where small size and long life are critical.
They maintain a constant voltage for the
entire life cycle.
Concern over the environment has led
manufacturers to design mercury-free batter-
ies for household use.
Rechargeable Batteries
Although nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) bat-
teries are most commonly used in
rechargeable applications, other kinds are
available, including alkaline and lead-
acid. The major drawback to rechargeable
alkaline batteries is fewer recharging
cycles. Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) bat-
teries have emerged as a viable alternative
to Ni-Cd batteries since they outlast Ni-Cd
batteries by up to 40 percent.
Ni-MH cells are available in AA, AAA, C,
D and 9-volt sizes. Ni-MH batteries offer
superior performance for use with high-
drain applications such as flash cameras
(including digital) and camcorders.
Rechargeable batteries are not charged
before purchase and must be charged for
approximately eight to 12 hours before
using. Some rechargeable batteries are now
available with shorter charging times.
Rechargeable batteries will lose their charge
if not used for an extended period (30 to 60
days) and should be charged every month
for best performance. Some batteries can be
recharged 800 to 1,000 times and will last
up to four years.
They offer overcharge capability,
which means they can stay on house cur-
rent for long periods without damaging
the cell. Like mercury batteries, nickel-
cadmium cells maintain constant voltage
for their full life span.
Nickel-cadmium batteries are perma-
nently built into a number of cordless
tools and appliances. In addition to the
larger batteries, nickel-cadmium batteries
are available in D, C, AA, AAA and 9V
sizes with chargers.
Battery recharging systems include the
charger and charging module. The module
is available in four sizes to hold AA, C, D or
9V batteries. The charger should be used
only with batteries specifically designated as
rechargeable. These are sometimes known as
secondary batteries. Trying to charge non-
rechargeable batteries can cause leakage and
possible cell rupture.
Lead-acid batteries are built into tools.
These batteries, about the size of a D bat-
tery, wont leak, dont vent explosive gas or
corrosive fumes, offer lengthy shelf life and
cost about half as much as nickel-cadmium.
Life span is 200 to 500 cycles, but they will
lose power gradually with age and use.
A national program has been started to
recycle rechargeable batteries. Retailers can
participate at no cost. For more informa-
tion, contact the non-profit Rechargeable
Battery Recycling Corp. at (877) 723-1297 or
visit www.rbrc.org/diy.
Electric Motors
There are two basic motors found most
frequently in household applicationssplit
phase and universal.
The split-phase motor is the simplest. It
contains no brushes or commutator and
comes in one-third or less horsepower. At
full speed, the split-phase motor is able to
develop as much power as any other type,
but it is not capable of starting heavy loads
such as pumps or compressors. It functions
best when maximum load is applied at full
speed, such as in sanders, grinders and light
power tools.
Universal motors do not run at a constant
speed but slow as the load increases in some
instances from 15,000 rpm without a load
to 500 rpm under heavy load.
For this reason the motor is unsuitable for
many jobs. It is used only where the load is
reasonably constant and predetermined, such
as in sewing machines, vacuum cleaners, fans,
etc. It is the only type of motor that can be
controlled by a rheostat.
EL EC T RI C A L SUP P L I ES
24
CHAPTER FIVE:
HAMMERS
PLIERS
SCREWDRIVERS
DRILLING TOOLS
WRENCHES
CUTTING TOOLS
PLANES
MEASURING DEVICES
LEVELS
AXES AND HATCHETS
SAWS
FASTENING TOOLS
STORAGE ITEMS
WORKSHOP AIDS
MISCELLANEOUS HAND TOOLS
HAND
Tools
5
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
HA ND T OOL S
2
I Advances in tool design continue to
come in the area of ergonomics.
Some manufacturers have developed hand tools specially designed to
meet the needs of female and senior d-i-yers. Woodworkers and hob-
byists can be attracted to your store by offering a selection of special-
ty tools such as chisels, planes and cutting tools.
Quality remains an important consideration for most hand tool
purchasers, and d-i-yers are increasingly seeking out tools that
have professional-grade quality. Still, most customers are looking
for a project-specific tool and its up to salesfloor employees to
guide them to the right mix of price point and quality for the
scope of their project.
Many manufacturers are now designing more sophisticated
advertising and marketing campaigns that target the professional
tool user. In the past, many tool manufacturers relied on a prod-
ucts proven brand name to gain acceptance among pros.
While brand isnt the only consideration for pros, it remains an
important one when planning a tool purchase.
Its also important to note that hand tool purchasers are younger
than total homeowners in general. In fact, the 25- to 44-year-old age
group accounts for three of every four hand tool purchasers, accord-
ing to research from the Home Improvement Research Institute.
Training programs should stress the proper uses for hand tools.
Many tools, when used improperly, can pose a serious risk of injury
to the user, so it is vital that salesfloor employees be aware of the
potential hazards of improper tool use. Specific safety tips are
detailed in this section and more hand tool safety materials are
available from the Hand Tools Institute, (914) 332-0040.
HAND
Tools
HAMMERS
Most common home-use hammers are
nail, rip, finishing, ball peen, tack, hand
drilling, sledge and soft face. Quality fea-
tures include:
o Forged steel heads for strength and dura-
bility;
o Heat-treated heads for strength, toughness
and wear resistanceshould be heat-treat-
ed differently on face (striking area), at eye
(where handle is inserted) and on claws.
o Finish-ground face with a crowned surface
that is canted slightly toward the handle
to center handle blows.
o The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) recommends that the chamfer or
bevel on the striking face be approximate-
ly 10 percent of the diameter of the poll to
reduce chipping.
o Double-beveled nail slot to resist chip-out
when pulling large nails.
o Claw slot that narrows close to head to
grip and pull small nails.
o Well-formed claw points capable of getting
under embedded nail heads.
o Hickory, solid or tubular steel, fiberglass,
graphite or steel I-beam handle firmly
attached to head.
o Handle should be ergonomically shaped
and cushioned for secure grip and
comfort.
o Fiberglass, graphite and steel I-beam
hammers should have a jacket of
materials such as polycarbonate to
provide overstrike protection.
o Warning and use message affixed to
the hammer.
Nail Hammers
The two basic nail hammers are
curved claw and straight claw. A curved
claw hammer is used most often in a
home for general carpentry and house-
hold chores. It should be used only
with non-hardened, common or finish-
ing nails. The curved claw offers lever-
age in removing nails and can also cra-
dle a 2x4.
A straight claw (ripping hammer) is
more likely to be used by professionals
to rip apart nailed wooden compo-
nents. It is a slightly heftier tool, used for
heavier carpentry, framing and ripping. It
should also be used only with non-hardened,
common or finishing nails.
Common head weights are 7 oz. for light-
duty driving; 10 oz. and 13 oz. for cabinet-
makers and householders; 16 oz. for general
usage and 20 oz. for heavy crating or fram-
ing. All sizes are available with curved claw,
while the straight claw comes in 10-, 12-, 16-
, 20-, 24-, 28- and 32-oz. weights.
Straight claw hammers are now available
with milled or checkered faces to grip the
nail head and reduce the effect of glancing
blows and flying nails.
Two innovations in the field of nailing
hammers are hammers with interchangeable
striking faces and hammers that hold nails.
The interchangeable striking faces allow one
hammer to be used for several different
applications. The striking face finishes
include milled and checkered. The hammer
with a nail-holding notch makes it safer and
easier to start a nail and also extends the
reach of the user.
Nail hammers may have handles made of
a number of materialswood, fiberglass,
graphite, solid steel or tubular steel. Each
offers a different combination of stiffness for
efficiently delivering the force of the blow to
the target and shock absorption to reduce
shock and stress on the user's hand, wrist
and arm. Wood flexes and offers some degree
of shock absorption. Stiffer materials such as
graphite or steel deliver the full force of the
blow but require cushioning in the jacketing
and grip to provide long-term user
comfort. Steel handles are the heavi-
est, while wood-handled hammers
are the lightest and least expensive.
Nail hammer handles are available
in a variety of lengths from 13" to 18".
Ball Peen Hammers
Ball peen (ball pein) hammers are
used with small shank, cold chisels
for cutting and chipping work,
rounding over rivet ends, forming
unhardened metal work and similar
jobs not involving nails.
The striking face diameter should
be approximately 3/8" larger than the
diameter of the head of the object
being struck.
The hammer is designed with a
regular striking face on one end and
a rounded or half ball or peen on the
other end taking the place of a claw.
HA ND T OOL S
3
HAMMER SAFETY TIPS
Hammers are arguably the most abused, most misused of all
hand tools. Injuries can be caused by trying to strike too heavy a
blow with a lightweight hammer, by using a damaged hammer
and by using the wrong style of hammer for the task. Pass on the
following safety tips to customers:
Eye protection should be worn at all times when working
with striking tools. Bystanders should also wear eye protection.
Use the correct tool for the job. Injuries can be caused by
trying to strike too heavy a blow with a lightweight hammer
or by using the wrong style of hammer for the task.
Always strike the surface squarelyavoid glancing blows.
Do not use claw hammers (or hatchets) on concrete, stone
or hardened metal objects.
Never use a hammer with a chipped, battered or mush-
roomed face, a cracked claw or eye section or a loose or
cracked handle.
Remind customers not to hold the hammer too tightly.
They should grasp it lightly but firmly; gripping the bell end
of the handle for heavy hitting and the slight flare at mid-
handle for lighter blows.
Plain-Face Nail
Hammer
Bell-Face
Hammer
Curved Claw
Hammer
Tacking
Hammer
Straight
Claw
Hammer
Octagon Nail
Hammer
Hand Drilling
Hammer
Ball Peen
Hammer
Bricklayer
Hammer
HAMMER TYPES
The hammer face is heavier than the peen
end. Hammer sizes range from 2 oz. to 48 oz.
Twelve and 16 oz. are most popular.
Hand Drilling Hammers
Hand drilling hammers, weighing
between 2 lbs. and 4 lbs., are easy to handle
with a powerful punch. They have short
handles and are recommended for pound-
ing hardened nails into concrete or for
using with tools that drive nails and pins
into concrete or brick. They are the only
hammers to use with star drills, masonry
nails, steel chisels and nail pullers. A larger
striking surface, generous bevel and special
heat-treating minimize the chance of chip-
ping the striking face.
Sledgehammers
Sledgehammers are used for extremely
heavy jobs where great force is required.
They have long handles ranging from 14"
to 36" and heavy heads that weigh from 2
lbs. to 20 lbs. Sledges can be double- or
single-face. Many sledgehammers are now
available with lighter, balanced, rein-
forced plastic handles for easier use and
better weight distribution.
Mallets
Mallets have rubber, plastic, wooden or
rawhide heads and are used to drive chisels
or hammer joints together. With the excep-
tion of wooden mallets, sizes are specified in
either head weight or diameter, such as 2-
1/4". Wooden mallets are specified by head
diameter only.
There are a variety of mallet shapes and
sizes for specific tasks. A carpentry mallet
with an angled head provides a natural strike
resulting in less wrist and arm fatigue. A
shop mallet with an octagonal head is used
for flat strikes, while a pestle-shaped mallet
with a round horizontal strike is generally
used with a chisel or other carving tools. A
rawhide mallet is used in furniture assembly,
shaping soft sheet metals or any task that
requires non-marring blows.
Specialty Hammers
Specialty hammers include riveting ham-
mers to set rivets; setting hammers to close
and open seams and dress edges in tin work;
straight and cross-peen hammers for riveting,
stretching and bending metal; scaling and
chipping hammers for general chipping in
welding and cleaning torch cuts; brick ham-
mers for cutting and setting brick and tile
hammers to set tile.
Others include soft-face hammers for
assembling furniture and wood projects and
setting dowels (won't mar the surface with
the blow); dead blow hammers that contain
lead shot for additional power and reduced
tendency to bounce (many feature non-mar-
ring and non-sparking striking faces); mag-
netic tack hammers for furniture upholster-
ing; drywall hammers that score, sheet and
set nails for drywall work and finishing ham-
mers for cabinet making, finishing and other
fine carpentry and light chores.
PLIERS
Pliers are designed to hold, turn and cut
objects. Pliers vary in length from 4" to 20".
Some pliers are available with factory-
applied, plastic-coated handles, providing
an attractive appearance and comfortable
grip. However, these pliers should not be
relied on for electrical work.
Pliers fall into two broad categories:
solid-joint and slip-joint, either of which
may have cutters.
Slip-joint pliers are of two designs: multi-
ple hole and tongue and groove. The slip or
adjustable joint enables the tool to adjust
to the size of the object being held.
Solid-joint pliers have a joint fixed with a
solid pin or rivet and are not adjustable.
Cutting pliers can be side, end or diago-
nal types. Side cutters have a cutting blade
on one side only and are available in long-,
curved- and short-nose types. End cutters
have cutting blades on the end and are
used to make sharp, clean cuts close to the
surface on wires, bolts and rivets. Diagonal
cutters have two cutting blades set diago-
nally to the joint and/or handles. Some
cutting pliers are made with a spring in the
handle to open them automatically after
each cut, providing ease and comfort for
the user.
Other pliers commonly found in home
improvement stores include:
Regular slip-joint pliersGeneral utility
pliers with two jaw-opening adjustments.
Some have a shear-type wire cutter.
Thin jaw slip-joint pliersLike slip-joint,
but made with a slim nose to reach into
tight places.
Multiple slip-joint or box-joint pliers
General utility tool with up to eight
adjustments, allowing for jaw openings up
to 4-1/2", either multiple hole or tongue
and groove. Straight and curved jaws are
available. Most common is 10" water
pump pliers.
Crimper stripper pliers Multi-purpose
electrician's pliers to crimp solderless con-
HA ND T OOL S
4
TYPES OF PLIERS
Thin-Jaw
Slip-Joint Pliers
Needle-Nose Pliers
Thin-Nose Pliers
Parrot-Nose
Wrench Pliers
Tongue and
Groove Pliers
Locking Pliers
Linemans Side
Cutting Pliers
Diagonal
Cutting Pliers
Duck-Bill Pliers
End-Cutting
Nipper
Plumbers Special Pliers
Slip-Joint Pliers
Crimper Stripper Pliers
Water Pump Pliers
Wire Stripper
nectors, strip most common gauge wire, cut
and hold or bend wire. They also have
sheaving holes that cut common sizes of
screws without deforming threads.
Needle-nose pliers Also called long-
nose pliers, they have a pointed nose for
reaching places with restricted clearance.
May have side cutters. A standard item for
most electrical and electronics work.
Thin-nose pliers Also called bent-nose
pliers, since the nose is bent at about an
80-degree angle for reaching around
objects.
Duck bill pliers have long, tapered, flat
noses for work in restricted areas. Used by
jewelers, telephone workers and weavers.
Wire strippers Feature adjustable stops
to cut insulation without damaging wire.
Midget pliers Include straight, chain,
round, end-cutting, diagonal-cutting and
flat-nose pliers in extra-small sizes.
End-cutting nippers Feature powerful
leverage for sharp, clean cuts close to the
surface on wires, bolts and rivets.
Lineman's or electrician's pliers Heavy-
duty, side-cutting pliers designed for all reg-
ular wire-cutting needs. Have gripping jaws
in addition to cutting edges. High-leverage
lineman's pliers have rivet placed closer to
the cutting edges to provide more leverage.
Fence pliers Pull and cut staples in
fencing. Feature two wire cutters and heavy
head for hammering.
Locking pliers Adjustable, vise-type
locking pliers can be locked on to a work-
piece, leaving both hands free. They are
versatile tools that can be used as pliers, a
pipe wrench, an adjustable wrench, wire
cutters, a ratchet or a clamp. Locking pli-
ers are available in various sizes and
shapes: curved jaw with wire cutter,
straight jaw, long nose with wire cutter
and bent nose with wire cutter. The lock-
ing principle also applies to locking
clamps, which come in 4", 6", 11", 18"
and 24" sizes.
Some locking pliers use a mechanism that
allows one-handed release; others require
two hands to disengage. In addition, many
locking pliers provide a wire-cutting func-
tion, some from a full range, others from a
restricted range of jaw settings.
SCREWDRIVERS
Screwdrivers are generally classified as slot-
ted, Phillips head or Robertson (square
recess) head, with all three types available
with round or square shanks.
Quality screwdrivers are judged by the
kind of metal in the blade, the finish and
amount of grinding on the tip. Material used
in the handle, and bar attachment to the
handle are other quality indicators.
If blade metal is poor quality, it will chip
and crumble under pressure. If the tip is
improperly ground and flares too much, it
will rise out of the screw slot. If the blade is
not attached firmly to the handle, it will
eventually loosen and slip in the handle.
Screwdriver Tips
A wide range of screwdriver tips are avail-
able: regular, cabinet, Phillips, Frearson,
Torx, clutch-head, hex and square-tipped.
Regular or slotted tips are used with
large, heavy screws. The tip is flared so it is
wider than the driver bar. Quality drivers
with regular tips should be accurately
ground for uniformity. Blades should not
taper too sharply from the tip because an
improperly tapered tip has a tendency to
rise out of the screw slot.
Cabinet tips are similar to regular tips, but
they have no flare. They are straight for use
with small screws and countersinking screws
where regular tips with a flare would mar the
wood or material on the side.
Phillips head drivers are used on cross-slot-
ted screw heads with modified, U-shaped
slots of uniform width. Sizes range from 0 to
4, with 0 being the smallest.
Frearson screw heads are similar to
Phillips. They have cross-slots, but they are
V-shaped slots with tapered sides. While a
cross-slotted driver will fit many sizes of the
type of screw for which it is intended, it is
best to use drivers of the proper sizes.
Torx

drive system provides six lobular

drive surfaces mated from lobes of the driv-
ing and driven elements. Drive surfaces have
vertical sides that permit the maximum
torque application to assure reliable clamp-
ing force.
Clutch-head tips have four points of con-
tact. They lock into the screw head when
turned counter-clockwise. The driver is
unlocked by turning it in the opposite direc-
tion. Because of the many contact points, the
tip will not damage the screw head.
Hex (hexagonal) tips are used in repair
work in the electronics field, particularly in
radio and television repair. They are used to
tighten socket set screws and usually come in
sets. Some sets are attached to and fold into a
metal carrying case. Other variations include
T-shaped hex tools with vinyl grips and L-
shaped keys for greater torque power.
Square-tipped (Robertson) screwdrivers
have become more common recently
because of increased do-it-yourself decking
projects. The screwdrivers have a square
head and range in sizes from 0 to 3 and
jumbo. The square head on the driver helps
grip the screw on all four sides to provide
maximum torque.
Multi-bit screwdrivers allow the user to
have a number of different types of tips in
one tool. Some products keep the inter-
changeable bits in a self-contained unit.
Offset screwdrivers are designed for
removing and inserting screws in places
where it is impossible to use a straight shank
screwdriver. They are available in many com-
binations of slotted and Phillips head tips
and with ratchet type mechanisms.
Some screwdrivers are designed with mag-
HA ND T OOL S
5
STANDARD TYPES OF SCREWDRIVER TIPS AND SCREW RECESSES
Clutch-head Hex
Robertson
Square-Tip
Torx

Regular Phillips
Cross-Slot
Frearson
Cross-Slot
netized tips, convenient when guiding screws
to holes or otherwise inaccessible areas. They
also retrieve dropped screws and nuts. Others
have split-points that can be expanded in
width to fill the screw slot and hold screws
when guiding into inaccessible areas. A
spring clamp that fits over the screw head,
holding the bit in the slot, serves a similar
purpose. There are even screwdrivers that fea-
ture lights on the handles to allow the user
to work in dimly lit areas.
Screwdriver Handles
Handles are generally made of wood or
plastic. Some screwdrivers offer "dual
durometer" handles that combine two tex-
tures for a non-slip grip, even when hands
are wet. Top-quality wooden handles have
a bolster on the screwdriver bar that helps
hold the bar to the handle. The one-piece
bars in heavy-duty wooden handles
extend through the handle and are head-
ed over on the end with a metal cap.
Plastic handles should be made of fire- and
heat-resistant materials. If properly designed,
they give excellent grip. Rubber or vinyl is
often used as a non-slip or insulating cover
on plastic handles.
Specialty Screwdrivers
This group includes offset screwdrivers,
used in places impossible to reach with ordi-
nary drivers, screwdrivers with external
screw-gripper or screw-holder blades to start
screws in hard-to-reach spots, and offset
screwdrivers with ratchets.
Hex Nut Drivers
Hex nut drivers are similar to screwdrivers,
but have a hex opening more like wrench
sockets than screw tips. They are used to
drive or remove small hex nuts or bolts and
in confined areas such as electronic equip-
ment, car ignitions and plumbing jobs. They
come in several sizes and styles, with a fixed-
size or variable-size "socket" at the end.
Spiral-Ratchet Screwdrivers
A spiral-ratchet screwdriver uses a mecha-
nism similar to a push-pull drill. It has an
adjustable chuck to permit interchanging of
different tips and points. Ratchets drill and
remove screws. Pushing straight down on the
handle provides driving action.
High-Torque Ratchet
Screwdrivers
These screwdrivers feature a 360-degree
ball as a handle with a ratchet mechanism
that eliminates the need to grip and regrip
during the driving process. The wider grip-
ping surface generates more torque than con-
ventional screwdrivers. The amount of addi-
tional torque varies with the model. These
high-torque ratchet screwdrivers come with
interchangeable blades.
DRILLING TOOLS
Braces
Braces guide auger bits and drills.
Attaching a screwdriver bit converts them
into powerful screwdrivers.
Drilling is done by turning the handle or
center section in a circular motion. Pressure
for drilling is given by bearing down on the
head of the bit brace with the heel and palm
of the hand. The head on the best bit braces
is mounted on ball bearings so that it will
turn freely from the rest of the brace.
Most braces incorporate a ratchet control
that permits the user to make half-circles
when there is no room for a full circle.
Push Drills
A push drill, similar in appearance to a
push-pull screwdriver, operates by a push-
pull movement using a spirally threaded
shaft and chuck to hold the bit. Push drills
are best for light jobs. Most have space in the
handle for storing extra drill points.
Hand Drills
Hand drills are limited to light work. They
feature adjustable drill chucks to permit easy
changes of drill points from 1/2" to 1/16".
Drilling action comes from turning a hand
crank on the side of a drill frame.
Bits
Bits (drill points) have a variety of uses
with braces and drills. Each bit and drill is
designed for a particular use and should be
used for its intended job.
Bit diameters are usually marked by a sin-
gle numberthe numerator of a fraction. For
example, an auger bit, which is marked by
16ths of an inch, with a number 8 would
stand for 8/16" or 1/2". Twist bits are usually
marked in the same manner by 64ths of an
inch. Thus a No. 8 bit would stand for 8/64"
or 1/8".
Countersink bits widen holes so flathead
screws may be flush mounted below the sur-
face for a finished appearance.
Expansion bits take the place of many
larger bits. They are adjusted by moving the
cutting blade in or out by a geared dial or
HA ND T OOL S
6
SIZE OF DRIVERS TO USE FOR DIFFERENT SIZE SCREWS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3/32 1/8 1/8 1/8 5/32 3/16 3/16 7/32 1/4 1/4
No. 0 No. 1 No. 2
10 12 14 16 18 20 24 7/16 1/2 9/16
5/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
No. 3 No. 4
SCREW
NUMBER
REGULAR
BLADE WIDTH
CROSS- SLOT
BLADE
SCREW
NUMBER
REGULAR
BLADE WIDTH
CROSS-SLOT
BLADE
by a lockscrew to vary the size of the hole.
They are mounted below the surface for a
finished appearance.
Carbide-tipped bits are used for drilling
into masonry surfaces. They feature two
machined-in spiral threads, one for each
cutting edge, to provide passageways for all
dust and cuttings from the bottom of the
hole. Diameters of carbide tips are the same
as the full diameter of the body. A carbide-
tipped bit can be used in electric drills, drill
presses or hand drills for drilling holes in
brick, tile, cement, marble and other soft
masonry materials.
Twist-drill bits are used in both wood and
unhardened metals to make clearance holes
for bolts, screws, etc., and to make holes for
tapping. Only bits marked HS or HSS are suit-
able for drilling in metals. Common sizes run
from 1/16" to 1/2" diameter by 64ths.
Auger bits are most commonly used with
a brace for drilling holes in wood. Their
length varies from 7" to 10". Dowel bits are
short auger bits from 5" long. Long (ship)
auger bits range from 12" to 30".
Spade bits are used in electric drills and
drill presses for fast drilling of holes in wood.
Electricians use them for drilling clearance
holes for wire in floor beams. Bits have a
forged, flat paddle with a point and cutting
edges on one end and fit a 1/4" drill on the
other. Bits are heat treated and cutting angles
finish ground. Common sizes run from 3/8"
to 1-1/2" in diameter, in 1/16" progression,
and are about 6" long.
Power bore bits have a working end simi-
lar to auger bits and, like spade bits, are
used in conjunction with power drills.
Power bore bits produce a smoother hole
than spade bits and are used for fine work,
such as cabinet making.
Step bits have a graduated design so that
variously sized holes can be cut without
changing bits. Bits are designed for use with
power drills and have self-starting tips elimi-
nating the need for center punching. They
can be used on all materials, but are especial-
ly designed for use on metals.
Circle Cutters
Circle cutters cut circular holes in sheets
of metal, wood, plastic, hardboard, brass,
copper, mild steel, aluminum or composi-
tion materials.
The cutter features a regular center drill
with a cutting tool mounted on an
adjustable bar. Diameter of the circle is regu-
lated by a set-screw adjustment on the cut-
ting bar. Downward pressure is applied as
the regular bit pulls into the material and
forces the cutting tool down in a slowly
lowering circle.
Ground, hardened cutting tools assure
clean, even cutting in a variety of materials.
Cutting edges available on hole cutters
include high-speed steel bi-metal, carbide grit
and diamond grit. Each cutting edge is
designed to work best on specific materials.
Bi-metal for metal, wood, plastic, etc.; car-
bide for tile, brick, fiberglass and hard com-
posites; diamond for glass, ceramics and
other abrasive materials.
Due to the unbalanced load inherent in
the design of these tools, for safety's sake,
they must be used only in drill presses or
drill stands and never with a handheld drill.
Awls
Awls are used to make screw-starting holes
when lightly tapped by hand with hammer
or soft-face mallet. Awls are also used for
scribing along a straight edge to produce a
sawing or layout line on wood or soft metal.
WRENCHES
Wrenches can be classified as general use
or plumbing wrenches (which are described
in the plumbing chapter).
Top-quality wrenches are forged from fine-
grade tool steel, machined to close toler-
ances, hardened and tempered for long serv-
ice life. Most types are sold individually and
in sets of various sizes.
Because most imported products are
made to metric specifications, a set of met-
ric wrenches has become a must in many
home workshops.
A wrench's main function is to hold and
turn nuts, bolts, caps, screws, plugs and vari-
ous threaded parts. Applying excessive
torque will strip or damage those threads, so
quality wrenches are designed to keep lever-
age and intended load in safe balance.
Users should not put "cheaters" on
wrenches to increase leverage. The proper
size wrench should be used. Too large a reach
will spread the jaws of an open-end wrench
or damage the points of a box or socket
wrench. When possible, a wrench should be
pulled, not pushed.
Open-end wrenches provide gripping
power on two sides of the head with another
side open so the wrench can be placed on a
nut, which might not be accessible to a
closed or box wrench. Open-end wrenches
have different size openings on each end and
should fit the nut exactly to prevent mutilat-
ing the nut edges.
Box (box-end) wrenches have enclosed
heads and provide more leverage by com-
pletely enclosing the nut. Some are offset to
provide knuckle room and clearance over
obstructions. They range in size from 4" to
16" long and are available with either 6- or
12-point rings.
Combination wrenches have a box and
an open end on opposite sides of the same
wrench. Both ends are usually the same
size. They are used for working on machin-
ery and are the most popular of all fixed-
end wrench styles. Also available is a
reversible ratcheting combination wrench
that allows the user to quickly tighten nuts
HA ND T OOL S
7
Box Wrench Open-end Wrench
Short Offset
Box Wrench
Adjustable Wrench
TYPES OF WRENCHES
Combination Wrench
and bolts without lifting the wrench off and
repositioning it after each rotation.
Adjustable wrenches come in two styles:
locking and non-locking. Non-locking styles
feature an adjustable end opening with little
provision made for slippage. The locking
style also has an adjustablehead, but uses a
locking mechanism to secure jaws in desired
position, eliminating the need for constant
readjustment. When properly adjusted to a
nut or bolt, it will not slip.
Pipe (Stillson) wrenches screw pipes into
elbows or other threaded devices. Jaws actu-
ally bite into the surface to hold it for turn-
ing. They should never be used on plated
pipe installations because they will badly scar
the finish. Aluminum pipe wrenches are pop-
ular among professionals because of their
lighter weight, but they are more expensive.
(More information on pipe wrenches is avail-
able in the Plumbing Supplies chapter.)
Socket wrenches combine an offset handle
with a male drive piece that has a spring-
loaded bearing to lock on various size sock-
ets. They can be used at almost any angle
since handles may be attached to the head
by a jointed hinge device. Many socket
wrenches have a ratchet handle, making
reversing possible in confined spaces.
The most common type is the detachable
socket wrench, with square drive for hand
use. Common square drive sizes are 1/4",
3/8" and 1/2", and these are normally used
in conjunction with a ratchet wrench.
Sockets are available with 6-, 8- and 12-
point gripping ends, in a full range of inch
and metric sizes.
A socket wrench combined with a ratchet
wrench makes the job of tightening or loos-
ening nuts and bolts faster and easier than
conventional wrenches.
Flare net wrenches are flared to fit hex
fittings.
Hex-key wrenches are short, L-shaped
tools designed to turn bolts or screws with
hexagonal heads. They also come in sets of
differentsized wrenches.
Ratchet wrenches are available in 1/4",
3/8" and 1/2" drive sizes and are used with
socket wrenches. They are available with a
round or teardrop-shaped head and contain
a reversing mechanism to facilitate tighten-
ing or loosening a fastener. Ratchet wrenches
are available in a variety of handle shapes
and lengths.
Accessories that can provide a drive means
to socket wrenches include flex handles,
speeder handles and T-handles. Extensions of
various lengths and universal joints can be
used with ratchet wrenches and socket
wrenches to work on fasteners in hard-to-
reach locations.
Locking wrenches are among the most ver-
satile hand tools found in the home or shop.
Through a locking action, jaws can be locked
in a holding position with pressure up to 1
ton. They can also be used as hand vises,
holding clamps, pipe wrenches and
handvise pliers. They are available with
both curved and straight jaws.
Torque wrenches are designed to permit
an operator to determine applied torque on
bolts, nuts and other fasteners. They measure
torque in ounce-inches, pound-inches and
pound-feet, as well as metric measure.
However, many manufacturers express
torque in foot-pounds (rather than pound-
feet) since this nomenclature is more familiar
to the average tool user.
Two basic hand torque wrenches are audi-
ble signal and visual display. The audible sig-
nal type signals applied torque by momen-
tarily releasing the wrench for a few degrees
of free travel. The release is usually accompa-
nied by a click sound, which gives the
wrench its popular names: click torque
wrenches or clickers. Torque value is set to a
micrometer scale on the handle or preset by
an adjusting screw in the handle cavity.
The visual display type indicates applied
torque on a dial or electronic display. Some
models have memory pointers that remain at
the maximum reading attained until manu-
ally reset.
For low-torque application, torque screw-
drivers are usually used. They are available in
either the release or indicating type. The
most widely used torque wrenches have
square drives to use standard detachable
sockets. Both ratcheting and non-ratcheting
types are available. Torque wrenches are used
in various operations where proper torquing
of nuts, bolts and other fasteners is critical,
for example, assembly and inspection of gear
trains and bearings, setting of clutches and
brakes, overhaul and experimental work.
Proper uses:
o Always work with clean threads free of
corrosion.
o Follow the product manufacturer's instruc-
tions for specific torque loadings, particu-
larly whether recommendations are for
dry, oiled or plated threads.
o Avoid overtightening a nut or bolt with a
conventional wrench before applying a
torque wrench.
o When not in use, set at lowest torque.
o Never use it as a hammer, pry or conven-
tional wrench.
o Avoid dropping. If dropped, check accura-
cy on a torque tester.
o When using adjustable wrenches, do not
over-torque by applying torque past the
release point. Learn the feel of the release
rather than relying on the sound.
o Read torque values on indicating torque
wrenches by looking at the dial at 90 to
its surface.
o When in frequent or continuous use, peri-
odically check calibration accuracy.
Metric measure torque wrenches are avail-
able in Newton meters (N.m), meter kilo-
grams (mkg) and centimeter kilograms
(cmkg) with N.m becoming the more univer-
sally accepted calibration. Many torque
wrenches are available with dual scales for
conventional and metric measurements.
CUTTING TOOLS
Chisels
Chisels are grouped according to the mate-
rial they cut, either wood, metal, stone or
brick. The two main types are wood and cold.
Quality wood chisels have large,
ergonomically shaped handles for a com-
fortable, sure grip and better control.
Blades should be of high-quality carbon,
heat-treated steel with precision-ground
cutting edge. In addition, woodworking
chisels should have crowned steel strike
caps to help center the blow.
One type of wood chiselthe butt chis-
el has a short blade that ranges from
HA ND T OOL S
8
about 2-1/2" to 3" long. It is used by pat-
tern makers, cabinetmakers, carpenters
and do-it-yourselfers for carving and par-
ing, particularly in tight spots. It can be
used with hard-faced hammers.
A firmer chisel is square-sided and has a
longer blade, usually from 3-1/2" to 6" and is
used mainly for cutting deeply into wood. It
should be used with soft-faced hammers.
Paring chisels are for light-duty, detailed
work such as trimming cabinets.
Cold chisels have several stylesflat (the
most widely used), cape, diamond-point and
round-nose. They should be used only for
cutting and chipping cold metal (unhard-
ened steel, cast and wrought iron, alu-
minum, brass, copper), never masonry.
Bricklayer's chisels should be used when cut-
ting masonry. Cold chisels should be struck
only with a hand drilling, ball peen or simi-
lar heavy hammer with a face diameter
approximately 3/8" larger than the struck
tool head.
Chisels have wood or plastic handles.
Wood handles are available in both tang (the
end of the blade or tang fits into the handle)
and socket type (a projection from the han-
dle fits into a socket in the blade). Plastic
handles fit only tang construction.
Like chisels and planes, gouges are used for
removing material from a block of wood,
plastic or metal. Gouges come in two pri-
mary types: inside and outside gouges.
All steel chisels and punches (not wood
chisels having wooden or plastic handles)
are subject to chipping that can cause
bodily injury much the same as steel
hammer faces. Therefore, applicable safety
standards require the warning "Wear
Safety Goggles" on each tool. Nearly all
domestic manufacturers comply by stamp-
ing those words into the shank.
Utility Knives
Utility knives are designed to cut heavy
materials such as carpet, flooring, roofing,
cardboard cartons, laminates and plastic.
Blades can be replaced by disassembling
the handle or ejecting them by depressing
a spring-release button on the handle.
Some knives swivel open to permit blade
replacement.
Bolt Cutters
Heavy-duty cutters cut bolts, threaded
rods, cables and other metals from 1/16" to
5/8" thick. They are made from drop-forged
tool steel from 12" to 36" long. The longer
cutters have greater strength. Special leverage
joints allow great pressure to be applied with
minimum effort.
End-cut cutters operate similarly to end-
cut pliers, with special jaws available to cut
special metals.
Snips
Snips are designed for cutting sheet metal,
sheet brass, copper, plastic cloth and many
other materials. They are available in five
main types:
Straight or regularUsed for all straight
cutting jobs.
CombinationMore versatile than regular
snips; used for straight and moderately irreg-
ular cuts.
Duckbill or circularUsed for cutting cir-
cles or other curved designs.
Aviation or compound leverageCome
right-handed, left-handed or straight. Used
for cutting curves or straight. Cut easier
because of compound leverage.
Offset snipsHave offset handles to keep
hands above work. They are designed espe-
cially for long, inside cuts and are available
for right or left cutting.
PLANES
Planes are used for trimming, beveling, fit-
ting and shaping wood, and smoothing
rough spots left by sawing and drilling.
Quality is determined by the steel used in the
cutter, cap iron, sole and body of the plane.
The cap iron should be of hard steel so
adjustment screws will not strip. Hard steel
cutters hold an edge longer.
Another factor in quality is precision man-
ufacturing. The sole of the plane should be
perfectly flat and the mouth opening narrow
and precisely ground for the plane to shave
wood flat without splitting the grain.
There are three broad groups of planes:
bench planes, block planes and specialty
planes.
Bench Planes
The main variable among bench planes is
length. They range from 7" smooth planes to
24" jointer planes.
Smooth planes are lightweight and used
for all-around work. Jack planes are longer
(12" to 15") and heavier than smooth planes,
have more cutting capacity and are used for
planing rough surfaces. Jointer (joiner)
planes, the longest and heaviest, are used to
shape edges of boards so two boards may be
joined together to make a close fitting joint.
Bench planes are adjustable; the best
have lateral, as well as fore and aft cutter
adjustment and a movable frog to vary
the mouth opening.
Block Planes
A block plane is the smallest, simplest
plane, used for light work, smoothing the
end grain of boards and shaping small pieces
of wood. It uses a single cutter blade, set at a
low angle in the frame to permit better cut-
ting. It is available in both adjustable and
non-adjustable models. Adjustable planes fea-
ture steel screws, usually on the end of the
plane, to vary the cutter height.
Some block planes have an adjustable
mouth to vary chip thickness. A very narrow
mouth is best for fine finishing, while a
wider mouth allows quick stock removal on
less critical work.
Specialty Planes
Rabbet planes, used widely by cabinet-
makers and do-it-yourselfers, cut rectangular
recesses out of the edge of boards and make
HA ND T OOL S
9
TYPES OF PLANES
Jack Plane
Adjustable Throat
Block Plane
Bench Plane
grooves in flat surfaces.
Router planes are used to finish common
wood cuts such as dados or grooves in areas
inaccessible to a regular plane. Like other
planes, they have adjustments to control size
and depth of cut.
Circular planes are made with a flexible
steel bottom that can be adjusted to plane on
concave or convex surfaces.
Surface-Forming Planes (also called a file)
cut rapidly and smoothly on wood, alu-
minum, copper, etc. It will not clog because
shavings pass through holes in the body and
out the top. It is made of die-cast aluminum,
has high-quality steel cutting blades and is
available in circular and regular patterns.
Used to shape wood in carpentry or wood
sculpture, they also work well shaping plastic
auto body fillers. The blade design makes
them much safer than most cutting tools
and easier to use than a conventional plane.
MEASURING DEVICES
Squares
Used to check and mark right angles,
squares are defined as steel or aluminum, try
and combination. Combination squares will
also measure 45-degree angles. If it has a
degree scale, it can determine any angle.
Framing squares, also known as carpen-
ters squares, are L-shaped and made from
one piece of material (steel or aluminum),
with the long end (body) usually 24" and the
short end (tongue) 16". Similar squares are
available in other sizes (8" x 12").
Squares may also have tables or scales, the
most common being rafter and Essex tables.
These provide information on how much
lumber will be needed on a job, as well as
information for roof framing.
A try square or tri square is an L-
shaped tool used as a guide for pencil
markings of cuts and to check the edges
and ends of boards to see if they are
square. It is also used to determine
whether a board is the same depth for its
entire length. Try squares have broad 6"
to 12" blades set at right angles, with
wood, plastic or metal handles.
A combination square combines the best
features of the
steel and try
squares. It has
a grooved
blade and head that can be adjusted to many
locations on the 12" blade to provide differ-
ent measurements. The head usually con-
tains one level vial and a scratch awl for
marking. One edge of the handle has a 45
angle for use as a miter square.
Some combination square sets are avail-
able with an attached protractor that is mov-
able throughout 180 for setting the blade at
any angle within that range. Combination
square heads (handles) are commonly plastic
or metal.
Miter squares measure 45 angles or bevels
on one side of the square and 135 angles
and bevels on the other side. Also available is
a try/miter square, which features a 45 cor-
ner edge.
Sliding bevel squares adjust to any angle
and are designed to match angles being cut
on the job site.
Centering squares are used to determine
the exact center of circles and other measur-
ing angles.
Pocket square is a small triangle with one
thick, wide edge. It has different angle meas-
urements marked on its surface and edges. It
also works well at guiding power saws along
wood.
Clarity and legibility of graduations is a
key factor in choosing any type of square.
Modern techniques enable manufacturers to
etch graduations into the blade and create
high-visibility markings that are durable as
well.
Rafter tables, which appear on steel
squares, are used to figure lengths and cuts of
rafters. The table consists of six lines of fig-
ures, with each lines use indicated on the
left end of the square.
The Essex Board Measure table, which
also appears on steel squares, shows board
measures of almost all sizes of boards and
timbers. The table
consists of six lines
of figures, with
each line's use indi-
cated on the left
end of the square.
Tape Rules
For years tape rules have included two
main types: tape reels and retractable steel
tapes. In recent years, several types of
electronic measuring devices have been
introduced.
Tape reels are typically 100' long and
designed to measure long distances. They are
contained in durable cases and rewound by a
crank on the side of the case, with a small
hook on the end for hooking onto objects to
be measured.
Retractable steel tapes or tape measures
range in size from 6' to 35', with 12' and 25'
the most common sizes. They vary in width
from 1/4" to 1-1/4"wider tapes are easier to
use and extend over longer distances.
Because the tape rule is flexible, it provides
an easy means for accurately measuring
curved surfaces. The concave cross section
allows it to be extended unsupported.
Contained in the housing of most models
are spring mechanisms that release or retract
the tape.
Some tape rules include a spring clip for
attachment to a belt and many have mark-
ings for laying out studs on 16" centers or
other specialized markings.
Since blades receive hard wear, replace-
ment blades or complete drop-in cartridge
assemblies are offered to fit some tape rules.
For easier reading of complicated measure-
ments, some tapes now include fractional
markings on the blades.
Electronic feature tape measures and elec-
tronic tape measures are recent additions to
this category. Electronic feature tapes are
conventional tape measures with electronic
features added. One such feature is digital
readouts to make measurement readings
more precise. Another electronic feature is a
voice recorder to make it easier to keep track
of multiple measurements. Electronic meas-
uring devices have no blades but instead
work on an ultrasonic or laser light principal.
Ultrasonic measuring devices have a
range of up to about 60'. The range on the
laser tape is up to about 300'. The accura-
cy rating on the laser tape is to within
1/8". These electronic tapes often include
built-in math functions, calculations and
memory to store measurements. One of
HA ND T OOL S
10
their advantages is the ability to easily
measure linear dimensions to compute a
rooms square footage, which is helpful
for estimating the right amount of wallpa-
per, paint or flooring needed.
A chalk line reel is a coiled string of 50' or
100' contained in a metal (usually alu-
minum) or plastic box along with powdered
chalk in various colors. It is used to mark
long, straight lines on floors, ceilings and
walls. Replacement chalk and string is avail-
able separately.
Folding Rules
Folding rules usually consist of 6" to 8"
hardwood lengths connected by spring
joints, but are available in steel and alu-
minum as well. Some have special plastic or
epoxy coverings to protect the blade and
printed numbers. Better models are painted
with clear protective coatings over sharp
multi-color printing and highlight common-
ly used markings for easy reading. Two basic
rule styles are inside-read and two-way.
An inside-read rule is marked on one
edge of the blade so that measurements
can be read from inside a window or door
frame. When the first section of the rule
is unfolded, it enables the user to make
accurate measurements without removing
it from the surface being measured. It is
also popular because it always lies flat on
the work surface.
The two-way, flat-reading rule is calibrated
so that it can be read from left to right at
either end of the rule, regardless of which
end is unfolded first. Folding rules are avail-
able for specialized uses such as engineering,
plumbing, masonry and mechanics. These
differ from general-use rules in the markings
on the rule face.
Extension rules are used to measure closed-
in areas such as doorways and window
frames where a regular folding rule will not
work. Extension rules feature a 6" sliding rule
in the first section that can be pulled out to
measure distances of less than 6" without
moving and marking.
Distance Measuring Wheels
Distance measuring wheels come with a
variety of features designed for the many dif-
ferent measuring applications. They are the
easiest way for one person to perform meas-
uring jobs that normally require two people.
Features include collapsible handles, gear-
driven counters, a variety of wheel sizes, dif-
ferent types of tread materials and optional
carrying cases.
The collapsible handle and optional carry-
ing case makes measuring wheels easy to
transport and store. The telescoping handles
are generally made of aluminum and have
either two or three sections. A folding hinge
handle provides the same convenience as the
telescoping handle.
The gear-driven counters come with
four digits for measuring up to 1,000 feet
or five digits for measuring up to 10,000
feet. A push button reset returns the
counter to zero.
Wheel diameter ranges from 4 to 25.
The smaller-wheeled units are suitable for the
do-it-yourselfer and while professionals gen-
erally use the large-wheeled units. Small
wheels are best suited for smooth surfaces,
while large wheels work best on rough ter-
rain. Some models also come with a paint
marking system.
Measuring wheels come with either one or
two wheels. The type of tread material
depends on the intended application as well.
Harder materials like polyvinyl are used on
most measuring wheels, while monoprene is
often used on larger professional units.
For point-to-point measurements, you can
read the distance straight from the counter.
For wall-to-point measurements, you have to
add the radius of the measuring wheel to the
meter reading. On wall-to-wall measure-
ments, you have to add the wheel diameter
to the meter reading.
Precision Measuring Tools
This group of tools contains such items as
calipers, dividers, micrometers, thread pitch
gauges and plumb lines. These items are used
primarily by professionals, but are gaining
popularity with hobbyists.
Calipers and dividers are used for transfer-
ring measurements from a model to a part
being produced. They can also be used to
measure the inside or outside of holes or
objects that cannot be reached easily with a
graduated measuring device.
Dial calipers and micrometers are used for
close tolerance work using drill presses and
lathes. These devices can make inside, outside
and depth measurements to within .001".
Thread pitch gauges are used to determine
the exact thread pitch needed for replacing
screws and nuts.
An ultrasonic measuring tool is available
that instantly measures room dimensions up
to 50' away. It features calculator functions
for compound measurements, area and vol-
ume calculations.
A plumb bob or plumb line is a small,
tapered, pointed weight suspended from
cord. It is used to measure true verticality or
depth. Chalk line reels can also be used as
plumb bobs, but are largely used to mark
long lines on floors, walls and ceilings.
Self-leveling laser plumb lines are available
that project a vertical laser line onto any sur-
face. The laser line is always visible because it
is not covered up with a pencil mark and it is
not affected by wind like a plumb bob.
A carpenters pencil is a wide, flat pencil
that contains soft lead. It is used for marking
measurements in construction projects. Its
flat design keeps it from rolling around the
job site.
Stud Finder
Stud finders/stud sensors are of two basic
types: magnetic and electronic. Stud finders
are devices that help locate wall studs,
enabling customers to hang pictures, mirrors
and shelves securely. Magnetic stud finders
do this by detecting the presence of nails or
steel studs. Electronic stud finders do the
same job, but they find the stud by measur-
ing the density around the stud. Some
advanced electronic stud finders will locate
wood and metal studs, pipe, conduit, electri-
cal wires and even reinforcing bar or rebar in
concrete.
LEVELS
Levels measure true horizontal (level) and
true vertical (plumb) either with vials (spirit
levels) or sensors (electronic levels). These
vialtype mechanisms are incorporated into
HA ND T OOL S
11
rails of wood, plastic, aluminum or magne-
sium. The rail or body of the level may be
solid, I-beam or box-beam. High-quality lev-
els feature both top- and side-reading win-
dows and non-adjustable vials. Brass or alu-
minum edges are featured on high-quality
wood levels.
Level vials may be adjustable or non-
adjustable, straight or bent, replaceable or
permanent. Some vials are constructed of a
precision-machined block of solid acrylic and
are virtually unbreakable. Lasers have been
integrated into this tool, providing increased
capability, while still employing bubble vials
for leveling.
Electronic levels employ sensors rather
than vials. One model uses an audio signal
or colored lights to indicate level and plumb,
another includes a visual display. More
sophisticated models read angles as well as
level and plumb and offer a reset button so
the level can be recalibrated if dropped.
Laser technology is incorporated into
some models, providing the ability to quickly
and accurately locate level reference points
over long distances. This is accomplished by
projecting a beam of light up to 200'. Laser
levels feature either self-leveling or manual
leveling methods.
Rotary laser levels rotate 360 and project
a level reference point on all vertical surfaces
within range.
Pocket lasers are also available as a small,
lightweight, easy-to-use alternative.
New features for electronic levels include
having preset angles commonly used in
construction, a self-leveling feature, and
offering a graphical display that tells the
user the direction and extent to rotate
toward level or plumb.
Laser level accessories include a variety
of mounting devices such as clamps and
magnetic mounts that make setup and use
easier and more convenient. Specially
tinted glasses can extend the visible range
of the laser light.
Better wood levels come with brass edges.
These edges prevent chipping and help to
protect the frame from distortion due to
warping. Better aluminum levels come with
top-reading windows, non-adjustable vials
and protective end plates.
Levels are available in lengths up to 10'.
Magnetic edges are also available to free the
user's hands when used around ferrous met-
als. Some levels use graduated vials to help
determine very shallow slope.
Line levels are used where no flat sur-
face is available. For instance, a line level
can be attached to a string stretched
between two points, allowing the user to
make an accurate comparison of heights
between the two points. Chalk lines and
plumb bobs are also used to mark the dis-
tance or compare heights.
When it comes to calculating angles or
dealing with sloped surfaces, some electronic
levels can read roof pitches, stair slope and
drainage angles, and show them on an LCD
display in degrees, percent slope or inches
per feet (rise/run).
A torpedo level, usually 9" long, is used for
obtaining readings in close quarters.
Magnetized models and models incorporat-
ing a battery-operated light for working with
metal pipes and in dark areas are also avail-
able. Because of their compact size, mechan-
ics, plumbers, electricians, hobbyists and
homeowners often choose torpedo levels.
Carpenter's levels are made of wood or
metal (aluminum or magnesium) They
employ bubble and spirit vials positioned in
the center and both ends to check vertical
and horizontal surfaces. Lasers have been
integrated into this tool to provide increased
capability, although bubble vials are still
employed for leveling. Carpenter's levels are
typically 24" to 48" long.
AXES AND
HATCHETS
I AXES
Of the two basic axe stylessingle and
double bitsingle-bit axes are most popu-
lar. Single-bit axes are used to fell, trim or
prune trees, to split or cut wood or to
drive wooden stakes.
Single-bit axes are the easiest and safest for
an inexperienced woodcutter to use because
they have only one cutting edge. The other
end of the head forms a hammer for driving
wooden stakes. It should never be used to
strike splitting wedges, steel posts, stone or
any hard object. Single-bit axes should never
be struck by another striking tool.
Double-bit axes, with two cutting edges,
perform the same functions as the single-bit
versions. Professional lumbermen use these.
Handles
Axe handles are made of hickory and
range from 20" to 36" long. The most com-
mon is 36". Handles for single-bit axes are
curved to help increase leverage. Double-bit
axes have straight handles because the han-
dle must be symmetrical with the double-
edge head.
Axe Patterns
Axe pattern refers to the shape and type of
cutting edge. Standard patterns for double-bit
axes are Western, Michigan, Swamping and
Reversible. Those for single-bit axes are
Michigan, Dayton, Kentucky, Connecticut
and New Jersey.
There are few cutting differences among
head patterns. Customers have particular
HA ND T OOL S
12
REPLACEMENT HANDLE SAFETY
The American National Standards Institute
Inc. (ANSI) requires that replacement han-
dles for striking tools must be equivalent
to the original in size and quality. It is
important that the eye of a replacement
handle should never be smaller that the
eye of the tool head. A handle eye that
does not fit can produce a loose assemble
that can present hazards.
Kentucky Swamping
Michigan-
Double Edge
Jersey Western
Dayton
Michigan-
Single Edge
Reversible
Connecticut
AXE PATTERNS
preferences by style and historic acceptance
in their localities.
Belt Axes
Belt axes have light, camp or utility use.
These single-bit models are equipped with a
sheath for wearing on a belt. The Boy Scout
axe is the most familiar belt axe.
Log-Splitting Axes
Log-splitting axes can split most wood
types in one stroke. Rotating levers in the
head convert each downward stroke into a
direct outward force, preventing the blade
from sticking in the log. Some models feature
handles of high-impact plastic molded
around a fiberglass shaft, making them virtu-
ally unbreakable.
I HATCHETS
Hatchets are a combination tool, part
hammer and part axe. Some hatchets, such
as half hatchets or carpenters hatchets, are
for general use; others, such as flooring, lath
and shingling hatchets, are used for special
tasks like laying hardwood floors and
installing drywall or gypsum board.
The striking face is intended for pounding
on nothing harder than common nails. It
should never be struck with another hatchet
or a hammer.
The grade of steel in the head, material
in the handle and how it is attached and
type of tempering and sharpening deter-
mine quality.
Splitting Mauls and Wedges
Wedges are made of steel, aluminum and
plastic. Steel wedges are forged from a solid
piece of high-carbon steel and may be heat-
treated. Aluminum and plastic wedges are
designed primarily for use with chain saws
and crosscut saws to hold the kerf apart to
prevent binding.
A woodchoppers maul is similar to a
sledgehammer, but one end of the head is
wedge-shaped. That end is used to make a
starting notch. A wedge is inserted and struck
with the hammer end of the maul head.
An axe can also be used to make a start-
ing notch and a maul used to drive the
wedge. Wedges should be struck with a
sledge or woodchoppers maul having a
larger striking face than the head of the
wedge. Never strike the steel wedge with
the cutting edge of the maul.
Safety goggles should be worn when
using these tools. In addition to possible
chipping of the tool, if it is misused, fly-
ing wood chips could strike the eye of the
user or someone nearby.
SAWS
Hand Saws
Handsaws have 14" to 26" blades. Fineness
of cut depends on the number of cutting
teeth (points) per inch and tooth shape. The
higher the number of points, the finer the
cutting. A coarse crosscut saw with seven or
eight teeth per inch is best for fast, rough
work or for use on green wood. A fine-tooth
crosscut saw with 10 or 11 teeth per inch is
best for smooth, accurate cutting on dry, sea-
soned wood.
Some handsaws are available with special
aggressive design teeththree cutting
edges instead of the conventional two. They
cut on both the forward and backward
stroke, thereby cutting several times faster
than saws with traditional teeth. They may
also have the teeth induction-hardened to
help keep them sharp longer.
Saws also come with a wide range of han-
dle styles, but the three most common are
pistol grip, closed handle and straight han-
dle. Pistol grip handles are used primarily on
smaller saws that have thinner blades. Closed
handles are incorporated more often on larg-
er saws and help to add support to the larger
blades. Drywall saws and other small-bladed
saws often use straight handles that are in
line with the saws blade.
Most saws require minimal maintenance
other than oiling of the blades to prevent
rust. They should be hung up by their blade
or handle since blades have a tendency to
bend when stored flat.
Quality features in saws include:
o Tempered alloy blades. Lower-grade
steel quickly loses its sharp edge but is
easy to sharpen.
HA ND T OOL S
13
Drywall Saw
Dovetail Saw
Bow Saw
Standard Hand Saw
Keyhole Saw
Compass Saw
Back Saw
Hardwood
Miter Box
Coping Saw
Close-Quarter Hacksaw
Rigid-Frame Hacksaw
Pull Saw
TYPESOFSAWS
Hardwood
Miter Box
o Rust-resistant or Teflon-coated blade
finish. Teflon-coated hand saws
reduce many binding and residue
buildup problems inherent to wood
cutting. Reduced friction or drag makes
for smoother, easier cutting.
o Hardwood or sturdy plastic handle. Special
aluminum or plated steel nuts and bolts to
fasten blade to handle.
o Taper-ground blades, thicker at the cutting
edge, to prevent binding in the cut.
o Bevel-filed teeth evenly set in two alter-
nate rows, one row to the right of center,
one row to the left; produces a groove or
kerf slightly wider than the thickest part of
the blade; prevents or reduces binding
while sawing.
Rip Saws
A rip saw has large, chisel-shaped teeth,
usually 5-1/2 teeth per inch, and is made to
cut with the wood grain. Blade lengths meas-
ure from 24" to 28". Teeth are cross-filed to
ensure that the chisel point is set square to
the direction of cutting for best performance.
This saw is best held at a 60 angle to the
surface of the board being cut. The ripping
action of the saw produces a coarse, ragged
cut that makes the saw unsatisfactory for fin-
ish work.
Crosscut Saws
Most commonly used crosscut saws are 10-
to 12-point for fine work and 7- or 8-point
for faster cutting. Ten teeth per inch is con-
sidered general purpose. Teeth are shaped
like knife points to crumble out wood
between cuts. Best cutting angle for this saw
is about 45. Blade lengths range from 20" to
28", with 26" the most popular.
Hacksaws
Hacksaws are fine-toothed saws designed
to cut metal or plastic. The saws consist of a
blade held in a steel frame with relatively
high tension.
High-tension models (with tension to
32,000 p.s.i.) are also available. High tension
holds the blade more rigidly straight, which
enables the user to make fast, straight cuts.
Blade life is also increased. Look for a quick-
release blade change mechanism, tension
guide and rugged frame on these models.
Blades come in several designs, such as
coarse-, medium-, fine- and very fine-
toothed. Regular or standard blades are
used for general-purpose cutting; high-
speed or bi-metal blades for cutting hard,
extra-tough steel.
The medium blade has 18 teeth per inch
and is good for cutting tool steel, iron pipe
and light angle iron.
A fine blade, which has 24 teeth per inch,
cuts drill rod, thin tubing and medium-
weight materials.
The very fine blade, with 32 teeth per
inch, is used for extra thin materials, light
angle irons, channels, wire rope and cable. As
a guide to selecting the right blade, find out
what material will be cut; then suggest a
blade that will have at least three teeth in
contact with the material.
Frames vary in style and price. Most
can be adjusted to hold various blade
lengths. Some have both horizontal and
vertical positions for blades. Others pro-
vide blade storage.
A close-quarter (or utility) hacksaw holds
and positions a hacksaw blade so it can be
used effectively in narrow spaces and slots.
Compass or Keyhole Saws
Compass saws cut curved or straight-sided
holes. Saw blades are narrow, tapered nearly
to a point to fit into most spaces. Blades
come in three or four styles that can be
changed to fit the job. Some models have
induction-hardened teeth for longer life
without sharpening.
Keyhole saws are small compass saws with
finer teeth that can cut metal. Turret head
keyhole blades can be rotated and locked in
several positions for easier cutting in tight,
awkward spots.
Coping Saws
Coping saws cut irregular shapes, curves
and intricate decorative patterns. They con-
sist of a thin blade and a C-shaped steel ten-
sion frame. The removable blade is typically
6-1/2" long.
Backsaws
A backsaw is a thick-bladed saw with a
stiff, reinforced back to provide the rigidity
necessary in precision cutting. It varies in
length from 10" to 30" and is found in tooth
counts from seven to 14 teeth per inch. They
are used with miter boxes to cut miters.
Bow Saws
Bow (buck) saws consist of a tubular steel
frame and a saw blade for fast cutting of all
woods. The bow saw's frame is important,
since the thin blade, usually 3/4" wide, must
be held under high tension for fast cutting.
Advantages of this general-purpose saw are
its all-around utility and light weight.
In 21", 24" and 30" lengths, bow saws
normally have teeth placed in groups.
Within each group, distance between teeth
varies, ensuring a smooth, vibrationless cut.
Wide gullies provide ample space for saw-
dust to accumulate without binding the
saw. In the 36", 42" and 48" lengths, the
HA ND T OOL S
14
KEEP CUTTING TOOLS SHARP
Six basic rules apply to redressing chisels and other tools with a cutting edge:
1. Always wear safety goggles.
2. Tool must be returned to its original shape.
3. Discard any tool with cracks or chipping.
4. Temperature must be kept low.
5. A medium- or fine-grit whetstone file should be used.
6. Wheel direction should always be from the cutting edge toward the body of the tool.
This directs heat away from the cutting edge.
Cold chisels are generally hardened about 1-1/2" back from the cutting edge and about 3/4"
back from the head. Redressing should be kept within these limits. The correct cutting edge
bevel may vary from 55 through 90. For all around use, 70 is a good compromise. Soft metal
bevel may be as low as 55 and hard steel bevel as high as 90.
most popular toothing pattern provides for
two cutter teeth to each raker tooth. This
combination of teeth ensures maximum
cutting ability in these longer lengths,
regardless of wood hardness.
Some bow saws are designed to hold hack-
saw blades as well as standard bow saw
blades. These multi-purpose saws can be used
to cut wood, metal or plastic.
Specialty Saws
Wallboard or drywall saws resemble a
kitchen knife in design. They will cut plaster-
board in the same fashion as a keyhole saw
and are used for sawing holes for electric out-
lets and switchplates. The saw is self-starting
with a sharp point for plunge cuts. It may
also have induction teeth for longer life
without sharpening.
Veneer saws are specially designed for saw-
ing thin materials such as wood paneling.
The blade is curved downward at the end,
with cutting teeth on the curved part of the
back to saw slots or grooves in the panel
with minimum damage. Standard saw
lengths are 12"-13", with 14 teeth per inch.
Rod saws are a form of hacksaw-type
blade, used in regular hacksaw frames and
capable of cutting through most hard materi-
alsspring and stainless steel, chain, brick,
glass and tile. The blade consists of a perma-
nently bonded tungsten carbide surface on a
steel rod. Because the blade is round, it can
cut in any direction.
Pull saws are similar to most traditional
saws except the teeth are designed to cut
with a pulling motion. Pull saws cut wood
faster and with less effort because of the
thinner and more flexible blade. The saws
feature teeth diamond- ground on three cut-
ting edges. Because of the flexibility of the
blade and the minimal set to the teeth, the
saws are excellent for flush cutting. Mini pull
saws that cut sharply on the pull stroke are
used for precision carpentry.
Retractable and folding saws come in a
variety of designs and are engineered for the
blades to either retract or fold back into a
plastic or wooden handle.
Flooring saws are designed to precision-
cut floorboards and baseboards. These
short, crosscut saws feature a curved cut-
ting edge on the bottom.
Information on saws used for outdoor pur-
poses such as pruning can be found in the
Lawn & Garden section.
Miter Boxes
Miter boxes are used to help cut exact
angles for wood trim and rafters. Better mod-
els provide a mechanism for a backsaw. They
are made of plastic, hardwood or aluminum.
Quality boxes provide more accuracy for
deep cuts and have exact adjustments and
calibrations. They have length gauges to aid
in duplicating pieces and stock guides to
allow for proper cuts on intricate moulding.
Other features to look for are roller bearings
in the saw guide and grips that hold the saw
above work so both hands can be used to
position the piece.
Some boxes feature magnetic mount
guides. The magnets grasp and hold the saw
to the miter box saw guide or hold the saw
blade to the plane of the saw guide. This
helps assure an accurate miter cut without
impairing the saw stroke.
Saw Sets
Most saws become dull with use and need
periodic filing and resetting. A saw set is used
to reset or bend teeth
back to their original
position so teeth will
make a cut wider
than the blade to
avoid binding in the
cut or kerf.
Most sets are
made with a pistol grip and designed so the
saw teeth are visible during setting. A good
saw set should have enough calibrations to
ensure an even set to each tooth. Saw sets
can be used on back, hand and small circular
saws with 4-16 points.
FASTENING TOOLS
Clamps
Clamps are used in a number of different
applications to hold items in place or secure
items. Most clamps are constructed from
wood, steel, cast iron, high-impact plastic or
glass-reinforced nylon, and some have rubber
or nylon straps.
The most significant innovation to come
about recently in the area of clamps is the
development of one-handed bar clamps.
These clamps work with a pistol grip and
allow the user to tighten or loosen the clamp
by using just one hand on a trigger switch.
They are available in jaw openings from 6" to
50" and a variety of sizes.
C-clampsthe most common type of
clampconsist of a C-shaped frame, made of
either forged steel or cast iron, into which an
adjustable screw is assembled to change the
jaw opening. The size of a C-clamp is meas-
ured by its capacitythe dimension of the
largest object the frame can accommodate
with the screw fully extended. Also impor-
tant is depth of throat, the distance from the
center line of the screw to the inside edge of
the frame. C-clamps range from 1" to 12".
Bar clamps have a clamping device
built on a flat bar (usually steel). The
HA ND T OOL S
15
Bar Clamp
Pipe Clamp Fixture
Web or Band Clamp
Hand Screw Clamp Spring Clamp
CLAMPS
C Clamp
length of the bar determines the capacity
of the clamp, which is the dimension of
the largest object that can be accommo-
dated between its clamping jaws. "Reach"
is the distance from the edge of the bar to
the end of the clamping jaws. Screw pres-
sure applies the final clamping load. Bar
clamps are used for clamping large
objects, making them popular with wood-
workers and hobbyists.
Pipe clamps can be mounted to stan-
dard threaded or unthreaded pipe.
Clamping can be performed from one end
or both, and jaws can be positioned at the
ends or anywhere along the pipe. Pipe
clamps can also be quickly converted
from a clamp to a spreader.
Threadless pipe clamp fixtures are
designed so ends of pipe don't need threads.
A hardened steel set screw holds the head
firmly on the pipe, but is easily loosened.
The 3/4" size has a crank handle, and depth
from screw center to pipe is 11/16". The 1/2"
size has a crosspin handle, with depth from
screw center to pipe of 7/8".
A handscrew clamp consists of two
hardwood clamping jaws adjusted to the
work by two steel screw spindles assem-
bled into the jaws. The jaws adjust to a
variety of angles and come in a wide
range of sizes. They are used for clamping
wood, metal, plastic and fabrics.
Handscrew adaptors can be used to con-
vert handscrews into miter clamps. Also
available are handscrew kits so woodwork-
ers can make their own jaws.
Corner clamps are designed to hold miter
or butt joints at a 90 angle. They can be
used for gluing picture frames, cabinets,
moulding and trim.
A spring clamp consists of two metal jaws
to which clamping pressure is applied by use
of a steel spring. They are designed for use
with thin materials. Spring clamps are versa-
tile enough for home, hobby or professional
use indoors or outdoors, holding round or
odd-shaped objects. They typically come
with 1", 2" or 3" jaw openings.
Web clamps (also called band clamps)
apply even clamping pressures around irregu-
lar shapes or large objects and hold tight by
means of a spring-loaded locking fixture.
A hold-down clamp is the screw portion of
a "C" clamp, designed to be secured onto any
surface, with the screw used to apply clamp-
ing pressure.
Edging clamps are used for installing
moulding and trim on furniture and counter-
tops, holding work at right angles, and for
welding or soldering. They are designed to
hold edging strips, moulding and trim firmly
when fastening to the edge or side of work,
leaving hands free.
Welding clamps are a unique type of
bar clamp ideal for quick tacking and
other welding jobs. Available in 6" and
18" jaw openings.
Heavy-duty press screws can be used
for deep-reach surface clamping. Available
in three different lengths, they can be
useful for gluing, welding or other assem-
bly applications.
HA ND T OOL S
16
WHAT NOT TO DO
The Hand Tool Institute (HTI), Tarrytown, N.Y., has a wide array of training materials available that
are designed to promote hand tool safety. HTI offers a video, "Hand Tool Safety in the Workplace," ref-
erence charts for hand tools and automotive tools, a book titled "Guide to Hand Tools" that covers
selection, proper use and safety tips for hand tools, and a set of 12 posters that illustrate safety tips for
specific tools. For more information on hand tool safety, contact HTI at (914) 332-0040.
Here are some hand tool safety tips to pass on to customers:
Dont use torque wrenches to pry apart components.
Dont use leverage extension on a wrench handle.
Never pull on a loosely adjusted wrench. Be certain the wrench fits the nut tightly.
Dont hammer on a wrench. Wrenches are to be used with muscle power only.
Pipe wrenches are for turning and holding. Dont use them for lifting or bending.
Never expose pliers to excessive heat.
Dont hammer with pliers.
Never cock or tilt an open-end wrench.
Dont bend stiff wire with your plier tip.
Dont bend heavy bars on light-duty vises.
Dont use pliers on round shanks or handles of screwdrivers for adding turning power.
Dont use sheet-metal cutting snips to cut heavy wire. There are tools for this purpose.
Dont use screwdrivers to pry anything apart.
Dont use a tool box, chest or cabinet as an anvil or for a similar purpose.
Dont use a screwdriver as a punch or chisel.
Dont use a screwdriver to test for current.
Never use a striking tool or struck tool with a loose or damaged handle. Replace or
secure properly.
Never use any struck tool with a mushroomed, chipped or damaged head.
Never strike chisels or other hard objects with a nail hammer as the hammer may chip and
cause eye or other bodily injury.
Never strike one hammer with another or with a hatchet.
Never use a hot chisel for cutting stone, concrete or cold metal.
Never strike a metal object with the striking face of an axe. The axe striking face should only be
used to drive soft objects, such as wood or plastic stakes.
Never use a bricklayers hammer to strike metal or other tools.
Dont use brick chisels on metal. They are strictly for masonry.
Never drive one maul by striking with another maul, sledge or other striking tool.
Never use a drift pin as a punch.
Vises
The size of a vise is measured by both the
jaw width of the vise and the capacity of the
vise when the jaws are fully open.
Bench vises are designed for light work in
the home, garage and farm. They come in
stationary and swivel models, milled and
ground jaws, machined to ensure proper
operation.
Woodworking vises feature jaws made of
wood from 6" to 10" wide. Some woodwork-
ing vises have a fast-acting screw arrange-
ment for the rapid positioning of the mov-
able jaw prior to clamping. Smaller vises
have continuous screws and are light and
easy to clamp on a workbench or sawhorse.
A hinged pipe vise is used to hold pipe in
position for threading and cutting.
Home workshop or utility vises have
jaws ranging from 3" to 6". Better models
feature swivel bases so the vise may be
turned to the best angle for each particu-
lar job. Some utility vises either have cast-
in pipe jaws or permit special curved-face
pipe jaws to be inserted between the regu-
lar jaws to add versatility.
An angle vise can be adjusted to a flat
position and used as a regular vise.
Marked adjustments permit the user to
obtain any desired angle. The vise can
also be locked into any position with a
thumb screw, and bolts can be tightened
for permanent positioning.
A clamp vise is a combination fixed and
portable vise, featuring a bottom clamp for
easy attachment to workbenches, sawhorses
or tables.
Glue Guns
Electrically operated glue guns consist of a
heating element, nozzle and glue chamber.
Glue or caulking sticks are put in the cham-
ber, where they are melted by heat and
released through the nozzle. The adhesive
cures by cooling. Subjecting the adhesive to
heat again can break the bond.
Cordless models are also available. Some
models require the operator to maintain
pressure on the glue stick with his thumb.
Others are self-feeding. The trigger mecha-
nism on some models closes the nozzle to
prevent dripping.
There are a variety of glues availableboth
with a gun and in replacement packages
including heavy-duty type for wood joints
requiring about 60 seconds drying time and
lightweight for paper, etc., with shorter dry-
ing time.
Caulking/sealer sticks provide waterproof
protection for cracks and joints.
Rivet Tools
Rivets can be used in place of screws, nails
and other fasteners in many applications.
Rivet tools use "blind" rivets, so-called
because they can be set from one side with-
out "bucking" at the back.
They are usually purchased in sets contain-
ing one or two interchangeable nosepieces
that set 1/8" steel or aluminum rivets or
3/16" aluminum rivets. Sets with fixed nose-
pieces are capable of setting only 1/8" steel or
aluminum rivets.
Many rivet tools feature self-storage of
the extra nosepieces. Other features
include sliding latches to lock handles
closed for storage, spring opening handles
to make constant usage easy and epoxy
finishes to protect the tool.
Stapling Tools
There are four types of hand stapling
machines: desk stapler, pliers-type hand sta-
pler, staple gun and hammer tacker.
Desk staplers and pliers-type staplers are
both anvil-in-base units. The pliers-type
machines are used in heavy-duty work,
although lightweight units are on the market.
Unlike anvil-in-base staplers, staple guns
shoot staples with a one-hand lever opera-
tion. Some guns now shoot nails as well as
staples. One new design features a handle
that is squeezed toward the front instead of
the rear, making it easier to use and control.
Staple guns are good for jobs requiring mate-
rial to be held with one hand and fastened
with the other.
Guns of several weights are available and
used for lining closets, installing insulation,
tacking ceiling tile or fastening roofing paper.
Specially designed guns are made for fas-
tening low-voltage wire. Other guns fasten
wire and cable. Some guns shoot flared sta-
ples without an external anvil to staple insu-
lation around pipes and ducts.
Staple guns are useful for jobs such as
attaching new window shade material to
an old spring roller, recovering furniture,
installing new webbing on chairs, making
a garden trellis, attaching weather strip-
ping and tacking chicken wire to a fence
stake. A staple gun can be fitted with a
variety of staple sizes and attachments for
specialized applications.
Electric and cordless staple guns are also
available. They have the same uses as the
hand-operated guns but the staples are eject-
ed automatically with the pull of a trigger.
Some guns are built with a flush front and
extended nose for accurate staple placement
into hard-to-reach areas. They come with
trigger locks to prevent accidents.
Automatic hammer tackers look like a
hammer, with the stapling mechanism in the
HA ND T OOL S
17
WHATS THE DIFFERENCE
SOLDERINGProcess similar to brazing but with lower temperature filler material.
Temperature is generally below 800 F (mostly between 400 and 600 F). A soldered joint is
not as strong as a brazed joint.
BRAZINGJoining two metal parts, not necessarily the same metal, using a different mate-
rial to make the bond., An alloying action takes place between the base metals and the braz-
ing filler metal. This provides a very strong joint, fully as strong as the brazing material itself.
Nearly all brazing is done at temperatures above 1,000 F (usually at about 1,400 F).
WELDINGJoining two pieces of similar metal by heating both parts to their melting point
and making them flow together. A tricky, complicated task, generally requiring the use of a
combustible gas with pure oxygen or an electric arc. In welding steel with an oxygen/gas
torch, it is hard to make a strong weld without removing the carbon from the steel and
making it more brittle.
FLUXIn both soldering and brazing, the joint must be clean in order to secure a proper bond.
Therefore, both parts should be cleaned with emery paper or steel wool or ground clean before
making the joint. Flux is used in soldering or brazing to complete the cleaning process and seal
out air. This prevents the base metals from oxidizing and makes a good bond.
head and the staples stored in the handle.
The unit is used like a hammer and automat-
ically drives a staple with each blow. Quality
features include shatterproof handles,
retractable striking edges, magnetized striking
portions and double-magazine capacity for
quicker reloading. Newer models have been
designed to be lighter in weight and easier to
handle, improving on older models that were
front-heavy in weight.
Similar to a stapler is a nail gun that
drives and countersinks nails into panel-
ing, carpeting, moulding and insulation
with a single stroke. It looks like a heavy-
duty stapler but will not scratch, mar or
dent work surfaces. Nails are 11/32" in
length and come in woodtone colors to
match paneling. The nail gun usually
comes packaged with a supply of nails
and complete instructions for the do-it-
yourselfer.
Although there is a wide variety of staple
types and sizes, each staple gun will only
accept a certain range of sizes and styles.
In choosing the proper staple-leg length
for the job, consider two things: the thick-
ness of the material to be stapled and its
hardness. Staple leg lengths range from 3/16"
to 9/16". In hardwood, 3/16" to 1/4" penetra-
tion is sufficient. Softwood requires up to
3/8" penetration. However, if the staple
stands away from the work, it is too long for
the gun being used. Some staple guns handle
round-crown as well as regular staples, while
electric staple guns can handle brads for
moulding and trim work.
Concrete Fastening Tools
Concrete fastening tools allow pins and
studs to be set in concrete and cement block
with only a few hammer strokes. The tool
itself consists of a plastic or polypropylene
handle with a tempered steel rod protruding
from the top and running almost through
the tool. On the bottom of the tool is a hole
into which specially tempered pins and studs
are inserted head first.
On each pin and stud there is a washer,
about a third to a quarter of the way up from
the point. After the head of the pin or stud
has been inserted into the fastening tool, a
few hammer blows on the protruding steel
rod will set it in position. Pins and studs can
also be driven through 1/8" steel and still set
in concrete. When properly set, fasteners can
hold up to 100 lbs.
A heavy hammer with a head weight of 3
lbs. or more is needed to use this tool.
STORAGE ITEMS
Toolboxes
Steel toolboxes are most popular. Their
prices vary according to gauge of steel
used, number of trays and whether the
box is reinforced in the corners.
Some precision tool users use hardwood
chests because the wood absorbs rust-produc-
ing condensation. Carpenters' toolboxes are
specially designed so carpenters can carry
hand saws and framing squares in the same
box with other tools. The word "carpenter"
differentiates this box from a regular toolbox
because of the extra tools it will carry.
Plastic toolboxes are available in a number
of styles. Some are suited for light-duty use,
while others are comparable to steel in quali-
ty. The highest quality plastic boxes are con-
structed of polypropylene, and some models
can hold up to 75 lbs. of tools. The high-
quality plastic boxes feature interlocking
pinned hinges, tongue-in-groove closure and
positive locking latches, as well as padlock
eyes and lift-out trays.
Tool Chests
Utility chests store parts, screws, nuts,
bolts and other small pieces. These chests are
made of either plastic or steel with remov-
able plastic dividers.
Tool Caddies
Plastic revolving tool caddies hold tools
and items such as nails, bolts, screws, glue
and wire in tiers of circular trays.
The caddies are made of a high-impact
plastic and feature a ball bearing base plate,
allowing the unit to revolve easily.
Modular Workshops
Modular, mobile workshops are increasing
in popularity, as users like their adaptability
and functionality. Some models feature
adjustable leveling feet, adjustable height,
detachable casters, latching doors, drawers,
hooks for hanging tools, dust collection
ports, quick-change tool set-up, lock-down
hardware and corner tops. They can hold
large and small tools, and can be designed to
serve as a shop bench, router station or
clamping station.
WORKSHOP AIDS
Steel Sawhorse Bracket Kits
Sawhorse kits convert five pieces of square-
cut lumber into a sturdy sawhorse; the
assembly is secured with nails or wing nuts.
Those that require wing nuts allow disassem-
bly with no damage to the wood. The other
type provides flanged nail holes for easy nail
removal with a claw hammer.
Selling features include ease of assembly
since miter cuts are not necessary and sturdi-
ness and convenient storage since most
brackets allow legs to fold together.
Medium-duty brackets are not as long as
heavy duty. Most require nails to give added
strength and rigidity. Light-duty brackets are
similar to medium, only shorter.
Sawhorse legs are made of wood, tubu-
lar material or fabricated steel. Most
require that a nonmetal cross-rail be
added (with metal cross-rail there is dan-
ger of ruining saw teeth).
Workbench Leg Kits
Workbench kits contain four upright legs,
four crosspieces, braces, nuts, bolts and wash-
ers. Some include a tool-bench rack to organ-
ize small tools. The kit includes plans for
building the bench, using a 4' x 8' sheet of
3/4" plywood cut into eight parts.
Specialty Workbenches
There are two types of specialty work-
benches. One is a stationary woodworking
bench with a variety of holes, pegs and vises
to hold the work firmly. These are expensive
and seldom seen in hardware stores and
home centers.
The second type is a portable specialty
bench that comes as a tabletop or folding
bench. The folding benches offer easy storage
HA ND T OOL S
18
and a firm, broad base. The tabletop benches
clamp securely to table or shelf and are ideal
for apartment dwellers.
The bench is designed to hold irregular
pieces securely. It will hold a round piece of
wood, a bicycle, a door, a window casing,
etc., so it can be worked on with hand or
power tools.
MISCELLANEOUS
HAND TOOLS
Ripping Bars
Ripping bars, also known as crowbars or
wrecking bars, are used in construction,
demolition and where pulling nails, ripping
wood and similar tasks are done. Those with
curved ends are also known as gooseneck
bars. Because of their length, usually 24" or
30", they have more leverage than hammers,
enabling them to pull much larger and
longer nails.
Pry bars are smaller and flatter than rip-
ping bars and are not designed for heavy-
duty prying. They are useful for removing
nails with exposed heads and for prying
open paneling or moulding without marring
the surface. One bar features an extra curve,
which makes it useful for lifting and holding
such things as drywall panels in place. They
feature beveled notches in each chisel-like
end and range in size from 6" to 21".
Winches
Quality winches or come-alongs feature
baked enamel finishes with plated ratchet
locks and high carbon steel pinion gears.
Winches are rated by weight capacity,
ranging from about 900 to 2,000 pounds
capacity. Gear ratios from 3-to-1 up to 5-
to-1 are common.
Propane, MAPP Gas and
Oxygen Torches
Torches are defined by the uses for which
they are designed and by the fuels they use
compressed oxygen, solid oxygen tablets,
propane, MAPP gas or butane, for example.
Propane torches light instantly and burn
with a clean blue flame. They require no
pumping, priming or pre-heating. They con-
sist of a disposable propane fuel tank with a
burner assembly that screws on top. The
burner has a built-in valve that turns the
torch on or off and regulates the size of the
flame. They will operate in a variety of posi-
tions, but care should be taken when turning
the torch upside down as the liquid fuel can
get into the valve assembly, creating a poten-
tially dangerous situation.
Propane torches are used for heavy-duty
soldering operations and for burning off
old paint on exterior siding. For this task,
a flame-spreading tip or heavy-duty burn-
er is required.
When equipped with a pointed or chisel-
edged cutting tip, these torches can also be
used for removing old putty around win-
dows, for installing asphalt tile or for brand-
ing designs on wood.
Torches with built-in pressure regulators
operate much better in cold weather, for
thawing pipes or in the upside-down position.
Brazing torches for the non-professional
use propane or high-temperature fuels. High-
temperature fuels include MAPP, CleanBurn
and propylene.
Welding torches available for the d-i-y
market include compressed oxygen,
propane or MAPP fuel. Oxygen, propane
and MAPP torches generate temperatures
in excess of 5,000.
The oxygen/propane, or MAPP, tank-type
torches are a convenient project-specific tool
to use for light metal repair and cutting and
bending on metals.
Oxygen/propane torches are portable and
weigh approximately 6 lbs.
Make sure you stress safety tips when
selling torches to do-it-yourselfers. For
example, do not use a torch to remove
paint from the exterior siding of a house.
The flames can ignite combustible materi-
als underneath the siding.
Soldering Tools
Soldering g uns are used for a variety
of chores: hobbies, minor electrical
repairs, plumbing and other do-it-your-
self home repairs.
They offer advantages over convention-
al ironsthey heat and cool rapidly, are
easy to handle and may have several heat
levels. Some feature built-in lights to illu-
minate work. Guns are turned on and off
by a trigger switch.
Maintenance is easy and inexpensive
because gun tips are relatively low-priced and
easily replaced. Complete kits contain guns,
extra tips, solder and accessories. Cordless
models are available for added mobility.
Solder with an acid core flux is used in
plumbing and general-use applications.
Solder with plastic rosin core flux is used on
electrical work to prevent leakage.
Soldering irons come in four basic groups:
line voltage, low-voltage pencils, tempera-
ture-controlled and soldering coppers.
They heat and cool slower than guns,
and electrically heated irons are rated by
watts. The watt rating tells how much
heat of a given temperature can be deliv-
ered rather than the temperature itself.
The tip temperature and the heat recovery
capability of the tip being used can also
measure an iron's capability.
Line voltage soldering irons and pencils
have built-in electrical heating elements and
are used for hobbies, electronics, model-mak-
ing and small household repairs. Larger irons
are used for home and shop repairs, sheet-
metal work and general soldering.
Low-voltage pencils operate from batteries
HA ND T OOL S
19
Straignt Razor
(About 10)
Pocket Knife
(About 15)
Carving Knife
(About 15)
Kitchen Knife
(About 30)
Wood Chisel
(About 25)
Axe
(About 45)
SHARPENING ANGLES
in cars, trucks, boats and aircraft and are used
for field servicing of wiring and electronic
gear by servicemen and hobbyists.
Temperature-controlled units operate
either from special power supplies or line
voltage and are primarily used by servicemen
or hobbyists. Soldering coppers are irons that
must be heated in a flame or by hot coals.
Usually quite heavy and bulky, they are used
mainly by sheet metal shops and occasional-
ly by plumbers.
Cordless soldering tools feature a
butane-fueled catalytic converter that gen-
erates powerful, yet safe, flameless heat.
Lightweight and portable, they are ideal
for field electronics service jobs where
electricity may not be available.
Sharpening Stones
Abrasive stones make good add-on sales
when a customer purchases a pocket or carv-
ing knife, axe, chisel, lawn mower or grass
cutter. Most tools need to be sharpened
shortly after purchase because manufacturers
generally provide only a medium edge (to
prevent shipping damage). Since there are
many specialized stones, study manufacturer
literature to recommend proper stones for
different types of blades.
Blades or tools that cut with a slicing
action should be sharpened against the
edge. Tools such as scissors or reel-type
lawn mowers should be sharpened on the
bevel, not on the side of the blade. Never
attempt to sharpen a serrated edgeit
requires special equipment.
Files
Files are grouped by length, type and
shape. Lasting performance and cutting abili-
ty determine quality.
Length is measured from the point
(square end of file) to the shoulder (where
the blade sets onto the tang). Length indi-
cates coarseness, stroke distance and rate
of stock removal.
File types are determined by shape: square,
round, half-round or flat.
Two other indicators of file shape are
taper and blunt. As their names imply,
HA ND T OOL S
20
BURNER TIP SELECTION GUIDE
Soldering small fittings or connections x
Soldering jewelry or very tiny wires x
Soldering electrical connections x
Soldering flat surfaces x
Soldering over large areas x
Soldering gutters x
Starting threaded pipe joints x
Thawing pipes x x
Sealing soil pipes x
Removing paint x x
Removing putty x
Bending metal x x*
Metal sculpturing x
Laying asphalt tile x x
Thawing frozen locks x
Loosening screews, nuts, bolts x
Lighting charcoal x x
Auto body leading x
Removing brake linings x x
Separating exdhaust pipes, Auto body springs
Plywood sculpturing x
Glass working x x
Antiquing wood x x
* (LARGEAREAS)
PRECISION PENCIL POINT BRUSH FLAME FLAME CHISEL POINT
BURNER TIP BURNER TIP BURNER TIP SPREADER SOLDERING TIP JOB
FILES
Single
Cut
Double
Cut
Rasp
Cut
Curved
Tooth
taper files taper from shoulder to point
while blunt files are the same width for
the entire length.
Coarseness and character of teeth deter-
mine file cut. Four basic cuts are single,
double, rasp and curved-tooth.
Single cut denotes a single row of chis-
el-cut teeth. These files are used on saw
teeth and metals where a good finish is
required.
Double cut, used primarily on metals
where rapid stock removal is necessary
and a rough cut is permissible, has two
rows of chisel-cut teeth.
Rasps are used on wood and for rough
shaping jobs. Rasp-cut files have individu-
ally punched teeth that are entirely sepa-
rate from each other.
Curved-tooth cut features teeth that are
milled in an arc. This cut is used on flat
surfaces of soft metals for rapid stock
removal and a fairly good finish.
File teeth are further divided into four
groups: coarse, bastard, second and
smooth. Coarse and bastard cuts are used
on heavy work, while second and smooth
cuts are used for finishing or more exact-
ing work.
Chain saw files are made for both round-
hooded and square-hooded chain saw teeth.
For the former, the file must be held level
against the bevel of the cutting surface of
the tooth at an angle of 25 to 45 with the
saw blade. File direction is off the cutting
edge, pressing back and slightly up during
the stroke. Some chain saw files feature a
molded-in filing angle indicator to make
uniform sharpening easier.
Nail Sets
Nail sets are used to countersink nails.
Nail holes can then be filled with putty,
plastic, wood or other filling materials for
a smooth surface.
Nail sets are sized by 1/32" and range
from 1/32" to 5/32". It is important that
the correct size set be used for each size
nail to prevent enlarging of a small nail
hole by too large a set. The pointed end
of the nail set should be cupped or hol-
lowed out to avoid splitting the nail head.
Self-centering nail sets are available.
Punches
Punches are used with ball peen ham-
mers to remove pins, align holes and
mark locations of holes to be drilled. They
are available in a wide range of sizes in
both high carbon and alloy steels. They
are similar to nail sets in appearance, but
do not have a cupped or hollowed end.
Hand punches are considered general-
purpose tools for driving out pins and
bushings and lining up bolt and rivet
holes. They have a relatively blunt taper,
with the size of the punch being marked
by the diameter of the flat point.
Pin and center punches are similar to
hand punches and are used for the same
purposes. They differ only in the shape of
their points. Safety goggles must be worn
when these are used.
Automatic center punches are held in
one hand and not struck by a hammer.
They have a spring-actuated internal drive
that pushes the attached punch point into
the material to be center punched. These
punches are available in different sizes
and with replaceable screw-on points.
Taps and Dies
Dies are used to thread the outside of a
rod or pipe to screw it into a threaded
hole. They are available in two types:
solid and adjustable with either round or
hex heads.
Dies with hex heads are used with
wrenches or sockets instead of die stocks
for close, hard-to-reach jobs and for
repairing bruised or damaged threads.
Taps are used to cut screw threads
inside holes and to renew worn or
stripped threads.
Taps come in three basic styles: taper,
plug and bottoming. Tapered taps cut full
threads at the entrance and gradually less
thread toward the bottom. Plug taps cut
full threads to within three or four turns
of the bottom. Bottoming taps cut full
threads to the bottom of the hole.
Quality dies and taps offer close toler-
ances, are made of the finest high-carbon
tool steel, are carefully heat-treated and
will cut clean, accurate threads.
Two numbers indicate tap and die size.
The first number represents the diameter
of the screw or bolt; the second number is
the distance between the threads.
A variety of metric tap and die sizes are
available, particularly useful to those who
work on automobiles and motorcycles.
Sizes are expressed in millimeters (mm)
and decimals. For example: 10 mm x 2.50
tap or die has threads 2-1/2 mm apart and
an outside diameter of 10 mm.
Taps and dies are stamped with two or
three letters indicating thread series, such
as NC, NF or NPT. Special tools needed to
work with dies and taps include die stocks
and tap and reamer wrenches.
Die stocks are adjustable tools that hold
and turn dies. They are made with two
handles so cutting can be done evenly
and smoothly.
Tap and reamer wrenches are similar to
die stocks. They are adjusted by twisting
one of the wrench handles to change the
opening of the jaws. Jaws on these tools
must be hardened to prevent mutilation
when using hardened taps.
Tap wrenches feature adjustable chucks
and come with sliding T-handles.
Screw Extractors
Screw or bolt extractors remove bolts or
screws when they cannot be removed nor-
mally. To use most extractors you must
first drill the correct size hole in the cen-
ter of the bolt or screw, then insert the
extractor. The threads, which are reversed,
bite down into the screw and turn it out.
Some extractors feature a built-in drill bit
that allows you to drill and extract the
screw in one process.
Trowels
Plasterers, concrete finishers, bricklayers
and masons use trowels to handle small
amounts of mortar and plaster. They
should be lightweight and well-balanced.
Brick trowels are used to pick up mortar
and spread it for the next course of brick,
concrete block or stone. The blade (which
carries the mortar), post (which joins tang
to blade) and tang (where the handle is
inserted) are forged in one piece, with a
handle driven into the tang. Width at the
HA ND T OOL S
21
heel (back end of the trowel) is between
5" and 5-1/2". The most popular brick
trowel length is 11".
Two shapes of brick trowels have
become almost standard: the Philadelphia
pattern with a square heel and the London
pattern, which has a rounded heel so the
mortar is carried a little farther forward on
the blade. Both patterns can be used for lay-
ing brick, but the Philadelphia pattern is
most popular for blocklaying. It is wider at
the heel so it holds more mortar.
Pointing trowels are used by bricklayers
for pointing up their work. Pointing and
margin trowels are used for patch work
and for cleaning other tools. High-quality
pointing and margin trowels are forged in
one piece and made about the same as a
brick trowel. The length of pointing trow-
els may be from 4-1/2" to 7". Best sellers
are the 5" and 6" lengths. Size 5" x 2" is
the most popular margin trowel.
Concrete trowels or cement trowels are
used to finish the surface of the concrete to
the required smoothness. Troweling action
helps compact the surface and adds to the
quality and durability of the job. Concrete
trowels are narrower and longer than plas-
tering trowels. The blade is slightly convex.
Blades range in width from 3"-5" and in
length from 12"-20". Most popular sizes are
14" x 4" and 16" x 4".
Plastering trowels are used to carry
plaster to the wall or ceiling from a hawk
when two or three coats are applied. They
have a lightweight flexible blade with an
average size of 11" x 4-1/2". They are
available with a choice of two handles,
either straight or curved (called the
California style).
Floats are made of aluminum, magne-
sium, wood, cork or rubber. The most popu-
lar with concrete finishers are wood and
magnesium. The best-selling sizes in wood
are 12" x 5" and 16" x 3-1/2" while the pop-
ular magnesium float is 16" x 3-1/8".
Bull floats are used by concrete finishers to
float large areas of concrete. The most popular
sizes are between 42" and 48" long and are 8"
wide. Handle sections either 5' or 6' long can
be joined together so that a finisher can reach
out 15' to 20' over a slab.
Brick jointers ( strikers) are used to
strike joints of brick walls for finished
appearance. Because it receives hard wear,
the tool is heat-treated. Each end is a dif-
ferent sizemost popular combinations
are 1/2" x 5/8" and 3/4" x 7/8".
Corner trowels are used to form inside
and outside corners; the most requested
sizes are square and 1/2" radius.
Concrete edgers produce a radius at the
edge of a concrete slab to minimize chipping,
while concrete groovers are used for cutting
joints in concrete to control cracking.
Tuck pointers (joint fillers) apply new
mortar between old bricks. They are usu-
ally 6-3/4" long by 1/4"-1" wide. The best
models are constructed of one piece.
Hawks hold plaster before application.
They are usually made of lightweight alu-
minum or magnesium in 13" or 13-1/2"
square sizes.
Drywall Tools
Drywall trowels have a slight concave
bow in the blade that helps to feather
mud and make perfect drywall joints. The
tempered, flexible steel blade is securely
attached to a lightweight aluminum
mounting. A smoothly turned basswood
handle ensures a comfortable feel. There
are several sizes availablethe most popu-
lar is 11" x 4-1/2".
Drywall corner trowels are used in
applying compound to both sides of a
corner at one time. A flexible one-piece
blade of stainless steel eliminates tape
snagging and rusting. The blade angle is
set at a 103 angle, thus giving perfect 90
corners when flexed in use.
Drywall pole sanders are used for sand-
ing drywall joints, especially ceilings and
side walls from the floor.
Drywall T-squares feature an arm that
measures 16" for locating studs. The blade
measures 47 7/8" and the head is notched
which enable cutting a 48" board in one
stroke. The 2" wide blade enables the user
to cut both sides of an outlet box without
moving the blade.
Drywall taping knives are also used for
taping drywall joints. The tempered blue
steel or stainless steel blade bows just
right for feathering, but will not take a
set. It can be used in covering over nail
spots and other indentations in the board.
HA ND T OOL S
22
Bull Float Wood Float
Hawk
Curved Drywall Trowel Taping Knife Drywall Corner Trowel Tuck Pointer
Pointing Trowel Finishing Trowel Jointing Tool
Groover Edger
Brick Trowel
Magnesium
Hand Float
TYPES OF TROWELS
HAND TOOL CARE
A rustproof coating is available for
protecting hand tools, in or out of
storage. The product is wax-based,
with a heavy-duty rust inhibitor
blended in its formulation. Once
applied to a clean, dry surface, the
material dries within 30 seconds to a
waxy finish. When the blade is ready
to be used it must be cleaned off
with a solvent (i.e. paint solvent) to
remove the wax finish.
CHAPTER SIX:
HOME SECURITY
GAS, SMOKE AND FIRE PROTECTION
DOOR AND WINDOW HARDWARE
CABINET HARDWARE
DRAPERY HARDWARE
UTILITY HARDWARE
CHAIN AND CORDAGE
SCREENING MATERIALS
FENCING ACCESSORIES
SCREWS AND BOLTS
WALL ANCHORS
NAILS
HARDWARE &
Fasteners
6
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
2
I While many products in the hard-
ware department have been around
for years, there have been advance-
ments made in certain areas. Old-
fashioned eight-penny nails are now
sold alongside modern power-driven screws coated with the latest
weatherproofing resins. Keyless entry systems can be found next
to traditional entry locksets.
Many hardware products start with function, but consumers also
care about how these products look. Make sure you stay current with
the latest decorative trends in door, cabinet and drapery hardware.
The basics may seem simple, but using the wrong fastener can
mean the difference between your customer successfully complet-
ing a d-i-y project and failing. There are many specialty fasteners
developed for working with decks, siding, guttering, roofing and
wire closet systems, to name a few examples.
This section also provides a foundation for understanding impor-
tant, life-saving products such as smoke alarms, fire extinguishers
and carbon monoxide detectors. Rely on manufacturer literature
to learn the specifics of the products you sell.
Equally important is your customers safety. Remind customers to
wear safety glasses whenever there is a chance of injury. Train
employees to suggest the right tool for the fastener. As a last warn-
ing, advise customers to check local building codes whenever they
are tackling structural projects.
HARDWARE &
Fasteners
HOME SECURITY
Locks
Only a small percentage of the total retail
lock business is from locksmiths. Instead, lock
installation is a common d-i-y project, and a
large percentage of these consumers shop
retail stores for locks. As a result, packaging is
an important factor in selling locks, and man-
ufacturers are providing d-i-yers with easy-to-
follow instructions.
Lock Mechanisms
The five mechanical types of key-operated
locks are pin tumbler, lever tumbler, disc tum-
bler, warded and combination locks.
Pin tumbler locks with five or more pins
offer greater resistance to picking. Depending
on the number of pins, this lock offers many
key changes. These locks can be made with as
few as three pins, but better locks have five or
more. Pin tumbler mechanisms are used in
padlocks, deadbolts, cabinet locks, locksets
and more.
Lever tumbler locks are slightly less expen-
sive than pin tumbler locks, offer good securi-
ty and many key changes. Lever tumbler key
blanks are rarely stocked. These locks are usu-
ally found on doors of older homes.
Disc tumbler locks are medium-priced
locks offering minimal security and many
key changes.
Warded locks feature low cost but superior
weather resistance because of simple construc-
tion and lack of rotating internal parts.
However, they provide only token security.
Combination locks offer good security and a
wide price range to appeal to homeowners
and commercial users. Uses vary from bicycles
to bank vaults.
Basic locks are an integral part of a house or
building. Auxiliary locks are devices like night
latches and door chains used as back-up secu-
rity for basic locks.
Bored Locksets
Bored locksets are part of the basic door
hardware, with the locking mechanism
built into the doorknob and latch. They
are classified as entry locksets
(front/back), passage locksets (hall/ closet)
and privacy locksets (bath/bedroom).
Entry locksets are locked or unlocked from
the inside by turning or depressing a small
button on the inside knob. A key is required to
unlock the pin tumbler mechanism from the
outside. Sets requiring a key on both the inside
and outside are available for added security.
A deadlatch is a positive locking latchbolt
used on most quality locks for entry doors.
The latch bolt, which is similar to a common
springlatch, has a small auxiliary bolt along its
side that when depressed, blocks the main
bolt from being forced. Because a regular latch
is angled to the outside of the door, an intrud-
er can depress it by sliding a piece of stiff
material between the door and the frame. The
deadlatch actuator is generally located in the
rear of the regular latch and prevents the bolt
from being depressed in this manner (when
installed properly).
Passage locksets are primarily used for hall-
ways or closets between rooms where privacy
is not important. These non-locking locksets
merely latch the door in the closed position.
Bathroom and bedroom privacy locksets are
designed for privacy rather than security and
are equipped with a locking button on the
inside but no key device on the outside. In an
emergency, the lock can be opened from the
outside by inserting a narrow object through
the small hole in the outside knob and either
depressing or turning the locking mechanism
inside, depending on the type of lock.
A panic-proof lockset that automatically
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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HARDWARE GLOSSARY
CASEMENT WINDOW Window with sash hinged at the side.
CLEVIS Metal link for attaching a chain to a padlock.
CYLINDER (LOCK) Housing that contains the tumbler mechanism and keyway; can be actu-
ated only by the correct key.
DEADBOLT (LOCK) Lock bolt having no spring action. Operated by key from outside or a
turn knob from inside.
DEADLOCK Lock having a deadbolt only.
DOUBLE-CYLINDER DEADBOLT Same as single cylinder, but has keyed cylinder on inside
and outside of lock.
DOUBLE-THROW BOLT Bolt that can be projected beyond its normal position, giving
added security.
ESCUTCHEON (KEY PLATE) Plate containing an opening for a key only.
FIRE-EXIT BOLT Device designed to grant instant exit by pushing a cross bar (panic bar)
that releases a locking bolt or latch.
FRICTION HINGE Hinge designed to swing a door and hold it at any desired position by
means of friction control incorporated in the knuckle of the hinge.
KEYLOCK LOCKSET Cylindrical lockset that provides panic-proof security on the inside
(turning the knob to release the locking mechanism).
NIGHTLATCH Auxiliary lock having a spring latch bolt and functioning independently of,
and providing additional security to, the regular lock of the door.
PASSAGE LOCKSET Cylindrical lockset used primarily on doors where no locking mecha-
nism is necessary (closets, etc.).
PATIO LOCK A lock designed with a push-button or a turn-locking inside knob. When so
locked, there is no entrance by key from the outside.
PRIVACY LOCKSET Cylindrical lock commonly used on bathroom doors, when privacy is
the main concern. Lock from the inside by a push-button or turn-button and may be opened
on the outside with a special tool.
SHUTTER OPERATOR (SHUTTER WORKER) Device incorporating a hinge and a method
of opening or closing a shutter by means of a crank or turn inside without opening the win-
dow sash.
SINGLE CYLINDER DEADBOLT Back-up for a keylock, for additional security; usually has
deadbolt latch containing one or two steel pins to prevent wrenching. Keyed cylinder permits
locking and unlocking on outside and a thumb turn on the inside.
STRIKE Metal-pierced or recessed plate on the door frame that receives the bolt or latch.
Sometimes called a keeper.
unlocks when the inside knob is turned is
good for the homeowner who wants to be
able to make a quick emergency exit or who
doesnt want to lock himself out of the house
or one of the rooms. In some cases this might
not be a desirable feature, but if both types are
available, the difference should be pointed out
to the customer.
Keyless Entry Systems
Remote keyless entry systems provide
advanced home security and convenience.
Audio and visual indicators confirm the lock-
set has been activated. Anti-theft rolling code
feature ensures the same code is never used
twice. Keyless entry systems are compatible
with some brands of overhead garage door
openers so only one remote is needed.
Deadbolt Locks
A deadbolt lock backs up a lockset on entry
doors to provide maximum security. The word
dead refers to the fact that there are no
springs to operate the bolt. It is locked or
unlocked manually by a key or thumb turn
from the inside.
There are a number of configurations for
deadbolts, including those incorporating
deadbolts into conventional key-in-the-
knob locksets. Better units have a stainless
steel bolt with a roller insert to resist sawing
and cutting. The industry standard require-
ments are 1 for bolt throw (length extend-
ed from lock housing).
The bolt locks the door to the frame, and
the extra long bolt gives deeper penetration
into the doorframe and helps the door from
being pried open. Deadbolts with throws 1" or
longer give greater security. Mounting a 1" or
longer throw deadbolt with 3" screws to secure
the strike plate to the wall stud increases the
security. The housing should also resist ham-
mering or wrenching.
A single-cylinder deadbolt is key operat-
ed from the outside and a turn of a but-
ton on the inside. It is fine for solid metal
or wood doors.
Doors with glass in or around them require
a double-cylinder deadbolt with key operation
both inside and out. This prevents someone
from breaking the glass, reaching in and
unlocking the door.
Anyone purchasing a double-cylinder dead-
bolt should be cautioned to always keep the
inside key in the lock when they are home. In
case of fire or other emergency, the danger of
a double-cylinder lock is that the key will be
missing. (Double-cylinder deadbolts are not
permitted in some areas of the country
because they may delay escape from the
house during an emergency.)
Locks are designed to fit specific size holes
and backsets. Backset refers to the distance
between the edge of the door and the center
of the handle. For more information, click
(Designing a Home Security System)
or (Making Your Home Secure).
Mortise Cylinder Locks
Mortise cylinder locks have a pin tumbler
locking mechanism in a cylinder. The latch
can be operated from either side except when
the outside knob is locked. A deadbolt is also
used and operates by a turn of the inside
knob. A key from the outside can operate
both deadbolt and latchbolt.
Mortise cylinder locksets are used in new
installations and as replacements; they are
mortised into the frame of the door. They can
be used on many types of doors, from heavy
entrance doors to apartment buildings to resi-
dential doors. Some of these locksets can be
used on vestibule doors; in this case they have
a latch and deadbolt or latch only.
Jimmy-Proof Locks
Jimmy-proof locks use an interlocking bolt
mechanism to give maximum security.
Additional security comes from two inter-
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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LOCK MECHANISMS
Disc Tumbler Padlock Warded Padlock Pin Tumbler Padlock
Shackle
Cylinder
Locking
Spring
Shackle
Shackle
Locking
Spring
Wards
Locking
Cam
Bottom
Pins
Top Pins
Plug
Locking Disc
Gun Lock Tubular
Cylinder
Padlock
Padlock
Trailer Lock
Combination
Padlock
Chain Lock
Cable Lock
locking vertical bits that engage the strike
when the lock is closed. This means the door
cannot be pried open because there is no
room between the jamb and the door for a
pry bar.
There are two styles of jimmy-resistant
locks: single and double cylinder.
Some jimmy-proof locks come with a guard
that prevents the lock from being opened
with a screwdriver from the outside. This
guard is a steel plate that is drawn back on a
spring when the lock is installed. If the cylin-
der is pulled out from the outside of the door,
the guard springs across the opening.
It is also a good idea to suggest one-way,
tamper-proof screws be used with double-
cylinder jimmy-proof locks.
Hasps
Hasps consist of a metal hinge and an
anchoring bolt (loop), so locks can be secured
to gates, sheds and garages. High-security
hasps will have anchored eyebolts, pinless
hinges, hardened steel anchoring loops and
hidden screws. A padlock is inserted through
the bolt and locked to secure the hasp. Some
haspscalled hasplockshave padlocks
attached to them. This makes it impossible to
lose the locks when gates or doors are opened.
To unlock the hasplock, the padlock portion is
operated by a key and turned a quarter turn.
Night Latches
Night latches have an automatic locking
feature. The lock bolt is made on a 45 angle
and retracts inside the case when hitting the
keeper, thus locking the latch automatically.
Barrel Bolts
Barrel bolts are a sliding lock mechanism to
provide security for average weight doors.
They can also be used on windows and are
available in decorative finishes and with sur-
face or universal strikes. Some have spring
action to hold bolt in place, and some bolts
are lockable.
Keyed Sash Lock
A keyed sash lock mounts like a regular
sash lock, but with one-way screws to discour-
age removal. The lock can be released only by
the key. If the window is broken, the sash still
cannot be opened. They can be supplied with
master key arrangement.
Ventilating Locks
These locks are used on windows and
designed to allow a slight opening for ventila-
tion. They are easily installed.
Electronic Locks
Hotels use electronic locks with credit card-
sized paper replacing keys. Look for them to
move into the home market.
Reinforcement Hardware
Reinforcement hardware are U-shaped
metal channels designed to give additional
strength to door, deadbolt and key-in-knob
locks. The plates are installed around existing
locks. The plates are designed to prevent
forced entries by making critical stress areas
around the door and framing more secure.
Strikes
Strikes are the metal plate the latch slides
into on the door jamb or frame. The plate is
applied over a recess in the jamb, into which
the bolt or latch slides.
Even though all new locksets come with
strikes, there is a need for additional high-
security strikes and also replacement and
repair strikes due to damage of the mounting
area in the frame. There are many one-piece,
heavy-gauge steel strikes available with long,
hardened screws to secure the strike to the
frame stud. Adjustable strikes are also available
that provide 1/4 adjustment to allow for
door and frame warpage.
Latch Guards
Latch guards for in-opening doors help
reinforce the door and frame and prevent
spreading of the frame. A standard 7" latch
guard fits all backsets, deadbolts and key-in
knob locks. A 12" latch guard for in-opening
doors also fits all double locks, mortise locks
and access control locks.
Latch guards for out-opening doors protect
the latch or bolt. Several sizes and types are
available, ranging from a 6" model designed to
fit all backsets, deadbolts and key-in knob
locks; up to a 12" latch guard for out-opening
narrow stile doors.
Padlocks
Padlocks provide portable security for mov-
able objectsbicycles, motorcycles, boats
etc.and in locations such as storage sheds
and gates where locksets are not practical.
Although weatherproof construction is
important, high security is more impor-
tant to the consumer who wants to pro-
tect expensive equipment.
Laminated, pin tumbler padlocks pro-
vide maximum security for valuables.
Laminated (layered steel) padlocks are vir-
tually indestructible.
Hardened solid steel and steel alloys make
better locks and shackles; solid extruded brass
padlocks are more resistant to rust than steel,
but can be damaged because brass is softer
than steel.
Pin-tumbler locking mechanisms make pad-
locks harder for thieves to pick. Four-pin-tum-
bler mechanisms provide substantial security
for most applications; and padlocks with five
or more pin tumblers offer increased security
against picking and are probably more secure
than combination locks.
Rekeyable padlocks are generally used for
commercial and industrial security needs.
Tubular cylinder padlocks offer many key
changes by replacing the cylinder. Although
most often used in electronic security systems,
owners of motorcycles and expensive bicycles
also use tubular cylinder padlocks.
Cable, chain and long shackle padlocks are
commonly used as bicycle locks but may not
provide adequate protection for expensive
bikes. A cable or chain with a separate lock
could be recommended for greater protection.
Padlocks with chain or cable permanently
attached to the shackle are versatile locks, but
cable or chain and shackle must be matched
in strength and diameter to the lock.
U-bar locks provide maximum protection
for bikes.
Gunlocks fit over the trigger housing of
guns to prevent firing of the weapon. They are
more for safety than security. Some models
have a sound alarm to warn that the gun is
being tampered with. Some have tamper-evi-
dent devices to alert owners that the gun has
been disturbed. Some are designed to lock up
several guns with one lock.
For maximum protection, the gun lock
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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should:
o Completely cover the trigger guard and
immobilize the trigger.
o Contain a quality, pin-tumbler locking
mechanism.
o Be made of metal and cushioned to protect
the finish of the gun.
o Be adaptable to fit a wide range of shot-
guns, rifles and handguns.
It will be advantageous to stock keyed-alike
gunlocks to offer the convenience of a com-
mon key for several gunlocks.
Trailer locks are used to secure standing
trailers by rendering the towing device inoper-
ative. The lock covers or fills the coupler sock-
et so that it cannot be mounted on a ball.
I HOME SAFES
People buy safes to protect documents and
valuables from fire and theft. When you sell a
home safe, find out what the customer wants
to protect. Although some fire safes offer suffi-
cient security for valuables, not all maximum-
security safes have maximum fire protection.
According to Underwriters Laboratories
standards, a fire safe should retain an inside
temperature below 350F (the temperature at
which paper chars) or an outside temperature
of from 1550to 1700for an hour or more.
This rating also includes requirements that the
safe be resistant to rupture or explosion at
these temperatures. The fire rating must
appear on the safe. The National Fire
Prevention Association has found that a fire-
rated safe performs four times better than a
non-rated safe in a fire.
Security of a safe, beyond its fire protection,
comes from a combination of retractable and
stationary bolts that prevent the safe door
from being removed by knocking off or
removing the hinges.
Besides fire-rated safes, there are also fire-
rated security chests and files in a variety of
sizes with key locks and interior organization-
al features.
There are several locking mechanisms for
safes, the most common being a dial combi-
nation of three or four digits with a handle or
latch for retracting the bolts.
Additional security can be provided if the
safe also has a built-in key lock that functions
independently of the dial combination. This
kind of safe also permits key only access
when necessary and provides double-lock
security at other times.
Another form of locking mechanism is an
electronic digital lock in which the dial com-
bination is replaced by a four-digit, change-
able, push-button combination. The advan-
tage is faster and easier access to the contents
without sacrificing overall security.
In addition to freestanding safes, there are
safes that can be mounted in walls or sunk
into concrete floors. There are also vault doors
that can be installed inside existing closet
doors to turn a standard closet into a vault.
However, it should be noted that these safes
are not fire rated.
I ALARMS
Intrusion Alarms
Alarms used with electronic security sys-
tems range from a simple buzzer to systems
connected directly to monitoring stations
that will contact the police. Because of the
high number of false alarms, however, some
police departments refuse to respond to
home alarms.
Types of alarms depend on what the cus-
tomer wants. Some feel that a loud alarm at
the point of entry will scare off an intruder.
Others prefer a remote alarm located in a
bedroom so that homeowners can be
warned without alerting the intruder that
he has been detected. Others prefer an out-
side alarm so that the intruder knows
neighbors are aware of his presence and are
likely to call the police.
Simple alarms may consist of no more than
a door-locking device with a buzzer attached.
When the device is tampered with or the door
opened when the alarm has been set, it
sounds. Such a device may be adequate for a
second-story apartment with one entry door.
However, most home intrusion alarms are
more elaborate. There are two basic compo-
nents. One, called a perimeter alarm, detects
intrusion at points of entry-doors and win-
dows. The other, an area alarm, detects
motion inside a room.
Some alarms offer special features such as a
medical alert alarm that can be worn or car-
ried. Others include heat sensors and smoke
alarms. Systems like these can sometimes
qualify consumers for a homeowner insurance
discount. For more information, click
(Making Your Home Secure).
Perimeter Alarms
Some perimeter alarms employ low-voltage
wire, similar to stereo speaker wire, to connect
magnetic window and door sensors to a con-
trol panel. Others use individual radio trans-
mitters at each door and window sensor to
trigger an alarm at the control panel. When a
door or window is opened, the switch is acti-
vated and the alarm sounds.
Since perimeter systems designed for d-i-y
installation are frequently battery-powered,
ease in testing the batteries can be an impor-
tant factor. A dead battery renders the alarm
useless; so frequent testing is vital. Some sys-
tems sound a warning when batteries begin to
lose their charge.
In the case of a wired system, pushing a
control panel button checks the entire sys-
tem. In a wireless system, each transmitter
has its own battery and must be individual-
ly checked, and all batteries must be
replaced periodically.
Some battery-powered units are combined
with smoke, gas and medical emergency
alarms to provide complete protection from
one control unit.
Area Alarms
Area alarms generally plug into standard
115-volt electrical outlets, so they are simple
to install. Most use either ultrasonic (inaudi-
ble sound) waves or microwaves to detect
motion. Others use passive infrared sensors
or a combination of detection technologies.
When motion in the area triggers the detec-
tor, the unit sounds a loud horn or siren.
Area alarms are usually more expensive
than other systems.
Ultrasonic detector waves go only as far as
the walls of a room, while microwaves will
penetrate walls and windows. This can be an
advantage if detector coverage of several
rooms is desired. However, this same spillover
effect greatly increases the chances of false
alarms in small living areas, such as apart-
ments where people may be moving in adja-
cent quarters or hallways.
Some types of ultrasonic area alarms utilize
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
6
a narrow sonic beam that must be bounced
off a hard wall surface, perpendicular to the
beam. An intruder has to break that narrow
beam before the alarm sounds.
Other ultrasonic units use a wide beam that
virtually fills the area and detects motion any-
where in the trap zone. This design is easier to
set up and is free from accidental misalign-
ment if bumped or moved slightly, since aim-
ing of the beam is not critical.
Most area alarm systems require some
adjustment after they have been placed in a
room to achieve the right strength of signal to
protect that area. Better systems are self-adjust-
ing to assure reliable detection and forestall
false alarms due to poor setting by the owner.
Perhaps the most important consideration
in an area alarm is avoiding false alarms.
These can be caused by air conditioners, drap-
ery moving above a hot air register or even a
telephone ringing. Better, newer systems have
circuitry built in that discriminates against
these spurious signals to safeguard against
false alarms.
Among the options available in some
advanced area alarm systems are wireless
repeater alarms or satellites. Satellites can be
plugged in anywhere in the home to generate
additional noise and to relay the warning to
remote bedrooms. They can even be placed in
a neighbors home for added protection dur-
ing absences. The instant the area alarm
detects an intruder, a signal is transmitted via
regular household wiring to sound the alarm.
Some area systems can also be connected
to door and window sensors to provide
perimeter protection as well as area cover-
age. Outdoor sirens are also available to
alert the whole neighborhood in the event
of an intrusion.
GAS, SMOKE & FIRE
PROTECTION
Gas, smoke and fire detectors are common
residential safety products. Many municipal
building codes require smoke or fire detectors
in multi-family dwellings, in new construc-
tion and, in some cases, in existing single-
family homes. Homeowners should be urged
to replace detectors older than 10 years old.
There are three types of detectors: ioniza-
tion, photoelectronic and thermal. Ionization
detectors, the most popular, respond to gas
particles and smoke from a flaming fire.
Photoelectronic detectors respond to smoke
from a smoldering fire. Thermal detectors are
activated by heat. You can also find dual-sen-
sor detectors with both photoelectronic and
ionization technology, which only come in
battery-powered models. This combination
unit provides the best detection system. Also
available are natural gas detectors, which warn
residents if dangerous levels of gas build up
from leaks in water heaters, furnaces and
clothes dryers. They come in hard-wired and
battery-powered models.
Heres how each of the three kinds of detec-
tors works:
Ionization: Measures the changes in elec-
tric current caused by invisible particles ion-
ized in the heat of combustion. They use a
radioactive source to transform the air
inside them into a conductor of electric cur-
rent. A small current passes through this
ionized air. When smoke particles enter
the detector, they impede the flow of cur-
rent. An alarm is programmed to sound
when the current gets too low.
Ionization detectors respond particularly
well to the smoke caused by a flaming fire.
Since they require little power, they are effec-
tively powered by household batteries and can
be placed almost anywhere in a house, and
will work even during a power failure. Rooms
that contain combustible materials such as
cooking fat/grease, flammable liquids, paint
and cleaning solutions, etc., should contain
an ionization detector.
These detectors are somewhat slower to
respond to smoke from a smoldering fire. In
addition, battery-powered models must have
their batteries replaced at periodic intervals.
Detectors are required to emit a low warning
when the batteries are weakened.
Photoelectronic: Involves a small lamp
adjusted to direct a narrow light beam
across the detection chamber. Next to this
light source, but hidden from direct expo-
sure to the beam, is a light-sensitive photo-
cell. Smoke entering the detection chamber
scatters the light beam, reflecting it in all
directions. Some of this reflected light is
picked up by the photocell, which triggers
the alarm at a pre-set level.
A typical photoelectronic detector is slightly
more sensitive to smoke from a slow, smolder-
ing fire, but reacts less quickly to flaming fires-
almost opposite of the ionization model. They
are less prone to nuisance alarms in the
kitchen area.
Photoelectronic models are available in
both battery-operated and plug-in versions.
Thermal: These detectors, used primarily by
large commercial or industrial firms, sound
only when the temperature rises to a certain
level. Most are also triggered by a quick rise in
temperature even if an extreme temperature is
not reached. They are not nearly as safe as the
ionization and photoelectronic types in that
the fire must usually be more intense before
the thermal unit will sound.
Detectors can be hard-wired or battery-oper-
ated. Hard-wired detectors, which can also fea-
ture battery backup, can be interconnected to
sound an alarm together. Battery-powered
units are easier to install since they can be
placed anywhere on the ceiling. However,
they can only function if the batteries are
replaced regularly (once a year is recommend-
ed). Remind customers to regularly test and
clean their smoke alarms. Research indicates
that one-third of all smoke alarms are not
operating because of dead or missing batteries.
Some safety organizations recommend
detectors in every room in the house. If the
consumer is not receptive to this idea, the
simplest rule for locating a basic smoke
detector is to mount it between the bed-
rooms and the rest of the house, but closer
to the bedrooms. It is better, however, to
install multiple detectors and put one near
each sleeping area. In multi-level homes,
install one on each level. These alarms
should be interconnected so that any one
unit will sound the alarm throughout the
house. The basement ceiling, near the steps,
is a good location for extra protection.
Detectors have additional features to help
in warning the family of fire danger and to
help them escape from the house. Some are
equipped with lights and are suggested for
halls, stairways and any location leading to
doors or windows. The idea is to light the
escape route. Others have loud sirens to awak-
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
7
en sleeping persons or extra loud horns or
strobe lights for use in homes where there are
persons with hearing impairment. Industry
standards specify that detectors sound an
alarm with a minimum of 85 decibels.
Install each detector on the ceiling or on
walls 6" and 12" below the ceiling. Do not put
it within 6" of where the wall and ceiling meet
on either surface; this is dead air space with
little circulation. Do not mount a detector in
front of an air supply, return duct, garages,
near ceiling fans, peaks of A-frame ceilings,
dusty areas, locations that will be outside the
40to 100temperature range, in humid areas
or near fluorescent lighting.
Any alarm located in the kitchen area
would benefit from having a silent button.
This feature allows the detector to be tem-
porarily silenced if there is an alarm from
cooking smoke. Some recommendations sug-
gest that alarms not be located within 20' of
the kitchen.
Carbon Monoxide Detectors
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless,
odorless, deadly gas that poses a potentially
deadly health risk to people. Gas or oil fur-
naces, dryers, refrigerators, water and space
heaters, fireplaces, wood stoves and gas
ranges can emit carbon monoxide. In fact,
88 percent of all homes have something
that poses a CO threat. Some municipalities
now require that CO detectors be installed
in all new or existing homes constructed
with gas or oil furnaces.
CO poisoning is difficult to diagnose
because the symptomsheadaches, nausea,
fatigue, dizzy spellsare similar to ailments
such as the flu.
CO detectors measure the amount of car-
bon monoxide over time and sound an alarm
before people would experience symptoms.
They operate on batteries or household cur-
rent, and some AC-operated models also con-
tain battery back-up. Some models provide a
running digital readout of CO levels. Hard-
wired or plug-in models typically use some
type of solid-state sensor, which purges itself
and resamples the air periodically. This cycling
is the reason for increased power demands.
Battery-powered CO detectors typically use
a passive sensor. They provide early warning
of carbon monoxide and will operate even in
case of a power failure.
The newest development is a combination
CO and smoke detector. It is important that
the product sound a different alarm for each
hazard so consumers know how to respond.
CO detectors should be placed in the hall-
way near the sleeping area. Additional detec-
tors on every level of the home provide extra
protection. Follow manufacturers advice on
installation locations. Advising homeowners
to maintain regularly their home heating sys-
tem is still the best way to reduce the risk of
CO poisoning. Older homes are susceptible
because of malfunctioning appliances and
faulty ventilation. However, todays tightly
sealed homes may be even more at risk.
Make sure the CO detectors you sell are list-
ed to UL 2034 or CAN/CGA 6.19 by
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), which guaran-
tees the product has passed performance, safe-
ty and accuracy tests. UL revised its standards
for CO detectors in 1998.
Radon Detectors
Radon is a colorless, odorless, radioactive
gas that is formed wherever there is urani-
uman element present throughout the crust
of the earth. Since it is a gas, radon is mobile
and poses little health risk if it makes its way
to open air. It dissipates quickly in open areas,
but if radon seeps into a house, it can collect
in hazardous concentrations. Radon is a lead-
ing cause of lung cancer, according to the
Surgeon General.
Inhaling radon or its decay products intro-
duces radioactivity into the body posing seri-
ous health hazards. There is no way to predict
radons presence or concentration through
geological studies. One house can have low
radon levels; while another located next to it
may have high concentrations.
In many homes, radon measurements are
made in the basement, since radon enters
from the earth beneath the foundation.
Radon detectors should always be placed in
the lowest lived-in part of the home, but
never the kitchen or bathroom.
There are several types of detectors capable
of conducting radon tests.
Alpha-track devices consist of a small
sheet of plastic. Alpha particles that strike
the plastic cause microscopic pockmarks.
After an exposure period, users mail the
detector to a lab. The labs count of the
pockmarks gives a direct measure of the
mean radon concentration.
Activated-charcoal detectors are containers
of activated-charcoal granules, which trap
radon gas. After a short exposure time, the
container is resealed and shipped back to a lab
for analysis.
Other types includeelectretion chamber,
continuous monitor and charcoal liquid scintil-
lation. A short-term test will take from two to
90 days, depending on the detection device
chosen. Longer tests-usually with electret or
alpha track detectors will give a more accurate
reading of average radon exposure.
Be sure the radon kits you sell meet the
Environmental Protection Agencys (EPA)
requirements or are state certified. The kit
packaging will tell you if it is EPA-certified.
It is important to inform customers that
radon levels can change greatly, and a number
of factors, such as frequency of opening and
closing windows, can affect radon measure-
ments. In addition, determining if radon is a
health threat depends upon factors such as
measurable radon levels and the number of
hours a day a home is occupied.
Often, short-term tests can be used as a pre-
liminary indication of a problem. If the short-
term test is positive, then a long-term test
might be called for as a follow-up.
Customers can be reassured that simple
measures-such as improving basement ventila-
tion usually eliminate a radon problem. Other
solutions used in combination with the above
methods include sealing cracks and holes in
the foundation and concrete floors using a fan
to keep the house pressurized and installing a
heat recovery ventilator.
I FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
When selling fire extinguishers, you should
find out where the extinguisher is likely to be
used and what kind of fire may be involved
Class A, B or C fire.
Class A firesthe most common types,
they involve ordinary combustibles such as
wood, paper, cloth, rubber and many plastics.
Class B firesinvolve flammable liquids,
gases and greases.
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
8
Class C firesinvolve electrical equipment
or wiring where the electric nonconductivity
of the extinguishing agent is important.
However, when the equipment or wiring is
de-energized, remaining combustion is Class A
or B, and extinguishers for those fires may be
safely used.
A:B:C extinguishers are for multi-purpose
use with most home fires.
Extinguisher Ratings
The most reliable guide to the fire-killing
ability of an extinguisher is the rating
assigned it by UL, which appears on the
equipment nameplate.
Size alone is not a satisfactory measure of
extinguisher effectiveness. Each rating con-
sists of one or more numbers and letters.
The letter tells the class of fire the extin-
guishing agent is designed for; the number
indicates approximate relative extinguishing
potential. For example, an extinguisher
rated 4A is capable of putting out twice as
much burning material as an extinguisher
rated 2A. (The A means Class A.)
The number used for Class B extinguishers
also shows the square footage of a deep-layer
flammable liquid fire that a trained operator
can put out. Class C extinguishers have no
C commercial rating.
The UL ratings also detail how long the
extinguisher can spray. A longer spray time
means the extinguisher will be bulkier and
harder to store.
Types of Extinguishers
Customer education in the use of extin-
guishers is imperative when recommending
a fire extinguisher. Although the extinguish-
er will have stipulations on its use (class of
fire), be sure the customer understands its
limitations. Point out that the variety of
sizes allow an extinguisher to be placed in
any strategic location.
Carbon dioxide extinguisherClass B and
C fires. Has limited range and is affected by
draft and wind.
Dry-chemical extinguisherClass B and C
fires. Includes sodium and potassium bicar-
bonate base agents. Dry-chemical extinguish-
ers marked general-purpose or multi-purpose
can be used on Class A, B and C fires.
Foam extinguisherClass A and B fires.
They are not effective on flammable liquids
and gases escaping under pressure.
The EPA is phasing out halon extinguishers
because halon destroys the ozone layer.
A number of extinguishers are labeled all
purpose or multi-purpose. They use a
fine powder of ammonium phosphate that
is effective against all types of fire. They are
a logical choice, but not as efficient at
extinguishing as the rated units can be for
specific types of fires.
Extinguishers feature a dial-type gauge or a
pressure-check pin to show if the unit has suf-
ficient pressure to operate.
Extinguisher Placement
One fire extinguisher is not enough protec-
tion for a home. Some manufacturers recom-
mend having one extinguisher for every 600
square feet of living space. In addition, home-
owners should also have one for their car,
garage and boat.
It is recommended that multi-purpose, dry-
chemical fire extinguisher units be used
throughout a house as protection against all
types of fires.
Advise customers not to mount a fire extin-
guisher too close to a place fire might occur.
For example: In the kitchen, do not mount it
close to the stove. In the basement, the best
place is at the top of the stairs unless circum-
stances demand that it be near a workshop
area. The user should not risk reaching into a
fire or going into a burning area to get a fire
extinguisher.
Also, caution customers to fight only
minor fires. In case of a serious blaze, all per-
sons should immediately leave the house.
Notify the fire department from a neighbors
home or an alarm box.
Remind consumers to check the gauge
every month to make sure the fire extinguish-
er is ready for use in case of fire.
Fire Safety Ladders
Fire escape ladders are used to escape from
an upper story window. These come in vary-
ing lengths, but most are sold for second-story
rooms. Features include tangle-free designs,
compactness and strength ratings of the lines
and footsteps.
DOOR & WINDOW
HARDWARE
Door Closers
A door closer differs from an ordinary
spring or spring hinge in that it closes the
door at a controlled speed. Common resi-
dential types are pneumatic or hydraulic
piston closers that pull storm and screen
doors closed.
Most operate with a spring and piston.
When the door is pulled open, the spring
inside the cylinder is depressed, thus exert-
ing pressure to pull the door closed auto-
matically. The piston controls the speed
with which the spring returns to its original
position. An adjusting screw allows the
speed of closing to be changed and com-
pensates for normal wear. Better grades
incorporate a speed-up in the last few
inches of travel to close the door tightly.
A closer made for the disabled has an auto-
matic hold-open feature that engages when
the door is opened about 90. A wheelchair
occupant can tap the door again in the open-
ing direction to close it automatically.
More expensive are interior door closers,
with a canister-like apparatus mounted on
the door and a knuckle-joint arm to push
the door closed. They range from light-
weight residential models through expen-
sive commercial types.
A spring-loaded closer can be installed on
existing door hinges by removing the hinge
pin and inserting the closer. A spring pushes
the door closed. An adjusting nut can control
the closing speed. No hardware is exposed
other than two small arms extending from the
new hinge pin. The spring is contained in a
metal casing that replaces the hinge pin tip.
Closer reinforcements are available that
are attached to the frame to provide a
stronger anchor.
Other Door Hardware
Kick, push and pull plates protect the bot-
tom of doors from scuffing, while adding a
decorative touch. Push and pull plates are also
available in a variety of materials, including
brass, stainless steel and anodized aluminum.
Doorstops prevent doors from being
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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opened too wide and damaging walls and
woodwork. They are available in several styles.
A threshold is a strip fastened to the floor
beneath a door, usually required to cover the
joint where two types of floor material meet.
An astragal is a molding or strip; its purpose is
to cover or close the gap between the edges of
a pair of doors. Some types overlap, others
meet at the centerline of the gap.
Screen and Storm Door Hardware
A variety of latches, strikes and pulls are
available as original or replacement hardware
for screen and storm doors. Most are designed
for easy installation and are weather-resistant.
Some latches have keyed locks. Product speci-
fications should be checked, as most are
designed for specific types of doors (wood vs.
aluminum or both) and door thicknesses.
Barn Door Hardware
Special door hardware made of zinc or gal-
vanized, heavy-gauge steel is sold for barns
and outbuildings where rough, heavy-duty
use is required.
It consists of a hanger similar to a four-
wheel trolley with a box-shaped track that acts
as a guide.
Hangers have either roll or ball bearings,
with the latter considered superior. The door
and track hangers are capable of supporting
loads from 100 lbs. to 3,000 lbs.
Barn door track is usually mounted to the
building by brackets, although some track
requires no brackets and is mounted directly
to the building with screws.
In addition to the track and brackets, other
items such as flush pulls, bow handles, stay
rollers, bottom guides, bumper shoes and end
stops are also required.
Flush pulls are used on the wall side
and are set flush in wood doors. Bow han-
dles are located on the front side of the
door. A stay roller guides the door in the
track when it opens and closes. Bumper
shoes protect the door from damage when
it reaches the end stops.
Door Hinges
The hinge required for any job depends
on the design of the door and frame, the
size and weight of the door, and the
amount of traffic expected to use the
door. A standard house door between 60"
and 90" requires three hinges. Sizes range
from about 3" high for a narrow, hollow
core door to 5" for a solid core door
2" thick by 36" wide. The specific type
hinge used depends on the construction of
the door and frame and the general appear-
ance desired by the customer.
Parts of a hinge are the leaves, knuckles,
pin, tips and bearings. The leaves are the flat
components with screw holes to fasten hinge
to the door and jamb. The knuckle is the
cylinder that holds the leaves and the pin. A
hinge can have two to five knuckles depend-
ing on the size of the door. The pin fits into
the knuckle and is the pivot of the hinge.
These three components make up the basic
hinge assembly.
Tips project from the top and bottom of the
pin and their primary purpose is to keep the
pin from falling out of the knuckle. Bearings
are important in heavy-duty hinges because
they lubricate and reduce friction on knuckles.
Plain bearings should be used only on light-
weight and infrequently used doors.
Frictionless, ball and oil-impregnated bearings
are used in heavier applications and need lit-
tle, if any, maintenance.
Brass, bronze and stainless steel hinges are
recommended for both interior and exterior
use; steel hinges should not be used in outside
applications because they may rust.
The four basic types of hinges are full-
mortise, half-mortise, full-surface and
half-surface. Leaves of mortise hinges are
cut into the door and jamb so that the
door and jamb butt together.
A full-mortise hinge is cut into both sides; a
half-mortise hinge is cut into the door; the
other leaf is surface-mounted.
Leaves of a full-surface hinge are
mounted on the surface of both door and
jamb so that the entire hinge is exposed
when the door is closed.
A half-surface hinge mounts with one leaf
on the surface of the door and the other leaf
into a cutout in the jamb.
Specific kinds of hinges commonly used in
homes include:
o Pivot hingesMount at the top and bot-
tom of the door leaving a small wafer of
metal exposed. They are commonly used
on furniture doors or where doors are
intended to be inconspicuous.
o Butt hingesFit between the butt of the
door and the frame with only the hinge pin
exposed on the inside of the door.
o Spring hingesClose the door automatical-
ly; double acting types are commonly used
on cafe doors that swing in both directions.
o Strap hinges-Are specifically for surface
applications and provide greater support for
wide doors.
o Continuous hingesAre also called piano
hinges. Range up to 72" long and fit along
the entire length of the door. Provide pro-
tection against warping and are frequently
used on chest lids and cabinets. For more
information, click (Installing Hinges).
Sliding and Folding
Door Hardware
Sliding doors are used in many applica-
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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DOOR HINGES
Butt Hinge
Full-mortise with
swage (top view)
Strap Hinge
Continuous Hinge
Non-mortise
Butt Hinge
Type of Pivot Hinge
Double Acting
Spring Hinge
Single Acting
Spring Hinge
tions, particularly in situations where swing-
ing doors would take up too much space.
The three basic types are single, two bypass-
ing doors and three bypassing doors. A single
door slides into a pocket built into a wall. Two
bypassing doors require a double track to pro-
vide passage for the doors when they are in
the same position. Three bypassing doors
require a passage equivalent to the width of
two of the door sections.
Folding and bifold doors also slide on a
track and require hinges to connect the
sections.
Most manufacturers package sets with all
necessary hardware. To sell the proper pack-
age, you need to know the size of the open-
ing, thickness and type of door.
For light installations above counters,
between kitchens and dining areas, sliding
panel track can be used.
Special locks are designed for sliding doors.
Some of these offer a system that allows the
doors to be opened slightly for ventilation,
while the door remains locked.
Window Hardware
Window hardware includes such items as
casement operators and locks, sash locks, lifts
and pulls and casement fasteners.
A casement operator is a mechanism to
limit and control the swing of an unlatched
casement and consists of a lever and a handle
crank. One cranks the handle to open the
window and certain models allow the case-
ment to be opened outward without remov-
ing the screen.
Security sash locks come in two types:
crescent and cam action. Both prevent
opening the sash from the outside. All of
this hardware is available in a variety of
metals including wrought or cast brass,
bronze, aluminum and steel, depending
on the item and manufacturer.
Automatic Garage Door
Operators
Automatic garage door operators consist of
a motor unit that, through proper hardware
and linkage, raises and lowers overhead doors
upon command of a control unit.
There are three types of drive mechanisms:
bicycle-type chain and sprocket, plastic strip
and worm-screw drive.
No design has been judged inherently
superior and all work well.
The control unit may be either key or wire-
less operated. If key operated, the driver must
leave the car to unlock the door.
Wireless control, however, is operated from
inside the auto by pushing buttons on a trans-
mitter set on a specific radio frequency. The
driver need not leave the car to open or close
the door. The transmitter starts the opener
motor that lifts the door. An additional con-
trol switch located inside the garage or home
is wired to the unit.
Better units offer a variety of personal secu-
rity codes for improved security, making it
unlikely that another control unit will acci-
dentally open the door.
Quality units also offer safety features such
as overhead lights that automatically switch
on when the door is activated and off after
the person enters the house. Economical mod-
els feature a 1/4-hp motor and heavy-duty
units have a 1/3- or 1/2-hp motor.
Another safety feature is a device that auto-
matically reverses the descent of the door
when it encounters resistance when closing.
All residential garage door openers must incor-
porate an optical sensor and/or door edge sen-
sor as a standard feature. They must also
incorporate sensor failure detection capability
and welded relay detection capability. For
more information, click (Installing Garage
Door Opener).
CABINET
HARDWARE
Cabinet hardware consists of hinges, pulls,
knobs, catches, drawer slides, rotating shelves,
tracks and glides for sliding panels and shelf
rests, and standards and brackets. Cabinet
hardware is manufactured to the American
National Standard Institute standards for
product performance.
Primary differences are style, finish and
type of metal processing, such as casting or
stamping. For example, polished brass knobs
can add a more formal look to a kitchen.
Quality finishes offer greater durability
and are usually electrostatic and baked
lacquer, not air-dried.
Thinly applied finishes may wear or chip,
exposing the plated finish to air and subse-
quent oxidation. Quality knobs and pulls are
cast for finer detail. Stampings are lighter con-
struction and have less detail since stamping
is not as exacting as casting.
Decorative hardware has a continuing mar-
ket for new as well as replacement items.
High-quality decorative items encounter less
price-resistance and offer higher margins.
Cabinet Hinges
There are four basic cabinet door designs
that determine the type of hinge required:
flush-mounted, lipped/inset, flush-overlay or
reverse bevel.
Flush-mounted doors can use full-mortise
butt or full-surface hinges, ornamental strap
hinges and concealed hinges.
Lipped doors are partially recessed into the
opening, with a lip extending around the out-
side of the frame. In this case, the hinge must
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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WINDOW HARDWARE
SECURITY SASH LOCKS
CASEMENT FASTENERS
CASEMENT WINDOW OPERATORS
WINDOW LIFTS & PULLS
Crescent
Cam Action
Surface Mortise Rim
be inset to accommodate the lip. Semi-con-
cealed cabinet hinges are designed so that the
leaf attached to the cabinet frame is exposed
and the leaf attached to the door is concealed.
This means that the hinge must be inset into
the closing side by the thickness that is
recessed into the cabinet.
A surface hinge for a lipped door must be
offset to the outside of the door. Here the off-
set must match the thickness and shape of the
portion of the door that extends outside the
cabinet opening.
Most lipped cabinet doors have a 3/8" inset,
but the customer should measure to be sure
he is buying the right hinge.
Flush-overlay doors (doors that completely
overlay the cabinet frame) can be mounted
with pivot hinges mortised into the top and
bottom of the door. Butt hinges or semi-con-
cealed hinges can also be used.
Reverse bevel doors (finger pull doors)
require a hinge that features a slant on the
door wing that is compatible with the profile
of the cabinet door.
A self-closing feature can be built into sever-
al kinds of hinges. These close the door auto-
matically from about a 10opening. Most
work on a spring-loaded cam principle. They
are made from heavier gauge steel than stan-
dard surface-mounted hinges. Self-closing
hinges are offered in many styles and are
available as direct replacements for standard
hinges. The mounting hole patterns should be
checked to ensure they fit.
Quality features include better materials,
construction and finishes. Five knuckle joints
provide better load distribution and smoother
action. Riveted joint pins and nylon washers
between wings of pivot hinges are other quali-
ty signs. Also, see if the material is heavy
enough to prevent sagging and is resistant to
normal kitchen moisture.
Knobs and Pulls
Knobs and pulls are used on cabinet doors
and drawers as handles. The basic considera-
tion to the customer is usually style, but quali-
ty and design can be important.
Backplates are available for both knobs and
pulls. In addition to being decorative, they
provide additional support for hollow core
doors and drawers.
If the hardware is for replacement, consider-
ation must be given either to using the exist-
ing screw holes or to ensuring that the new
hardware will cover the old holes. A two-screw
cabinet handle, for instance, cannot be
replaced with a single-screw knob, unless a
backplate is included and is large enough to
cover the second hole.
Most cabinet knobs and pulls use #8 screws
for mounting. Pulls are generally on 3"
mounting centers; however this should be
checked before purchasing replacements.
Cabinet Catches
Normal wear and settling can cause almost
any cabinet door to sag. If self-closing hinges
are not used and this happens, the doors will
hang open unless cabinet catches are installed.
Catches come in six types: friction, roller
spring, magnetic, elbow, bullet and touch
(push) catches.
Friction catches hold by pressure of the
catch on the strike. The catch is mounted on a
doorframe, jamb or underside of a shelf. The
strike is mounted on the door so that upon
closing, it is inserted into the catch.
Two common friction catches are alligator
and lever spring-action, which feature two
floating jaws and are self-aligning to compen-
sate for swelling and shrinking of doors.
Roller spring catches are available in single
and double roller types. They feature quiet
operation, easy installation, long life and easy
adaptability to many door and frame designs.
Magnetic catches range in pull from
8 lbs.-40 lbs. The holding power is greatly
reduced if only part of the magnet makes con-
tact with the strike. Therefore, they must be
installed carefully to properly align catch and
strike. Quality magnetic catches feature a
floating or self-adjusting action to ensure
proper alignment and contact.
Elbow catches are mounted on the door
with the strike installed on the frame or on a
shelf. These catches can only be released from
the inside of the cabinet and thus are used on
one side of a pair of doors.
Bullet catches are used primarily on
furniture and smaller cabinet doors
where it is desirable to hide the catch as
much as possible.
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
12
TYPES OF HINGE TIPS
Steeple Tip
Flat Tip
Buton Tip
Finial Tip
Bullet Tip
Turret Tip
Friction Catch
Roller Spring Catch
Clear Picture
Magnetic Catch
Elbow Catch
CABINET HINGES
Touch (push) catches are mounted inside
the cabinet and have no knobs or pulls. By
simply pushing on the door, the catch releases
and the door springs open.
Drawer Slides
Two basic types of drawer slides are mono-
rail and side mounting with various models
available in each type.
Monorail features a single track under the
center of the drawer with drawer rollers on
the left and right side. This type is easy to
install because it requires minimum measur-
ing and templates. It is low in cost and fits
both new and old installations.
A side-mounting version consists of four
tracksone attached to each side or bottom
of the drawer and one on both the left and
right sides of the cabinet. Each track has
rollers on which the drawer rides. Some of
these are available as self-closing slides. These
close when the drawer comes within 4" to 5"
of the back, regardless of the load or its posi-
tion in the drawer.
Quality slides permit little side move-
ment, prevent accidental drawer pullout,
have high quality rollers and are precision-
made to close tolerances.
DRAPERY
HARDWARE
Drapery hardware used to be strictly func-
tional in purpose, and so it was typically kept
out of sight in the home. Todays drapery
hardware is an integral part of a rooms decor,
and manufacturers have responded by intro-
ducing finials, poles, rings, rods and accent
pieces in a wide variety of styles.
Drapery hardware styles tend to follow
trends in wallcoverings and room decor.
Speckled white along with metallic finishes
such as black wrought iron, pewter and brass
are among the popular styles.
Caf Rods
Caf rods are used to hang curtains over
both upper and lower window sashes.
Generally, the curtain is suspended from rings
encircling the rods. Rods and rings are decora-
tive and come in a variety of finishes.
Sizes, varying as to use, range from 3/8" to
1" in diameter, and 28" to 120" long.
Traverse Rods
Traverse rods allow opening and closing of
drapes with a downward pull on a cord.
Explaining the benefits makes selling traverse
rods easy.
Although generally used with heavy
drapes, they can also traverse lightweight
curtains. They can be wall-mounted or
attached to the ceiling. In most traverse
applications, draperies close from each side
of the window to meet in the center. One-
way draw rods, drawing the drape fully to
the left or fully to the right, are used with
patio doors or corner windows.
Traverse rods are made of two telescoping
track sections, adjustable to desired length.
Six sizes cover windows up to 312" wide in
the following ranges: 28" to 48", 48" to 84",
66" to 120", 84" to 156", 156" to 216" and
216" to 312".
Traverse rod variations and accessory kits
allow special action and effects. Some are used
as follows:
o To draw drapes completely clear of the win-
dow at the sides, giving the effect of a wider
window.
o To hold a curtain rod in front of the tra-
verse rod and support a full-width valence.
o To hold a sheer curtain behind the travers-
ing draperies.
o To permit two traverse rods to be mounted
in tandem, for double drapery or for a com-
bination of drapes.
Decorative traverse rods combine func-
tions of the cord-operated traverse rod with
the decorative beauty of a caf rod. Sizes
range from 3/4" to 1-1/2" in diameter and
28" to 312" long. They are available in a
number of metallic finishes, as well as
painted and unfinished wood.
Curtain Hardware
Curtain rods support curtains or draperies
in a fixed position. Curtain rods, which used
to be concealed by the curtains or drapes, are
now designed to be exposed. They can be
mounted on the casing or wall above any
window. Curtain rods are the highest volume
sellers in drapery hardware.
Single or double rods are available in
lengths of 18" to 120" with rod extenders in
lengths of 28" to 156". When rod extenders
are sold, additional curtain rod supports
should be recommended. Supports should be
placed at least every 48". Special rods include
bay window rods, double curtain rods, curved
curtain rods and swinging drapery cranes.
Clear rods are made from extruded plastic and
are used for ultra-sheer and lace curtains.
The swinging drapery crane is a versatile
curtain rod. Adjusting positions permit it to
swing and project outward to keep curtains
clear of Venetian blinds; to push close to wall;
to lengthen or shorten to suit drapery width;
and to tilt out to allow easy window or trim
washing. The drapery crane is excellent for
French doors or windows.
Other special rods are spring pressure
and sash rods. Strong springs hold the
adjustable tension rods in place when they
must be mounted inside the window casing
or when screws cannot be used to hold
brackets. Sash rods are generally used to
hold the top and bottom of curtains station-
ary and close to the window.
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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DRAPERY HARDWARE
Traverse Rods
Curtain Rod
Caf Rods
DRAPERY HOOKS
Slpi-on Hook Pin-on Hook
Pleater Hook
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
14
Wood pole rods are generally available in
7/8", 1-3/8" and 2" diameters. These have a
painted, stained or natural finish. They are
used with rings for pleated draperies and with
high headers.
Extra-wide rods are available in 4-1/2" and
2-1/2" sizes and are inserted into fabric head-
ings of 5" or 3", providing a stationary look.
They can be used for valances or a combina-
tion of valance and side panels and are often
used in combination with two or three rods to
give a cornice look.
Accessories
Drapery hardware accessories add sales vol-
ume. They include rings, hooks, tiebacks,
holdbacks, chains, pleater tape and weights.
Rings must be 1/4" larger in diameter than
the rod for free movement. Some have eyelets
for insertion of a drapery hook. Ring clips are
oval or round. When pressed on the sides,
prongs open; when pressure is released the
prongs grasp the top of the drapery.
Hooks have three basic patterns. (See
Drapery Hooks sidebar.)
One side of a slip-on hook fits over a rod or
into an eyelet on the rod. The drapery head-
ing fits between the two close-facing shanks
on the opposite side of the hook.
The pin-on works the same way except that
the drapery heading is hooked into the sharp
pin, which is opposite to the side that hangs
on the rod.
The pleater hook is used with pleater tape
sewn to the drapery heading. Three or four
prongs, or shanks, form pleats when the head-
ing is placed onto the shanks.
Appropriate fasteners for these items
include hollow wall screw anchors, toggles,
and plastic and lead anchors. These work well
in drywall, plaster walls, concrete block and
other masonry materials.
Swagholders are used to make decorative
window treatments with ordinary fabric by
draping and forming poufs, rosettes, bishops
sleeves and festoons.
UTILITY HARDWARE
Mailboxes
Two factors are important in selecting the
proper mailbox. First, will the box be placed
in an area fully exposed to the elements?
Second, will the style complement the house?
If the box is to be exposed to weather, it
must be made of rust-resistant material such
as aluminum or galvanized steel. It must also
protect the mail from rain and snow.
If the box is to be mounted on a brick
or masonry wall, suggest lead wood screw
anchors, single expansion shields, lag
screw anchors or nylon and aluminum
drive pin anchors.
Rural mailboxes are medium or large size,
generally made of heavy galvanized or painted
steel or aluminum.
All rural mailboxes must be made of a non-
corrosive material. If the box is made of steel,
it is always galvanized. A painted steel box has
galvanized steel as the base metal.
Style is also important in choice of a rural
box. Many are finished in automotive enamel
paint for a colorful, durable finish.
After selling a rural mailbox, always ask the
customer if they need a mounting post.
Wrought iron posts offer an attractive appear-
ance and long life. Wooden posts should be
chemically treated for long life.
Two more add-on items to suggest are
enamel plates and stick-on letters for street
name and numbers.
Large 4" high house numbers, coated with
the same reflective material used on traffic
signs, may be suggested as an add-on sale for
the house or mailbox. These make identifica-
tion easy at night.
Plastic mailboxes, some with plastic poles,
are also available.
Furniture Glides
Glides, which allow furniture to move more
easily, are available in four basic types: three-
prong, cushion, glides and pads.
The three-prong glide is hammered into
the legs of light furniture. It is easy to install
and easy to remove.
The cushion glide, which is for heavier use,
is mounted by hammering a nail portion
deeply into the furniture leg. A cushion glide
for caster holes is the best type for heavy fur-
niture. The socket above the glide replaces
normal stem-type casters.
Some glides have a tilting stem with a 40
range of movement. These glides are made for
furniture with angled legs so that the base of
the glide sits flat on the floor.
Rubber leg tips and heavy-duty, self-adhe-
sive nylon or felt pads offer softer protection
for walls and floors. Pads can be pre-cut into
small or large discs, pre-cut into mini-discs for
use in kitchen cabinet doors and drawers, pre-
cut into narrow strips for rocking chairs or cut
according to need.
Casters
Casters are used to provide mobility for
heavy furniture. The addition of casters or dol-
lies to refrigerators and other heavy appliances
make it possible to move appliances to clean
under or behind them.
Casters can be suggested for other uses such
as tool chests, beds, planter dollies, work-
benches and shelving units for mobility and
convenience.
The type of caster to be used depends
on the weight of the item, floor surface
and the method by which it is attached to
the furniture.
You should recommend the largest size
caster consistent with furniture style. Large
casters are stronger and provide movement
that is more efficient. If the casters are to be
used on furniture, such as chairs or sofas, con-
sider occupied weight rather than weight of
the furniture piece alone.
If a caster is being purchased as replacement
item, upgrade the quality. Most furniture is
originally equipped with less than top-quality
casters. Also, consider the amount of use. If
CASTER WHEEL TYPES
AND APPLICATIONS
STYRENE Non-resilient, smooth-faced plas-
tic. Harmless to floor coverings. Used on hard
surface or carpet. Light-duty application.
PHENOLIC Hard-surface thermoplastic.
Used on carpeted floors. Suitable for heavy
furniture, office chairs, etc.
SOFT-RUBBER Soft rubber tread bonded to
a hard composition core. Recommended for
hard surface floors and vinyl coverings.
HARD RUBBER HEAVY-DUTY
APPLICATION Can be used on any floor
surface.
DIE-CAST METALFor use on carpeted floors.
item is to be moved often, heavier-duty equip-
ment is necessary.
Caster Types
The three types of casters are stem, plate
and insert. The terminology refers to the way
the caster is attached to the furniture.
Stem casters use a socket adapter, which is
inserted into a hole in the furniture. The stem
of the caster then slides into the socket. The
top end of the socket snaps into a small ridge
in the stem.
Plate casters are designed to be attached to
the furniture with screws or bolts.
The primary benefit of molded plastic
inserts (sockets) is their flexibility. Sockets,
which are available in diameters between 1/2"
and 1", adapt to inside diameters of furniture
legs. While most are made of polyethylene,
sockets are also available in steel.
Caster Wheels
Caster wheels come in a variety of diame-
ters and materials with a multitude of uses. To
select the proper wheel, consideration must be
given to load requirements, type of flooring
and amount of floor protection needed.
Caster wheels are made of soft rubber,
plastic or metal. Soft rubber wheels are rec-
ommended for asphalt tile, hardwood
floors, etc. Non-marking plastic wheels are
recommended for rugs and carpeted floors.
Metal wheels are desirable where casters
will carry heavy loads or where protection
of the flooring is not important.
Furniture Legs
Steady interest in repairing and refin-
ishing old furniture or in making furni-
ture in a home workshop makes furniture
legs important items. They are available
in two main types: splayed (for slanted
usage) and straight.
They come in materials such as wrought
iron, unfinished wood and tubular steel in a
large assortment of styles such as Early
American, plain, square, round, tapered, etc.,
and in lengths ranging from 4" to 28".
Legs are also available for a variety of
tablesgame, picnic, folding, pedestal, etc.
Add-on items include paints, stains, brush-
es, tools and other accessories.
Household Lubricants
With so many household tools, appliances,
locks and other mechanical equipment
around a home, knowledge of proper use of
household lubricants is important.
In advising a customer about a lubricant,
find out how and where it will be used. For
example, if the problem is a sticking dresser
drawer, where clothing might be present,
suggest a product that will not stain cloth-
ing or warn the customer of the possibility
of staining.
The following list will help you select the
right specialty lubricant for your customers:
Stainless stick lubricantApply to exposed
surfaces of metal, rubber, wood, glass and plas-
tic. It will not stain fabrics and is applied like a
crayon to sticking doors, windows, drawers
and zippers.
Lock fluidProtects locks against sticking,
rusting and freezing. Contains graphite in a
fluid that penetrates to every part of the lock.
May be used on other intricate mechanisms
such as guns and machinery. When locks are
frozen, use a lock de-icer. Locks should always
be lubricated after using a lock de-icer because
it leaves metal parts dry.
All-purpose oilPetroleum-based liquid
protects against rust, penetrating to loosen
rust, and then lubricating. Available in cans
and aerosol sprays.
Dripless oilPerforms the same functions
as all-purpose oil but does not drip after appli-
cation because liquid carrier evaporates and
leaves a full-bodied film. Excellent for hinges
and typewriters.
Silicone lubricantWeatherproof lubricant
works on many materials. Comes in aerosol or
grease form.
Dielectric siliconeCompound is formulat-
ed with a specially selected silicone-based fluid
and is resistant to oxidation, thermal degrada-
tion and a broad range of chemicals. It can be
used to lubricate and insulate electrical con-
nectors and ignition components, and pro-
vides moisture seal for joining extension cords
for outdoor holiday decorations. Also, use on
base of outdoor floodlights to prevent mois-
ture, corrosion and sticking in the base.
Graphite-Black powder that is one of the
most effective lubricants available for surface
application. Usually comes in small plastic
puffer-gun tubes. Graphite lubricant is unaf-
fected by heat or cold and can be used on
wood, metal, rubber, plastic or leather. Care
must be taken in the application of graphite
since it can be messy.
Closet Hardware
Closet hardware includes such products as:
pole sockets for mounting wooden clothes
poles; combination brackets that support both
a closet shelf and clothes pole; brackets specif-
ically designed to hold clothes poles up to 1"
in diameter; spring tension rods; adjustable
clothes bars with mounting hardware; and
special hooks for hanging hats, light clothing,
towels, etc. For more information, click
(Designing a Closet Organizer).
Shelf Hardware
With household storage space at a premium
in many homes, shelf hardware is becoming
increasingly important. One of the most pop-
ular types is adjustable shelving consisting of
standards and brackets.
Standards are pre-slotted metal strips
attached to the wall, preferably into wall
studs. However, they can also be attached
with toggle bolts or similar fasteners, approxi-
mately 16" apart. If the standards must be fur-
ther than 16" apart, the shelves may not sup-
port heavy loads. A newer variation on the
wall standard includes a mounting rail that is
fastened across the studs. The standard then
clips directly into the rail or an adapter may
be required. A fastener is usually required at
the bottom of the standard for stability. This
system requires fewer fasteners and can be
placed almost anywhere.
Brackets fit into the slots on the standards
and serve as supports for the shelves. A flexi-
ble storage system can be built with standards
and brackets that are easily removed and repo-
sitioned by pushing up and lifting out.
So-called invisible shelving systems offer
fashionable ways to put shelving into living
areas. These systems mount brackets directly
on the walls to support wood or glass shelv-
ing. They are not suggested for heavy sup-
port jobs.
Standards can also be mounted in cabinets,
closets or bookcases. In these locations, short
clips are substituted for regular brackets in a
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
15
system called pilasters and clips. They are
adjustable on 1/2" centers rather than the
standard 1" centers. Another form of shelf
support is a Z bracket, so named because of its
configuration. It is frequently used for utility
shelving in basements or garages because of
the support it offers and because of its cost-
estimated at about one-third that of a wall
standard and bracket system.
Floor-to-ceiling standards can be used
to create room dividers. These pieces are
double-slotted and come in lengths rang-
ing from 76"-12'.
In selling standards and brackets, do
not overlook the extra sales from prefin-
ished shelving available with most lines
of hardware.
Finishes include anodizing, simulated wood
grain and vivid decorator colors on both alu-
minum and steel. Brackets designed with
curves are another suggestion for more deco-
rative uses.
Suggest hollow wall screw anchors and tog-
gles to fasten standards to drywall and hollow
block walls; lead screw anchors for brick, stone
and masonry walls. For more information, click
(Building Shelves).
Picture Hangers
Nail hangers consist of a piece of metal
with a hook on the lower end of a twist and
loop that forms a hole through which the nail
is driven. Depending on the size, this type will
hold from 10 lbs.-100 lbs.
Adhesive hanger is an aluminum hook
built into the lower end of an adhesive strip.
The strip will stick to any clean, flat surface
like glass, wood or metal. Hanger is designed
for light-duty use only.
Adjustable hanger is a piece of flat metal
with cuts or serrations along either edge
that attaches to the back of a picture frame.
Serrations allow picture to be adjusted on a
nail or screw for balanced hanging. They are
for light-duty use only.
Utility hanger is a hook that has an eye
drilled into the flat upper piece for nailing or
screwing to wall. Light to medium use.
A hook anchor for light to medium use
is made of polypropylene and can be used
in hollow or solid walls. It will hold mir-
rors and pictures.
Hardwall hanger is a plastic hook with case-
hardened pins that can drive into brick or
concrete walls to hold light- and medium-
weight mirrors and pictures.
Flush mount hanger has two pieces of
formed metal. One piece mounts to the pic-
ture and the other to the wall. These pieces
interlock to create a high-load system.
Cable Ties
Nylon cable ties (also called wire tying
straps or tie straps) are one-piece bands with
self-locking catches or heads on one end.
Cable ties are available in different widths and
lengths to accommodate various bundle diam-
eter sizes. They can be used on just about any-
thing that needs to be tied up, tied down or
held in placefrom cables, hoses, tubes and
repair equipment to hanging plants, staking
trees and rose bushes or vines. Natural, col-
ored and fluorescent ties are used indoors
while UV (sunlight resistant) black ties are
used outdoors.
Releasable ties are designed for temporary
fastening jobs.
Mounting bases can be used with stan-
dard cable ties to fix wire bundles to sup-
port structures or other surfaces.
Mounting bases are adhesive-backed for
quick anchoring and contain molded
knockout screw holes for extra power.
Cable tie tools make the use of cable ties
easier and more convenient. These tensioning
tools pull the cable ties tight and snap off the
excess length.
Support Hardware
Another group of products includes metal
plates and braces specifically designed to be
used as reinforcement in a variety of applica-
tions. Available in an assortment of sizes,
shapes and finishes, they include t-plates, cor-
ner braces, mending plates, triple corner
braces and chair leg braces. They are packaged
with or without mounting hardware.
CHAIN & CORDAGE
Welded Chain
Welded chain means the individual link is
welded to form a continuous loop. It is manu-
factured in these basic grades: proof coil, high-
test, transport and alloy.
Proof coil is the type most commonly
found in hardware stores and home cen-
ters. As an all-purpose chain, it is general-
ly used for log chains, tow chains,
guardrail chains, tailgate chains and
switch chains. It is not intended for use as
a sling or overhead lifting chain.
Chain is rated according to working load in
pounds. The most common styles of welded
chain are straight link machine or coil, pass-
ing link and twist link machine or coil.
Welded straight link coil chain is available
in many gauges and link sizes. It is popular for
general use because it has good strength.
Twist link coil chain links are twisted at uni-
form angles. The slight twist in the links tends
to make the chain more flexible and prevents
the entire chain from twisting and knotting in
use. Machine chain has a shorter link but is
otherwise similar in appearance to coil chain.
Passing link is made with links sufficiently
wide to permit the links to pass each other
easily, keeping kinking and tangling to a mini-
mum. It is used extensively on farm machin-
ery, for swing chain and for animal tie-out.
Weldless Chain
Weldless chain is formed by bending, twist-
ing or knotting the metal to form individual
links. It is recommended for light work only,
and is usually stocked as flat chain, double
loop coil and single loop coil chain.
Weldless flat chain, which is commonly
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
16
TYPES OF CHAINS
Single Jack Chain
Sash Chain
Twist Link Coil Chain
Double Loop
Coil Chain
Double Jack Chain
Passing Link Chain
Straight Link
Coil Chain
Lock Link Chain
Safety Chain
called sash chain, is made by stamping or
shaping a flat strip from metal. These strips
are then formed into links and attached to
each other. Sash chain is especially suited for
use over pulleys or where chain must lie flat.
Double loop wire chain is made of
light- gauge wire with the links formed by
knotting or tying the wire to the desired
link size. It is one of the most popular
chains because of its versatility. It is com-
monly used for dog runners, swing sets,
playground uses and padlocks.
Safety or plumbers chain is a stamped, flat
link chain used to attach plumbing fixtures
and for general utility purposes.
Decorator chain, which can hold up to 50
pounds, is available in several finishes and can
be used for such things as hanging lamps,
flower baskets and chandeliers. The links can
be easily opened with household pliers.
I CORDAGE
Cordage products, with minor variations,
come in three basic constructions: braided
cords and ropes, twisted ropes and plied
twines. All of these constructions may be
done with a variety of natural and synthetic
fibers. Each type of construction and fiber has
some basic feature that makes it better for cer-
tain applications.
Braided Cords and Ropes
Braiding is a variation of weaving that inter-
locks the fibers making cords and ropes that
will not unravel. They will not turn under a
load, making them less likely to kink than
twisted or cabled cords and ropes.
Braided cords may be made with or with-
out a center filler that will give additional
diameter or strength. Braiding may be done
in small diameters, matching the sizes of
cable cords, such as #18 and #21. In larger
diameters, from 1/16" and up, cords may be
sized by fractions of an inch, or a number
representing the number of 32nds of an
inch. A #4 braided cord, then, is 4/32" or
1/8". A #8 is 8/32" or 1/4".
Three general categories of braids are avail-
able: diamond braid with a core, diamond
braid without a core (hollow braid) and solid
braid. The easiest to manufacture is diamond
braid, also known as maypole braid, because
its over and under weave is similar in appear-
ance to the way the maypole dance is per-
formed. Diamond braid is frequently used for
drapery cord or Venetian blind cord or as low-
cost clothesline. The best feature of hollow
braid is the fact it splices easily.
Solid braid is firm, round and tightly
woven so it will not unravel when cut or torn.
Solid braided rope works well over pulleys and
has the best abrasion resistance. When the
rope and the core are braided, it is known as
double braid construction, the strongest
and most expensive type of rope.
Twisted Ropes
Twisted ropes are formed by coiling three
strands together in the same direction. The
fibers within each of the three strands must
twist in the opposite direction as the strands
to produce a balanced rope (one that resists
kinking and hangs straight). It must be fused
and taped on each end to prevent unraveling.
Twisted ropes are used where larger diameters
are required for major loads.
Sisal twisted rope can be used where it is
likely to be discarded after each use and
strength is unimportant. It should not be
used where personal safety or valuable prop-
erty is involved. Sisal has good resistance to
sunlight and stretches little. Polypropylene
has largely displaced sisal in low-cost usage.
Sisal is used in gardening, bundling and
shipping applications.
Manila is the most frequently used natu-
ral fiber in twisted rope today. While it
must be handled with care to prevent rot
and mildew, it has excellent resistance to
surface heat. It will burn before it melts, so
heavy loading on capstans and pulleys will
not fuse the strands together. It stretches lit-
tle and holds knots firmly.
Polypropylene twisted rope is less expen-
sive than other rope fibers, making it a pop-
ular all-purpose rope. Polypropylene floats
and is easy to produce in colors; it can be
used as safety rope, marker rope in the
water or other uses where high visibility is
required. It has a relatively low melting
point, so is not the best product to use on
heavily loaded pulleys, where friction may
fuse the outer jacket. It is resistant to rot
and mildew and no precautions are needed
to dry before storage. Polypropylene is not
as strong as polyester or nylon, but is two to
three times stronger than manila.
Nylon twisted rope is the most versatile of
all because of its strength. A 1/2" nylon rope is
stronger than a 5/8" polypropylene rope.
Additionally, nylon has very good shock
resistance, which means sudden jerks are less
likely to damage the rope or cause failure.
Nylon has excellent resistance to abrasion,
which makes it more durable than other fibers
in applications where rubbing is likely to
occur. Nylons extra durability and strength
it lasts four to five times longer than natural
fibersoften justify its extra cost. Like
polypropylene, nylon has good resistance to
most chemicals and will not rot or mold
when wet.
When stretched, nylon has a tendency to
return to its original length, making it excel-
lent for lifting or towing. However, nylons
stretch makes it inappropriate for some appli-
cations, and it can snap back. It should not be
used on winches or bits, nor attached to
hooks or chain.
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
17
CHAIN ACCESSORIES
Clevis Hook Eye Hook
Cold Shut
Repair Link (Top and Side View) Ratchet Load Binder Lever Load Binder
Polyester twisted rope has strength similar
to nylon. It will stretch less than nylon, but at
the expense of poorer shock load capacity.
However, it has a good resistance to abrasion
and sunlight. Polyester is the top choice for
general-purpose boating applications.
Twine
Twine is made by plying (twisting) yarns
together to make a single, continuous strand.
The basic benefit of twine is price. It is the
simplest cordage product to make, so it nor-
mally costs less. Because it is twisted just once,
it is prone to unravel with use. For that rea-
son, it is not recommended for reuse; suggest-
ed uses include wrapping a roast, tying pack-
ages or establishing a line in the garden.
Twine may be any number of plies. The
more plies of the same yarn, the stronger the
twine. A 16-ply #8 thread cotton twine is
twice as strong as an 8-ply #8 thread twine.
Twine is available in several fibers. Sisal was
once popular because it was extremely low in
cost. That low-cost advantage has been
replaced by polypropylene, which is stronger
and lasts longer. Jute twine is soft and inex-
pensive, making it useful where large amounts
are needed.
Sisal is still available and sold primarily
in rural areas. It is used when the ability
to rot away is important, such as tying a
bale of hay left for fodder in the field. For
general applications, polypropylene
twines are more economical.
Cotton and cotton-blend twines are
particularly useful when softness and
average strength is important. Softness
means the twine wont readily cut the
item being wrapped, such as a roast of
beef or a garden plant. It also is kinder to
the hands of the user. Cotton holds knots
well, and it will burn before it melts, mak-
ing it best for tying meats.
Jute twine is soft and inexpensive, making
it useful where large amounts are needed,
such as in the garden and around plants. Jute
will rot away in a single season, so it wont
accumulate in garden beds.
Cable cords can be thought of as twist-
ing three twines together. This additional
twisting produces a product that is both
stronger and more durable than a single-
stage twine. It is usually sized by the total
number of #8 cotton threads.
Because it is three strands, the size number
will always be divisible by 3, such as #18, #21,
etc. Nylon twine is a cable-cord construction
and is sized to match the equivalent diameter
of cotton.
Cable cords are used when reuse or contin-
uous use is likely. Masons lines, used to estab-
lish a level line for a course of brick, and chalk
lines are two key applications. Cotton cable
cords are particularly suited for chalk lines;
cotton does not have to be rechalked as often.
Nylon cable cord, usually called nylon
seine twine or nylon masons line, is far
stronger than cotton. In feet per dollar, it
is cheaper. Nylon wont rot, and with-
stands abrasion well. It has an elasticity
that allows it to accept sudden jerks with-
out breaking as easily as cotton.
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
18
SUGGESTIONS FOR USING ROPE
Select best rope for specific job. The wrong
size and quality of rope is extravagant and
unsafe. As rope becomes worn, its safe work-
ing load decreases.
Uncoil rope properly. Lay coil flat with inside end
of rope nearest the deck. Loosen lashings and cov-
ering. Reach down through center of coil and pull
rope up through from inside the coil.
Dry rope before storing. Manila ropes mildew
and decay if stored wet; a cool, dry room with
free air circulation provides the best storage.
Reverse rope ends regularly, particularly when
used in tackle. This permits even wearing and
assures longer useful life. Should a short sec-
tion become badly worn, cut it out and splice
with a long or short splice as appropriate.
FOLLOW THESE RULES FOR GOOD CARE
Keep rope clean. Dont drag rope over ground
or other rough gritty surfaces. This allows abra-
sive particles to work into the rope and damages
fibers. If rope becomes dirty, wash it and dry it
thoroughly before storing.
Prevent kinks which cause permanent damage
and weakening of the rope. If rope is continual-
ly twisted in one direction, as over a winch,
counteract it by throwing in twist in opposite
direction.
Protect rope from chemicals such as acids, alkalis, oils,
paints and other agents not chemically neutral.
Avoid sudden strains. Jerking may cause failure of a
rope normally strong enough to handle the load.
When using tackle or slings, apply a steady, even
pull to get full strength from rope.
Strength Ratings
All cordage products are rated as to expect-
ed strength, with standards set by the Cordage
Institute. Tensile or breaking strength is the
load that will break a brand new, never-knot-
ted cord or rope. Since all ropes age, and are
weakened somewhat by winding on a reel,
running over pulleys or tying, only a small
fraction of the breaking strength should be
considered for safe loading use.
Many manufacturers suggest a range of
working loads that may be 10 to 30 percent of
breaking strength. The lower number should
not be exceeded if rope failure might result in
injury or loss of property. The higher number
can be used if rope failure will only be an
inconvenience. Knots reduce the breaking
strength of rope as much as 40 percent.
Because of this, splicing is preferred to knot-
ting. Sharp bends also greatly reduce the
strength of a rope.
In any case, all ropes and cords eventually
fail. They should be examined frequently for
cuts, worn spots and discoloration that would
indicate chemical deterioration. At the first
sign of wear, they should be replaced.
Twisted ropes require a little extra effort
when cutting to prevent unraveling. The
three strands need to be secured in some
way or they will unwind, creating needless
loss of product.
Taping the location of the cut with plastic
electrical tape before cutting works well. Just
make certain the tape extends about twice the
diameter on either side of the cut.
Synthetic ropes may be cut-actually melted
through-with a hot knife that is simply a
modified tip for soldering guns. This melting
not only cuts the rope, but also fuses the
strands together, making taping unnecessary.
The tips are usually available from a synthetic
rope manufacturer.
Chain And Cordage Accessories
The most commonly used chain accessories
are clevis hooks, either grab or slip styles.
Clevis hooks attach directly to welded
chain, eliminating the requirement for an
additional attachment or fitting.
Load binders provide more control in bind-
ing and releasing without extra tools.
Eye hooks, both slip and grab, use a mid-
link or similar product to connect directly to
the chain and are still widely used.
Cold shuts can be used as temporary repair
links. Use one size larger than the proof coil
chain with which it is to be used. Cold shuts
can also be used to couple light attachments.
They are not to be used on chains used for
securing loads.
Repair links are temporary repair links used
to couple light attachments. They also should
not be used for securing loads.
Pulleys and circular metal wheels with
grooved edges are also common cordage
accessories.
SCREENING
MATERIALS
Most screening is aluminum or fiberglass,
with galvanized steel and bronze also avail-
able. Standard widths range from 24" to 48",
with 54", 60" and 72" available as special
orders. Aluminum and fiberglass are rustproof
and will last longer than galvanized screening
under normal usage.
Aluminum screening is resilient, rustproof,
fire resistant and melt-proof (at temperature of
a match). Aluminum comes in three standard
finishes: bright aluminum, charcoal and black.
The standard replacement screen for windows
with aluminum screens is the bright finish,
but many manufacturers also offer windows
with charcoal and black aluminum.
Black finish offers the best outward visi-
bility and is recommended for decks,
patios, porches or other applications
where visibility is of utmost importance.
Aluminum screening is generally available
as a standard 18 x 16 mesh (number of
strands per square inch), which is small
enough to screen out most insects.
Fiberglass screening is rustproof, corrosion
proof and flame retardant. Fiberglass screening
is also available in a variety of meshes and col-
ors. An extra heavy-duty fiberglass screen is
designed to withstand the abuse of pets.
Like aluminum, standard meshes are 18 x
16 and the two most popular colors are silver
gray and charcoal. Fiberglass screening is also
available in a fine-woven 20 x 20 mesh used
primarily in coastal areas where very tiny fly-
ing insects are a problem. For large areas such
as pool enclosures, a strong 18 x 14 mesh is
also available. Some meshes and colors of
fiberglass are also available on special order in
78" and 84" widths.
Bronze screening offers a nostalgic look for
accenting old homes. Made of 90 percent cop-
per and 10 percent zinc, the screen weathers
to a dark bronze finish.
For years, the standard packaging for insect
screening was rolls of 100 lineal feet. Retailers
cut off whatever length was required by a cus-
tomer. While many retailers still carry both
aluminum and fiberglass in 100' rolls, more
are offering screening in pre-cut and individu-
ally packaged rolls.
Pre-cut rolls come in a variety of sizes,
but those 84" in length provide enough to
repair most windows and doors. Most man-
ufacturers also offer pre-cut and packaged
rolls in 25' lengths.
Racks are available for measuring and cut-
ting required amounts of screening material
off large 100' rolls. These racks are available
with counters that measure the screen as
you pull it across a roller wheel and with a
cutting table to conveniently cut the screen
once it is measured.
A screening tool is a handy device when
tackling door or window screening installation
jobs. The small tool features a cylindrical han-
dle (typically wooden) and bladed wheels on
each end. One wheel is tapered at the edge to
help push the screening into the proper slot of
the frame. For more information, click
(Working with Screens).
Solar Screening
Solar screening is available as a louvered
aluminum material or a fiberglass ribbed-
weave mesh. These products are used in place
of regular insect screening and block out most
of the suns heat and light while still serving
as an insect barrier. In addition to offering
energy savings, solar screen reduces glare and
fading and offers daytime privacy.
Aluminum screening can reduce incoming
heat by as much as 87 percent, fiberglass solar
screening by as much as 70 percent.
Solar screening is generally available in the
same widths and colors as regular screening. It
is available in bulk rolls of 50 or 100 linear
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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feet. In addition, several manufacturers offer
solar screening in pre-cut d-i-y packaging.
Hardware Cloth
Hardware cloth has numerous uses, includ-
ing attic ventilation, foundation vents, securi-
ty screens, and protective panels for screen
doors, tree guards and straining applications.
It is available in galvanized steel or aluminum
and may be found in the following meshes:
2 x 2, 3 x 3, 4 x 4 and 8 x 8 (number of
squares per linear inch). Common widths are
from 24"-48" in 100-foot rolls.
Plastic hardware cloth is also available, with
meshes from 1/8" x 1/8"-1" x 1". Plastic hard-
ware cloth will not rust, rot or corrode and
has no sharp edges. Plastic hardware cloth is
available in dark green and crystal colors.
FENCING &
ACCESSORIES
Lawn Fencing
Lawn or utility fencing offers homeowners
inexpensive protection for shrubs, trees and
flowerbeds as well as sturdy backing for split
rail fences. It comes in several forms.
One form is galvanized or vinyl-coated 14-
gauge wire in 2" x 4" mesh. Another form is a
bright-finished 2" x 2" woven wire 14- or 16-
gauge fence with a smooth knot.
Vinyl-coated fence withstands harsh weath-
er and does not need painting or other main-
tenance. It is available in green or white rather
than the metallic finish of galvanized fencing.
Plastic lawn fence is available in a 2" square
mesh design and a 1" diamond mesh. Both
are available in white and green colors. It will
not rust, rot or corrode and has no sharp
edges to harm pets or children.
Lawn fencing is also available in single-loop
and double-loop construction. Single-loop has
strands about 6" apart. Double-loop is the same
from center to top; but from center to bottom,
a second loop provides twice as many strands.
Lawn fencing stands 36" to 48" high.
For more information, click (Building
Wood Fences).
Wire Fencing
The primary advantage of welded wire fab-
ric is that it can be taken down, rerolled and
reused. It is stronger than woven fencing.
Homeowners find it serves well for fencing off
childrens play areas, for protecting shrubs and
young trees and for storing leaves for mulch.
It is galvanized or vinyl-coated in heavy 14-
gauge 2" x 1" or 12-1/2-gauge 4" x 2" mesh. It
is typically sold in 50' rolls, 36" or 48" high.
Garden Fencing
A welded, galvanized fencing designed to
keep small predatory animals out of the gar-
den has a large 4" square mesh at the top and
a small (about 1") mesh extending 12" up
from ground level. This fine mesh can be
buried several inches below ground to keep
burrowing animals out of the garden. The
fencing is available in heights from 24"-50"
and sold in 50' rolls.
Other specialty fencing is designed to be
used as tomato cages. It has large mesh that
allows easy access to the plant. Vertical stays
are 12- and 14-gauge for strength. Horizontal
wires are 14-gauge for easy cutting. The weld-
ed, galvanized fencing material comes in rolls.
Plastic tomato mesh encircles the tomato
plant to allow easy access while providing
support to the plant. It has 2" square mesh
openings and is available in white.
Plastic seedling protection fence provides a
strong barrier against small animals while let-
ting sun, air and water nourish seedlings. It
has 1/4" holes to provide light.
Plastic flower trellis makes an attractive trel-
lis when enclosed in a wood frame. It comes
in rolls of 24" with a 2" square mesh.
Diamond Weave Fencing
Diamond weave or diamond mesh fencing
is used where extra strong fencing with
extremely close spacing is required. It is fre-
quently used in public areas because it is more
expensive than ordinary fencing but lasts
much longer. Its appearance is similar to chain
link fencing.
Diamond weave fencing can be vinyl-coat-
ed or galvanized and comes in 50' rolls 36" or
48" high.
Farm Fencing
Farm fencing, which is used primarily for
livestock control, ranges from 26"- 72" high.
Horizontal wires are called bars and vertical
wires are called stays. Most types are made
with a hinged pattern, with bars ranging from
6"-12" apart. Plastic farm fence-used for tem-
porary corrals as well as safety fencing and
lawn and garden fence-has a 2" x 1" rectangu-
lar mesh pattern, with smooth edges to pro-
tect livestock. Heights range from 48"- 72".
Poultry Netting
Poultry netting consists of a hexagon weave
with a continuous twist. Its mesh ranges from
1" to 2". Netting is available in heights ranging
from 12" to 72". Although since confining
poultry is no longer a major use, netting is the
lowest-priced wire mesh available and has
many other uses.
Horse Fencing
Horse fencing is 2" to 4" woven wire fence
with a smooth knot to prevent damage to
horses. Sometimes referred to as non-climb
fence, it comes in 11- and 12-gauge in heights
from 36" to 72". It can also be used in kennels
and as lawn and garden fencing.
Barbed Wire
Barbed wire consists of two strands of twist-
ed wire, normally 12-1/2 to 15-1/2 gauge, with
sharp barbs placed at 5"-6" intervals. Barbs are
available in 2- and 4-point sizes. Used most
often for livestock control, barbed wire is also
used as a security measure on tops and bot-
toms of fences to prevent or hinder fence
climbing by intruders.
Chain Link
Chain link is a durable, trouble-free type of
fencing that offers safety and security. The
interlocking wire mesh of the chain link is
well known, but installation requires some
expertise. How-to booklets are available from
manufacturers. The following information
answers general questions a customer may ask
about installation.
Gate and corner posts are usually set 2"
inside the property line, and line posts 2-1/4"
inside the line. Fence fabric (mesh) should be
fastened to posts on the side away from the
customers property.
Line posts are generally set 24" into the
ground, with an 8" diameter at the top, flaring
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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out to 10" at the bottom.
Gate and corner posts are set 30" into the
ground, with 10" diameter at top and 12" at
bottom. Posts should be set in concrete.
Space posts evenly but not more than 10'
apart. Tie wires, holding the fabric to the top
rail, are spaced 24" apart. Wires, which hold
the fencing to the vertical line posts, are
spaced 12" to 18" apart. Tension bands hold
fence fabric to end posts.
If the customer intends to install the fence
himself, he will need a fence stretcher for best
results. This is a good rental item to suggest.
Plastic chain link fencing is also available in
a variety of colors, including white, orange
and green.
Electric Fence Controls
Electric fence controls are used mainly for
temporary fencing requirements. Wide areas
are enclosed with insulated single or double
strands of wire. Electrical current is fed
through the wire from the fence control to
produce a mild shock when livestock touch
the wire. The shock will not harm the ani-
mals, but does keep them within the wired
area without installing permanent fencing.
The controls are operated by battery or line
current and must be enclosed in a weather-
proof box. Higher-priced units are transistor-
ized and contain no moving parts. They
incorporate integral lightning arrestors to pre-
vent damage from electrical storms.
These units also provide either interrupted
(current goes on and off at extremely short
intervals) or uninterrupted power.
Fence Stretchers
Fence stretchers are required to properly
install many types of fencing. Although they
are available in various types for use on single
strand or woven wire, most work on a ratchet
principle and can be operated by one person.
Some of the better units have a capacity of up
to 5,000 lbs.
Although farmers or ranchers and construc-
tion or commercial firms will purchase fence
stretchers, homeowners have only infrequent
use for such tools.
Gate Hardware
Latches, pulls, hinges and locking bolts are
designed specifically for use on gates. Some
latches are primarily ornamental, while others
are built with a padlock eye to provide mini-
mal security. Sliding bolt locks and thumb
action latches are other types of latching/lock-
ing mechanisms for gates.
Hinges are usually reversible for use on left-
or right-swinging gates and come in tee, strap
and hook-and-strap configurations. Special
latches are available for attaching a gate to a
masonry wall.
Other gate hardware includes springs for
controlling gate swing with tension adjust-
ments and anti-sag kits with all items neces-
sary to eliminate gate sag.
Top gate hardware is constructed of
heavy-gauge steel. Ornamental pieces are
often finished in black while other pieces
may be zinc-coated.
SCREWS & BOLTS
Screws and bolts provide great holding
power and can be reused. Several factors
should be considered when selecting a screw
for a particular job: finish, length, diameter,
head style and slot style.
All threaded fasteners are externally thread-
ed to fit into holes in assembled parts. The dif-
ference is in method of tightening. Screws are
tightened by turning the head and letting the
threads tighten into the material. Bolts require
a nut that is turned to tighten the fastener.
A bolt or screw is made up of some or all of
these elements: head, driving recess, shoulder
or neck, unthreaded shank, threaded shank
and a point. For more information, click
(Selecting & Using Screws & Nails).
Heads
Screw and bolt heads can be divided into
two general groups. The most familiar are
those with a driving recessslotted and
Phillips being the most common. Others are
designed to be driven or held by a tool grip-
ping the outside of the head, such as the
square and hex types.
In addition to the standard slotted head for
conventional screwdrivers, other recessed
heads are designed for use with special screw-
drivers, bits or keys.
The profile of the head differs depending
upon the application. In many cases, final
appearance dictates choice. Flat countersunk
screws, for instance, can be driven flush with
or even below the surface of the material.
With an oval head, only part of the head is
countersunk.
The type of head has a bearing on the
measurement of a bolt or screw. Generally,
the length does not include the head.
However, when the head extends into the
material, it is included in the length. Hence,
the length of a flat-head countersunk screw
would include the head. The oval-head,
where only part extends into the material,
would be measured up to and including the
part that countersinks.
Generally, threaded fasteners are measured
from the largest diameter of the bearing sur-
face to the extreme end of the fastener.
Diameters are measured on screws smaller
than 1/4 in numbers from 0-10. Screws
larger than 1/4 are measured in increments
of 1/16 up to 1/2, then 1/8 increments
up to 2 long, and finally 1/4 increments
up to 3 long. Beyond that, special order
sizes are required.
Shoulders or Necks
Some threaded fasteners have shoulders to
perform a function such as preventing the
turning of a bolt during tightening. These
may be square, ribbed, fin neck, round or
oval. They are often referred to by the neck as
round-head, square-neck carriage bolt or oval-
neck connector bolt.
Shanks
Headed fasteners often have an unthreaded
portion called the shank. When enlarged, this
is referred to as the shoulder or neck.
Others have a full-diameter shank, equal to
the major diameter of thread. This is charac-
teristic of machine bolts and cap screws. Still
others, such as machine screws, have under-
sized shanks equal to the pitch diameter of
the thread.
Thread Forms
Thread standardization is a continuing
process. Different systems of screw threads
have developed: the Unified and American
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
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Standard Form, the British Whitworth Form
and the European Metric Form. These forms
differ in several details such as included angle,
form and pitch.
The Unified Screw Thread System for com-
mercial bolts, nuts and screws sets the stan-
dards in the United States, Canada and the
United Kingdom.
Classes of thread are distinguished from
each other by the amount of tolerances and
allowance specified. External threads or bolts
are designated with the suffix A; internal or
female nut threads with B.
Classes 1A and 1B: For work of rough com-
mercial quality where a loose fit spin-on-
assembly is desirable.
Classes 2A and 2B: The recognized standard
for normal production of most commercial
bolts, nuts and screws.
Classes 3A and 3B: Used where a closer fit
between mating parts for high-quality work is
required.
Class 5: For a wrench fit. Used principally
for studs and their mating tapped holes. A
forced fit requiring the application of high
torque for semi-permanent assembly.
Coarse threads are used more than fine
threads because they are easier to assem-
ble. They are recommended for threading
into materials of a lower tensile strength,
and for certain applications. They are con-
sidered stronger than fine threads in sizes
1 and larger.
Fine-threaded fasteners are generally used
in automotive and aircraft work. They are also
used where wall thickness of the internally
threaded part requires the thread.
Point Styles
A variety of point styles are used, especially
with set screws. Among them are flat, oval,
cup, dog, half-dog, machine, gimlet and nail.
Each is designed for a special purpose.
Threaded Fastener Materials
Low and medium carbon steels are the
most common materials used to make thread-
ed fasteners. These are covered in specification
documents published by SAE (Society of
Automotive Engineers) and ASTM (American
Society for Testing of Materials) and include:
SAE 1010: used for machine screws, car-
riage bolts, etc. where strength require-
ments are not critical.
SAE 1018, 1020, 1021: for bright cap screws
and special fasteners.
SAE 1038: for high-strength bolts and
cap screws.
SAE 1100: generally used for nuts.
Several types of stainless steels are used
for fasteners, either for nonmagnetic or
corrosion-resistance requirements.
Aluminum, copper, bronze, brass and
plastics are also used. Special alloys can be
used to meet specific requirements. A
common and often inexpensive way of
protecting fasteners from corrosion, or for
improving their appearance, is to apply a
coating. Zinc, cadmium, tin, nickel and
chromium are common coatings used.
Steel may also be oxidized, blued, brass or
bronze plated or simply lacquered or color
matched. Another recently developed fin-
ish is a bi-metal fluorocarbon, primarily
for use with pressure-treated lumber and
other exterior applications where high
corrosion resistance is necessary.
I SCREWS
Sheet Metal Screws
Sheet metal screws fasten thin metal to
thin metal. Threaded the entire
length, they have flat, oval,
round or binding heads, usually
in lengths from 1/8"-2". Starting
holes, either drilled or punched,
should be slightly smaller than
the screw diameter.
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FASTENER DIMENSIONS
BOLT & SCREW HEADS
Length
Flat
Head
MACHINE SCREWS
Round
Head Flat
Head
Oval
Head
Fillister
Head
Round
Head
Oval
Head
Hexagon Head
(Chamfered)
Square Head
(Chamfered)
Truss Head
Sq. Shoulder
(Std. in Carriage Bolts)
Round Head
Slotted
Oval Head
Slotted
Truss Head
Plain or Slotted
Fillister Head
Slotted
Flat Head
Phillips Recessed
Square Head
(Cap Screw for
Allen Keys)
Flat Head
Slotted
Chamfer meansbeveled corners.
Length
WOOD SCREWS
Length Length
TAPPING SCREWS
Pan
Head
Truss
Head
Flat
Head
Oval
Head
Round
Head
Machine Screws
Machine screws come with four head styles:
round, oval, flat and fillister. Round is most
commonly used; flat head is used when the
top must be flush with the surface.
Oval is used in a countersunk hole so that
only a slight extension appears above the
work surface. A fillister head, which is used in
counter-bored holes, is cylindrical with a
semi-elliptical top.
Set Screws
Set screws prevent bolts from loosening
due to vibration. Four types are thumb
screws, tightened by hand; headless set
screws, tightened with a screwdriver;
square-head set screws, tightened with a
wrench; and socket set screws, tightened
with a hex wrench.
Tapping Screws
Partial tapping screws are used where
thread cutting is necessary. They can be used
in deep holes. Self-tapping screws can be used
in thicker materials.
One-Way Screws
Can be tightened but not removed. They
are used to install security devices.
Dowel Screws
Dowel screws are threaded on both ends to
provide end-to-end connections.
Wood Screws
Common wood screws are made of
unhardened steel, stainless steel, alu-
minum or brass. Threads run from the
point along three-fourths of the length
and heads are slotted. Steel screws come
in a choice of several coatings: bright-fin-
ished, blued, or zinc-, cadmium- or
chrome-plated.
Deck/ Drywall Screws
These are coated for use with decks and
wood fences. They prevent rust when drywall
compound is applied.
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WOOD SCREWS
Lag Screws
Lag screws (or bolts) are similar to wood
screws but slightly stronger. They are useful
when ordinary screws are too short or too
lightweight and when increased gripping
power is needed. They are used for wrenching
into wood surfaces or for inserting into lag
shields in masonry.
Cap Screws
Cap screws are used where strong holding
power is essential, such as in machine tools,
engines, pumps, etc. Cap screws have three
types of heads: hex, flat and button.
Screw Hooks
Screw hooks are used for specific purposes.
A cup hook is fitted with a stop cap for uni-
form extension when the hooks are used in
rows. An ordinary screw hook is used to hang
tools and utensils. It has a sharp point for self-
starting and can be driven to the depth
required. Eye and ring combinations take snap
hooks of the type used on leashes. A screw eye
is formed from a single piece. A square bend
screw hook is commonly used for curtain rods
and hanging kitchen utensils.
Screw Washers
Screw washers are small metal circles that
provide a hard surface against which you
tighten a screw. They match the size of the
screw they are being used with, and come in
flat, countersunk or flush shapes.
Power-Driven Fasteners
There have been a number of fasteners
designed to be installed with power equip-
ment. Several characteristics are common to
fasteners that have been designed for them.
Drive StylesThe old-fashioned slotted
screw is simply inadequate. Under power, a
slotted driver blade will never maintain a con-
sistent grip. It frequently slips; causing dam-
age to the screw head and the surface of the
material that is being fastened. Although there
are many others, the most common styles are
Phillips and hex.
Engineered ThreadsIn most cases, fasten-
ers designed for power drivers are self-drilling
and tapping.
Special Purpose DesignsEach category
has a unique combination of design character-
istics that makes it suited to specific applica-
tions, such as deck screws, particleboard
screws, self-drilling screws, cabinet screws,
wood trim screws, masonry screws and dry-
wall screws.
With the popularity of metal studs growing,
new fasteners have been developed specifically
for securing them to lightweight materials,
such as foamboard sheathing and housewrap.
Other evolving features of power-driven fas-
teners include nibs that provide a neat, flush
finish. Newer ceramic deck screws have sharp
points that eliminate wandering.
Deck screws cannot be given a hot-dipped
finish, since it would clog the treads.
Manufacturers coat galvanized screws with
waterproofing resins. Sometimes the coating is
colored, but some manufacturers use a clear
coating. Look on the box for words such as
special weather-resistant coating.
AccessoriesThe basic attachment needed
for installing fasteners with power drivers
includes common sizes of Phillips, hex head
and slotted tips, a spring-loaded bit holder
and a portable friction clutch. These are avail-
able as single items or in kits.
I BOLTS
Bolts are designed to fasten metal to metal.
Most bolts can only be turned with a wrench.
Unlike screws and nails, their ends are blunt-
ed, not pointed. Their machine threads
require a nut to tighten against a surface. The
diameter of a bolt is listed in inches.
Carriage Bolts
Carriage bolts have a square shoulder under
the head that pulls into soft materials such as
wood and prevents the bolt from turning while
the nut is being tightened. They have coarse,
partial threads and a smooth, rounded head.
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RECESSED SCREW AND SCREWDRIVING SYSTEMS
Phillips Reed & Prince Pozidriv Bristol Torque Set Torx
Slab Hex Socket Scrulox
(Robertson)
Clutch Head
(new style, type A
Clutch head
(old style, type G)
Machine Bolts
Machine bolts come in regular, square, hex,
button or countersunk heads. Square heads
fasten joints and materials where bolt require-
ments are not too severe; button heads work
best where smooth surfaces are necessary; and
countersunk heads are recommended for flush
surfaces. Countersunk and button heads can
be tightened only by wrenching the nut.
Special Bolts
Continuous threaded rods are available in
different diameters and lengths and are used
for jobs where extra long bolts are required.
They can be cut to any length and can be
bent to make U-bolts, Eye bolts and J-bolts.
Stove bolts hold light metals or wood.
Heads can be flat, oval or round and slotted
for a screwdriver.
Expansion bolts are used to hold heavy,
hanging objects and are good in masonry.
Turnbuckles are used for tightening wire,
such as clotheslines or bracing doors.
Hanger bolts feature large screw threads on
one end and bolt threads on the other. They
are used to mount fixtures in the ceiling.
Nuts
Nuts screw onto bolts to help tighten the
bolt against whatever surface it is being fas-
tened. Most common are hex and square
nuts, which are also called full nuts. Wing and
knurled nuts are used where frequent adjust-
ment or disassembly is necessary. Locknuts
have a self-locking feature that allows them to
be locked into position without additional
lock washers, cotter pins or locking wire.
Cotter Pins
A widely used, versatile fastening device,
cotter pins are made of ferrous and nonferrous
wire in various diameters and lengths ranging
from 1/32" x 1/2" to 1/4" x 18". When inserted
into a hole in a bolt, shaft or similar part, an
eye on one end prevents the pin from going
through, while prongs at the other end are
bent back to lock the pin in place.
Hitch Pin Clips
A variation of cotter pins; hitch pin clips
are formed from oil-tempered spring wire and
act as a quick fastening device. Internal hitch
pin clips are inserted through a hole in a
shaft, while external hitch pin clips snap into
grooves on a shaft. Sizes range from 1/8"-1/4"
shaft diameter.
Wire Hardware
Wire hardware includes eyebolts, U-bolts,
cup hooks and various threaded wire configu-
rations. Two such important products are lag
thread and machine thread eyebolts. Lag
thread eyebolts are similar to lag bolts but are
used to support or suspend objects from wood
surfaces. Nut eyebolts are used to hang, sup-
port or anchor objects. The machine threads
allow flexibility in attaching to practically all
surfaces.
Deck Clips
These L-shaped fasteners are first nailed to
the side of the decking, and then nailed to the
joist. They are particularly secure, and elimi-
nate nails or screws on the surface of the deck
so there are no hammer dents. They also pre-
vent water puddling on nail heads and surface
rust stains. By providing an unbroken deck
surface, they make sanding and resurfacing
the deck easier.
Rivets
Rivets are a reliable way to securely fasten
something that can be reached from just
one side. Multi-grip rivets expand to fill
oversized and irregular holes and self-adjust
for misaligned holes. Multi-grip rivets can
be used in metal, plastic and composite
materials and are ideal for projects such as
installing gutters and drop ceilings or repair-
ing large appliances, lawn mowers and
boats. They are available in 1/8", 3/32",
3/16" and 1/4" body diameters and dome,
countersunk and large flange head styles.
WALL ANCHORS
Hollow Wall Fasteners
Toggle bolts and screw anchors are used
where the back of the wall is inaccessible,
such as drywall and hollow concrete block.
The toggle fastener works on a spring prin-
ciple. The holding arms open after the screw
and holder are inserted into the hole, gripping
the wall as the screw is tightened. The bolts
are selected according to the thickness of the
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
25
HEAD STYLES AND APPLICATIONS
HOW TO FIND THE RIGHT BOLT
When replacing damaged or lost fasten-
ers, always use nuts and bolts of the same
size and strength as the originals. Bolt
heads are marked to indicate their tensile
strength. Never use hardware bolts on
automobiles or machinery.
FLAT HEADHas flat top and conical bearing surface. For use where flush
surface finish is required. Standard manufacture with 82 countersink.
Available with both slotted and recessed drives.
ROUND HEADGeneral purpose head for standard fasteners, available for
slotted or recessed drives.
OVAL HEADSame dimensions as flat head except top surface round-
ed. For other than flush surface application. Available for slotted or
recessed drives.
PAN HEADMost popular head style with flat bearing surface. Large diam-
eter with straight sides and low silhouette. Standard in machine and tap-
ping screws for slotted and recessed drives.
diameters from 1/8"-1/2". Fixture to be mount-
ed must be assembled with screw and holder
before inserting it into wall.
Another form of anchor, molly bolts, con-
sists of a screw in a
metal sleeve. When
the sleeve is inserted
into a pre-drilled
hole and the screw is
turned, the sleeve
spreads. The screw can be removed and insert-
ed in the fixture to be mounted and replaced.
Plastic screw anchors can be used with
wood or sheet metal screws. The anchors
are inserted into a pre-drilled hole and the
screw is driven through the anchor into the
wall. Anchors range from 3/4" to 1-3/8"
long. Another kind of plastic anchor func-
tions like a toggle fastener with sizes from
3/4" to 3-1/2" depending on the thickness of
door or wall material.
Other forms of screw and bolt anchors snap
into place. These screw anchors, suitable for
hollow and solid walls, 1/8" and greater thick-
nesses, pop open and lock into place before
the screw is inserted. One anchor accepts size
#6-#14 screws, but only uses a 5/16" drill size.
The screw can be removed and replaced.
The bolt, hollow wall anchor is installed
separately from the fixture, permitting the fix-
ture to be removed without dislodging the
anchor. The anchor is adjustable for wall
thicknesses up to 2-1/4" with bolt diameters
from 3/16"-1/2".
Another fastening system used for hollow
surfaces is the wall rivet. The tip of the wall
rivet retracts as the screw tightens, forcing out
the two grippers and facilitating a firm grip
against the inner surface.
Special-purpose anchors include those
designed to fasten perfboard, shelves and
wire racks to the wall. These anchors incor-
porate spacers to hold material away from
the wall with a configuration tailored to
shelves and racks.
Masonry Anchors
With the wide use of masonry in construc-
tion, the need for masonry anchors is impor-
tant. Almost all homes have a garage, base-
ment, patio or porch that requires some kind
of masonry anchor.
The holding power of masonry anchors is
determined by laboratory tests. Where the stat-
ic load or shock load is excessive or where the
customer does not know the actual load, you
should recommend using extra fasteners for
secure anchorage.
Concrete anchors are hardened steel
screws that are designed to cut threads in
pre-drilled holes. The holes can be drilled
right through the item to be fastened with-
out moving the fixture.
Concrete screws come in flat head, Phillips
drive or hex-washer head styles. They work
equally well in poured concrete, concrete block
or masonry. The pull-out resistance of concrete
screws is much greater than in plastic screw
anchors as they bite directly into the concrete.
Drop-in type anchors are expandable con-
crete anchors that are set in pre-drilled holes.
They accept standard course thread bolts or
threaded rod. Drop-in style anchors do not
require patching after sinking. They come in
sizes to fit bolt diameter 1/4"-3/4".
Impact-expansion concrete anchors range in
diameters from 1/4"-3/4" and lengths from 1-
3/4"-6". The drill size is the same as the anchor
diameter. Impact-expansion concrete anchors
are stud-type anchors. Setting requires driving
the center pin down to the top of the anchor,
which expands the sides of the anchor against
the walls of the hole. The hole can be drilled
through the item to be fastened without mov-
ing the fixture. Impact-expansion concrete
anchors come in plated hardened steel or
stainless steel. For more information, click
(Installing Masonry Anchors).
Plastic and Nylon Anchors
Plastic and nylon anchors are accepted as
all-purpose fasteners because they can be used
in both hollow and solid walls and in almost
all kinds of construction materials.
There are five basic types. Plastic anchors
are used for mounting items such as pictures
and shelf brackets. Nylon expansion anchors
expand as the screw is tightened. Nylon drive
anchors expand as the nail is driven.
Neoprene sleeves are used for mounting win-
dow fans, hi-fi speakers and other high-vibra-
tion items. Vibration-proof polypropylene
screw anchors grip the wall and expand as the
screw is tightened.
All plastic and nylon anchors are installed
by placing them into drilled holes sized
according to the anchors type and length.
Specialty Anchors
Hinge-lock hollow wall anchors consist of a
stud bolt with a hinged locking device
attached to the end. The hinged locking
device is slightly longer on one side of the
hinge than the other. When inserted through
the wall, the longer end causes the locking
device to turn parallel to the wall, locking it in
place. Because of the design of this product,
the hole can be drilled right through the item
to be fastened without moving the fixture.
This type of anchor comes in sizes 1/4" x
1-3/4" through 3/8" x 4-1/2".
A rust-resistant toilet bowl anchor replaces
the conventional nut, washer and finish cover
that frequently can be removed only with the
use of a hacksaw. The cap nut is high-strength
polypropylene with self-locking threads. The
stud bolt is 1/4" x 1/4", which when used with
the cap nut, allows enough grip range to
anchor most toilet bowls without sawing off
the stud.
Lag Screw Shields
Lag shields are used inside drilled holes to
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
26
BOLT HOLLOW WALL ANCHOR
TYPES OF ANCHORS
Nylon Drive Anchor
Nylon Expansion
Anchor
Polypropylene
Screw Anchor
Toggle Bolt
provide anchors in the hole for lag bolts as
they are wrenched into the shield. As the
screw enters the
shield, the
shield expands
and grips the
interior. Horizontal fins prevent the shield
from turning in the hole while tapered ribs
ease insertion and ensure against slips.
Self-Drilling Anchors
A self-drilling expandable anchor, also
known as a serrated sleeve, has teeth to gouge
out its own hole in masonry when driven by
an air or electric hammer or a special hand
driver. It comes in bolt sizes from 1/4"-7/8",
sets flush with the masonry surface and gener-
ally requires no patching after sinking.
Expansion Shields
Expansion or lead shields are used with lag
and machine bolts. As the bolt is tightened,
the cone draws up through a slotted sleeve
and expands against the interior of the drilled
hole with great force. Since these fasteners
require no caulking, they are excellent
anchors for heavy holding of problem mate-
rial, such as cement, cinder blocks, hollow
tile and other concrete mixes. They require
large holes, so a power drill and masonry bit
must be used.
Shorter lengths are recommended for
anchorage in good-grade concrete or where
thickness limits the length. Long lengths are
better for poorer-grade concrete where extra
anchorage is required.
Drive Anchors
Drive anchors or split nails
or bolts are made of high-
strength spring steel or of alu-
minum with a stainless steel
pin for use in hard materials.
As they are driven into a hole,
they are compressed and
forced against the walls of the
hole. They come in three
head styles: round, counter-
sunk and stud. The stud type
provides temporary attach-
ment of items that must later
be removed.
Wood, Sheet Metal and Lag
Screw Anchors
Securing fixtures of light and medium
weight to solid and hollow masonry and brick
walls is best accomplished with lead sleeve
anchors and lag shields made of zinc alloy.
Lag anchors hold best when expanded in the
mortar joint with anchor sides pressing
against the brick.
Lead Machine Screw Anchors
These anchors secure medium-weight fix-
tures to solid concrete by tamping a lead
sleeve over a zinc alloy cone that is internally
threaded to
receive a machine
screw or bolt.
Once tamped in
place with a special setting tool, the anchor is
ready to receive the screw or bolt used in
securing the fixture.
Wedge-Style Studbolt Anchors
These anchors range in size from 1/4" diam-
eter x 1-3/4" length through 1-1/4" diameter x
12". Drill size is anchor size. Hole can be
drilled right through the item to be fastened
without moving the fixture. Used for general
construction, heavy construction and industri-
al maintenance.
NAILS
There are as many kinds of nails as there
are projects. Although steel nails are the most
commonly used, nails are also made of alu-
minum, stainless steel, copper, brass, bronze
and plastic.
Aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, stain-
less steel and plastic nails are rustproof.
Bright steel nails will rust so they should
not be used where rusting would cause dis-
coloration or staining.
Plastic nails are lightweight and paintable,
but their tensile strength is much greater than
their shear strength so they are not suitable
for framing jobs. They must be installed with
a nail gun instead of a hammer. For more
information, click(Selecting & Using
Screws & Nails).
Nail Sizes
Thickness of the materials to be nailed
determines the length of the nail required, but
the amount of stress or weight the materials
will bear should also be considered. For exam-
ple, if a 1"-thick board, which is to bear no
weight or stress, will be nailed to another 1"-
thick board, use a nail approximately 1-1/2"
long. But if the 1" board is to bear weight and
is to be nailed to a much thicker board, use a
nail that is 2-1/2 times the thickness of the
material to be fastened. If a threaded nail is
used, its length need be only 1-3/4 to 2 times
the thickness of the material.
Nails are typically sold by length, indicated
by the symbol d. A 2d nail is 1" long; a 3d
nail is 1-1/4" long, etc.
Recommendations include using a 16d for
general framing, 8d and 10d for toenailing
and 8d and 6d for subfloor.
The penny-weight system is still used,
with a 10d nail referred to as a 10-penny nail.
Kinds Of Nails
Selection of the correct nail head depends
upon the hardness of the wood, the chance of
the head working through and the type of
work to be done. A finishing nail, for exam-
ple, must have good holding power yet be
inconspicuous.
Holding power is determined by the nails
length, diameter and the shape of the shank
round, grooved, square or threaded.
Smooth shank nails give the least hold-
ing power.
Barbed nails, which have horizontal or her-
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
27
Lag Screw Shield
TOILET BOWL ANCHORS
Hinge-lock style hollow wall anchor
No rust toilet
bowl anchor
Drop-in
anchor
Imact-expansion
type anchor
Screw
Anchor
ringbone indentations in the shank, hold bet-
ter than a smooth nail of the same size, but
far less than a threaded nail of equal size.
Nails with twisted or fluted shanks
equal or exceed the barbed nail in holding
power, but provide less hold than nails
with rolled-on threads.
Threaded nailsannular, spiral and
knurledprovide the best holding power and
performance. The annular and spiral thread
nails can be distinguished from a knurled nail
by the smooth shank between the head and
the beginning of the thread.
Annular threaded nails (sometimes called
ring shank nails) offer maximum holding
power in a number of specific applications.
They are best used with softwoods, such as
plywood or underlayment, but have many
other applications as well, such as studding,
siding, drywall, etc. When driven, the threads
separate the wood fibers, which then lock into
the rings, thus resisting removal.
Spiral threaded nails (called screw or drive
nails) turn when they are driven, much like
wood screws, and actually form a thread in
the wood fibers. They offer good holding
power. Spiral threaded nails are specifically
designed for use with hardwoods and dense
materials. Flooring, siding and truss rafters are
typical applications; spiral thread nails are also
used extensively in the construction of wood-
en pallets.
Knurled threaded nails have a vertical
thread for driving into cinder block, mortar
joints or other relatively soft masonry. They
cut the masonry to minimize cracking and
provide high holding power.
Common Names of Nails
The names of nails commonly used describe
the function of the nail. Here is a list of com-
mon nail names and functions of each nail:
CommonUsed in general carpentry and
wood framing. Available in most sizes and fin-
ishes. Should be used with harder woods.
Typical applications are house foundation,
floor joists, rafters and internal studding.
BoxLighter and smaller than common
nails with larger head. Used for framing and
applications where shifting is minimal such as
nailing subfloor to floor joists and attaching
roof base to rafters.
FinishingUsed around windows, finishing
areas, trim and paneling where nail cannot
show. Small head size allows nail to be driven
into the wood so the hole can be filled and fin-
ished. Both are used in similar applications, but
casing nails are heavier than finishing nails.
CasingLooks similar to a finishing nail,
but is thicker and features a flat head. Used to
secure case moulding.
Cut flooringHave a blunt tip to pre-
vent splitting of flooring. Used to attach
wood to concrete.
DrywallRing-shanked nails for attaching
sheets of drywall gypsum board to interior
wood wall studs. Flat, slightly countersunk
heads permit driving just below the surface,
forming a depression for spackling.
FlooringQuench-hardened, screw-
shanked nails for laying tongue-and-grooved
hardwood flooring.
Masonry/ ConcreteMade of hardened and
tempered steel. Shank comes round, flat, flut-
ed or square. They are often used to fasten
framing parts such as sills, furring strips, win-
dow and door trim to masonry and concrete.
PlasterbaseBlued, smooth nails with flat
heads and long diamond points for fastening
plasterboard to interior wood wall studs.
RoofingHave large heads and diamond
point and are galvanized to resist corrosion.
Shank is barbed for greater holding power.
Nails for new roof are typically 7/8" long with
7/16" head, but you should carefully size to
the thickness of the roofing. Sealing roofing
nails have a plastic or rubber washer under
the nail head for watertight seal.
SidingGalvanized nails or some other non-
staining nail for applying residential wood lap
siding to plywood or fiberboard sheathing.
UnderlayBright-finished, ring-shanked
nails for laying plywood or composition
subflooring over existing wood floors or
floor joists.
Upholstery nailshave ornamental or col-
ored heads. Used to fasten upholstery where
nail will show.
StaplesGalvanized, U-shaped wire fasten-
ers for securing wire fencing or poultry netting
to wood posts or frames.
Wire brads and tacksused for household
jobs requiring small fasteners.
Barbed dowel pinused in furniture con-
struction jobs.
Corrugated fastenersused for light-duty
miter joints.
Nail Finishes
Hot-dipped, zinc-coated nails have a high-
quality zinc coating with good rust protection.
This method is considered the best way to
coat nails uniformly, because they are sub-
merged in hot, molten zinc. Nails can be dou-
ble-dipped for heavier plating.
Galvanized nails are coated through a tum-
bling process. The coating is applied by sprin-
kling zinc chips on steel nails in a barrel and
rotating the barrel in a furnace to melt the
zinc and coat the nails. While the nails may
look the same as hot-dipped, they may not be
evenly coated and threads may fill up.
Electroplated nails have the coating applied
with high-voltage electric current.
Mechanical plating involves rotating cold
nails in a barrel with zinc dust. Glass pellets in
the barrel hammer the zinc dust onto the
nails. The nails are then immersed in a chro-
mate rinse that gives them a gold or green
color. This process leaves the threads relatively
clean but the coating can be thin.
Electroplating occurs when nails are
immersed in an electrolytic solution that
deposits a thick film of zinc on the nails
when an electric current is run through
the solution. Although the finish is shiny,
it is also prone to rust because the thin
plating oxidizes away. These nails are best
used in interior applications.
A temporary finishcement coatingis a
resin coating that makes the nail hold better
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
28
TYPES OF NAILS
Plain
Barbed
Annular Threaded
Spiral
Knurled
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
29
COMMON NAILS
for a short time. These nails are recommended
for box and crate construction.
Blued nails have good temporary rust resist-
ance but should not be used outdoors. They
are sterilized by heat until an oxidation layer
is formed.
Aluminum nails have the advantage of
being rustproof, but must be made thicker
than galvanized steel nails to prevent bend-
ing. This thicker diameter could cause wood
to split. They are suitable for exterior uses and
can be used with a wide variety of materials
including wood or asbestos siding and shin-
gles, roofing, aluminum and vinyl siding and
trim, plastic panels, gutters and downspouts,
porches, decks and outdoor furniture.
Bright-finished nails have a bright, uncoat-
ed steel finish for use where corrosion resist-
ance is not required. They are slightly shorter
than the same d size common nail.
Quench-hardened nails are heated,
quenched and tempered to increase their
resistance to bending when driven into hard-
wood or masonry.
Colored decorator nails need special treat-
ment and a plastic cap should cover the head
of the hammer when driving them. These
nails have small heads and are specifically
designed for use in the application of prefin-
ished hardboard and hardwood paneling.
Nail Heads
Many head styles are available and each
offers advantages for certain applications.
Flat headGeneral-purpose head that is
the most popular and the most economi-
cal.
Flat countersunk headThis one leaves
a smooth surface; it levels out with the
top of the surface driven into.
Set headWorks down into the wood
surface as it is driven in. Often called a
finishing nail. After driving, the hole is
filled with putty to give a smooth surface.
Checkered headThis head serves no
useful purpose. There is a misconception
that the checkered pattern will help pre-
vent the hammer head from sliding off
during driving.
Oval headProvides a surface over
which objects can slide. Has a half-ball
bearing effect.
Duplex headUsed in construction
where the nail will be removed after serv-
ing its purpose. The second heads pur-
pose is to stop the nail during driving for
easy removal.
Umbrella headUsed for zinc and alu-
minum roofing applications. Hammer hits
tip on nails head.
Headless ( dowel) Used as a finishing
nail when the hole is to be filled with
putty for a smooth surface.
Tie dated headHas the date stamped
on it for use where one needs to know
when the nail was installed.
Hook headUsed in barrels and kegs.
Cupped headUsed with drywall and
permits recessing so that drywall com-
pound can be applied.
Nail Point Types
Nails come in many point types. Each
point has certain advantages for certain
applications.
Diamond point is a general-purpose point
for wood use. It is the most common, least
expensive and is easy to start.
Needle point has the sharpest point. This is
the easiest nail to start. Used for box making
and to apply plasterboard.
Blunt diamond point helps eliminate wood
splitting since it cuts and pushes its way
through the wood. Used on soft pines and
firs. For more information, click
(Tips for Making Home Repairs).
Pointless nails give the greatest protection
against wood splitting during driving. The
blunt end will cut through the fibers rather
than follow the grain of the wood.
Side point is used for clinching (when the
protruding pointed end of the driven nail will
be bent over after driving).
Chisel point is used on large nails
(spikes up to 12' long) to facilitate driving
into heavy timbers.
HA RDWA RE & FA ST ENERS
30
NAIL HEADS
PENNY-INCH NAILS
NAIL POINT TYPES
2d1
3d1 1/4
4d1 1/2
5d1 3/4
6d2
7d2 1/4
8d2 1/2
9d2 3/4
10d3
12d3 1/4
16d3 1/2
20d4
30d4 1/2
40d5
50d5 1/2
60d6
70d7
80d8
Checkered Tie Dated Duplex
Flat Flat
Countersunk
Hook
Set Headless Oval
Headless Umbrella
Blunt Chisel Diamond
Long
Diamond
Needle Side Pointless
CHAPTER SEVEN:
WOOD-BURNING STOVES
STOVE ACCESSORIES
FIREPLACES
FIREPLACE ACCESSORIES
SETBACK DEVICES
SUPPLEMENTAL HEATERS
HUMIDIFIERS
DEHUMIDIFIERS
AIR CONDITIONERS
FANS
AIR CLEANING DEVICES
HEAT-SAVING ITEMS
HEATING &
Cooling
7
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
2
I When it comes heating and
cooling products, energy effi-
ciency is the most important
issue. Consumers are interested
in saving energy, as well as sav-
ing on the cost of heating and
cooling their homes.
Your employees will need to understand the energy-efficient rat-
ings of the heating and cooling products, such as fireplaces,
heaters and air conditioners, and be able to explain this informa-
tion to customers. In addition to being knowledgeable about
whatever models they sell, retailers should stress safety factors and
tips no matter what the customer chooses. They should also be
aware of any local, state or federal regulations for products such as
wood stoves and kerosene heaters.
One category trend is in gas log systems both vented and
vent-free models. Both are popular because of their convenience
and energy efficiency. However, the debate continues on whether
vented or vent-free styles are the best choice. Know the pros and
cons on each side so you can help satisfy the needs of customers.
Another emerging trend is the interest in home environment
products such as air cleaners, air purifiers and related products
such as aroma-therapy diffusers. Make sure your store stocks high-
quality, reputable brands and that customers know what these
products can and cant do.
Finally, consumers are looking to make their homes more com-
fortable and are increasingly turning to products such as ceiling
fans, humidifiers and high-end filters. Since they are looking to bal-
ance comfort with cost, retailers must be prepared with informa-
tion to help them make informed buying decisions.
HEATING &
Cooling
HEATING, COOLING &
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Though the goal remains the same, the
heat-generating source often differs between
coal, wood, electricity, gas and propane.
When generated, the heat must then be trans-
ferred to the objects or areas to be heated.
Heat is transferred by conduction, convection,
radiation or a combination of these sources.
Conduction heat moves from warmer to
cooler areas through another material, such as
glass or metal. Convection heat moves as part
of another substance, such as air or water.
Radiation energy is collected and emitted as
heat from one surface to be absorbed by
another, such as from a hot stove surface to a
human being.
Cooling a home involves drawing warm air
outside and dissipating it.
Depending on climate and energy costs
for the central system, many homeowners
have found that alternate heating methods
provide substantial savings on their energy
costs. Fireplaces and wood-burning stoves
are common alternate heat sources, but
while aesthetically pleasing, their energy
efficiency must be considered.
Energy efficiency is defined as the per-
centage of energy the heat source generates
that is converted to usable heat. More
recent developments in fireplace construc-
tion are improving energy efficiency ratings.
In addition, heat recovery items such as
heat extractors, heat exchangers and glass
enclosures aid energy efficiency.
For more informatin, click (Conserving
Energy).
WOOD-BURNING
STOVES
Wood-burning stoves are a practical
source of supplemental and/or zone heat-
ing. Their energy efficiency rating is 40-65
percent of available usable heat. By compar-
ison, most furnaces operate at about 70 per-
cent efficiency.
About 70 percent of a stoves usable heat
comes from radiation; therefore, it is impor-
tant that it be made of a highly conducting
metal, be a color that aids heat radiation and
have a surface that maximizes heat radiation.
It should be airtight to aid combustion and
lined to retain heat longer. The efficiency of a
stove can be improved by periodic cleaning to
reduce creosote, burning hardwoods and plac-
ing the stove near a masonry wall.
Cast iron and steel stoves conduct heat
almost identically. However, the Insurance
Information Institute recommends cast iron.
As a general rule, the thicker the metal, the
longer the stove will last.
A flat black finish is best, radiating 90-
98 percent of usable heat. Paints and
enamels radiate 70-90 percent, while
shiny metallic finishes offer efficiencies of
less than 60 percent.
The three general types of wood stoves
are: box (radiating), airtight (circulating)
and pellet-fed.
A box stove draws air for combustion
through the door; is not tightly sealed, has no
damper control and releases a considerable
amount of unburned gases up the chimney. It
radiates warmth through the firebox to the
surrounding air. A box stove should never be
left unattended.
An airtight stove will have a sealed fire-
box and tight-fitting door. It will have a
manually operated or thermostatically
controlled air intake damper to allow air
to circulate around the firebox and to
control the rate of fuel consumption. It
provides slow-burning heat for a long
period with relatively little attention.
However, because
the airtight stove is
slow burning, it can
cause heavy creosote
buildup in the chim-
ney and pipes.
Chimney brushes or
soot removers solve
this problem.
Pellet-fed stoves are
a relative newcomer
on the wood stove
scene. They use a
processed wood pellet
that is fed to the
stove's combustion
chamber electronically. Pellet stoves have the
advantage of having a steady and easily con-
trolled fuel source. The only downside is that
their electronic controls wont work if the
power is out.
Safety Factors
Wood stoves present potential safety haz-
ards including:
o excess heat radiating from the stove,
stovepipe or chimney;
o sparks or hot coals flying outside the stove;
o flames shooting out of chimney cracks;
o heat conducted from the chimney to a
combustible material;
o flames or hot ashes spurting out of the
chimney.
Most fire dangers can be avoided with prop-
er installation. Stove manufacturers include
detailed safety instructions with each product.
In addition, Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
tests and lists stoves that meet standards
developed in cooperation with the Hearth
Products Association and the National Fire
Protection Association. Here are some addi-
tional safety suggestions:
o Read the instructions provided by the man-
ufacturer for proper installation and follow
them exactly.
o Allow a clearance of at least 36" on all sides
of the stove to prevent scorching or possi-
ble fire. Installing approved radiation
shields can reduce this distance. Such
shields should be placed under the stove on
all surfaces except concrete.
o Retain heat by keeping as much of the pipe
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
3
STANDARD CLEARANCES
FOR WOOD-BURNING APPLIANCES
These recommendations are provided by the National Fire Protection
Association. If manufacturers specifications differ from these, the con-
sumer should follow the manufacturers recommendations.
Clearances are for back and side wall. Front side and loading side
clearances should be 36"-48". Distances can be reduced if a protective
shield with 1" spacers is installed.
TYPE OF APPLIANCE
Radiant stoves or room heaters
Circulating stoves or room heaters
Cooking Stoves
Vent connections, stove pipe (all types)
DISTANCE FROM
COMBUSTION
36"
12" to 24"
36" (18" on non-fired side)
18"
as possible inside the house. The pipe
should be well insulated where it passes
through a wall or roof. The Wood Heating
Alliance recommends using stove pipenot
galvanized steel ductsto vent the stove to
a chimney.
o When venting a stove into a chimney, the
chimney should be clean, in good repair
and made of a large and heavy enough
material to handle the pipe. Furnace chim-
neys may not be heavy enough, but fire-
place chimneys usually are. If a fireplace
chimney is used, remember to seal it off
below the stove pipe to prevent a draft into
the house when the stove is not in use or
gases coming back into the house.
o The chimney should extend about 3' above
the highest point of the roof and should
always be kept clean and in good repair (as
should the stove pipe).
o A stove designed to burn wood should be
used for just that. Consumers should not
try to burn coal unless they have a special
grate for coal. Some kinds of coal produce
far more intense heat than wood and can
damage a standard grate and perhaps even
the inside of the firebox.
o Be sure to study supplier literature on the
product lines your store carries and urge
customers to follow the manufacturer's rec-
ommendations.
STOVE ACCESSORIES
Accessory items for wood-and coal-burning
stoves include stovepipe, paint and insulation.
Stovepipe should not be confused with
a chimney. Stovepipe is used to connect
the stove with the chimney and should
never be used instead of a chimney.
Stovepipe should have a gauge of 24 or
thicker (smaller number indicates thicker
metal). The stovepipe should be as short
as possible and turns and bends kept to a
minimum. Stovepipe should be inspected
regularly and will probably need replace-
ment every two or three years.
Stove paint is used to touch up or com-
pletely refinish a stove that has become dingy.
The consumer should use paint specifically
designed for wood- or coal-burning stoves.
These paints can withstand temperatures as
high as 1,200F.
Stove paint is available in aerosol as
well as liquid. Commonly available colors
include green, brown, blue, maroon and
black. Regular and metallic finishes are
also available.
The consumer should never begin painting
the stove until it and its contents have cooled
completely and then only in a well-ventilated
room. Most stove owners will also need to
purchase insulating material to protect the
floor and/or walls near the stove. There are
minimum clearances the consumer must fol-
low when installing a stove. Do-it-yourselfers
should follow manufacturer recommendations
for insulation.
Retailers should remind customers that
floor protection should extend 18" in front of
the stove to protect against hot ashes or
falling coals.
FIREPLACES
WoodBurning Fireplaces
Conventional masonry fireplaces and older
prefabricated fireplaces are about 10 percent
energy efficient. They can even cause a net
heat loss in the home if not operated properly.
Newer, prefabricated fireplaces are designed to
be more energy efficient.
A fire needs oxygen to burn. Older fire-
places are less efficient because they have no
way of controlling oxygen intake. As the fire
burns, it pulls air from the room to replace
that, which goes up the chimney.
Newer fireplace construction has partly
solved the problem of heat loss. Fireboxes are
made of material that will hold some of the
heat from the flue gases. More heat is radiated
back into the room.
A homes greatest heat loss comes when the
fire burns down and the firebox cools. Unless
the damper is closed, the chimney will contin-
ue to draw warm air out of the room.
However, closing the damper before the fire is
completely out will drive smoke back into the
room. Glass enclosures provide a good
method of sealing the fireplace opening
against heat loss and allowing the damper to
remain open until the last coal has died.
Outside temperature also affects fireplace
efficiency. Most experts recommend that fire-
places only be used in the spring and fall.
Some have said they should not be used if the
outside temperature is below 20. If it is colder
than that, the fireplace will draw in more cold
outside air through cracks and openings than
it can replace with warm air.
A prefabricated, heat-circulating fireplace
has a separate air space behind the firebox.
Cool air from the room enters this air space,
flows around the heated walls of the firebox
and re-enters the room as warmed air.
According to some manufacturers, these fire-
places will put out as much heat as is lost up
the chimney when the outside temperature
goes as low as 0F.
Although newer fireplace designs can add
to the units energy efficiency, most customers
enjoy the ambiance an open fire provides.
Retailers should advise customers that open
fireplaces, while pleasant, are not efficient
heating devices.
Gas Fireplaces
Conventional gas fireplaces require a vent-
ing system and a "smoke dome" or chimney,
which is installed on the roof. Newer gas fire-
places can be vented through the wall using a
power vent. They use natural or LP gas with
range settings from 30,000 to 42,500 BTUs.
Some have automatic on/off controls.
Gas fireplaces are relatively easy to install.
The built-in variety does not require special
flooring or hearth front. However, it might be
wise to suggest a hearth in case the customer
should decide at a later time to convert the
gas fireplace to wood burning (which is possi-
ble). Freestanding units require no heavy
masonry or foundations for installation.
Electric Fireplaces
Electric fireplaces do not need a venting
system and provide auxiliary heat without
some of the problems of wood-burning
fireplaces. They plug into a wall outlet. A
unit with a heater and fan with a rating
of 1,500 watts may be operated safely on
a 120V circuit, but larger units must oper-
ate on a 240V line.
Specific features of all types of fire-
placeswood-burning as well as gas and
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
4
electricvary with each line. Be sure to
check manufacturer literature for details.
Chimney Cleaners
Creosote is formed when the smoke and
gas from burning solid fuels condense on
a chimney, creating a black, crusty build-
up. It creates a potential fire hazard and
reduces the efficiency of the stove or fire-
place. Chimneys should be cleaned at
least once a year and checked twice a
month. A clean metal chimney will "ping"
when struck with a metal object; a dull
thud indicates it is dirty.
Computerized creosote monitors
improve fire prevention. Monitors use
lighted digital temperature readouts to
help owners control stove output and cal-
culate creosote build-up.
There are two basic types of chemical
chimney cleaners. Soot destroyers are used
in coal- or oil-burning fireplaces; creosote
removers crystallize creosote in wood-burn-
ing stoves or fireplaces. Both cleaners are
available in powder form and are easily
applied. Remind customers that soot
destroyers are to be sprinkled only on hot
fires and creosote powders on cool fires.
Chemical cleaners are to be used primarily
for periodic cleaning in between annual brush
cleanings. Supplementary chemical products
include soot stain removers to wipe away
stone and brick grime, stove polishes and glass
enclosure door cleaners.
Round wire brushes are used in wood-burn-
ing, airtight stove and fireplace chimneys.
They remove crystallized creosote with their
stiff, cutting action.
If burning coal or oil, a poly (synthetic)
brush can be used to wipe out soot. Poly
brushes are advisable in situations where
metal-to-metal contactwire brush to
metal structureis undesirable. Fiberglass
or plastic brushes are better for prefabri-
cated metal chimneys.
In the past, brush cleanings had to be
done from outside. Brushes are now avail-
able for cleaning chimneys from inside.
Brush accessories include extension rods
(steel for straight flues and fiberglass for
non-straight flues), poly rope for brush
attachment, smaller brushes for cleaning
in closer areas and connecting hardware,
such as loops, adapters and couplings.
HEAT-SAVING ITEMS
It is estimated that 90 percent of the heat of
the conventional masonry fireplace goes up
the chimney. Accessory items are available
that make fireplaces more energy efficient.
Heat Recovery Systems
One type of heat recovery system looks like
a glass fireplace enclosure but actually gener-
ates heat through convection. A mini-radiator
in the hood of the enclosure and a heat
exchanger behind and above the fire can gen-
erate 10,000 BTUs (British Thermal Units) of
heat every hour.
Furthermore, heat transferred through the
units double-paned glass doors and frame
adds another 5,000 BTUs per hour. It is an
easy do-it-yourself installation.
Another type of recovery system com-
bines a grate and heat exchanger to recir-
culate fireplace heat back into the room.
It can be adjusted to fit standard-size fire-
place openings. These units can be used
with glass enclosures.
Tube Grates
Tube grates are made of a series of U-
shaped tubes fastened together; they
replace conventional grates and andirons
(metal supports for holding wood in the
fireplace). The fire is built on the lower
curve of the tube grate, just as it would be
built in a standard grate or on andirons.
The purpose of the tube grate is to pull
room air into the bottom tube opening, move
it around and over the firewarming the air
as it goesand shoot it back into the room.
This is accomplished through gravity or with
an electric motor to force the warm air back
into the room. The tube grate should keep the
rooms air from being drawn up the chimney
and is quite effective when combined with
glass doors.
Heat Extractors
Heat extractors are made for both fireplaces
and wood-burning stoves, and both operate
on the same basic principle. Their purpose is
to extract additional heat from flue gases
beyond what normally comes from the
stovepipe or chimney.
Some heat extractors operate naturally
using radiation or convection; others have an
electric blower to force out more heat.
Since it must be mounted on the stovepipe
or chimney, installing a heat extractor on a
fireplace can be a major undertaking, unless
the fireplace has an exposed chimney.
A heat extractor can pull a tremendous
amount of heat from a fireplace chimney, but
as it does so, it cools the flue gases and
reduces the drafts effectiveness. Since this
could cause a fireplace to smoke, it is wise to
put a good heat extractor on a chimney with
more capacity than is necessary for the size of
the fireplace.
Because heat extractors cool the flue gases,
they may work against the efficiency of a
good wood-burning stove. As the flue gases
cool, combustion is reduced and the stove
gives off less heat.
Ease of cleaning a heat extractor is
another factor. It collects deposits from
wood smoke which affects the units effi-
ciency. Some extractors have a removable
plate that allows easy access for cleaning
the tubes; others require partial disassem-
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
5
COLD WEATHER ENERGY SAVERS
Keep drapes and shades open in sunny
windows; close them at night.
An automatic garage door operator
encourages you to shut the door quickly,
thereby saving fuelin unheated
garagesby preventing cold from reach-
ing the inside walls.
Installing electric heat tapes on water pipes
that run through unheated areas prevents
heat loss from cooling or freezing.
Use a humidifier. Cooler indoor temper-
atures are more comfortable with the
proper amount of humidityabout 40-
50 percent.
Change furnace filters regularly. A dirty
filter impedes airflow and makes your
furnace work longer and harder. Check
the filter at least once a month.
Be sure to keep the damper closed on your
fireplace when it is not in use. Consider
installing a glass-door fireplace to keep
heat from escaping up the chimney.
Use portable electric heaters for seldom-
used rooms or to warm up part of a
large, cold room.
bly, which can be inconvenient
and messy.
Fireplace Inserts
Fireplace inserts are airtight fire-
boxes that can be inserted into fire-
places and mimic some of the
effects of a wood-burning stove.
Most draw air from the room, circu-
late it around the insert and return
warmed air to the room. Some
units have blowers to help distrib-
ute the heat.
Some fireplace inserts have a UL
listing for use in factory-built fire-
places. These zero-clearance inserts
can extend to the fireplace facing.
These units are only intended for
use with individual manufacturer
models. Check manufacturer litera-
ture for correct use.
Glass Enclosures
Glass enclosures improve fireplace perform-
ance. They control air intake, making the
wood burn more slowly and retaining more
heat in the firebox; at the same time, the fire-
place pulls less warm air from the house.
The fire can be left unattended with glass
enclosures. With doors shut, the fire safely
burns itself out. The glass doors also allow a
clear view of the fire while keeping smoke and
sparks out of the room.
Most enclosures have a built-in draft at the
base that directs air to the bottom of the fire-
place opening so homeowners can easily start
and control the fire.
Glass enclosures mount securely against the
face of the fireplace and overlap the opening.
Usually, the enclosure comes fully assembled
and installs in minutes.
Other features available on some models
include:
o safety locks to ensure that the doors will
not open accidentally from the impact of a
falling log or gusty down draft;
o removable doors for easy cleaning;
o permanently attached curtain screen;
o outside side-pull handles to eliminate
reaching into the heat of the fire to close
the doors;
o special inserts to adapt the enclosure to an
arched fireplace; and
o base risers to elevate the enclosure to fit
non-standard fireplaces.
FIREPLACE
ACCESSORIES
In addition to items that help the energy
efficiency of fireplaces, certain products are
necessary to its operation or that add to its
decorative value. Fire screens, andirons, grates,
fire tools and gas logs fall into this category.
With the exception of gas logs, there are
several factors that are common to fireplace
furnishings. Primarily; quality metals, such as
solid brass, that will withstand heat.
Many finishes are available, but fire-
place items should be coated with special
lacquers to preserve their luster and pro-
tect against heat damage. Advise the cus-
tomer to use a soft cloth to clean fireplace
items rather than a polish that could
remove the protective coating.
Chain-mesh screens can be flush-mounted
inside the fireplace opening, face-mounted on
the outside or freestanding to protect from
scattering sparks and ash. Folding panel
screens are freestanding and must be set aside
to add wood.
These screens protect from scattering
sparks and ash, but do littleif any-
thingto reduce the draw of
room air up the chimney.
Andirons and grates hold burn-
ing logs off the hearth. Andirons
are a pair of metal bars (usually cast
iron) with decorative front shafts
that hold the logs. Grates not only
hold logs, they also prevent logs
from rolling forward.
Using andirons and grates allows
air to circulate and feed the fire,
while ashes fall away from burning
logs. Keep the ash deposit cleaned
out; if ashes fill the space under the
grate, the retained heat of the fire
could melt the grate.
Fire tool sets contain a shovel,
brush and poker in a wall rack or
floor stand. Some sets have flexible,
three-pronged tongs instead of a
poker to move large logs and perform many
of the pokers jobs. Tongs are available sepa-
rately in the same styles as the sets. They
stand independently on tripod-like prongs.
Other non-essential fireplace accessories
include:
o bellows to pump oxygen into a flickering
fire;
o hearth brooms to sweep ashes and other
debris from the hearth (ranging from 2' to
4' long);
o fire lighters to ignite logs without kin-
dling or paper (small pots with a porous
stone torch that steeps in kerosene
until lighted or small blocks of wax-
impregnated compressed fiber that are
placed on the logs and lighted);
o artificial logs, made from wood particles,
which light easily and burn for several
hours, often with scented or colored flame;
o log rollers, which roll old newspapers into
log shapes easily used as fireplace logs;
o log carriers to haul wood from the wood
pile to the fireplace, made of sturdy canvas
in a variety of colors and patterns;
o wood holders or metal log baskets to store
extra logs near the fireplace; and
o hood accessories deflect heat away from
the mantel shelf.
Gas Logs
Gas log heaters are either vented or unvent-
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
6
ESTIMATED WATTAGE REQUIRED
TO RAISE ROOM TEMPERATURE ONE DEGREE
ROOM CONDITIONS (BASED ON 8 FT. CEILING)
(A) Interior RoomLittle or no outside exposure.
(B) Room with average door and window areawell insulated.
(C) Isolated Roomscabins, watch housesno insulation.
*Because of varying climate, building and insulation conditions, this chart
is intended only as a guide to heating requirements.
50 7 10 36 300 43 60 204
100 14 20 69 350 50 70 241
150 22 30 103 400 57 80 275
200 29 40 138 450 65 90 310
250 36 50 172 500 72 100 344
FLOOR
AREA
SQ. FT.
ROOM
CONDITIONS
A B C
FLOOR
AREA
SQ. FT.
ROOM
CONDITIONS
A B C
ed and operate on either natural gas or LP (liq-
uid propane) gas. Gas logs require no electrici-
ty to operate and provide emergency standby
heating in the event of a power outage.
Gas logs fit into fireplaces with a gas
hookup and can be installed into any UL-list-
ed, solid fuel burning fireplace or in an
American Gas Association (AGA) design-certi-
fied, vent-free firebox listed for use.
Decorative gas logs may be placed directly
on the fire grate or laid on a flame pan cov-
ered with a bed of volcanic granules for a
more realistic looking fire.
The logs are made of high-temperature,
heat-resistant ceramic or cement in a variety
of finishes. Gas logs come in sets containing
logs, burner, grate and/or flame pan.
Vented Gas Logs
Vented gas logs are less fuel efficient than
vent-free gas logs. Vented logs operate at a
range of 60,000 to 90,000 BTUs and lose heat
because they require the chimney damper to
remain open.
Vented gas fireplaces require a venting sys-
tem and a "smoke dome" or chimney, which
is installed on the roof. Vented fireplaces use
natural or LP gas with range settings from
30,000 to 42,500 BTUs. Some have automatic
on/off controls.
Gas fireplaces are relatively easy to
install. However, installation by a quali-
fied professional is always recommended
for all gas appliances. The built-in variety
does not require special flooring or a
hearth front. However, it might be wise
for retailers to suggest a hearth in case the
customer should decide later to convert
the gas fireplace to a wood-burning one.
Freestanding units require no heavy
masonry or foundations for installation.
Vent-Free Gas Logs
Vent-free gas logs provide homeowners
more heat at less cost because they operate
with the damper closed to prevent heat loss
and they use less energy. Typical vent-free gas
logs have adjustable inputs with a maximum
of 40,000 BTUs.
Since 1980, all vent-free systems
include an oxygen depletion sensor
(ODS). The ODS shuts off the heater and
the flow of gas to the burner if the oxy-
gen level in a room becomes inadequate.
In addition, all vent-free heating appli-
ances come with an automatic shut-off
valve to shut off the gas flow if the pilot
extinguishes or the gas flow is interrupted
in any way.
A study commissioned in 1995 by the Vent-
Free Gas Products Alliance of the Gas
Appliance Manufacturers Association found
that vent-free gas heating products meet or
exceed the most current and applicable
nationally recognized standards for indoor air
quality. However, some states still prohibit res-
idential use of vent-free systems. Be sure to
check local codes.
Vent-free gas fireplace inserts are installed
within existing masonry or factory-built fire-
places. Most inserts also contain a blower for
better heat distribution.
Since vent-free fireplace logs require no
venting, gas log fireplaces can be installed
wherever there is access to a gas lineagainst
or recessed into any interior or exterior wall or
freestanding in the middle of a room.
SETBACK DEVICES
Setback devices for furnaces and central air
conditioning evolved as a way of conserving
home energy usage with no loss in comfort.
Unlike modern setback devices, early flame-
control systems monitored heating levels by
taking the temperature of the ducts next to the
furnace. Today, all of the units operate on the
principle of a timer that turns the heat up or
down automatically at pre-determined times.
Timers allow the user to turn the heat
down 10 degrees shortly after bedtime and
back up to normal shortly before waking up.
Units that are more expensive offer a double
cycle or four settings, which is especially use-
ful when the home is empty during the day.
It is generally accepted that cutting back
more than 10on heating or air conditioning
is not an effective energy savings. However,
with 10setbacks, the homeowner can expect
5 percent to 30 percent savings on annual
energy bills, depending on location.
A replacement thermostat contains a timer
with either single-or dual-cycle capabilities.
Each setting allows users to set a reduction of
1to 10. This type of setback device can con-
trol both heating and cooling. The thermostat
is automatically regulated from the established
"normal" setting at specified times.
Energy-saving setback devices can be elec-
tronic or electromechanical. Electronic ther-
mostats allow consumers to program multiple
settings for a given day or week. Some auto-
matically switch between heating and cooling.
Electromechanical devices are easier to pro-
gram, but allow the consumer to program
only two setback periods, each with a maxi-
mum and minimum temperature range.
SUPPLEMENTAL
HEATERS
Supplemental space heaters are gaining
popularity with consumers wanting to reduce
heating costs. Space heaters lend themselves
well to zone heating. Zone heating means
turning the homes central heating unit to a
minimum setting and then using space
heaters only in rooms that are in use.
Portable heaters are excellent in emergen-
cies when a furnace breaks down or there is
an interruption in gas or electrical service.
For best results, place heater under a win-
dow to warm cold air as it enters the room,
whether through an ill-fitting window frame
or just off the cold glass.
Electric Heaters
Electric space heaters should be plugged
directly into the wall outlet; if an extension
cord is necessary, it must be heavy duty (14-
gauge wire).
Heating elements are either "black heat,"
with the heating wire wound around porce-
lain insulators or the more popular "instant
heat" that utilizes a ribbon element.
Heating capacity is rated in BTUs. Wattage
ratings of heaters can be converted to BTUs
consumed per hour by multiplying the num-
ber of watts by 3.413 (the number of BTUs
equaling one watt).
Better electric heaters generally feature a tip-
over safety switch, which automatically shuts
the heater off if knocked over.
Some models have a thermostat, and some
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
7
have small fans to
force heated air into
the open room.
Radiant Heaters
Unlike traditional
convection heating
systems that warm
the air in a room,
radiant heaters bom-
bard objects directly
with infrared heat.
Quartz heaters and
infrared heaters work
according to this
principle.
All radiant
heaters direct heat
to the objects or
people to be
warmed. For short
periods of time
(two to three
hours), these
heaters are more
energy-efficient
than convection
heaters.
These heaters usu-
ally have a wattage
rating of 1,500. The
heating element,
encased in quartz or
a metal sheath, has a
reflector panel behind it to direct the heat
toward the objects. Some models will cycle
off and on, but none have a thermostat.
These heaters should have a tip-over device
to automatically shut the heater off if
tipped over.
The quartz rods will need to be periodically
replaced, which can be done easily by snap-
ping in a replacement rod.
Convection Heaters
A circular heater with no reflector warms the
air, which rises and is distributed around the
room (convection). A natural convection heater
with no fan is one of the safest to use around
small children because elements are almost
completely enclosed; however, it does not give
off as much heat as other supplemental heaters.
Convection heaters typically come in three
types: baseboard, ceramic or fan-forced air.
Baseboard heaters will warm a room well
and have the added advantage of occupying
unused space. Some have a fan. Most radi-
ant baseboard heaters incorporate a thermo-
stat. Convection heaters and models with-
out a thermostat usually have two or three
settings. Protective grills are removable for
easy cleaning. Grills should have a close
mesh, particularly if they are to be used
around small children who may be able to
push small objects or their fingers through
large-meshed grill work.
Ceramic heaters are small portable electric
heaters that use a ceramic disk heating ele-
ment. The heaters are ideal for spot heating
because they are lightweight and easy to carry.
These ceramic heaters
are safer than other
alternative heating
sources because they
operate at temperatures
below the combustion
point of paper. Ceramic
heaters also include a
washable filter to reduce
air pollutants.
Portable fan-forced air
heaters come in models
that operate on fuel oil,
kerosene or propane gas,
and can supply from
35,000 to 600,000 BTUs.
They are used in work
areas, such as garages
and barns, and open
areas such as construc-
tion sites.
Portable forced-air
heaters use fuel and
electricity to circulate
hot air around the
area to be heated.
Their fans blow a gust
of warm air that is
able to heat an area
that would normally
be too open or drafty
to heat with another
type of heater. Models
are equipped with air
and fuel filters to block contaminants.
Safety features include automatic ignition
systems and a flameout safety sensor, which
turns the heater off in case of loss of combus-
tion or lack of fuel.
Gas Heaters
The popularity of natural and LP gas
space heaters continues to grow as con-
sumers seek ways to trim their heating bills.
Gas heaters are highly efficient and have
low operating costs compared to similar
electric and propane heaters. Gas heaters are
available in vented or vent-free as well as
radiant, circulating and catalytic models.
Vented Gas Heaters
The traditional gas heaters for supplemental
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
8
PROPER USE OF PORTABLE KEROSENE HEATERS
Portable kerosene room heaters are equipped with many safety features. As with any heat-
ing appliance, proper precautions should be taken to ensure safe and efficient operation.
Following is a checklist for consumers:
1. Buy only K-1 kerosene. Never use gasoline, white gas, campstove or other fuels.
They are extremely dangerous if used in kerosene heaters.
2. Kerosene should be water-clear. Yellow or colored kerosene will smoke, smell and
interfere with wick operation.
3. Store kerosene in an approved container, clearly marked KEROSENE, away from
living quarters.
4. Refill heater away from living quarters when heater is cool, using a siphon pump
to prevent spillage.
5. Place the heater more than 3 away from curtains, furniture, papers, clothes and
other combustible materials.
6. Some heater surfaces become hot. Keep children away and instruct them not to
touch the controls. Perhaps provide a barrier around the heater to prevent them
from touching it.
7. Provide adequate ventilation, normally furnished by opening a door to an adjacent
room. In totally closed rooms, a window should be opened slightly. Avoid drafts.
8. Read and follow the manufacturers directions for correct operation and mainte-
nance of the heater. Keep the instruction booklet available for reference.
9. Clean and maintain your heater according to manufacturers instructions. Keep
base tray free of dust, dirt or any obstruction.
10. When turning the heater off, make sure the flame is completely extinguished.
Always turn off the heater before sleeping and never leave it unattended.
11. Because heaters have an open flame, do not use flammable solvents, aerosol
sprays, lacquers or gasoline in the same room.
12. Use only manufacturer-authorized wicks, check length and diameter for proper
burning. Fiberglass and cotton wicks are not interchangeable.
heat require outside vents. Most of these are
available in medium- or high-output models
that range from 25,000 to 65,000 BTUs/hr.
Most of these also include enclosed "radiating
circulator" units with tempered glass in front
of a series of radiants. Generally, a thermostat
controls gas-vented heaters.
These heaters are designed to take up mini-
mum space.
Vent-Free Gas Heaters
Vent-free or unvented gas heaters are sup-
plementary heat sources, since they require no
vent. Like all gas appliances, the space should
be properly sized for the unit.
All vent-free gas heaters are equipped with
an ODS. The ODS shuts off the heater and the
flow of gas to the burner if the oxygen level in
the room becomes inadequate. The ODS is
mandatory equipment for unvented heating
equipment as specified by federal and volun-
tary standards.
Retailers must advise customers to strictly
adhere to the manufacturers safety instruc-
tions and to have the unit installed by a quali-
fied professional. In addition, retailers should
be sure all the vent-free products they carry
meet or exceed indoor air quality standards or
recommendations.
Infrared-radiant and convection are two
types of vent-free gas heaters. The infrared-
radiant units transfer most of their heat
through direct infrared radiation from the
heater to people and objects in the room.
Most models feature ceramic radiants or pan-
els that are positioned above the gas burner.
Many of these units are open. The ignited gas
gives off a bright orange glow that heats the
occupants of the room. A screen-like guard
protects the radiant plaques. However, the
radiant plaques are not enclosed in the cabi-
net or behind glass.
Some vent-free radiant heaters have ther-
mostats to efficiently maintain room tem-
perature. Because the output from the vent-
free heater is directed into the room rather
than outdoors, these heaters are nearly 100
percent efficient.
Like infrared-radiant heaters, unvented or
circulating convection heaters can be free-
standing or mounted in a wall. This type of
gas heater has burners enclosed within a
painted or enamel-coated sheet metal housing
that has air openings on the top, front and
possibly the sides. Infrared-radiant heaters cir-
culate heated air, making them suitable for
heating larger areas to uniform temperatures.
Convection heaters work like a mini central
heating system. Convection heaters first warm
the air, which then warms the objects.
Natural gas and LP heaters are especially
suited for zone heating, because they are clean
burning, inexpensive to operate and many
models require no venting.
Kerosene Heaters
Most residential kerosene heaters use a
wick rather than a pressure-fed fuel system.
Virtually all units offer automatic shut-off
devices to extinguish the flame if the heat-
ing unit is bumped or jarred, and grills or
guards to keep hands away from hot sur-
faces. Most models have push-button, bat-
tery-powered lighting devices that eliminate
the need for matches.
Approximately 28 BTUs/hr. are required to
maintain one square foot of space at 70F.
Multiplying this figure by the total square
footage of a room gives the approximate BTU
rating a model should have to heat the room.
Caution customers to use only K-1
clear kerosene fuel. Fuel that is yellow
or colored will smoke, smell and hamper
wick operation.
Since kerosene heaters deplete oxygen in
the air and discharge carbon monoxide, some
areas ban their use. Check with local govern-
ment agencies to see if your community
restricts kerosene heater use.
Some safety tips from the National
Kerosene Heater Association include:
o Never use gasoline which, even in small
amounts, creates the risk of flare-up and
fire.
o Add fuel to the heater or cartridge tank out
of the living area in a well-ventilated loca-
tion.
o Never move, refuel or service the heater
when it is operating or hot.
o Operate the heater only in well-
ventilated areas.
o Keep heater more than 3' from materials
such as furniture, clothing and draperies
and out of high-traffic areas.
o Extinguish heater before sleeping.
o Follow state and local regulations.
Baseboard Heaters
Baseboard heaters will warm a room
well and have the added advantage of
occupying unused space. Some have a fan.
Most radiant baseboard heaters incorpo-
rate a thermostat. Convection heaters and
models without a thermostat usually have
a choice of two or three settings.
Protective grilles are removable to facili-
tate cleaning. Grilles should have a close
mesh, particularly if they are to be used
around small children, who may be able
to push small objects or their fingers
through large-meshed grille work.
Portable Forced-Air Heaters
These heaters come in models that operate
on fuel oil, kerosene or propane gas, and can
supply from 35,000 to 600,000 Btus. They are
used in work areas, such as garages and barns.
Portable forced-air heaters use fuel and elec-
tricity to circulate hot air around the area to
be heated. Models are equipped with air and
fuel filters to block contaminants. Safety fea-
tures include automatic ignition systems and a
flame-out safety sensor, which turns the
heater off in the event of loss of combustion
or lack of fuel.
Ceramic Heaters
Ceramic heaters are small portable electric
heaters that use a ceramic disk heating ele-
ment. The heaters are ideal for spot heating
because they are lightweight and easy to carry.
These ceramic heaters are safer than other
alternative heating sources because they oper-
ate at temperatures below the combustion
point of paper. Ceramic heaters also include a
washable filter to reduce air pollutants.
Duct Fans
While not actually a source of supplemental
heat, duct fans are designed to boost the flow
of air from the central heating system to areas
in a house that are hard to heat or cool. They
overcome the added resistance in long duct
runs, allowing warm or cool air to reach the
"problem" room.
There are two types of duct fans: a prop fan
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
9
that fits inside the duct or a squirrel cage fan
with the motor mounted outside of the duct.
Most models will vent around 200 cfm in 6"
to 8" diameter ducts. Duct fans can be wired
in series with the central furnace blower or
operated by an auxiliary thermostat.
HUMIDIFIERS
Cold air holds little moisture. When it
enters the house and is warmed, the air in the
house becomes uncomfortably dry. This dry-
ness, in addition to causing personal discom-
fort such as respiratory distress and dry skin,
can wither house plants, loosen joints in fur-
niture and even crack paintings. It is also the
prime cause of static electricity.
This dry-air problem can be solved with a
humidifier, which can also cut heating bills.
Humidity can be checked with a
humidity guide.
However, if the house is not of reasonably
tight construction and does not have storm
windows, it may be necessary to sacrifice
some humidity to avoid excessive condensa-
tion on the inside of windows.
Portable Humidifiers
The number of cubic feet a portable humid-
ifier will moisten depends not only on output
but also on such factors as rate of air exchange
in the house from outside, washers and dryers
in use, showers in use, etc.
A unit with good moisture output, about 2
to 3 gals. of water a day, can raise humidity in
a four to five-room house to the levels in the
accompanying table. Smaller models will
release .5 to 1.5 gals. a day.
One type of humidifier uses a revolving belt
made of foam rubber or a washable plastic
that absorbs water from a built-in tank.
Another type uses an impeller to pump
water to the top of the unit where it flows
over a filter. As the water descends by gravity
through the filter, dry air is drawn by a fan
through the filter, moistened and diffused
through the grille.
Water in both types is evaporated by a
motor-driven fan. Fan sizes vary from about 8"
to 12". Revolving belts have 1,000 to 1,500-
sq.-in. surfaces.
Tank capacities vary from 5-10 gals. The
difference in tank size has no effect on
the efficiency of the unit; it only means
that smaller tanks will need to be refilled
more often. To help fill the tanks, some
models include a filler hose that connects
to a faucet. Models without a hose may be
filled from a bucket or jug.
Better models have adjustable fan speeds, a
built-in humidistat and automatic shutoff.
Portable humidifiers should be placed near an
inside wall, preferably facing a stairwell, and
at least 6" from the wall for proper air circula-
tion. Since moist, warm air rises, a unit placed
on an upstairs floor will not be as effective.
Ultrasonic humidifiers moisten the air
through the use of ultrasonic sound waves.
The sound waves are used to vaporize the
water particles in the water reservoir into a
cool vapor mist. In addition, these humidifiers
are very quiet. Some feature an automatic
shutoff switch in case the unit is tipped over
or the tank empties.
The Environmental Protection Agency
found that these humidifiers appear to raise
the level of airborne particles in the home
beyond acceptable levels. The machines com-
bine bacterial residue and mold with other
pollutants in the water and spew the mixture
around. To combat this problem, consumers
should be urged to use distilled water, clean
the machines frequently and empty them
between uses.
Another less-serious problem is the white
dust the humidifiers spread around the house.
The white dust consists of pulverized minerals
from the water. Most devices have filters to
combat this problem. Depending upon the
hardness of the water used in the humidifiers,
these filters must be changed from two weeks
to once a season.
Furnace-Mounted Humidifiers
Furnace-mounted humidifiers force dry air
from the furnace through a saturated foam
element or plate. This type of humidifier is
sold complete with a length of copper or plas-
tic tubing to connect to the water supply, and
the humidifier is refilled automatically.
Another type of furnace-mounted
humidifier sprays a fine mist of water into
the heated air.
An automatic reset humidistat will adjust
moisture output to compensate for weather
change. Evaporative elements are replaceable
at minimal cost.
Self-cleaning units reduce messy cleanups
and eliminate the need for water additives.
Adequate moisture is supplied in less time,
eliminating wear and tear on the humidifier
and conserving energy.
For homes heated by hot water, electric-
ity or steam, special humidifiers can be
placed in closets, laundry and utility
rooms or basements, etc., with outlets
leading into living rooms.
Humidifier Maintenance
Maintenance cost of a humidifier is low,
and the unit uses little electricity. It will lower
heating costs and pay for itself in a short time.
Low humidity makes a house feel colder than
it actually is; thus, when the humidifier is
installed, less heating is required to maintain a
comfortable temperature.
Tanks and filters or belts should be cleaned
regularly. Caution customers to watch for
scale formation in humidifiers. This accumu-
lates as a residue of minerals when water evap-
orates. Formations clog filters, pads and belts
to the extent that they cannot pick up or hold
water. This reduces performance and can lead
to equipment damage.
There are ways to get rid of the scale with
liquid descalers. Periodic use is essential for
good performance. Another way to solve the
problem is to treat the water. Concentrated
water treatment for console humidifiers
reduces scale buildup and controls mold and
mildew growth.
Also available now are floor-vent humidifier
registers that replace standard floor vent regis-
ters and provide humidity for individual
rooms without the need for a plug-in humidi-
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
10
OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE/
DESIRED HUMIDITY
OUTSIDE DESIRED
TEMPERATURE HUMIDITY
-10F 20%
0F 25%
10F 30%
20F 35%
300F and above 35%
fier. They use a water chamber where home-
owners can add water, which then passes
through a wick filter and into the air when
the furnace cycles on.
DEHUMIDIFIERS
Excessive dampness can damage a homes
walls, floors, carpets and even plumbing. It is
especially prevalent in basements, basement
apartments and storage areas.
A dehumidifier takes excessive moisture out
of the air by blowing humid air over cold
evaporator coils in a refrigerator system.
Quality is closely related to the amount of
moisture a unit extracts during a 24-hour peri-
od. A high-capacity unit can remove up to 36
pints of moisture during 24 hours. Some larg-
er units can remove up to 50-60 pints per day.
Small units (25 pints per day) may not be able
to dry the air satisfactorily all the time.
Moisture is normally collected in a pan, and
the unit will automatically shut off when the
pan is full to prevent an overflow.
Attaching a garden hose or bucket makes
pan emptying easier on some models. If used
in a basement, the unit may be drained direct-
ly into the floor drain.
A humidistat for turning the dehumidifier
off or on in response to changes in moisture
content of the air is necessary for efficient
energy consumption.
A dehumidifier is no substitute for an air
conditioner. Although both dehumidify, a
dehumidifier tends to raise the temperature.
For best results, a dehumidifier should be
operated with doors and windows closed and
should be placed away from walls, furniture
and other air flow obstructions.
AIR CONDITIONERS
Window-mounted air conditioners cool, cir-
culate, filter and dehumidify the air. They
range in size from small units with a cooling
capacity of 5,000 BTUs (enough to cool a
small room) to as high as 14,000 BTUs for
normal home voltage.
It is crucial that retailers sell the consumer
the right size air conditioner. An oversized
unit will cool but leave a damp and clammy
feeling because of high relative humidity. An
undersize unit will not operate effectively on
very hot days.
An air conditioner should always be select-
ed by BTU rating, not horsepower.
Horsepower is just the size of the motor driv-
ing the compressor; BTU is the actual cooling
capacity of the unit.
An effective rule of thumb to determine
the BTUs needed to cool a room is to mul-
tiply the square feet of the room by 25,
adding 1,000 for every window and 400
for each occupant.
Example: A room measures 12' x 15' with
two windows and two occupants. The formula
works out to 180 sq. ft. x 25 =4,500 +2,000
for the windows +800 for the occupants =
7,300, or a 7,000-8,000 BTU air conditioner.
Energy efficiency is an important selling
point. To check the efficiency of an air condi-
tioner, divide the watt rating into BTU output.
A factor of 10 means it is an efficient unit, and
the factor should not be less than 5.
Units with 115 volts (having less than a
9,000 BTU capacity) will not overload
average house wiring. For larger capacity
units and those requiring 220V wiring
(high BTU capacity), an electrician should
be consulted.
Features vary with manufacturers lines.
However, a salesperson should stress con-
sumer benefits. These benefits include
variable air direction to prevent drafts;
easy-to-remove and clean air filters for
reducing dirt and airborne irritants; silent
motor; air exchanger to exhaust stale or
smoke-filled air; multi-adjustable speed
and thermostatic temperature controls.
Mounting kits are included with most
models, including sill brackets for extra
support of the unit and side panels to
ensure an airtight fit in the window. For
maximum cooling efficiency, a window
unit should be placed in a window that
will afford maximum air circulation into
the room or rooms to be cooled and is
shaded most of the time.
Split ductless air conditioners are another
option, although they are designed more for
whole-house cooling.
There are several energy-saving points that
should be emphasized to consumers. The filter
should be cleaned periodically, or cooling effi-
ciency will be sharply reduced. Most units are
permanently lubricated and require no oiling;
advise customers to follow manufacturers
instructions on this point.
Homes in which air conditioning is
used year-round should be closed year-
roundleaving the storm windows or
insulated glass in place all year. However,
if the home is located in a seasonal
climate, the air conditioning should
be shut off at night, if the outside air
cools down and the windows opened,
or used in conjunction with a whole-
house fan.
Advise consumers to reduce heat from the
sun by closing drapes and shades. Suggest
they use a kitchen ventilator fan when cook-
ing to draw out stove heat.
All air conditioners will operate more
efficiently when the area to be cooled
is well insulated.
The only proper way to become thor-
oughly versed in this product is to spend
some time studying the factory literature
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
11
POINTS TO KNOW WHEN YOU
SELL AN AIR CONDITIONER
1. Consumers usually want to know how
much energy the unit uses.
2. When selling a large or portable unit, be
sure the customer has the correct dimen-
sions of the area to be cooled. Make sure
the air conditioner is powerful enough to
handle the intended area.
3. Is removing the air filter for regular
cleaning easy?
4. How good is the units sound insula-
tion? Customers want the quietest
models in a bedroom.
5. The air conditioner should have a thermo-
stat. Otherwise, the user will have to
adjust the setting as necessary.
6. An adjustable speed fan is handy and
may be necessary according to place-
ment requirements.
7. A fresh air switch, if on, brings fresh air
into the room.
8. Louvers are good to direct air in any
desired direction.
9. Can your customer install the air condi-
tioner? If not, do you offer installation? If
so, what is the charge?
on the line you handle.
FANS
As environmental issues continue to pick
up steam, many consumers are turning to fans
as a lower-cost and environmentally safe cool-
ing alternative. Most fans use little energy
compared to other cooling methods and their
low price attracts cost-conscious customers.
Window Fans
Window fans are a good alternative
cooling source for environmentally and
budget-conscious consumers because they
use less energy than air conditioning and
contain no chlorofluorocarbons that
break down the ozone layer.
Window fans are great at bringing fresh,
cool air into the house or expelling hot air.
While most traditional window fans fea-
ture a 20" diameter, smaller units are see-
ing strong growth. These units are easier
to install and can double as floor fans.
The majority of larger fans require
mounting kits and side panels. The panels,
in addition to supporting the fan, prevent
air from circulating around and back into
the fan, which could result in a perform-
ance loss of as much as 8 to 10 percent.
The newer, smaller fans come with side
panels in place, so all the consumer has to
do is open the window, stick the fan in
and switch on the power.
Some of the larger models and all of the
smaller ones are made to permit the win-
dow to be closed with the fan mounted in
the window frame.
Deluxe models are thermostat-con-
trolled and may have as many as six speed
selections. A thermostat is a big help in
areas where there is a great difference in
day and night temperatures.
Some models feature electrical
reversibility, enabling the user to switch
the fan from intake to exhaust, or vice
versa, without turning the fan around.
A stand-mounted fan has tilt knobs,
allowing the user to position the fan at
the angle that best suits the purpose. Fans
with clip-on bases with diameters under
10" are popular for office use.
When used for exhaust, stand-mounted
fans should be positioned about 2-3 feet
away from the window; for intake, they
should be placed as close to the window
as possible. Some models can be removed
from their stands and used as convention-
al window fans.
To cool one room, run the window fan
on intake and open a second window to
act as a vent. To cool several rooms, run
the fan on exhaust and open the windows
and connecting doors.
An efficient 20" fan can change the air
approximately once a minute in a 2,400 cu.-
ft. area (a room measuring 20' x 15' x 8').
A typical larger portable fan uses 50 to 200
watts, while smaller fans can run on less.
Floor Fans
Floor fans provide an air movement
pattern to cool and circulate air without
causing drafts.
Fan sizes are generally 10" to 12" in
diameter, mounted in rectangular or
round, hassock-type cases. A hassock fan
will throw air outward and upward in a
360 direction.
A rectangular fan will tilt about 170
and may be used as a table fan, throwing
air current outward. As a floor fan, it can
be tilted to throw air upward, or it can be
wall-mounted and tilted at any angle
desired. Some of the more expensive floor
fans have speed selection controls; others
run at a fixed speed.
Oscillating Fans
Oscillating fans, with a circular grill
varying in diameter from 8" to 16", may
be used on the floor, on a table or wall-
mounted. They do not have as high an air
delivery as some floor fans.
The tilt angle varies from about 50 to
90 and the oscillation, which has a
radius of 90, can be switched off with a
twist of a knob.
Care should be taken to place fans out
of the reach of small children if the fan
has grill work wide enough to allow their
fingers to touch the blades.
Exhaust and Whole-House Fans
The primary use of an exhaust fan is to
extract stale air from an attic, kitchen or
bathroom.
Installed above the kitchen range or under
the range hood, a 10" exhaust fan will prevent
smoke and grease from accumulating in the
kitchen and spreading throughout the house.
The switch simultaneously starts the fan and
opens an outside vent. Bathroom exhaust fans
can come with an optional light or heater.
Separate switches allow all services to be oper-
ated independently or together.
Whole-house fans draw hot air from the
living area into the attic where it is vent-
ed. Installation and operation costs less
than an air conditioner, and used alone, it
can keep a gentle breeze stirring through
the house that will make the temperature
seem 2 to 3 cooler.
Most whole-house fans have louvers
that open automatically when the fan is
turned on and close when it is turned
off. The louvers seal out hot and cold air.
Automatic switches are available only for
single-speed fans. Fans with variable-
speed motors cool the house at higher
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
12
canopy
motor
green or copper wire
fan mount
white wire
set screw
black wire
TYPICAL CEILING FAN MOUNTING
metal junction
box
ceiling
joist
2' x 4' header
1" No. 10
wood screws
speeds and maintain general air circula-
tion when turned down.
Whole-house fans are rated according
to the measurement of cubic feet of air
per minute (cfm) that they move.
Exhaust fans carry certified sound rat-
ings developed by the Home Ventilating
Institute and its member manufacturers.
These ratings provide dealers with reli-
able guidelines for noise level and air
movement.
Sound levels are stated in sones interna-
tionally recognized units of total loud-
ness. Ratings are in steps of 0.5 sones and
10 cfm. Multiple-speed fans must be rated
at maximum speed but can also be rated
at lower speeds. Limits for sound outputs
are 6.5 sones for bathroom fans and 9
sones for kitchen fans up to 500 cfm.
Ceiling Fans
Aside from their decorative and fashion
functions, ceiling fans create a gentle
indoor breeze that supports heating and
air conditioning systems on less energy
than a 100-watt light bulb uses.
Homeowners can use ceiling fans in all
rooms of the home to save energy, elimi-
nate stale odors and repel insects.
Style is a major consideration in a ceiling
fan purchase. Many top-of-the-line models
feature quality cast-iron motor housings, pull
chain switches, reversible motion and preci-
sion-pitched blades that maximize air move-
ment. Blades come in real wood, metal or
plastic. A heavy-material motor housing will
aid fan efficiency; the additional mass gains
more momentum, reducing the energy neces-
sary to keep the fan in motion.
Ceiling fans are available in several
styles, sizes and with a number of acces-
sories. The fans generally come in 36",
42", 48" and 52" blade diameters, as well
as 56" to 72" industrial models. Naturally,
the larger the room, the larger the diame-
ter is required to efficiently circulate air.
For example, a 42" model is effective for
rooms up to 144 square feet.
Some fans have more than one speed;
most are variable speed. They have heavy-
duty, induction-type motors, which run
quietly on leak-proof circulating oil bath
lubrication. They also have permanently
lubricated, sealed ball bearings.
Most ceiling fans come with four or five
blades, although some models give you a
choice. If a wood blade is warped, it will
wobble during operation. This can be cor-
rected by installing adhesive-backed
weights to the blades. Operating at faster
speeds may also cause humming or click-
ing noises with some models.
Standard mounting kits are available for
ceilings as low as 8', and close-to-the-ceiling
models can be used on 7'6"ceilings,
although they pose more of a safety risk.
For the most efficient cooling, the blades
should be 8'9' above the floor. Extension
downrods can be used for high ceilings. A
12' ceiling would require a 3' extension
downrod, allowing 1' for the fan assembly.
Virtually all have light adapter kits and
some even include heaters. Remote con-
trols are available with more expensive
models, or can be purchased separately.
They enable the user to change speeds,
reverse direction and control lighting.
Now available is a combination ceiling
fan/air purifier that freshens the air while
circulating it around the room. It covers
approximately 600 square feet with a five-
blade, reversible, three-speed fan with
light kit. While it can be mounted on a
vaulted ceiling, it cannot be added to an
existing ceiling fan.
For more informatin, click (Installing
Ceiling Fans).
Air Circulators
Air circulators or "movable ceiling fans"
are an alternative to the conventional
ceiling fan. Unlike traditional permanent-
ly fixed ceiling fans, air circulators have a
nontraditional spin. No drilling, wiring or
permanently altering the appearance of a
room is necessary with air circulators.
They circulate all air from anywhere in
the roomnot just from the ceiling.
Most models feature variable-speed con-
trols for year-round use, fully directable
airflows and quiet operation. Models
range in size from desktop units for small-
er rooms, basic models for larger rooms
and convertible units designed for "out of
the way" placement.
AIR CLEANING
DEVICES
Exposure to airborne particles causes allergy-
related illnesses in one out of every five
Americans. Diseases include allergic rhinitis
(hay fever), sinusitis, asthma, dermatitis, bron-
chitis and other acute respiratory illnesses.
An electronic air cleaner or purifier provides
relief from pollen, dust and other airborne irri-
tants. Some manufacturers claim air cleaners
can prevent the circulation of up to 95 percent
of all home solid air pollutants. Opening win-
dows and eliminating pollution sources are the
most effective methods of controlling indoor
pollution. Most allergens are invisible to the
naked eye and are measured in microns. A
micron is .0000393 of an inch. Pollen ranges
from 10 to 1,000 microns and dust ranges
from 50 to 500 microns.
Air cleaners use one or more different tech-
nologies to pass air through a filter. The four
major types of air filter technology used
include: mechanical media filters, electrostatic
media filters, electronic precipitators and ion
generators.
A high-efficiency-particulate-arresting
(HEPA) filter is a mechanical media filter often
used in the fields of medicine, atomic energy
and semiconductors for their superior air
cleaning ability. These room-cleaning filters
can catch as much as 99.97 percent of particles
.3 microns or larger. HEPA filters are designed
to trap allergy-causing pollen and mold spores,
as well as filter out smoke and dust mites.
Electrostatic filters work better for whole-
house filtration. One form of electrostatic fil-
terelectretconsists of a shredded
polypropylene fleece that has been given a per-
manent electric charge to help attract and
remove sub-micron sized allergens. Like with
HEPA filters, electrical attraction does not
remove gas molecules from the air.
Also available are in-duct cleaners such as
electronic precipitators. While they act to filter
the whole house, these complex systems only
work when the blower system operates. They
generally require installation by a contrac-
tor and their electronic cells must be
washed frequently.
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
13
HEAT I NG & C OOL I NG
14
In addition to filter technology, other factors
play important roles in choosing the right air
purifier. Some air cleaners feature an ionizer or
ion generator. This device produces charged
molecules of air, which helps make indoor air
more refreshing, reduces static electricity and
improves the filters efficiency. Air that con-
tains excessive positive ions is often found to
be "stuffy." Ionizers help recreate the natural
negative-positive ion balance in a room.
The Association of Home Appliance
Manufacturers (AHAM) offers a scientific,
objective rating system to determine an air
purifier's performance and room-size effective-
ness. After a series of tests, AHAM assigns each
model a Clean Air Delivery Rate (CADR).
CADR is the amount of clean airmeasured in
CFMsthat an air purifier delivers to a room.
A higher CADR indicates a greater ability to
return clean air to the room.
Furnace/ AC Filters
More than half of U.S. households use
forced air heating systems that require
regular filter replacement for optimal effi-
ciency. Each year, 60 million consumers
purchase between two and eight 1"
replaceable filters for their homes.
Traditionally, furnace/AC filters have been
designed to protect the HVAC (heating, venti-
lation and air conditioning) system from large
particles, heavy dust and lint. Today, home-
owners increasing concerns of indoor air qual-
ity are giving rise to advanced filter technolo-
gy. Select filters can improve odors, although
no filter can remove gases such as radon and
carbon monoxide or fumes from cleaning
products and paint.
Specific customer needs will determine the
appropriate filter technology.
Fiberglass filters (also known as standard fil-
ters) are inexpensive and protect the furnace
from larger particles and lint that enter the
HVAC system. This is the most common filter
technology. Since the fibers of the filter are not
dense or electrostatically charged, they cannot
attract and capture smaller-sized particles that
pass through the filter media. Fiberglass filters
should be changed at least monthly.
Ordinary pleated filters are another low-cost
alternative to fiberglass filters. Comprised of a
more dense and efficient cotton/polyester
material, this filter mechanically "sifts" particles
from the air as they pass through the filter. The
pleated design provides greater surface area to
capture more particles than fiberglass filters.
Pleated filters need to be changed every 90
days, as the filter media typically "face loads"
with particles. There is no depth loading.
Smaller-sized particles can pass through the fil-
ter media because fibers are not electrostatically
charged and the media must be woven with
spaces between fibers to allow adequate airflow.
One type of pleated filter is the electret filter,
which uses an electret media. Electret filters
cost more than fiberglass and ordinary pleated
filters, but contain "sites" that carry a perma-
nent electrostatic charge. These sites attract
and capture sub-micron-sized particles, as well
as larger particles. To maintain optimal HVAC
system efficiency, these filters should be
changed approximately every three months.
Permanent washable filters consist of a flat
panel of various woven synthetics. This filter
technology is considered permanent because
homeowners can rinse it free of particles and
reuse it. Rinsing is recommended every 30
days and filters generally last five or six years.
Some brands are bonded with anti-microbial
agents that inhibit the growth of mold,
mildew, bacteria and fungi in the filter. While
electrostatic filters do not contain a permanent
electrostatic charge, a charge develops as air
passes through the filter. This charge
varies with humidity and furnace/AC
blowing cycles, and captured particles
can fall off and can later pass through
the filter and re-enter the air stream.
While permanent washable filters are
more expensive initially than fiberglass
and ordinary pleated filters, they can be
reused for up to six years, which signifi-
cantly reduces the environmental impact
of filter disposal.
The most common sizes for furnace/AC
filters are 20" x 20", 20" x 25", 16" x 20",
Roof Dog-House Louver
Basement Well
Garage Wall
Stariwell
LOCATING A WHOLE-HOUSE FAN
The simplest and most effective way to
mount a whole-house fan is to position it
horizontally over an intake opening in the
attic floor. It can also be mounted in a stair-
well window, above the kitchen, in a base-
ment or garage wall, or for flat roofs, in a
dog-house louver.
WHERE DO YOU INSTALL
A WHOLE-HOUSE FAN?
CHAPTER EIGHT:
SOIL CONDITIONERS
SEEDS
PESTICIDES/FERTILIZERS
LAWN&GARDEN
Chemicals
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
8
I Lawn and garden chemicals raise
special concerns. While the active
ingredients remain the same in many
cases, new pesticides are available
that are faster acting and easier to
apply. Make sure consumers are
given proper instructions on how to safely apply, use and dispose
of fertilizers and pesticides. Be familiar with state and local regula-
tions regarding lawn and garden chemicals.
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
2
LAWN&GARDEN
Chemicals
SOIL CONDITIONERS
Peat and Peat Moss
The first step in all gardening is proper soil
preparation. No matter what else is used, a
garden needs a good soil conditioner consist-
ing of decayed organic matter. Organic matter
will improve many problem soils. It will
loosen clay soils to improve drainage and air-
flow, it will hold moisture and nutrients close
to roots in sandy soils.
Two products are useful in filling this need:
sphagnum peat moss and reed-sedge peat
(Michigan-type peat). Both products are high
in the organic matter needed by soil to hold
moisture and store plant food for gradual root
feeding.
Sphagnum peat moss is the remains of a
spongy type of northern moss called sphag-
num. It is available in compressed bales from
6 cu. ft. down to 1 cu. ft. Also available are
small casegoods for use in flowerpots and
planter boxes that must be soaked before
using.
Reed-sedge peat is the remains of a variety
of swamp plants such as sedge grasses and
reeds. It is a velvety dark brown product that
does not need extensive soaking. It comes in
25- and 50-lb. bags as well as smaller quanti-
ties. Neither product is a plant food. Fertilizers
will have to be added.
Humus is a brown or black organic sub-
stance consisting of decayed vegetable matter
that provides nutrients for plants and
improves the water retention of soil.
Composting
Composting is converting waste material
into a type of synthetic manure. A compost
pile should contain leaves, grass clippings,
prunings, straw, spoiled hay, coffee grounds,
eggshells, paper and wood ash that decom-
pose through bacterial action. It helps pre-
serve the environment by reducing waste in
addition to its functional use.
Usually manure, garden soil and commer-
cial fertilizer is layered with the waste material
to speed the bacterial action. Compost can be
spread on the lawn in the fall or on the gar-
den at any time as a mulch. It has fertilizing
value.
Compost bins come in a variety of sizes and
shapes. It is generally recommended to use a
compost bin at least 27 cu. ft. in size to ensure
it retains enough heat to spur the compost
development. For more information, click
(Composting).
Mulches
Mulch is a ground cover that protects
ground temperature, reduces evaporation, pre-
vents erosion, controls weeds, attracts earth-
worms and enriches the soil. Mulch should
allow water to pass through it quickly but
should not be easily washed away by rain.
Summer is the best time to apply mulch.
Applying early in the spring slows the soils
ability to warm naturally. It should be wet
thoroughly after application. Coarse mulches
should be applied 3"-4" deep, while fine
mulches should be applied 1"-2" deep. If the
customer is applying a coarse mulch, a 2 cu.
ft. bag will cover 6-8 sq. ft. of space.
The decorative appeal of mulch has led to
the introduction of a variety of colors and tex-
tures. Among the general types of mulch are:
Organickeeps soil surface as much as 10
cooler than exposed soil. A thick application
will halt weeds, but it needs to be refreshed
each year. Varieties include bark, pine nuggets,
cypress, hardwood, peat moss and pine
mulch.
Plasticavailable in black and clear colors.
Soil must be damp when plastic is applied and
it will require subsequent waterings. In addi-
tion, plastic mulch may concentrate enough
heat during a sudden hot day that plantings
underneath will die.
Rubberlooks similar to organic mulch but
doesnt rot, dissolve into the ground, wash
away from rain or lose its color. Made from
non-toxic, environmentally friendly, recycled
materials that can be used indoors or out-
doors. Rubber mulch inhibits weed growth
while retaining soil moisture, and the natural
mulch shape allows airflow to the ground. It is
available in several colors. While rubber
mulch is significantly more expensive than
organic mulch, it remains a cost-effective pur-
chase since it doesnt have to be replaced
every year.
Aluminum foillowers soil temperature,
repels aphids and is good at soil moisture
retention. Its relative cost is high compared to
other mulches.
Paperlowers ground temperature, discour-
ages weeds and is biodegradable.
Burlapvery good at preventing erosion on
slopes, but new grass has a tendency to grow
through it.
Landscape stoneis low-maintenance
mulch that retains its look and does not
decompose or erode. Types include lava rocks,
marble and limestone chips, river pebbles and
brick nuggets. Should be applied 1"-3" deep.
Since lava rocks are lightweight, they are more
likely to be washed away by a hard rain.
Landscape Fabric
Another type of ground cover, landscape
fabric, is often used to prevent weeds from
growing while allowing moisture to penetrate
in vegetable gardens. Holes should be cut in
the fabric to enable plants to grow. Since its
appearance is unnatural, it should be covered
with a top mulch or decorative stone when
used for landscaped areas. It can also be used
on newly seeded lawns to prevent seeds from
blowing or washing away and to spur germi-
nation. Landscape fabric can be organic or
synthetic, woven or unwoven, and comes in
various colors. Typical rolls range in size from
3'-6' wide and 15'-50' long.
Potting Soil
There are four basic types of potting mixes:
all-purpose, professional, premium and plant-
specific.
All-purpose potting soil is designed for gar-
deners who want to add ingredients to cus-
tomize their mix with plant food.
Professional mixes typically feature addi-
tives such as sphagnum peat moss, vermicu-
lite, composted bark finds and a wetting
agent.
Premium mixes often include perlite and
vermiculite, which aid in water drainage and
aeration. They also feature a wetting agent
that provides more uniform water distribution
in the soil. Some premium mixes even con-
tain fertilizer in either water-soluble or slow-
release
granular form.
Plant-specific mixes tend to be premium
mixes, but they are designed to meet the spe-
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
3
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
4
COMMON HOUSEHOLD AND GARDEN PESTS
PEST
Ant
Aphid, plant
louse, greenbug
Armyworm
Bermuda-grass
mite
Billbug (grubs),
also called lawn
weevil, snout
beetle
Brown dog tick
Chigger, jigger,
red bug
Chinch bug,
hairy chinch bug,
southern lawn
chinch bug
Clover mite
DESCRIPTION
Readily recognized by small necks and
waists. Troublesome species range in size
from 1/8" to 1/2" long.
Soft-bodies, round or pear-shaped various
colors including yellow, light-green, powder
blue and brown, seldom more than 1/8"
long, some look wooly or powdery due to
a waxy excretion.
The larvae of moths, they are 1-1/2" long,
light tan to dark green or black with white
stripes along each side and down the back.
Adults (moths) are brownish gray and have
a wingspan of 1-1/2".
Tiny, eight-legged, and cigar-shaped, they
are white although not visible without
magnification.
Adults vary in color from light olive yellow
to reddish brown to black. inch long with
long snouts. The larvae or to reddish brown
to black and are from 14" to 1/2" long. The
larvae, or grubs, are white, short, legless,
chunky and curved, with a distinctive hard
yellow-brown head.
The adult male is flat, 1/8" long and uni-
formly red-brown. The female, before feed-
ing, resembles the male. As she becomes
engorged with blood, the female may
grow to 1/2" inch long, 1/4" inch wide and
1/8" thick. The engorged portion of the
body becomes blue-grey.
Oval, bright yellow-range; size of a pinhead
or smaller.
Full-grown nymphs and adults are red-
black; adults have white wings folded over
the back and are 1/6" long. Nymphs are
smaller and bright red.
Only 1/30" long (smaller than a pinhead)
the adult clover mite is dark red and has
eight legs, the frontal pair long and extend-
ing forward from the body.
HABITAT, HOST
Nests in the soil; various soil envi-
ronments are conducive to ants.
Most plants are subject to infesta-
tion by aphids of one or more
species.
General feeders, they attack all
common turfgrasses, many veg-
etables, and flowers of many
ornamentals.
Primarily Bermudagrass in Florida,
Louisiana, Texas, Arizona, New
Mexico and California.
Corn, turf and other grasses.
Dogs are almost the exclusive host
but other mammals, including
man, are occasionally attacked.
Most numerous east of the Rocky
Mountains, chiggers invade lawns
during the summer. Microscopic
larvae attack man.
Infesting lawns from spring until
frost, chinch bugs prefer sunny
areas; thrive during hot, dry weath-
er, and damage St. Augustine,
bentgrass and bluegrass lawns.
Although they feed on clovers and
grasses, these mites lay eggs and
return to molt in trees or cracks
and crevices of building walls.
Heavy infestations appear in heavi-
ly fertilized lawns and may invade
homes during the spring.
DAMAGE, SYMPTOMS
In turf, mounds around nest openings frequently
smother grass. Ants may also prevent good
strands by destroying newly-planted seed. Some
species attack flowers and shrubs. A few, includ-
ing fire and harvester ants, bite people.
Sucking of plant juices causes curled or distorted
leaves; stunted, possibly dying plants. A colorless
sweet secretion called honeydew may attract
ants and provide a growth medium for black,
sooty mold.
Bare, circular areas in lawns may indicate the
presence of armyworms. They feed on the
blades of grass, making the turf look ragged
and bare.
Mites suck sap from the grass blades, caus-
ing wilting and stunting. Grass becomes
bushy or tufted and has a yellow or brown,
unhealthy appearance.
When larvae hatch, they feed inside the stem.
Outgrowing that, they move to the soil and
attack roots and crowns of plants often leaving
saw-dust like frass on the soil surface. Adults feed
on stems and foliage leaving a series of trans-
verse holes in leaves, and a ripped or shredded
stem.
Frequently invading buildings, brown dog ticks
become a nuisance pest. In the south they are
also common in lawns and recreation areas.
Attaching to skin, mainly on dogs, they may
cause irritation and inflammation.
Poisonous bite irritates and causes scattered red
blotching of skin; usually takes place under tight
areas of clothing. Intense itching may continue
for a week or more.
Bleached, yellow areas of grass which rapidly
turn brown, are often caused by chinch bugs
which suck the juices from plants. The bugs,
though tiny, can be found in thatch or at the
base of infested grass.
Sucking of plant juices brings a bleached or sil-
vered look to blades of grass.
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
5
COMMON HOUSEHOLD AND GARDEN PESTS
Cricket
Cutworm
Digger wasp
Earwig
Flea
Leafhopper
Millipede
Sod webworm
(lawn moth),
lawn worm, web-
worm, grub
Most species have dark, rounded, grass-
hopper-like bodies and prominent anten-
nae. Size ranges from 1/2" to 1-1/2" long.
Females have a prominent swordlike
ovipositor. Mole crickets are light brown
with lighter underbody sometimes tinged
with green. They have short stout forelegs,
shovel-shaped feet and large, beady eyes.
Soft-bodied, dull gray-green, brown or
Black caterpillars; some species are spotted,
others striped. Size varies from 1-1/4" to 2"
long. They curl up tightly when disturbed.
Adults are gray-brown moths readily
attracted to lights at night.
Several wasps are ascribed to this group
including thread-waisted cicada-killers, mud
daubers and several mining species.
Beetle-like insects, red-brown, 3/4" long,
easy to identify by their prominent pair of
forceps at the rear of the body.
Narrow-bodied, 1/16" long; dark brown,
and spiny with well-developed jumping
legs.
Adults are green, yellow or brown; rarely
more than 1/4" long; wedge-shaped.
Immature forms resemble adults and are
easily spotted by their sideways movement.
Sometimes called thousand-legged worms,
theyre brown, strong smelling, elongated,
have several uniform body segments with
two pairs of legs on each segment.
Light brown or grayish-white with brown
specks and a dark brown head, 1/2" to 1"
long, covered with fine hairs, they are lar-
vae of small white or gray lawn moths or
millers that are often seen flying over the
grass in the early evening.
By day they hide under boards,
low-lying foliage or trash; coming
out at night to feed. They have a
varied diet including flowers and
tender growth of many garden
plants. Mole crickets live in turf.
All turfgrasses, dichondra, several
flower varieties and most vegeta-
bles, especially early-season pep-
per, tomato, peas, beans and cole
crops, are subject to attack. Most
species hide in the soil or under
trash during the day and come out
at night.
The wasps dig nests or burrows in
the ground and mound the soil at
the entrance to the nests.
Found occasionally in lawns, they
breed in piles of lawn clippings or
other trash and feed on many
types of vegetation. They hide dur-
ing the day and forage at night.
Adults feed on the blood of man,
cats, dogs and many other ani-
mals. Immature stages develop off
the host in organic matter.
All turf grasses, dichondra, and
fruit, nut and ornamental trees as
well as most garden vegetables are
attacked by various leafhoppers.
Found mostly under rocks, boards,
compost or other sheltered areas,
they feed on roots, tubers, bulbs,
fleshy stems and seeds. In Florida,
the tropical millipede is considered
a lawn pest.
Most common lawn grasses.
Presence of crickets in the garden, under leaves
of cabbage, cucumbers, and other crops indi-
cates potential for damage. Presence of adult or
immature mole cricket in grass is a sign they
might damage turf. Mole crickets burrow in the
ground, feeding on grass roots, uprooting
seedlings and causing soil to dry out quickly.
Some feed on leaves, buds or fruit while others
feed on underground portions of plants; plant
cut off at or below soil surface is sure sign.
Digging in lawns may damage turf. Wasps pres-
ence may be a nuisance as they may sting peo-
ple if disturbed.
Contrary to superstition, they do not attack the
ears of man. They do attack and destroy flowers
and garden vegetables. Some types create a nui-
sance by invading the home.
Bites arent usually felt immediately, but become
increasingly irritating for several days to a week.
Due to leafhoppers feeding on underside, leaves
curl or roll downward, crinkle and turn yellow or
red-brown. Some plants may become dwarfed,
even die. These insects also might transmit sever-
al important plant diseases.
Damaged plants, near heavily infested areas may
indicate nuisance levels have been reached.
Small patches of dead grass clipped off at
ground level, presence of adult moths, silken
webs in grass leading to silk-lined holes into the
ground.
PEST DESCRIPTION HABITAT, HOST DAMAGE, SYMPTOMS
cific needs of different plants. For example,
African violets have unique root systems and
watering needs, so they require special soils
that promote proper aeration.
SEEDS
Grass, vegetable and flower seeds are sold in
either bulk or packages, with packages far
more widespread. Seed packages are extremely
functional because they carry complete plant-
ing instructions, showing planting and har-
vesting times for geographic regions.
Lawn Seed
Grass seed is sold in boxes and bags as well
as in bulk. Coverage rate is more important
than weight of the package because this
reflects the quality and vigor of the grass
strain. Pointing out coverage rate comparisons
to customers as well as other characteristics of
each type of seed will help them decide what
they want for their lawns.
The best time to plant grass seed is from
late August through September because the
soil is warm enough to stimulate seed germi-
nation, but not hot enough to cause stress on
the seedlings. For more information, click
(Maintaining Your Lawn).
Whether you sell pure or mixed seed
depends to a great extent on location because
climate influences how well grass grows. In
cool-season northern states, a blend of perma-
nent grasses is best, as long as about 90 per-
cent of the mixture is desirable permanent
lawn grasses. This helps the lawn withstand
disease that affects a particular type of grass.
Unblended grasses, such as pure Bermuda
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
6
COMMON HOUSEHOLD AND GARDEN PESTS
Scale crawler
Sowbug, pillbug
Springtail
(collembola)
Spider mite, red
spider
Thrip
Whitefly
White grub of
Japanese beetle,
European chafer,
and southern
chafer
The large group of insects called scale are
minute and characterized by a waxy cover-
ing which they secrete after attaching
themselves to the bark of a tree, hence
their name. Crawlers (young), only 1/8" in
diameter, appear in May, move to new
feeding sites, molt and lose their legs. The
female insect is about 1/4" long although
the covering may be much larger.
Light gray to slate-colored, 1/2" long, sow-
bugs have segmented bodies with seven
pairs of legs. Not insects, they are crustacae
along with shrimp, crabs and lobsters.
When disturbed some species roll up and
resemble pills.
Several species of various colors are
found in the U.S.; 1/25" to 1/16" long;
they jump like fleas by means of a tail-
like appendage.
Tiny (barely visible to the naked eye); red to
greenish-red; eight-legged; appear as mov-
ing specks wherever they feed.
Slender; usually brown or yellow but also
black; 1/25" to 1/8" long; leave brown
specks wherever they feed.
Young are pale green, rounded, flat and
scale-like, lying motionless on leaf under-
side; adults are small wedge-shaped white
insects that fly when disturbed.
Blunt, creamy-white; hard, yellow or
brown head, slight covering of hair,
three pair of legs; usually found in the
soil curled into C shape.
All types of trees and ornamental
plants are attacked by scales which
weaken them by sucking plant
juices from trunks, branches and
leaves.
Usually found on damp ground
under rocks, boards, leaf piles, or in
damp basements, they feed on
organic matter in the soil and
sometimes attack roots and tender
parts of flowers and vegetables.
Damp places in gardens and
seedbeds.
Fruit trees, beans, roses, spruces,
berries, tomatoes, squash, cucum-
bers.
Variety of plants but most favored
are asparagus, beans, onions, iris,
gladioli and roses.
Wide range including citrus, green-
house plantings, vegetables, and
ornamentals.
Female beetles lay eggs 2" to 6"
deep in soil. Upon hatching,
grubs feed on decaying vegeta-
tion but later on the roots of
grasses and other plants.
Discolored (sometimes red) spots on leaves,
stems, and fruit; encrusted stems, spotty infesta-
tions on leaves.
Effects are similar to grub damage although
infestations seldom are severe enough to cause
significant damage.
Round holes chewed in stems and leaves of
young seedlings.
Yellow specks and fine silken webs on leaves;
plants and fruits stunted; foliage bronzed or
rusty.
Leaves having stippled appearance similar to
mite damage except for the characteristic specks
left by thrips. Flower buds fail to open or are
deformed, streaked, and discolored when they
open.
Leaves become mottled or stippled and the
plants may eventually turn yellow and die.
Leaves can also become sticky with honeydew
which provides a medium for black, sooty mold.
Irregular, dead patches in lawn; turf feels
spongy and can be rolled up like carpet
because roots have been eaten. Moles,
skunks, and birds feed on the grubs and
tear up the turf getting them.
PEST DESCRIPTION HABITAT, HOST DAMAGE, SYMPTOMS
grass, do well in warm-season southern states.
Most warm-season grasses are not started from
seed, but must be set out as plantings.
Common cool-season grasses include
Kentucky bluegrass, red and tall fescue, nar-
rowleaf ryegrass and bentgrass. Warm-season
grasses include common Bermuda grass,
zoysia, centipede and carpetgrass.
Some mixtures are described by terms such
as sun, shade and sun/shade, enabling con-
sumers to select the best mixture for their con-
ditions. If you sell mixtures, remember that
formulations vary greatly. Pre-packaged seed
must indicate on the package the percentage
of each type of grass type in the mixture.
Many retailers mix their own seed from bulk
barrels. You are not required to list percentage
information, since the customer is usually
present at the time of order and will tell you
what percentage he wants.
Each pound of better grass seed contains a
higher percentage of permanent grasses, more
desirable for a long-lasting lawn. Inexpensive
mixes frequently contain low-quality annual
grasses and too many contaminants, such as
weed seed or crop seed, to maintain a good
lawn. Cultivars or named varieties of seed are
better than common or unnamed types, since
they are apt to be more hearty and disease
resistant. New types are continually being
developed and introduced to the market. Still,
even the performance of the best grass seed
will be largely affected by the soil, weather,
fertilizing and watering practices.
Common Lawn Grasses
The following describes the most common
preferred grass seeds and some of their charac-
teristics.
Ryegrass fast-growing seed, frequently
used by itself or in mixtures. Ryegrass is avail-
able as an annual or perennial. The annual is
quick to germinate for temporary lawns. Small
quantities may be included in seed mixtures.
Good to cover slopes because of quick germi-
nation.
Kentucky Bluegrass forms a good sod
when grown alone and thrives when included
in a mixture. Slow to germinate and become
established. Wont tolerate dense shade.
Responds to adequate fertilization and high
mowing (more than an inch and a half).
Other Bluegrasses Newport, Delta, Park,
Arboretum and Rugby.
Merion seeds are very small which means
greater coverage per pound. Resistant to leaf
spot. Can be mowed closer and fertilized
more. Retains green look longer. Best to plant
in early fall or very early spring because
seedlings grow slowly. Subject to rust and
powdery mildew in fall if soil lacks nitrogen.
Victa dark, deep blue-green bluegrass with
a medium-fine texture and low growth habit.
Good leaf spot resistance and above-average
shade tolerance.
Adelphi hybrid from Rutgers University.
Dark green, low growth with medium texture.
Durable.
Baron dark bluish-green, medium-textured
grass from Europe. Not as disease resistant as
other varieties, but adds strength to blends.
Fylking Swedish development widely used
in blends. Low growing, disease resistant.
Red Fescue Well adapted to drought soils
in shady or sunny area. Generally included in
bluegrass mixtures. Creeping fescue is another
common strain. Some strains are subject to
leaf spot and become open and pitted in the
summer. Fall planting preferred.
Tall Fescue rather coarse, but good for
areas that need a tough stand of grass.
Bentgrass used mainly on golf putting
greens. Dense patches of creeping bentgrass
generally are unwanted. Where bent is
desired, it must be given good care, cut very
close, fertilized regularly, watered repeatedly
and thinned several times a year.
Clover sometimes appears in seed mix-
tures. Considered undesirable by many, but
not tolerated by others.
Bermuda Grass spreads by fast-growing
surface runners during warm periods, but goes
brown and dormant from first frost till late
spring. Not recommended in northern areas.
Zoysia planted by plugs. Adapted to sunny
areas in warmer parts of the Midwest. Surface
runners make a dense mat, which reduces
weeds and crabgrass. It turns brown slowly in
mid-fall: remains dormant until mid-spring.
Centipede good in moderate shade and
infertile soil; has few insect or disease problems.
Carpetgrass recommended for infertile
and sandy soils. Does not like shade and must
be mowed frequently.
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
7
SAFETY PROCEDURES FOR PROPER PESTICIDE HANDLING
1. Check all incoming shipments of pesticides for breakage. If highly toxic chemicals con-
taminate truck or shipment, contact public health officials and chemical manufacturer for
decontamination procedures.
2. Do not toss or drop containers in handling. Keep hands away from face until washed.
Do not smoke.
3. Store chemicals away from food or items intended for human or animal use. Also,
keep away from plants and animals. Use cool, dry area, safe from freezing. Always check
label for storing instructions.
4. Check containers for leaks or damage before displaying on shelves. Ensure that labels
are firmly attached. Put on high shelves so children cannot reach containers.
5. Point out the information on the label regarding toxicity, antidotes and chemical con-
tents to the customer. Check lids to ensure they are tight. Do not put in bag containing
food, clothing, etc.
6. Check with local officials and manufacturers for disposal facilities.
7. Check old stock for leaks or other damage. Some chemicals will eat away the inside of
metal containers. Check with manufacturer for shelf life.
8. Train employees in what to do in the event of a spill. Keep Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) files on all chemicals you stock.
9. Completely wash exposed skin, launder contaminated clothing and check label to see
if a doctor is needed. If liquid is mopped up from floor, put contaminated water and
mop head in a drum for proper disposal. Scrub pail with detergent and restrict further
use to pesticide clean-up. If nausea or illness occurs after handling pesticides, contact
doctor at once and provide him or her with information on product label.
10. Contact the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) at (317) 290-0338 or
Home Center Institute (HCI) at (317) 299-0339 for information on MSDS and employee
training and clean-up procedures.
Bahia grass grows well in partial sun or
shade in warm climates. Requires little main-
tenance. Keep trimmed to 1/2".
St. Augustine recommended for Florida
and Gulf Coast areas. A coarse, tough grass
that requires a power mower but little other
maintenance.
Ground Covers steep slopes, banks or
heavily shaded areas sometimes require
ground covers. Among the most popular are
myrtle, purple-leaf wintercreeper and Baltic
English ivy.
I PESTICIDES
Pesticide is an umbrella term that covers
insecticides, herbicides and fungicides.
Although chemical pesticides in dry and liq-
uid forms are widely used, there are other
forms of lawn, garden and household insect
control. For example, there are a variety of
solid insect repellent sticks and special insect
traps, such as those used for Japanese beetles
and gypsy moths, that are safe to use and
effective for specific uses.
Your first responsibility is to conform with
terms of the federal Environmental Pesticide
Control Act; then to know pertinent state and
local laws.
Pesticides are divided into two groups:
General-use pesticides are for over-the-
counter sale. Restricted-use pesticides may
be sold only to individuals or companies qual-
ifying as certified applicators. Commercial
application firms and certain individuals, such
as farmers, will be eligible for certification.
Retailers are required to obtain proper proof of
certification to sell restricted-use chemicals.
An agent of the EPA may inspect pesticides
and take samples from retail stores. Retailers
should, for their own protection, retain a
duplicate sample.
The EPA may issue a stop sale or removal
order if its agents decide a pesticide is in vio-
lation of the act or registration of the pesticide
has been suspended. Stop saleorders ban the
sale of the specified chemical. Removal
orders require retailers to remove the chemi-
cal from the shelves. Adequate written notice
will be given to retailers.
Be certain to execute any stop sale or
removal order. Dont sell restricted-use
chemicals to uncertified buyers. Know your
states laws. These are the three areas of pri-
mary concern.
The problem of environmental contamina-
tionwhich is of major concernis often the
result of misuse. Too many home gardeners
tend to overkill, thinking if a little is good, a
lot will be better. Not so with chemicals.
Most lawn and garden chemicals are
intended to remain on the surface of the plant
and eventually kill insects. Saturating the area,
especially with chemicals that do not break
down, creates a dangerous surplus of poison
that will be washed away and end up in natu-
ral water supplies.
As a seller of these chemicals, you should
impress upon the buyer that the instructions
and recommended use of the product are the
result of careful laboratory research. They
should be followed carefully. They should also
be cautioned to use the chemical only on the
problem area.
There are three basic types of pesticides
inorganic, botanicals and synthetic substi-
tutes. Examples of inorganic pesticides include
lead and sulfur. Examples of botanicals
include nicotine sulfate, pyrethrin and
rotenone. Examples of the synthetic substi-
tutes include organophosphates and carba-
mates. It is the synthetic pesticides which
have caused so much concern.
Because of the concern about overuse of
chemicals, many gardeners prefer biodegrad-
able (or naturally occurring) chemicals such as
rotenone, pyrethrin and nicotine sulfate that
break down and work their way back into the
soil without contamination.
Pesticide Labels
Many customers buy pesticides without
realizing their deadliness, despite the fact that
every pesticide label includes, by law, one of
three indicators to warn of its contents.
The most highly toxic chemicals are
required to include the word DANGER in
red capital letters and the skull and cross-
bones. Less toxic chemicals are indicated by
the word WARNING. The least toxic bear
the word CAUTION.
The contents of a label must be approved
by the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and any claims as to what the product
will do must be substantiated by data provid-
ed by the manufacturer. When selling a chem-
ical, be absolutely sure you accurately repre-
sent to the customer exactly what the label
says the product will do, and sell the chemical
that will solve the problem.
The label identifies whether the pesticide is
classified for general or restricted use. It pro-
vides thorough guidelines for proper applica-
tion and use of the product. The information
contained on the label of a general classifica-
tion chemical, the only kind that can be sold
to the general public, includes:
o the product name (either generic or brand
name);
o the ingredient statement, including
the amount of active and inert material in
the container;
o the amount and/or percentage of active
ingredients;
o name and address of the manufacturer or
formulator, as well as an establishment
number that identifies the specific facility
that manufactured the product;
o an EPA registration number signifying the
product has been approved for sale as well
as possible registration for additional usage
in a particular state;
o directions for using the chemical, including
the rate of application; what pests it is
intended to control; when, where and how
it is to be applied; and mixing directions;
o precautionary statements, which always
8
5 STEPS TO BETTER LAWN CARE
EARLY SPRINGrepair winter damage. Treat with pre-emergence crabgrass killer, insecti-
cides; fertilize and reseed if necessary.
LATE SPRINGkill broadleaf weeds; fertilize lawn and flowers.
EARLY SUMMERwater generously and often; fertilize and apply post-emergence herbi-
cides and insecticides as needed.
LATE SUMMERwatch for sod webworms and other insects. Fertilize and water heavily.
EARLY FALLseed and fertilize, prepare for winter by mulching and pruning various
shrubs and trees.
include the warning to keep out of the
reach of children and usually specify the
type of protective equipment that should
be used;
o first aid treatment guidelines in case of
overexposure;
o environmental hazard statement such as
Do not allow product drift to contact non-
target plants; and
o storage and disposal guidelines.
How to Use Chemicals Safely
1. Always read the label before using insec-
ticides. Note ingredients, use directions,
warnings and cautions each time before
opening the container.
2. Keep all insecticides out of the reach of
children and pets.
3. Always store insecticides in the original
containers keep them tightly closed.
4. Never smoke or eat while spraying or
dusting.
5. When handling pesticides, wear a long-
sleeved shirt and full-length pants. Some
chemicals may require waterproof gloves
and goggles. When spraying overhead,
wear a wide-brimmed hat.
6. Avoid inhaling sprays or dusts.
7. Do not spill sprays or dusts on the skin
or clothing. If they are spilled, remove
contaminated clothing immediately
and wash.
8. After spraying or dusting, wash hands
and face and change into clean clothing.
Wash clothing immediately.
9. Cover food and water containers when
treating around livestock or pet areas. Do
not contaminate fish ponds.
10. Use separate sprayers for applying herbi-
cides to avoid accidental injury to sus-
ceptible plants.
11. Always dispose of empty containers so
they pose no threat to humans, animals
or wildlife.
12. If symptoms of illness occur during or
shortly after spraying or dusting, contact
a physician or go to the hospital. Take
the label from the chemical with you.
Use of Chemicals
The law states that pesticides can only be
applied to a site (location, crop or animal)
specifically identified on the label. Consumers
should be told to follow all label directions for
safe, effective and legal use of pesticides. They
should read the label before purchasing, mix-
ing, applying, storing and disposing of the
product. Emphasize that any use of a pesticide
that violates information directly listed on the
label is illegal.
Lawn care problems come from three
sources: insects, disease and invasion of weeds.
Lawn and garden chemicals for weeds, disease
and insect control are among the most techni-
cal products sold by hardware and home
improvement retailers.
Although each manufacturer blends indi-
vidual combinations of basic chemicals into
its own formula to remedy certain problems,
chemicals can be put into general categories.
Pre-emergence herbicides are applied early,
before the weeds break the surface of the soil.
Post-emergence herbicides are applied after
the plant begins to grow. Selective herbicides
kill certain plants but do not harm others;
non-selective herbicides will kill all vegetation
they touch.
Knowing what to sell is further complicated
by the fact that some manufacturers adopt
special trade names for their version of basic
chemicals. Manufacturers do have brochures
and charts available that picture various lawn
and plant diseases, weeds and insects and tell
what product will control the problem.
Lawn Insect Control
Insects come in all shapes, colors and sizes,
but they are really of two general types: sur-
face-active (above ground) and soil active
(below ground).
Webworms, cutworms, army worms and
chinch bugs fall into the surface-active catego-
ry. Grubs, which are the larvae of a variety of
beetles, are typical of soil insects. They feed
underground on grass roots, cutting them off
just below the surface, killing the grass in
patches. Attacked turf can be rolled back like
carpet, often exposing the grubs themselves.
White grubs feed on grass roots and
become active in the spring when soil warms
up. They destroy lawns from late spring to
early fall.
Sod webworms are one of the most trouble-
some lawn pests. They damage lawns
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
9
SALE OF POPULAR
LAWN AND GARDEN
PESTICIDES COMES
TO AN END
Two popular chemical pesticides, Dursban
and diazinon, have been banned from
future residential use, which means retail-
ers need to identify alternative products
to help homeowners combat lawn and
garden pests.
In June 2000, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) announced an
agreement with pesticide manufacturers
to remove many uses of chlorpyrifos,
which was one of the most widely used
insecticides in the U.S. Chlorpyrifos was
commonly sold as Dursban or Lorsban.
The manufacture of such products
became unlawful Dec. 1, 2000.
The agreement stopped the sale of virtu-
ally all home-use pesticide products and
many other indoor and outdoor non-resi-
dential uses where children could be
exposed to the pesticide as of Dec. 31,
2001. The retail sale or distribution of
chlorpyrifos products allowing home use
(except ant and roach bait products in
child-resistant packaging) after that date
may represent a violation of the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act. Stocks on hand after Dec. 31, 2001,
should have been disposed of in a respon-
sible and legal manner in accordance with
state, federal and local regulations.
Retailers should contact state solid or haz-
ardous waste agencies to find out the
proper disposal options available.
Consumers who have opened containers
should be informed that the pesticide is
potentially harmful to the environment
and it is illegal to dispose of chlorpyrifos
and other pesticides in sinks, toilets,
storm drains or in any body of water.
The sale and distribution of diazinon to
retailers was scheduled to end in August
2003, with manufacturer buyback pro-
grams extending into 2004. However,
production has already slowed consider-
ably, and most retailers have already
removed brands containing diazinon from
their shelves. Manufacturers are working
to develop reformulated products that
effectively control lawn pests yet meet
EPAs more stringent standards for resi-
dential use.
The EPAs actions will undoubtedly lead to
increased interest in alternative pest con-
trol products such as cottonseed oil and
citrus peels. In addition, lawn and garden
products using imidacloprid as the active
ingredient combat many of the same
insects as the banned chemicals and have
recently been made available for con-
sumer use.
throughout the entire growing season by eat-
ing grass blades. Small moths flying in zigzag
patterns across the lawn are a good indication
that sod webworms, army worms or cutworms
are present.
Chinch bugs are small and difficult to
locate. They begin to damage lawns when the
temperatures are consistently 80F or above.
They attack grass stems and suck out plant
juices. Grass attacked by chinch bugs is totally
destroyed and these areas must be reseeded.
New technology has improved the products
available to eradicate lawn pests. For example,
the active ingredient Merit is designed to
remain active for months, eliminating the
need for multiple applications. Another prod-
uct on the market can be used as a grub killer
as well as a fertilizer, while others come with
built-in applicators. New granule formulations
enable the active ingredient to be released
quicker, leading to faster results.
Trees and shrubbery are susceptible to some
of the same insects that plague the lawn or
garden, but they also have their own list of
pests such as mealybugs, borers and leaf min-
ers. It is important to be careful when spraying
trees because of the greater potential for wind
drift. In special cases of insect infestations,
such as with gypsy moths, sex pheromone
baited traps are used. The pheremone, a syn-
thesized lure, attracts the male moth to the
trap where it is killed by a pesticide strip. By
reducing the number of males available for
mating, this pest control method helps to pre-
vent future infestations in an environmentally
safer manner than heavy spraying. However, it
requires you and the customer to understand
the life cycle of the particular pest.
Most insects are harmless and do not pose a
threat to the health of the lawn or garden.
Before deciding whether to use a pesticide, the
customer should first determine that the num-
ber of pests and potential damage justifies the
use of a pesticide.
Lawn Diseases
A fungus is a plant that feeds upon another
plant. Fungi adhere to the plant, steal food
from and/or deposit toxic substances in the
cells of the plant. Among the most common
fungi are leaf spot, snow mold and dollar spot.
Snow mold attacks grass any time from late
fall to early spring. Grass turns a reddish color
or tan to gray. It can destroy small areas or
complete lawns. Use fungicides to kill it.
Reseed the lawn when damage is severe.
Leaf spot results in brown or black spots on
leaves and can occur through a wet, cool fall,
winter and spring season. Thinning of the
lawn may not be noticeable, but leaf activity
is quite pronounced.
Dollar spot starts in mid-spring; also, when
weather is moist and cool. When this fungus is
most active, a cobweb-like growth can be spot-
ted. Damaged spots are a bleached straw color.
Brown patch hits lawns when temperature
and humidity are high. It spreads in a circular
area from where it starts.
Some lawn diseases can be controlled with
granular chemicals or liquids. A liquid control
program is best for small areas or for individ-
ual plants, whereas granular treatment is effi-
cient on large areas because it can be applied
with a spreader. Study manufacturers litera-
ture to find the chemicals needed to treat spe-
cific lawn diseases.
Because lawn disease tends to attack one
variety of grass at a time, the best defense is to
use a mixture of lawn grasses. This reduces the
chances of the lawn being totally wiped out
by one disease or pest.
Another common lawn problem is excess
thatch. Thatch is a build-up of stems and
roots, combined with partially decayed leaf,
stem and root tissue between the ground and
lawn surface. Excess thatch can harbor insects
and disease, cause water and fertilizer to run
off rather than penetrate the soil and con-
tribute to shallow root systems.
Several factors contribute to thatch build-
up: excessive applications of nitrogen fertiliz-
ers, too frequent waterings and allowing lawn
clippings to lay on and penetrate the lawn
after mowing.
Weed Control
Weeds are classified as grassy, broadleaf,
annual or perennial. Grassy weeds are best
exemplified by crabgrass. Dandelions and
plantain are broadleaf weeds. Annuals die
each year but can reseed themselves.
Perennials live for several years.
Weed seed can remain dormant in soil for
several years and germinate only when grow-
ing conditions are right. If a customer has
recently added topsoil, compost or manure to
a lawn, he or she may have given those weed
seeds new encouragement.
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
10
SPECIALTY PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES
Bone MealExcellent for use with flowering tubers and corms, such as tulips, iris, dahlias,
crocus, peony, narcissus, hyacinth, daffodil, etc. Use where organic nitrogen and phosphor-
ic acid is needed for gradual feeding.
Nitrate of SodaHas an alkalizing effect on the soil. Provides quickly available nitrogen
for dark green leaves. Promotes rapid growth.
Sulfate of AmmoniaHigh-ammoniacal nitrogen with an acidifying effect on the soil.
Promotes sustained growth and dark green leaves through sustained release of nitrogen.
Sulfate of PotashImparts increased vigor and disease resistance to plants. Helps encour-
age stronger stalks and stems, reducing lodging. Improves quality of fruits and helps in
development of tubers.
Iron SulfateHelps overcome iron chlorosis and provides available iron as needed.
Associated with chlorophyll production in plants.
Manganese SulfateExcellent for supplemental use for plants deficient in trace elements.
Over-limited or alkaline soils are often deficient in this minor element.
Magnesium SulfateProvides the key element of the chlorophyll molecule. Promotes
deeper, greener, healthier foliage. Helps regulate uptake of other plant foods and acts as a
phosphorous carrier in the plant.
Soil SulphurReduces Ph as it acidifies the soil. Helps plants retain dark green color and
encourages more vigorous plant growth.
All grass seed formulations contain some
weed seeds. It is nearly impossible to get rid of
them. Less expensive formulations may con-
tain more weed seed than top-quality seeds.
Look for the percentage of crop seeds listed
on the package for a fair estimate of the num-
ber of weed seeds.
Spring is the best time to control broadleaf
and grassy weedsthey are smaller and more
vulnerable, and weed killers are formulated to
work best in cooler weather.
Pre-emergence herbicides lay a chemical
barrier on the ground to prevent weeds from
germinating. If soil is disturbed after a pre-
emergence killer has been applied, the protec-
tive barrier can be lost. Warn customers not to
rake or dethatch lawns after applying pre-
emergence herbicides.
Tell customers to follow these three steps
when applying herbicides:
1. Remove trash, leaves and excess dead
grass from lawn. If power-raking (dethatching)
is planned, do it as part of lawn preparation.
2. Apply the pre-emergence product as
directed. Distribute evenly. Spread at half rate
in both directions to assure even distribu-
tionthis is better than spreading at full rate
in just one direction.
3. After application, water the lawn.
Watering moves the chemical into the soil
where it can work on germinating weed seeds.
In flowerbeds or around trees and shrubs,
weeds can be stopped with weed shields,
which are made of heavy-duty plastic and are
used under decorative bark or rock.
Household Pesticides
In addition to the insects that attack
lawns and gardens there are those that infil-
trate homes. The measures used to control
them must be equally as well considered as
those used outside, if not more so.
Chemicals released inside the house could
have harmful effects on families and pets if
not applied properly.
Frequently used household pesticides are
sprays or fogs. In some cases, it is advisable to
leave the house for a few hours while the
chemical works. Some of these penetrate into
the cracks and crevices of the house where
insects nest. Others are sprayed around door-
ways, windows, thresholds, baseboards, ceil-
ings, mouldings and drainpipes to form a bar-
rier to keep the pests out.
If customers are using foggers, point out
the warning on the label regarding use
around open flames. The pilot lights on gas
furnaces and appliances will ignite the
insecticide if it reaches a high enough con-
centration in the home.
Other forms of household pesticides are
traps or solid bait, used primarily for mice, rats
and roaches. Although they are supposed to be
harmless to pets, it is still a good idea to read
the package carefully and stress to customers
that they follow the instructions explicitly.
Applying Chemicals
The best defense against weeds is a lawn
so thick with grass that weeds do not have a
chance. However, that seldom happens, so
the home gardener needs help from safe,
effective chemicals.
There are a number of ways lawn and gar-
den chemicals are sold and applied. You
should question customers to see how they
plan to use chemicals and whether they will
be used on edible plants, such as fruits and
vegetables. Caution them to read labels and
follow instructions exactly.
The ways in which chemicals can be
applied are:
o Emulsifiable concentratesliquids that are
diluted with water to proper strength. Most
have an oil base. These are probably the
most common chemicals you sell.
o Wettable powdersvery fine inert dusts
that must be mixed with water. They are
applied through sprayers, as are emulsifiable
concentrates, and require tank agitation.
o Dustspowdered forms of chemicals, usu-
ally with the particles noticeably larger
than in wettable powders. They are applied
with a shaker or duster, and adhere to the
foliage to which they are applied.
o Granulessimilar to dusts, but with still
larger particles. In a granule, the chemical
becomes available to the living plant by
breaking down the granule or by releasing
the active ingredient. Granules are usually
spread with a lawn spreader. Weather and
moisture provide the slower chemical
release action. Granules are easier to use
and apply compared to liquid chemicals,
and do not require mixing.
o Systemic chemicalsavailable in both liq-
uid and dry form can be used in combina-
tion with fertilizers to provide pest control
as well as plant nutrition. Systemic chemi-
cals are absorbed by plants or lawns and
cannot be washed off by sprinkling or rain.
Some manufacturers package insecticide in
a one-piece plastic sprayer. The concentrated
insecticide is premixed and ready to use, elim-
inating the chance of getting chemicals on
the users skin. After application, the sprayer is
thrown away.
Liquids of the hormone-type weed killers are
normally esters or amine salts. Ester formula-
tions may be high volatile or low volatile,
which means they do or do not vaporize easi-
ly. Low-volatile esters release a minimum
amount of fumes at temperatures below 85F;
high-volatile esters give off fumes at lower
temperatures. However, air temperature can be
somewhat misleading since temperature at the
lawn surface can be 20to 40higher.
Under no circumstances should a home-
owner control weeds with highly toxic
products bearing the skull and crossbones
and the word "DANGER" on the label. Also,
stress that the user should never mix two or
more chemicals unless the label specifically
recommends that.
Chemicals should never be applied on a
windy day. Caution the user to wear rubber
gloves and clothing that covers their entire
body, avoiding natural fiber clothing and
shoes, which carry the chemical directly to
the skin. Eating or smoking while applying
pesticides can lead to ingestion of the chemi-
cal. Keep small children and pets away from
the area during the application, and never use
food utensils for measuring pesticides. The
user may also want to wear a respirator while
applying the chemicals.
FERTILIZERS
All lawns are deficient in nitrogen because
grass quickly uses up the natural supply. Some
also need phosphorus and potassium. There
are three common types of fertilizer: natural
organic, inorganic and synthetic organic. They
also can be described as either slow-acting or
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
11
fast-acting.
Natural organic fertilizers, such as manure,
do not dissolve in water. They are converted
to usable forms by microorganisms in the soil.
They help to create proper physical growing
conditions, but can add disease or weeds to
the lawn. In addition, natural organic fertiliz-
ers usually do not contain a complete mix of
the essential nutrients, making it necessary to
apply additional types of fertilizer.
They are less concentrated than synthetic
fertilizers and operate with slow-acting release.
Inorganic fertilizers (ammonium nitrate
and ammonium sulfate) do dissolve in water
and become readily available to plants. They
can cause fast growth for a few weeks, but can
also cause foliage burn if improperly applied.
Synthetic organic fertilizers (ureafoam,
methylene urea) provide a combination of
slow and fast release of nitrogen, combining
the best of the other two kinds of fertilizer.
They are easier to use than organic fertilizers
because they are typically packaged for use
with a specific application and are less bulky.
Some manufactured brands of fertilizer
are manufactured with artificial and natural
ingredients, so do not be confused by mar-
keting statements that tout an organic con-
tent of a product. Label standards regarding
use of the term organic on fertilizer pack-
aging vary by state.
Starter fertilizer features more phosphorus
to help promote root development. It is typi-
cally applied in the fall or winter. Fertilizers
high in nitrogen help green up the lawn.
Dry fertilizers come in several forms that
combine all three nutrients and can range
in weight from 14-70 lbs. for a typical size
lawn. With some types of dry fertilizer,
there is considerable danger of burning
the lawn if applied too heavily or not
watered immediately.
Simple-mix fertilizers are mixtures of the
three primary nutrients in a bag. The granules
differ in weight and texture so that the heavier
ones may work toward the bottom of the bag
or spreader. The result is uneven distribution.
Pelletized fertilizers combine all the nutri-
ents into semi-rigid pellets or capsules. This
does not ensure a steady release of nutrients
unless slow-release sources are included in
the pellets.
Trionized fertilizers have the three nutrients
bonded into a lightweight carrier such as ver-
miculite. Nutrients are uniform throughout
the granules.
Polyfoam fertilizers require no added carri-
er, resulting in the lightest weight fertilizers. A
mixture of the three nutrients is screened to
uniform size, putting a high proportion of
nutrients into the bag.
How Many Feedings?
Can your customers get along with just one
application of fertilizer?
Yes, but the lawn wont be very healthy.
Two feedings are minimum, although most
turf experts believe three feedingsor more
are best.
When only two feedings per year are done,
they should be done in the early spring and
early fall. Each feeding actually serves a differ-
ent purpose in helping grass grow.
A late winter feeding aids the lawn in early
greening and building roots. The late spring
feeding builds tillers or sideshoots that help
fill in bare spots in the lawn.
A midsummer feeding makes a lawn more
drought resistant. The fall feeding helps grass
build more sideshoots or tillers and under-
ground stems or rhizomes to thicken up a
lawn. It is considered the single most impor-
tant feeding of the year.
Apply fertilizers in both directions to avoid
streaking or missed strips.
Polyfoam fertilizers require no added carri-
er, resulting in the lightest weight fertilizers. A
mixture of the three nutrients is screened to
uniform size, putting a high proportion of
nutrients into the bag.
Fertilizer Ingredients
Every fertilizer consists of three nutrients,
always listed in the same sequence in the for-
mula that must be printed on the bag or label.
This listing is called the grade, ratio or NPK
number. Each ingredient serves a separate
function in enriching soil and stimulating
plant growth. Listed in order, they are:
o Nitrogen (N)vital to plants for foliage
color, density and root growth. This pri-
mary nutrient needs to be replaced.
o Phosphorus (P)for seedling development,
cell building and root growth.
o Potassium (K)assists plants in forming
starches and proteins and helps them resist
disease and environmental stresses.
If a fertilizer mixture contains only one or
two of the primary nutrients, it is called an
incomplete fertilizer and is designed to treat a
lawn for a specific deficiency. Sulphur and iron
are two other important ingredients to look for
in fertilizer. Both are needed to keep the grass
from yellowing and to continue growth.
Each nutrient is designated by a num-
bera percentage of the pounds of each
per 100 pounds of fertilizer. For example, a
very common 20-10-5 formulation means
there are 20 lbs. of nitrogen per 100 lbs. of
fertilizer, 10 lbs. of phosphoric acid and
five lbs. of potassium.
While formulations vary, the most com-
mon are 20-10-5, 5-10-5 and 10-6-4, but oth-
ers being offered include 24-6-6 and 23-7-7.
When you recommend a fertilizer,
remember the purpose of each ingredient
and relate the percentages to the needs of
the plants and/or lawns of your customers.
Most fertilizers indicate on the package
the number of square feet they will cover.
To help a customer find the amount he or
she needs, find out the size of the lot, and
subtract the square footage of the house,
garage and driveway.
Point out to customers that while a 10-5-5
mixture may cost two-thirds the price of the
20-5-5 mixture, it is delivering only half the
needed nitrogen. Fertilizers with slow-release
ingredients cost more because they dissolve
gradually and give prolonged fertilizer action.
Point out to customers that while a 10
5 5 mixture may cost two-thirds the
price of the 20 5 5 mixture, it is deliver-
ing only half the needed nitrogen.
Fertilizers with slow-release ingredients
cost more because they dissolve gradually
and give prolonged fertilizer action. Also,
grass fed with a fast-acting fertilizer can be
weaker and more susceptible to disease
because it grows too fast.
Fast-acting inorganic fertilizers with
lower price points appeal to price-con-
scious consumers. Emphasize that the
numbers do not tell the whole story. The
important part is how the grass responds
and thrives.
L A WN & GA RDEN C HEMI C A L S
12
CHAPTER NINE:
CUTTING TOOLS
DIGGING TOOLS
CULTIVATING TOOLS
HOSE AND HOSE ACCESSORIES
WATERING DEVICES
WHEEL GOODS
SPRAYERS AND DUSTERS
LAWN DECORATIVES
GLOVES
LAWN&GARDEN
Supplies
9
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
I The backyard has turned into
American homeowners newest
showcase. People are building huge
decks and patios and adding a deco-
rators touch to the landscaping.
Benches, trellises, sundials, birdbaths
and lawn art are used to supplement the flowers and plants, as the
backyard beautification trend picks up steam. For many people, the
backyard is their retreat from the hectic pace of everyday life.
While lawn maintenance is often viewed as a chore, gardening
has long been one of the most popular hobbies in America. In
addition to an interest in European-style gardening, more people
are taking part in organic gardening, growing herb gardens,
composting and augmenting their landscaping with water ponds.
Lawn and garden clinics are an excellent way to establish your
business as a leader in the category. Popular topics include, how
to start a compost pile, how to build a water pond, bulb planting
tips, pruning tips and how to build a garden trellis.
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
2
LAWN&GARDEN
Supplies
CUTTING TOOLS
Grass Shears
Three widely used cutting actions for grass
shears are draw cut, scissor action and lever-
age-assisted action.
Draw-cut trimmers have a stationary
lower blade and moving upper blade,
operated by an up and down squeeze on
the handle. To hold their cutting edge
better, blades are made from tempered,
hollow-ground steel.
Scissor-action shears have two moving
blades and work much like ordinary house-
hold scissorswith side-to-side pressure.
Leverage-assisted trimmers use a between-
the-handles cam with an off-center pivot that
increases the cutting efficiency while reducing
the effort to squeeze the handles. Variations of
this design include one where a rod pulls the
blade like the draw cut and one which pushes
the rod toward the blade with a significant
increase of leverage.
All of these trimmers are designed for
one-hand use and incorporate a safety
lock or catch to hold blades together
when not in use.
Long-handled grass shears relieve tire-
some crouching when there is a lot of
trimming to do.
Cordless electric grass shears and long-han-
dled electric and gas-powered string trimmers
have gained wide popularity in recent years.
String trimmers cut both grass and weeds, but
most models are best suited for smaller areas
and light work. A strong monofilament nylon
line, spinning at up to 12,000 rpm, serves as
the cutting blade.
Hedge Shears
Hand-operated hedge shears have a
scissor-like cutting action. They are pri-
marily used to shape ornamental shrubs
and clip soft, young growth. Most shears
have one cutting and one holding blade.
Blades are typically 8" to 10" long, some
with serrated edges, others with notched
positions for bulk cuts, or arc-edge blades
that have two curved blades that pass
through growth from either side. They
should not be used in place of loppers or
hand shears.
Pruning Shears
Hand pruning shears come 6" to 9" long
with anvil or bypass cutting mechanisms.
They should not be used to cut stems more
than 3/4" in diameter.
Bypass pruning shears feature a hook and
blade and are preferred by most professionals
and rose growers because they cut closer to
the stem, making them ideal for cut flowers.
Anvil pruning shears are lighter and easier
to sharpen. They feature a straight edge blade
that cuts against a soft metal anvil. They work
well with dead wood.
Top-quality pruning shears offer special-
ly ground, hand-honed blades for extra
cutting strength; rust protection and non-
stick surfaces; and adjustable tension joint
assemblies. Handles can be wood, light-
weight metal or fiberglass, usually with
special rubber or plastic grips for addition-
al comfort.
Lopping Shears
With their long handles for firm leverage
and hard, tempered steel blades, lopping
shears (loppers) eat their way through heavy
underbrush and branches up to 3" thick. As
with other pruners, they come in anvil or
bypass style.
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
3
STEPS TO SUCCESSFUL PRUNING
1. Study the plant to decide what its pruning needs are. Information on the correct time to prune
each plant is available to you through your local extension service. Decide how the plant grows
and how you can maintain its natural form.
2. Make all cuts flush above a bud or on adjoining branches. Always cut above a bud that is
pointing in the direction you wish that new branch to grow. The proper pruning cut will develop
the shrubs proper shape, reduce disease problems and allow for stronger branch development.
3. Remove all dead or damaged branches first. Next remove (thin-out) or cut back branches that
detract from the trees overall shape. These include branches that are weak or may cause future
problems by competing for light or growing into other branches.
4. Treat all wounds larger than a dime with a good tree wound dressing.
WHEN TO PRUNE
Major pruning on fruit trees should be done while the plant is dormant. Minor pruning on fruit
trees can be done anytime.
Pruning most leafy shrubs should follow a renovation program. Remove one-fourth to one-fifth
of the oldest, largest canes each year. If this is done the oldest cane in the shrub will be three to
four years old. Keep only the strongest new canes for replacement and remove the weakest canes.
Shrubs like forsythia, flowering quince and pussy willow that bloom early in the spring should
be pruned immediately after they bloom. Shrubs such as rose of Sharon and hydrangea that
bloom later in the season should be pruned while they are dormant.
Most plants used in sheared hedges can be pruned throughout the growing season.
Some trees such as birch, maple, walnut, dogwood and elm should not be pruned in late winter
or early spring when sap is moving, as they may "bleed" profusely. These trees should be pruned
when they are in full leaf.
Annual and perennial flowers will also become more bushy and produce more flowers if the
new growth is pinched back. This will create a fuller plant. Pinching chrysanthemums should be
discontinued after July 4.
Hybrid tea roses should be pruned back to 9"-12" in the spring to a bud pointing to the
outside of the bush. Make all cuts _" above the bud or branch to give strength and sup-
port to the new growth.
Remove old canes of climbing roses immediately after they bloom. Allow new canes to develop
for next years bloom.
Source: National Lawn and Garden Distributors Association with the aid of the Cooperative Extension
Service Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Tree Pruners
Tree pruners are pruning shears or a prun-
ing saw attached to a long pole that will
accept extensions or telescopeusual
length is 6' to 12'. They are handy for high
work or where a ladder cannot be used.
Head and eye protection should be
stressed since material cut overhead could
injure when it falls.
A rope and pulley operate the cutter.
The cutting mechanism is at the cutting
head with rope extending the full length
of the pole. High-quality rope and a grip-
ping handle on the rope make cutting
much easier.
Leverage is essential. The length of the
lever arm, multiple pivot points and the
number of pulleys all increase leverage
to make cutting easier. Gear-driven blades
make cutting even easier. In addition,
the compactness of the head adds con-
venience and maneuverability to cut in
tight places.
Pruning Saws
Pruning saws are used to cut dry or
green limbs from trees. In addition to the
pole pruner, saws include curved, double-
edged, folding, long-handled and pistol-
grip pruners. They should be used on
branches thicker than 1" and are recom-
mended for medium work too large for
lopping shears. Blades come in lengths
to 24".
Edgers
Hand edgers (round blade) consist of
long handle; sharp, high-carbon steel
blade; and turned step for better foot pres-
sure and leverage. They function well for
edging thick sod around walks,
flowerbeds, trees and shrubs.
Rotary edgers come with single or dou-
ble wheels. In the single-wheel model, a
rubber-tired wheel moves along the walk
or driveway turning the cutting blade
against the cutting edge. Two-wheeled
edgers give better traction but are
unhandy for edging around a house foun-
dation or trees. Teeth float above the bot-
tom trench to cut grass without being
clogged by stones, sticks and other debris.
Gas-powered or electric edger/trimmers
are also available that can edge sidewalks
and trim around trees.
DIGGING TOOLS
Shovels
Shovels are classified by construction,
point description and handle length. The
five kinds of construction are:
Solid shank blade and socketHot
rolled from one piece of metal with solid
steel section at base of socket.
Plain back ( strap socket) Hot formed
with two straps holding handle to back by
welding.
Closed backHot formed from sheet
metal with extra piece of steel welded to
back at base of socket.
Hollow back ( open back) Hot formed
from sheet steel with opening at base of
socket; may have turned or rolled steps for
extra rigidity.
Special constructionHot formed from
hot-rolled blanks of different gauges
depending on end use. This type offers
maximum strength yet is still lightweight.
Shovel blades are round or square point
and handles are long (47"-49") or D (27"-
30"). Those basic for d-i-y sales include:
Long handle round pointBlade and
front strap are forged or hot-formed as a
single unit. Quality shovels are made of
chrome nickel alloy steel. Less sturdy
shovels are made of carbon steel. Many
have a rolled or turned foot pedal on the
top of blade.
Long handle square point
Construction and quality features similar
to long-handle round point. A square
point shovel has less cutting power than
round point and is used for scooping and
removing materials.
D handle round pointRecommended
for ordinary garden digging jobs. Quality
features are similar to long-handle round
point shovel. Available in weights from
light to heavy duty.
D handle square point
Recommended for removal of loose soil
and handling light materials such as sand
and asphalt, but not for heavy digging.
Also available in light and heavy weights.
Handle lengths and blade lifts are
important to balance and efficient shov-
eling. Low-lift blades and irrigating shov-
els are best for digging and turning soil
while regular-lift shovels and scoops are
for moving and throwing materials.
Serrated blades make for easier ground
breaking. Treaded steps provide a large,
full surface for sure-footed digging while
reducing foot stress. Non-slip, contoured
grips provide ergonomic benefits and
greater control.
Spades
Garden spades have square point blades
about 7" wide and 12" long, with a 28"-29"
D handle. Some have a rolled shoulder on
the top of the blade so user can apply foot
pressure in unusually hard or heavy soil.
Drain spades, also called tilling spades,
are used primarily for digging ditches.
Round point blades are 5-1/2" wide, 16"
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
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CUTTING TOOLS
Lopping
shears
Hedge
shears
Folding pruning saw
Bypass
pruner
Pruning saw
Draw-cut
grass shears
Anvil pruner
long and handle is 27"-29" long or 47"
long for long-handled models.
Ditching spades have square point
blades 6-1/4"-6-1/2" wide and 14"-18" long,
27"-29" handle and foot pedal. Good for
use in heavy soil or rocky surfaces.
Scoops
Scoops have deep blades for moving
loose or bulky materials. They should not
be recommended for digging. Most have
D handles of 27"-29", although some are
available with long handles up to 51".
They are constructed of aluminum, steel,
poly or ABS resin.
Aluminum scoops are light, durable and
versatile. They can be used for snow, grain
or any loose material. Heavy-gauge steel
scoops are the most durable and can be
used for nearly any loose material regard-
less of size or weight. They come in vari-
ous gauges and sizes, featuring a light-
weight open back design. Baked-on enam-
el finish helps inhibit rust. ABS resin and
poly scoops are designed for light duties
such as snow removal.
Spading Forks
Spading forks are roll-forged from a
solid-steel bar to produce four or five
sharp tines that enter and turn the soil
more easily than a solid blade. Quality fea-
tures include firm handle, non-peeling
plated steel and smooth finish.
Mattocks
Mattocks are digging tools with a blade at
right angles to the handle, used with a down-
ward motion. Different models are designed
for cultivating, planting and picking. Long-
and short-handled types are available.
Posthole Diggers and Augers
Light-duty posthole diggers are made
with blade and handle socket rolled from
one piece of metal. In addition to pene-
trating the ground, diggers remove dirt
from the hole. Heavy-duty diggers have
sharp steel blades riveted to a heavy steel
frame. Some models feature a built-in level
for improved digging accuracy. The point
spread ranges from 5-1/2"-6-1/4".
Augers burrow into soft soil for applica-
tions such as deck building, fence con-
struction, landscaping and tree planting.
Some have adjustable yokes that can be
locked into position or changed to drill
different sized holes. Common sizes are 6",
8" and 10".
CULTIVATING
TOOLS
Lawn Rakes
Lawn or leaf rakes have two basic
designs: straight edge or sweep (broom).
Straight edge rakes pull leaves and
debris toward the user, gathering up heav-
ier trash such as sticks and stones.
Sweep rakes are used like a broom. They
pull or sweep the leaves and debris past
the user. Sweep rakes are fan-shaped; bet-
ter ones have spring-steel teeth of graduat-
ed lengths for a straight leading edge.
Others have a rounded leading edge.
Bamboo rakes are lightweight and inex-
pensive. They are used for light debris
such as dry leaves and grass. The teeth
should all be evenly bent for best raking
results. Usually the thicker and wider the
individual teeth, the better the rake.
Ergonomic models are also available
that feature a bent handle to reduce back
strain and fiberglass or aluminum handles
(48" or 54") for easier gripping. They are
more expensive than basic rakes. Flexible,
replaceable steel tines offer durability and
convenience. A detachable headthat
clips back on for storagemakes gathering
leaves and grass easy.
Garden Rakes
Garden rakes are used to break up and
smooth soil after it has been spaded and
cultivated. They have sharp, curved teeth
of high carbon steel to pulverize dirt clods,
and straight backs to level the soil for
planting. Handles are typically 60" long.
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
5
TOOL MAINTENANCE TIPS
Any tool performs better if it is kept in top condition. Try suggesting some of the following tips to your
customers for season-end maintenance:
Clean up all cutting or bladed tools- clean off dirt and rust and sharpen cutting edge.
Condition blades by spraying with rust-preventive lubricant or rust-inhibitive paint.
Condition wooden handles by sanding off splinters and rubbing with linseed oil.
Clean rakes and straighten bent tines.
Clean garden sprayers by flushing chemicals out with clear water or with a household detergent.
Drain and properly store garden hose.
SHOVELS
Long-Handle Square-Point Shovel
Long-Handle Round-Point Shovel
D-Handle Round-Point Shovel
Spade
D-Handle Square-Point Shovel
Scoop
Spading Fork
They are made of fiberglass or hardwood.
Most models feature 14 or 16 tines.
The head of a level head rake is set close
to the handle, attached by driving the
shank of the head into the handle.
Bow rake heads are attached to the han-
dle with long, curved bows extending
from each end of the head. Spring action
of the bow rake makes it preferable to
many gardeners. Bow rake handles are typ-
ically 48"-54".
Aluminum landscape rakes and shrub
rakes are sturdy, rust free and lightweight.
They are general-purpose rakes used for
smoothing out pebbles, sand and loose
soil; and seeding, leveling and placement
of landscaping mulches. Round-tipped
teeth prevent gouging of lawn surface.
Thatchers
Thatching rakes are usually described as
wheeled or half-moon. They are pointed
on one side for pulling and rounded on
the other side for pushing. Some models
have adjustable heads to suit the height of
the user.
The wheeled rake rolls along the ground
digging up thatch. It digs as it is pushed
forward and cleans itself of debris as it is
pulled backwards.
The half-moon type does not have
wheels. It is dragged over the ground. The
work stroke is pulling the unit toward the
operator; the cleaning stroke is pushing
the unit away.
Hoes
Top-quality hoes have forged-socket
construction in which a one-piece blade,
shank and socket are driven into the han-
dle, providing greater strength. Welded
shank hoes are for light-duty use.
Depending on their use, handles will be
straight or shaped to provide a combina-
tion of strength, light weight, resiliency
and comfortable grip. A scalloped inside
edge on the head makes it easier to weed
on the backstroke. Some models have an
adjustable grip that locks into the desired
position for the users arm length and
height, reducing the risk of back fatigue.
Width, depth and shape of blade indi-
cate the main use of the tool. For example,
a garden hoe usually has a 6" blade for soil
preparation, while a weeding hoe will
have a 1-3/4" pointed blade to lift out
weeds. Weeding hoes can be single prong
or double prong.
Draw hoes are tools that are pulled
toward the user to accomplish a variety of
tasks, including weeding, soil cultivation,
digging and making furrows.
Push hoes (also called floral or scuffle
hoes) are pushed rather than pulled and
allow the blade to slide just below the sur-
face to cut weeds. The handle is attached
to the rear of the blade at a shallow angle.
They are used for weeding, cultivating and
aerating.
Oscillating hoes cut with both edges of
their sharp, steel blades, so they work with
either push or pull motions. The blade
shifts back and forth to keep the angle
right in either direction.
Mortar mixer hoes feature plain or per-
forated blades and handles between 48"
and 66".
Hand Trowels
For loosening dirt in a garden, sell a
general-purpose trowel, generally with a
blade width 3-1/4"-3-1/2". For transplanti-
ng, sell a slimmer 2" bladed trowel.
Aerators
Aerators cut through hard soil to loosen
and break up the dirt several inches below
the surface so air, moisture and fertilizer
can promote deep root growth. Plug-type
aerators feature coring points that punc-
ture up to 3" deep. Spike-type aerators fea-
ture spiked wheels that allow scrape-free
transport across hard surfaces. Aerators are
no substitute for a spade when heavy work
is necessary. However, they do offer a rela-
tively easy way to loosen soil around
plants. Aerators come in manual models as
well as models designed to be pulled with
a garden tractor.
Garden Cultivators
Long-(48-60") or short-(12") handled
cultivators break up clods left by spading
or aerating, with one, three or four sharp,
curved tines or prongs. For heavier work, a
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
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RAKES
Straight Edge Rake
Sweep Rake
Bow Rake
Hand Edger
Rotary Edger
CULTIVATING TOOLS
Garden pick
mattock
Level head
garden rake
Garden hoe
Bulb planter Hand trowel
Bow rake
Cultivator
Auger
rotary cultivator with sharp spurs cuts
through most soils. Collapsible steel han-
dles are available on some models to save
storage space.
Bulb Planters
To plant or transplant flower bulbs or
small plants, a bulb planter is twisted back
and forth as it is pushed into the ground.
When desired depth is reached (shown by
inch marking on tool), tool is removed
from soil, bringing with it a core of earth.
Garden Seeders
The conventional garden seeder has two
wheels and a furrowing shoe connected to
a seed-delivering mechanism.
Some are made of structural steel tube
and plastic; others of aluminum strapping,
steel and plastic. The structural steel unit
has a furrowing shoe with side flanges that
push the dirt over the open seed furrow
and a concave rear wheel that builds a
protective mound over the seed. The alu-
minum strap units furrowing shoe has a
chain that drags the dirt over the seed.
A pogo stick type seeder has a seed
reservoir. The seeds are released into the
ground by pushing the unit onto the
ground. The unit has two spring-loaded
flanges which thrust themselves into the
ground, opening a hole. The unit then
releases a seed or two and springs back out
of the ground.
Dandelion Diggers
With a sharp, notched blade, diggers lift
out dandelions, root and all. Long-han-
dled diggers enable the user to remove
dandelions without stooping while short-
handled diggers make it easier to pick up
dandelions as they are cut.
HOSE & HOSE
ACCESSORIES
Hose
Garden hose is a staple item. The gal-
lons of water a hose will carry is deter-
mined by three factors: size, length and
available water pressure. The inside diame-
ter of the hose determines its efficiency.
Three-quarter-inch hose delivers more
water, 23 gpm, faster than 5/8" hose, 17
gpm. Hoses can also be compared by
burst strength (the higher the psi, the
stronger the hose) and by plys (higher
number of plys means greater strength,
flexibility and kink resistance).
Reinforcement is the primary factor in
quality, and burst-pressure rating
depends mostly on reinforcement.
Lower-quality vinyl hoses have burst rat-
ings of 50-200 psi; high-quality vinyl
hoses have a burst rating of 350-500 psi.
Garden hose is constructed of rubber,
vinyl, rubber-vinyl or nylon, typically
1/2", 5/8" or 3/4" in diameter and 25', 50',
75' or 100' in length. The most common
size is 5/8" and 50'. Most hose sold is
green, although other colors are available.
Almost all models feature an integrated
reinforcing mesh, either knit, spiral, dual-
spiral or knit-spiral. Hose lengths can be
combined together with threaded plastic,
brass or steel couplings that screw easily
into each other. Hoses with crush-resistant
brass couplings will typically experience
fewer leaks.
Rubber hose reinforced with tire cord
fiber has good resistance to weathering,
cracking and kinks. It is the heaviest and
most durable hose, and its price is com-
mensurate with its status as top of the
line. Couplings should be full-flow; mean-
ing internally expanded to maintain
inside diameter for better water flow.
Most reinforced rubber hose can be used
with hot water.
Rubber-vinyl hose combines the
strength and durability of rubber with the
lightness of vinyl, making them the easiest
to use. Although all rubber-vinyl hose is
reinforced with tire cord fiber, there are
two kinds in use. One uses an expanded
(or foamed) cover containing tiny air cells,
similar to a fine sponge, giving it a softer
feel, easier handling and more kink resist-
ance. The other has an extruded (non-
foam) cover; it offers good flexibility and
has more dirt and abrasion resistance.
Vinyl hose is the most common type of
hose since it functions adequately for
most jobs at a reasonable price. Two-ply
vinyl hose, typically used
as a promotional item, is
more susceptible to sun
damage and deteriorates
more rapidly than rubber
hose. Although light-
weight, it tends to kink
easily and is not as pli-
able as other hose. Non-
reinforced vinyl hose is
adequate for open serv-
ice only and is suitable
for use with rotary or
oscillating sprinklers. It is not suitable for
use with any accessory featuring an inte-
grated shut-off valve.
Nylon hose is not commonly found
anymore.
Caution customers never to tug on hose
when trying to eliminate a kink. This can
cause the kink to permanently set in.
Kinks should always be worked out by
hand. Inexpensive hoses have a greater
tendency to kink due to their thin walls,
and frequently spout leaks at kink points.
Hose should be stored in season by coiling
it on a wide bracket, hose hanger or reel,
never by hanging it on a sharp nail or
hook. Before winter, drain all water from
the hose and then store it inside in coils.
Use a small brush to clean out fittings
before storage.
Flat Hose
Flat hose lies flat until water pressure
rounds it into 5/8" hose. A prime selling
feature is that flat hose stores more easily
and compactly than conventional hose
and has comparable burst strength.
Flat hose must be completely extended
before water will pass through it and it
must be completely drained before storing.
Because it drains itself, it is less susceptible
to freezing and cracking and it will not
wear on edges. Weight is about one-third
that of conventional hose, but it delivers
the same amount of water. It requires 20
psi to round out and is able to withstand
normal treatment.
There are two main types of flat hose.
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
7
One is made of a polyurethane liner and a
tightly woven polyester jacket. The liner is
bonded to the jacket to reduce kinking
and leaking. The other type is similar to
conventional, reinforced vinyl hose.
Soaker Hose
A soaker hose uses thousands of tiny
holes to allow water to seep slowly over its
entire length. These hoses save significant
amounts of water compared to conven-
tional sprinklers. Traditionally made of
canvas, they are now being made of vinyl,
plastic, rubber or reprocessed rubber.
Soaker hose comes in 25'-500' lengths.
Hose can be run on top of ground, under
mulch or buried, and will last for years. If
buried, the end of the soaker hose should
be wrapped in plastic to prevent dirt from
clogging it.
Consumers can compare models by
looking at the number of gallons per hour
per foot each hose is rated. In general,
vinyl and rubber soaker hoses are the
most durable because they do not decay
when buried.
Coil Hose
Coil hose automatically rewinds itself
after use. It withstands sun and rain and
has solid brass or nylon fittings for drip-
free connection. Coil hoses rebound gen-
tly and will not damage plants or paint.
They typically come in 25' and 50'
lengths, are manufactured of nylon or
polyurethane and available in a number
of colors.
Hose Hangers and Reels
Hose hangers and reels provide compact
and efficient hose storage.
Hangers are inexpensive and mount on
the side of a house or garage for draping
hose loosely. Most wall-mounted models
mount on 16" centers for easy attachment
to studs and mortar joints.
Reels are more complex. All have rotary
action, which unrolls and rerolls hose. Some
are mounted on the house or garage while
others ride on a caddy or cart (with wheels)
that enables you to move the hose around
the yard. Most reels have a 3'-6' leader hose
that attaches directly to the water supply.
Hose reels should be placed out of the sun
to prevent sun damage. A quality reel will
have easy flowing construction in the leader
hose that attaches to faucet and leak-proof
design. Some models feature storage trays
for accessories such as nozzles and cou-
plings. Typical capacity is 150' of 5/8" hose.
A large-capacity reel basket holds 400' of
5/8" hose.
Nozzles
Two types of nozzles are generally
offeredpistol grip (or lever) nozzles and
straight nozzlesin either metal or plastic.
Pistol nozzles adjust spray patterns from
a fine mist to a solid stream to full flow by
squeezing the handle, or by turning an
adjusting screw or using a multi-position
clip. Deluxe units are usually larger and
heavier with molded hand grip, thumb-
guard and fully adjustable spray patterns.
Some units use a dial control for fixed
spray patterns.
Straight nozzles are usually brass, die-
cast zinc or plastic. Deluxe models use o-
rings to seal off the waterflow, protect the
inside adjustment threads and allow
smoother and easier spray adjustment.
Couplings and Hose Menders
Small hose leaks are usually simple
repairs. Many consumers turn to inexpen-
sive plastic couplings to repair even small
leaks. Metal couplings made of sheet
and/or rod brass have always been used for
sizable leaks or badly split sections of
hose, but plastic couplings can be used on
large or small leaks.
Couplings mend or connect any size hose.
Metal clincher couplings have metal
cleats around a brass insert. After the hose
is pushed over the insert, the cleats are
pounded down with a hammer or
crimped with pliers to hold the hose. It is
important to crimp the cleats evenly or
the repair may leak. They can be used on
rubber or plastic hoses. However, for plas-
tic hose a compression fitting with a
threaded collar is better because it is less
likely to puncture the outer covering.
One plastic hose mender kit includes a
barbed tubular insert and clam shell-
shaped clamps that can be used on either
plastic or rubber hose. The defective sec-
tion of hose is cut out, the two hose
pieces are pushed over the barbed tubular
insert and the clamps are screwed around
the outside of the hose. Damaged male or
female hose couplings can also be
repaired with this system.
CONNECTORS
Connectors link garden hose and water-
ing devices to the home water source, con-
nect sections of hose and provide linkage
for sprinkling devices. Usually made of
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
8
WHEN TO WATER OUTDOOR PLANTS
Most plants want moist (but not soggy) soil around their roots all the time. In the spring, too
frequent and too shallow watering makes roots ries to the top of the soil for moisture; this dis-
courages deep root growth and leads to survival problems during hot summer months.
Deep-watered plants will have long, deep-seated roots that will find moisture beneath the
surface when the sun has baked the ground.
In summer, apply water when the temperature is moderate and when the wind is calm- not
in hot sunshine or strong wind that will immediately evaporate the water and leave the soil
harder than if it had never been watered.
The rate of penetration into the soil is very important. Water should be applied no faster than
the soil surface is able to absorb it. This is determined by the rate of application, hose size,
length of hose, water pressure, the water head and the type of soil. Sand has coarse particles
and will absorb water faster. Clay particles are much finer and absorb water at a slower rate. As
a general rule, the faster the soil absorbs water, the more frequently it needs to be watered.
If you live in a region that has fairly strong, constant wind, recommend a sprinkler with a low,
moderate to heavy spray; otherwise the homeowner can lose up to 40 percent of the water.
Night watering can be recommended because water pressures are higher, winds calmer and
temperatures lower to reduce evaporation if the sprinkler has a timer or meter or the home-
owner is willing to watch the watering so that the soil isnt overwatered.
plastic or brass, some connectors provide a
built-in shut-off valve. Y connectors,
with or without shut-off valves, attach to
the water supply to control two hoses at
the same time.
WATERING DEVICES
Sprinklers
There are five general types of sprin-
klers: stationary, oscillating, impulse,
rotary and traveling. The type and size
of coverage needed and price range will
determine which sprinkler should be
recommended to a customer, keeping
in mind that lawns require 1" of water
each week. Most models are largely
made of plastic or metal and come
with sled-like bases.
At the end of the season, sprinklers
should be drained and stored inside.
Holes should also be cleaned to prevent
clogging.
Stationary Sprinklers
Generally, they are the lowest-cost sprin-
kler available. Smaller lawn or garden areas
are watered quickly and effectively by sta-
tionary sprinklers. Most stationary or fixed
sprinklers spray water through a pattern of
holes in the top of the sprinkler. The size,
shape and pattern of these holes, and water
pressure, determine the area covered.
Stationary sprinklers come in a variety
of designs. These include rings, full- and
half-circle, which spray water through two
or three rows of holes along the top edge
for a circular pattern; salt shaker types
with a single pattern on a sled or spike;
multiple salt shaker patterns on a turret
that can be set to different patterns; and
swirling type spot sprinklers.
Oscillating Sprinklers
Oscillating sprinklers spray multiple
streams of water out of openings in a
spray tube that oscillates back and forth,
watering a rectangular pattern. Traditional
designs use curved aluminum tubes.
However, recent designs use corrosion-free,
molded straight tubes with jets set at pro-
gressive angles. Oscillators water medium
to large areas and are one of the most pop-
ular designs because of the variety of spray
pattern adjustments and price ranges.
Important features affecting perform-
ance include the length of the tube, the
number of spray openings (usually 13-19
as coverage increases), and if the tube has
spray jet nozzles (that control the jet of
water for longer throw). Coverage varies
from 1,600 sq. ft. up to 4,000 sq. ft.
Pattern adjustments are usually full
sweep, left, right or center. By design,
they place more water at the end of the
spray pattern than in the middle. Some
models have built-in timers for automat-
ic shutoff.
Impulse Sprinklers
Impulse (or pulsating) sprinklers are the
most efficient and versatile. A pulsator
operates on lower pressure, yet will dis-
charge more water in a given period and
cover a greater area than other sprinklers.
A spring-loaded arm provides a strong
spray that is close to the ground, making
it wind-resistant. The large orifice prevents
clogging, unlike oscillator holes.
Pulsators are manufactured in a number
of materialsbrass, zinc, aluminum, stain-
less steel, bronze, plastic and combina-
tions. Most impulse sprinklers offer advan-
tages such as a baffle plate, which controls
the height of the stream to allow sprin-
kling under low tree branches; a diffuser
pin, which adjusts water stream from full
jet to fine mist by screwing the pin into or
out of the stream; and part- or full-circle
operation.
Rotary Sprinklers
Rotary (or rotating) sprinklers spray
water from the tips of two or three spray
arms that spin like a pinwheel as the
sprinkler waters the lawn. These spray
arms may have fixed or adjustable tips.
Designed for watering small- to medium-
sized areas, rotary sprinkler prices vary
greatly.
Deluxe units provide three adjust-
ments: mist or jet spray by turning the
nozzles; spray diameter by swiveling the
nozzles inward or outward; and stationary
watering by the use of a locking collar.
Traveling Sprinklers
Traveling sprinklers are self-propelled to
cover large, irregular areas. There are two
types: wind-up and tractor. A shut-off
valve is a desirable feature on either type.
Watering is done by two arms like a rotary
sprinkler and width of coverage can be
changed by adjusting these arms. They are
the most expensive type of sprinkler, but
can cover an area as large as 20,000
square feet.
Wind-up units follow a cord laid out by
the user, have two speeds and large hose
capacities. Tractor units drag the hose
behind them as they follow the hose pat-
tern. Deluxe units are heavier (allowing
greater range) and have two speeds.
Other Watering Devices
Water timers can be attached to hose
to control sprinkling, and come in elec-
tronic and mechanical models. Set timer
for number of inches needed; it will
compensate for changes in pressure and
turn off the sprinkler when a pre-set
amount is reached. Some timers can be
pre-set to operate for a certain amount of
time, regardless of the amount of water
discharged.
Backflow protectors prevent reverse flow
of water and contaminants back into
plumbing pipes through unprotected
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
9
SPRINKLERS
Impulse Sprinklers Traveling Sprinklers Rotating Sprinklers Oscillating Sprinklers
hoses. Backflow protector is either a plastic
or a brass vacuum breaker that fits
between the threaded faucet and hose.
Most plumbing codes require that non-
removable breakers be used; they must be
drained in winter to avoid freezing.
Hose-end misters attach to the end of the
hose and give off a light spray to cool off sun-
bathers. They are popular in warm locations.
WATERING
SYSTEMS
Underground Sprinklers
Many homeowners prefer the conven-
ience of timed and pre-measured lawn
watering provided by underground sprin-
klers. A basic do-it-yourself system can be
installed in an afternoon. The system
offers these benefits:
o Water savings because sprinkler heads
apply water at the rate of gentle rain.
o Reduced water loss from erosive run-off.
o System is freeze-proof and can be win-
terized quickly.
o Sprinkler heads are mounted flush with
the ground, out of the way of mowing
equipment and children.
A basic kit includes pipe and control
tubing, valve assembly, sprinklers (fixed or
rotating) and electric control center.
Automatic pop-up sprinkler units offer
safety and convenience, while adjustable
spray, bubbler and fixed spray heads are
available for specific watering tasks. The
control center runs the system from any
110V outlet. Simple adjustments permit
watering schedules to be changed as often
as five times a day or as little as once
every other day. For more information, click
(Installing a Sprinkler System).
Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation systems are placed close to
plant roots to water slowly and evenly, replac-
ing only the moisture the plant uses daily.
Confining the watered area to the root zone
saves wateras much as 50 percent to 70 per-
cent. Weeds are not encouraged to grow and
nutrients are not washed from the soil. A
timer can be hooked up to the system to
automate the watering process.
A drip irrigation system is installed on
top of the soil. The hose can be laid
beneath mulch, but most users leave it
above the ground and remove it at the
end of the season. The key fitting is the
emitter or dripper head. It has a small ori-
fice and is fitted into a flexible hose 1/4"-
1/2" in diameter. It typically emits about
one gallon of water per hour. Tubing is
then run from the water source to the gar-
den and from there to each plant or row
of plants. Allow for extra tubing in each
area because it will expand and contract
based on changes in weather.
Most systems are easily installed and
come with all the accessories you need,
such as hose adapters, couplings, emitters,
spikes and clamps. Pressure regulators, fil-
ters and backflow protectors are also useful
to have. Look for systems that will not clog
easily and deliver a uniform flow of water.
WHEEL GOODS
Lawn Carts
Also called yard carts or utility carts,
lawn carts are designed to carry bulky
material such as tools, shrubs or fertilizer
around the yard. They are made of metal,
poly plastic or wood and come with two
wheels. Light-duty lawn carts have a V
or hopper-shaped bottom and feature 3-4
cu. ft. capacity (200-250 lbs.). Deep tool
trays keep tools organized, and tool clips
on the side make it handy to hang other
garden tools. A front spout makes it easy
to dump out loads.
Small planters wagons are designed for
carrying light loads of plants. Folding
down the adjustable handle creates a com-
fortable seat, while a removable end panel
eliminates back strain. Other features
include four wheels, a side compartment
for storing tools and gloves, a removable
tray and the ability to convert to an
upright work station.
Larger-capacity flat-bottomed lawn carts
come in sizes from 5-8 cu. ft. Larger-diame-
ter wheels (often spoked) help these carts
roll easily. Metal carts are fabricated with
one end at 45 to allow the cart to be tipped
forward and the load removed. They can
carry heavier loads than wheelbarrows,
although they are less maneuverable.
Wheelbarrows
Homeowner, light-duty wheelbarrows
have shallow trays with 3-4 cu. ft. capaci-
ty. The trays are typically made of wood,
aluminum, steel or heavy plastic, and fea-
ture a semi-rounded front for easier dump-
ing. They come with one (most common)
or two rubber or inflatable wheels.
Inflatable wheels are easier to use but
more apt to puncture. Handles are either
hardwood or metal.
For heavier work, medium-duty wheel-
barrows have deep front trays generally 4-
6 cu. ft. A choice of undercarriage is avail-
ablehardwood handles to support the
tray or a one-piece square tube frame. The
wheel and tire is wider than 3", pneumatic
to enable the tire to roll easier. Cushioned
handle grips provide added comfort and
control. Leg grips are another feature that
provides easier lifting and better control.
Rollbars contact the ground to make
dumping heavy loads easier and also serve
to balance the load.
Contractor (or concrete) wheelbarrows
have 5-10 cu. ft. trays with deep fronts for
added capacity and extra bracing. Legs and
bracing are made from heavy-gauge steel.
Handles are usually one-piece hardwood
attached with countersunk bolts or heavy-
gauge round steel tubing. A wire rim bead
around trough adds reinforcement for
heavy loads such as cement and bricks.
Wheels are stamped steel holding 16"
pneumatic tires. Knobby tires are available
for added traction and longer wear.
Dump/ Trailer Carts
Dump carts are pulled behind garden
tractors and riding mowers (off-highway
only). The smaller, 4- to 7-cu.-ft., dump cart
is similar to hand carts and usually has a
dumping mechanism located on the trailer
towing bar or tongue. The cart can usually
be dumped by pulling a lanyard (rope),
releasing the body from the tongue.
Larger, heavier carts in the 500- to 1,500-
lb. capacity range from 8 to 17 cu. ft.
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
10
Hand Trucks/ Dollies/
Bag Trucks
Tubular framed trucks are used to haul
trash cans, packages, firewood, etc.
Ranging from 100 to 400 lbs. capacity,
trucks have either a solid metal toe plate
or tubular shape to support the load.
Handle styles include pin, safety, continu-
ous or upright.
Bag trucks or caddies perform similar
functions as hand trucks with an impor-
tant addition. A hoop holds plastic trash
bags with an elastic cord encircling the
hoop. The hoop attaches to the frame at
several heights to hold varying sizes of
lawn/trash bags. The bag rests on the toe
plate or frame and may be transported
from garden to garage.
Heavy-duty bags should be at least 1.5
mil. thick; most frequently sold sizes for
yard work are 32-and 45-gals.
Trash Can Caddy
Constructed from steel or aluminum
tubing or polyethylene, trash caddies carry
two or three trash cans. Most are designed
for a specific can size, such as two 20-gal.
cans. However, there are adjustable models
to hold two of any size metal or plastic
trash cans.
Spreaders
Lawn spreaders are a quick, efficient
way to spread seed and fertilizer. Although
spreaders have some construction differ-
ences, several characteristics are common
to all:
o Flow settings from fine for grass seed to
coarse for fertilizer granules.
o Hand control dials to adjust flow set-
tings.
o Variety of hopper capacities and spread-
ing widths.
The size of the customers lawn will
determine which type of spreader to pur-
chase. Broadcast, fan, wheel-type or rotary
spreaders are designed for larger areas.
They offer the advantages of "feathering,"
eliminating sharply defined edges of
spread. They are best for lawns that do not
have flower beds or gardens in the middle,
since they spread material as far as 30'.
The most common model is a push
spreader that features a hopper on a metal
cart; the broadcast platform turns as the
wheels move across the yard. Rotary
spreaders are also available in hand-held
models for spreading small amounts of fer-
tilizer, grass seed or ice melter.
For small areas, a drop spreader that dis-
penses material with the pull of a hand
lever is sufficient. Drop spreaders take a
little longer but offer more precision. They
typically spread an 18"-22" path.
A deluxe 2-in-1 spreader converts to an
8' broadcast spreader or a 24" drop spread-
er by moving the skirt.
Although manual operation will satisfy
most home needs, powered units are avail-
able as well as units with connections for
lawn tractors. Spreaders can also be used
to spread weed and pest control, and salt
in the winter.
Lawn Sweepers
Lawn sweepers feature a cylindrical
drum outfitted with rows of bristles that
use a rotary sweeping action to pick up
leaves, rocks and grass clippings. A canvas
container, usually 6-7 cu. ft. capacity,
holds collected debris. Sweepers come in
powered, hand-propelled and riding mower
attachment models. Models are available for
cleaning turf, sidewalks, driveways, patios as
well as outdoor carpet. They are more effi-
cient than rakes and work better on dry and
level surfaces.
SPRAYERS &
DUSTERS
How pesticides and chemicals are
applied does make a differencein effec-
tive results, for greatest safety and econo-
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
11
PLANT PESTS
When customers come to you with ailing plants, their problems may stem from one of a number
of plant pests. Most of these pests do their damage by sucking the sap from plants, weakening
them and excreting honeydew on which mold grows. To recommend the proper pesticide, famil-
iarize yourself with the lines you stock.
Following are descriptions of the more common household plant pests.
Aphids- Sluggish insects often called plant lice, they suck the sap of plants, discoloring
and deforming them. Winged and wingless, depending on stage of development.
Red Spider Mites- These microscopic orange/green insects are especially dangerous
because they breed so quickly and cause such great damage. Attaching to most kinds of
plants, they spin fine webs on the underside of the leaves and suck the juices.
Scale - (Cottony Taxus, Oleander, Brown Soft)- These hard or soft, oval or round slow-
moving insects are often hard to identify and resemble colored blisters on the plant.
Protected when mature by tough scale coating. Color depends on species. Sucks plant sap
and excretes honeydew, weakening plant.
Mealybugs Oval; covered with a mealy, waxy substance; gather in sheltered corners of
the plant and suck the sap. Attack almost every kind of plant, especially African violets.
Nematodes These worms, also called sap-suckers, produce hard swellings on the plant
which vary in shape according to the type of plant. Symptoms are slow growth; pale, yel-
low leaves. Sterile soil is the best prevention. Infected plants and soil should be burned.
Gnats Tiny fly-like insects. Harmless to plants, but a nuisance. Severe infestation of mag-
gots can damage plant roots.
Thrips These sucking insects feed on juices and plant tissue. Indoor thrips like gloxinias.
White Flies Adults look like miniature moths. Cluster on underside of leaves. Like bego-
nias, citrus, fuchsias, geraniums. Also suck sap. Adults difficult to control.
my. Low doses of spray material will
stop and prevent weeds, plant dis-
ease and insect damage when
applied properly. A season-long
spraying program is the best
approach to help prevent problems
in gardens and lawns. Apply pesti-
cides and chemicals with the correct
spray pattern. Cone nozzles adjust
from a fine mist to a narrow stream
while a fan nozzle provides a wide,
flat pattern.
Directions for spray material mix-
ing, use and cleaning should be fol-
lowed exactly. Chemicals should
always be measured carefully and
never used on a windy day when
wind drift could carry the chemi-
cal into areas where it may cause
damage. Spraying during excessive
heat may cause spray material to
evaporate quickly. The user should
always wear protective clothing
including eye protection and gloves
while spraying, and wash thorough-
ly afterwards.
Compression Sprayers
The most popular sprayer is the
compression (tank-type) sprayer, also
known as a pump sprayer or pres-
sure sprayer. When the sprayer is
pumped, air pressure builds in the
tank and forces the spray material
through the hose, valve, wand and
nozzle. The nozzle adjusts spray pat-
tern and the wand facilitates spray-
ing under leaves and other hard-to-
reach places.
Compression sprayers may be car-
ried by hand, over the shoulder or
mounted on a caddy. Tanks are made
of galvanized or stainless steel or
polyethylene. Galvanized steel
sprayers are not recommended for
strong acidic solutions. Plastic pres-
sure sprayers offer corrosion resistance
to volatile chemical mixtures and are
lightweight and easy to handle.
They are available in 1-5 gal.
capacities. Caution users never to fill
the tank any more than 3/4 full (or
to the spot indicated on the tank).
This leaves room for air to be com-
pressed on top of the spray material
when the hand-operated pump is
activated. In addition, never store
compression sprayers in the sun or
near a heat source.
Basic features to look for on any
tank include a wide opening to facili-
tate filling; easy to close, positive seal-
ing cap/pump assembly; full-size
pump for quick pressurizing; pressure
relief valve that indicates when maxi-
mum PSI working pressure is reached;
comfortable carrying handle; a hose
that is long enough for sprayer to be
held at the side while spraying; in-line
filters to prevent clogging; extension
wands long enough to reach into and
under plants; and fully adjustable noz-
zle tip. Not all sprayers have every
available feature. However, sprayers
with most or all of these features are
safest and easiest to use.
Hose-End Sprayers
Hose-end sprayers are plastic or
glass containers with a spray nozzle
designed to be attached to the end
of a hose. They are best adapted for
jobs such as foliage feeding or apply-
ing fertilizers, insecticides or fungi-
cides to lawns or gardens where
large volumes are needed. Spray pat-
tern is normally a wide fan for lawns
and attachments are available to pre-
vent drift when spraying herbicides.
The hose-end sprayer should come
with an anti-siphon backflow pre-
venter so harmful chemicals do not
back up into the water supply if
water pressure drops. Higher-end
models feature nozzles that can
change the dilution ratio.
Knapsack Sprayers
As their name indicates, knapsack
or backpack sprayers are carried on
the users back. They are mainly used
for commercial applications.
Polyethylene models are lightweight
and comfortable to use, while other
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
12
CARE AND FEEDING OF PLANTS
TYPE
African Violet
Asparagus Fern
Cactus
Dieffenbachia
Ivy
Jerusalem Cherry
Philodendron
Poinsettia
Rubber Plant
Sanservieria
Schefflera
Spider Plant
Succulents
Wandering Jew
LIGHT
Good
Medium
Good
Medium
Good
Good
Low
Good
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
Good
Medium
WATER
Heavy
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Moderate
Heavy
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Medium
Moderate
Medium
TEMPERATURE
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Cool
Medium
Warm
Medium
Warm
Medium
Warm
Medium
Warm
Medium
TYPE
Begonia
Carnation
Coleus
Forget-Me-Not
Impatiens
Marigold
Nasturtium
Pansy
Petunia
Snapdragon
Zinnia
LIGHT
Low
Good
Low
Good
Good
Good
Medium
Good
Good
Medium
Medium
WATER
Medium
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Medium
Moderate
Heavy
Medium
Medium
Moderate
TEMPERATURE
Medium
Warm
Medium
Medium
Warm
Medium
Medium
Medium
Cool
Medium
Medium
CARE AND FEEDING OF FLOWERS
Chart courtesy of Duro-Lite Lamps Inc., Fair Lawn, N.J.
Chart adapted from Basic Containter Gardening Guide,
Northrup King Seeds, Minneapolis
models are made of metal. They operate
like a compressed air sprayer, but can han-
dle a larger capacity. Steady pumping
maintains a constant pressure, which pro-
duces uniform discharge rate and spray
pattern. Some models require only inter-
mittent pumping. Capacities range from 3-
1/2 to 5 gals.
Slide Pump Sprayers
Slide pump sprayers perform higher-pres-
sure and longer-reach jobs. They operate on
a two-handed, telescopic plunger action
that draws the spray material from an open
container and discharges it through an
adjustable nozzle. They develop pressure up
to 150 lbs. and nozzles adjust for spray pat-
terns up to 25' or 30'. Pumps are corrosion-
resistant brass with either continuous or
intermittent action.
Hand Sprayers
Some hand sprayers produce a fine,
floating spray suited for controlling
insects. Other hand sprayers produce a
wetter, heavier spray for treating exposed
surfaces where insects feed, lodge or crawl.
An adjustable model, known as a plant
mister, produces mist for indoor plants.
Hand sprayers feature intermittent, con-
tinuous or hydraulic pressure pumping
action. Recommend either the slide pump
or hydraulic hand sprayer for long-reach
jobs like treetop and vines.
Power Sprayers
Power sprayers reduce work because
energy is supplied by a gasoline engine
or electric motor assuring greater applica-
tion efficiency. Tank capacities are large
enough to cover large areas with one
filling. For extremely large applications,
power sprayers can be towed by garden
tractors. They are typically used on
shrubs, flowers, vegetables and trees.
Cordless electric models with 1-5 gal.
tanks eliminate the work of pumping
while spraying, unlike compression
air sprayers.
Sprayer Maintenance
Customer complaints about non-func-
tioning sprayers frequently can be traced
to corroded metal parts, clogged nozzles or
damaged seals.
Corrosion results when chemical solu-
tions are left in sprayers. Following a spray
job, the user should spray away all the liq-
uid or else release the pressure and then
return the remaining material to the origi-
nal container.
Clogging happens when dust, sand, soil
or undissolved particles of powdered
chemicals get into lines and nozzles. These
same particles damage seals. To avoid clog-
ging, suggest the customer dissolve dry
powder in a small amount of water before
putting it into the sprayer and adding the
recommended amount of water. If the
nozzle becomes plugged with debris, try
cleaning with a toothpick, matchstick or
broom strawmetal tools or wire could
damage the nozzle opening. If this fails,
flush and reverse flush with clear water
until the obstacle is dislodged.
To guard against cross contamination
between chemicals, recommend the cus-
tomer clean the sprayer with a small
amount of detergent dissolved in water
after each use. Then flush with water until
sprayer is completely empty. Air-dry the
sprayer and store in a dry place. It is rec-
ommended that a separate sprayer be used
for weed killers only.
Maintenance kits are available so home-
owners can make minor repairs, such as
replacing the hose, discharge valve, nozzle
or o-ring.
I DUSTERS
Dusters are ideal for inside pest control
or for use on flowers or roses. Plunger
dusters range from 1/4lb. to 1 lb. capacity
for home use and up to 3 lbs. for commer-
cial jobs. Like intermittent hand sprayers,
a hand-operated pump discharges only on
the forward stroke of the plunger. The vol-
ume of dust discharged and range of carry
are controlled by the size of pump and
speed of stroking.
Crank dusters provide a constant flow of
dust while the crank is being turned. Dust
capacities range from 2 lbs. for home use
to 15 lbs. for commercial use. Discharge
can be either in front of or behind the
operator. Larger models are carried com-
fortably by straps over the shoulder. The
volume of dust discharged through single
or double outlets is controlled by a regu-
lating device. Proper conversion of dust
into a fine cloud depends on the air vol-
ume and velocity determined by the
cranking speed.
LAWN
DECORATIVES
Flower Borders
Flower borders are made of galvanized
or vinyl-coated metal to stop rust and
eliminate sharp ends. Available in 6", 12"
and 18" heights.
Border fence consists of 10" long flexible
plastic sections that interlock to any
length. Because of its price and appear-
ance, plastic border fence is the type most
consumers buy on impulse.
Edging
Grass edging is embedded close to the
ground to separate flowerbeds from lawn
areas, keeping grass roots from spreading
where they are not wanted.
Edging is usually constructed of poly-
ethylene plastic, aluminum or galvanized
steel, with rolled top edge. Edging also
comes in scalloped wood slabs joined by
wire in 3' sections. Plastic edging may be
the safest and most durable. Some light-
weight aluminum or metal edging can
bend when installed or become unsightly
with age. Steel edging can damage lawn
mower blades. Some models are designed
to look like stone or brick but feature
poly construction that wont chip, crack
or fade.
GLOVES
General house and garden gloves are
made from leather, cloth, canvas, rubber
or plastic. Cotton is often combined with
another materialvinyl-coated or plastic-
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
13
impregnated cotton, cotton backs with
plastic ribbed or leather palms, unlined,
with cotton flannel or wool lining.
Sheepskin and goatskin gloves are espe-
cially comfortable and rugged, and priced
accordingly. A range of sizes is available,
including smaller sizes for women.
Weight and firmness of material give
some indication of how hard the gloves
will wear. Glove material is related to
userubber for wet tasks, leather to pre-
vent rubbing and blistering, knit wrists for
yard work. Gloves have also been designed
specifically for seniors and those with
arthritis. Some models feature reinforced
fingertips or seams for greater durability or
longer cuffs for extra protection when
pruning thorny bushes.
Gauntlet gloves, especially long gauntlets,
offer protection against poisonous weeds if
the customer has a lot of heavy underbrush
and weeds to clear out. Liquid-proof vinyl
or neoprene-coated gauntlets should be rec-
ommended for full protection when harm-
ful chemicals are used.
Heavy-duty, form-fitting gloves are also
available for yardwork as well as specific
jobs such as material handling, demolition
and framing. In addition to being wash-
able and breathable, these type of gloves
have four-way stitching on the finger tips
for dexterity.
OUTDOOR/
INDOOR PLANT
ACCESSORIES
Pots
Most important factors in recommend-
ing the correct pot are size, drainage and
construction. Clay pots are porous, allow-
ing air and moisture to pass through.
Plastic is lighter and more colorful, but
depends entirely on drainage holes to
relieve excess moisture.
Plants must be transplanted to bigger
pots as they grow. Re-potting is indicated
when roots creep up to the top of the soil.
Other indications in a seemingly healthy
plant are shedding of lower leaves and
new leaves failing to develop normally.
Plant Food
There are a number of prepared fertilizers
in liquid, granular or time-release tablet
form for indoor plants. Urge customers to
read the directions carefully and follow
them explicitly. The old saying, If one drop
is good, two will be even better, does not
hold true in gardening.
The amount and frequency of fertilizing
depends on light, water, soil and level of
plant growth. Many houseplant books
have specific plant feeding instructions.
Pest Control
Most common houseplant pests are red
spiders, aphids, scale, gnats and mealy
bugs. There are commercial sprays to get
rid of these pests. Warn customers to fol-
low instructions carefully.
For best results, spray tips of plant
shoots, underside of leaves and junction of
leaf and stem.
Grow Lights
Indoor plants depend on good light for
growth, but they cant always get it year
round. Sunlight, of course, is the best
light source, but proper artificial light is a
good supplement.
Grow lights can be fitted into book-
shelves, into hanging planters, etc., pro-
viding light heretofore unavailable.
To determine exactly how much light a
plant needs, consider the amount of light
it gets in its natural surroundings and
then simulate it. Lights should be placed
2' to 6' above the plant and left on about
16 hours per day. In order for the plant to
maintain its natural shape, light should be
evenly distributed from above.
Grow light systems are available, or your
customers may choose to make their own
using a pair of 40-watt fluorescent bulbs.
Plant Hardware
To help display indoor plants, hooks
and brackets are available in a wide variety
of styles, sizes and finishes, including
vinyl-coated, rustproof items.
Brackets in decorator colors, wood and
brass have expanded the offering. Besides
being decorative, many plant hardware items
include special features such as rotating
hooks or swivel brackets, allowing the con-
sumer to take the best possible care of plants.
Hangers, in macram, plastic or metal
chain designs and vinyl-coated stands suit-
able for outdoor use are good suggestions
for add-on sales. These items can be
matched to most home decors.
I INDOOR PLANT CARE
Watering
Overwatering is the greatest cause of
plant problems. Too much water literally
drowns the roots by closing off the oxygen
supply in the soil. First sign of trouble is
yellowing of the lower leaves.
A simple way to find out if a plant needs
watering is to poke a finger about an inch
into the soil. If it is damp, no water is need-
ed. For more accurate measurement, recom-
mend a water gauge or meter.
Container drainage affects moisture
retention. All pots, regardless of material,
should be crocked, or have small pieces
of clay or gravel over the drainage hole.
Crocking allows excess moisture to escape
without closing the soil and permits
watering from the bottom of the pot.
Potting
Prepared planting mixtures usually con-
sist of vermiculite, peat moss and fertilizer
plus small amounts of sterile soil. They
also are free of diseases and weed seeds
and hold moisture well. For add-on sales,
promote vermiculite, peat moss, ground
limestone, 5-10-5 fertilizer and 0-20-0
(high-phosphate) fertilizer.
Heat and Humidity
Heat and humidity do much to shape
plant growth and vitality. Too much heat
causes soft, weak plant development.
Tell customers to touch the leaf surface;
if it feels hot, move the plant further
away from light. Humidity prevents
plants from drying out too fast. Generally
40 to 60 percent relative humidity is ade-
quate. Most tropical plants like high
humidity; humidifiers and misting help
keep them happy.
L A WN & GA RDEN SUP P L I ES
14
CHAPTER TEN:
LUMBER
TREATED LUMBER
STRUCTURAL-USE PANELS
ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS
PANELING
MOULDING
LUMBER&WOOD
Products
10
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
2
I Not all customers are created
equal, at least when it comes to
buying lumber. Professional and
d-i-y customers have different
needs in lumber and wood prod-
ucts, so home improvement
retailers must serve them differently. Contractors have high expectations
and demand that retail employees have a firm understanding of the prod-
ucts they sell.
On the other hand, d-i-yers generally depend on retail employees to
lead them to the products for their project. Ask questions about a cus-
tomer's project to help them choose the right lumber, moulding or engi-
neered products. And don't forget to sell them the tools, adhesives, fas-
teners, hardware and other items they will need to complete their project.
Customers will thank you for saving them a second trip to your store or a
competitor's store.
The number of patented, engineered wood products continues to
increase, so even veteran employees may need to update their product
knowledge. While this section provides the basics, manufacturers use differ-
ent processes. Many use registered brand names and trademarks to distin-
guish their products, meaning two manufacturers may offer similar products
that have different names. Ask your suppliers to provide specific information
on the products that they sell.
Employees should also be familiar with lumber grading rules and lum-
ber language. The material contained in this section is intended to pro-
vide the general framework for understanding the technical side of
lumber and wood products. To further strengthen your training pro-
gram, consider using the Building Material Product Knowledge Course
offered by the National Retail Hardware Association/Home Center
Institute. To learn more about this comprehensive correspondence
course, contact NRHA/HCI at 800-772-4424.
LUMBER&WOOD
Products
LUMBER
I WOOD GRADES,
VARIETIES
Home improvement retailers stock wood
in an assortment of types, called species
and grades. Generally the species of
Douglas fir, the true firs, pine, redwood,
cedar, spruce and hemlock are the most
prevalent. Douglas fir and pine are used
heavily as dimension lumber for framing.
Pine is often used for shelving boards and
paneling, and redwood and cedar for
exposed applications since they weather
well. In addition, Douglas-fir, Hemlock,
true fir, Ponderosa pine and Southern pine
are often pressure-treated for use in
exposed applications.
Lumber can be classified into two gen-
eral grade categories: dimension or struc-
tural framing lumber and appearance lum-
ber. A third categoryindustrial prod-
uctsincludes a variety of structural and
non-structural grades. These products,
graded to be recut for the recovery of
clear pieces in pre-determined sizes, are
available in large volumes and mill direct
to remanufacturers.
For dimension lumber, the grade indi-
cates the strength and stiffness of the lum-
ber, which will determine where and how
it can be used in the structure. Because
knots affect strength and stiffness, their
size and location are a primary concern.
For appearance (non-structural) grades,
the grade denotes the quality of the
appearance of lumber.
When selling lumber to a consumer,
find out how it will be used and whether
it will be exposed to view. With that infor-
mation you can help the customer deter-
mine whether he needs better grades with
few or no blemishes, knots and other
grade-limiting characteristics, or whether
economy grades will be adequate.
Grading Dimension Lumber
Dimension lumber is planed to a thick-
ness of 2" to 4", and it is used for structur-
al framing. Dimension lumber includes
studs, joists, rafters, posts and beams up
to 4" thick.
The National Grading Rule classifies 2"
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
3
LUMBER ABBREVIATIONS
AD Air dried
AL American lumber
AV Average
AW&L All widths and
lengths
BD Board
BD. FT. Board feet
BDL Bundle
BEV Bevel
BH Boxed heart
BM Board measure
BSND Bright sapwood,
no defect
BTR Better
C Allowable stress under
compression in lbs./sq. in.
CB Center beaded
CLG Ceiling
CLR Clear
CM Center matched
CS Caulking seam
CSG Casing
CV Center V
DET Double end
trimmed
DF Douglas fir
DIM Dimension
DKG Decking
D/ S, DS Drop siding
D&M Dressed and
matched
D&CM Dressed and cen-
ter matched
D&SM Dressed and stan-
dard matched
D2S&CM Dressed two
sides and center matched
D2S&SM Dressed two
sides and standard
matched
E Edge
EB1S Edge bead one side
EB2S, SB2S Edge bead
two sides
E&CB2S, DB2S, BC&2S
Edge and center bead two
sides
EV1S, SV1S Edge vee
one side
EV2S, SV2S Edge vee
two sides
E&CV1S, DV1S, V&CV1S
Edge and center vee one
side
E&CV2S, DV2S, C&CV2S
Edge and center vee two
sides
EE Eased edges
EG Edge (vertical) grain
EM End-matched
F Allowable stress under
bending in lbs./sq. in.
FG Flat (slash) grain
FLG Flooring
FOHC Free of heart cen-
ter
FRTW Fire-retardant
treated wood
FT Foot
FT, BM Feet board meas-
ure
FT, SM Feet surface
measure
HB Hollow back
H&M Hit and miss
H or M Hit or miss
IN Inch, inches
JTD Jointed
KD Kiln-dried
KDAT Kiln-dried after
treatment
LGR Longer
LGTH Length
LIN Lineal
LNG Lining
M Thousand
M, CM Thousand (ft.)
board measure
MC Moisture content
MERCH Merchantable
MG Mixed grain
MLDG Moulding
MSR Machine stress
rated
N Nosed
NBM Net board measure
N1E Nose one edge
PART Partition
PAT Pattern
PET Precision end trim
PWF Permanent wood
foundation
RDM Random
RED Radius edge decking
REG Regular
RGH Rough
R/ L, RL Random lengths
R/ W, RW Random
widths
SB1S Single bead one
side
SDG Siding
SEL Select
SG Slash (flat) grain
S/ L, SL Shiplap
STD.M Standard
matched
SM Standard measure
SQ Square
SQRS Squares
SR Stress rated
STD Standard
STK Stock
STPG Stepping
STRUCT Structural
S&E Side and edge
S1E Surfaced one edge
S2E Surfaced two edges
S1S Surfaced one side
S2S Surfaced two sides
S4S Surfaced four sides
S1S&CM Surfaced one
side and center matched
S2S&CM Surfaced two
sides and center matched
S1S1E Surfaced one side,
one edge
S2S1E Surfaced two
sides, one edge
S2S&SM Surfaced two
sides and standard
matched
TBR Timber
T&G Tongue and groove
VG Vertical (edge) grain
WDR Wider
WT Weight
WTH Width
to 4" thick dimension lumber into three
width categories and four use categories.
Structural light framing and light
framing dimensional lumber are 2" to 4"
wide.
Studs are 2" to 6" wide.
Structural joists and planks are 5" and
wider.
The categories of structural light fram-
ing and structural joists and planks each
contain four grades. These grades allow for
a range of natural characteristics and man-
ufacturing flaws that affect strength, stiff-
ness and appearance.
Select Structural is the best grade in
structural light framing and structural
joists and planks. It is recommended
where appearance as well as strength and
stiffness are important.
No. 1 grade is prescribed where good
appearance is desired but is secondary to
strength and stiffness.
No. 2 grade is commonly used for
most general construction.
No. 3 grade is most often used for
general construction where high strength
is not important.
The light framing category has three
grades, each with a range of allowable natu-
ral characteristics and manufacturing flaws.
Construction grade lumber is the best
lumber in this category. Graded for
strength and versatility, it is used for gen-
eral framing applications.
Standard grade is also used for general
framing, and is often used in conjunction
with construction grade lumber. Both pro-
vide good strength and excellent versatility.
Utility grade is recommended where
low-grade, inexpensive lumber can be used
for blocking, plates and bracing.
Stud is a separate grade, and identifies
pieces suitable for all stud uses including
load-bearing walls.
Restrictions on crook, wane and edge
knots make this one of the most popular
grades for wall construction. Lengths are
limited to 10'.
Economy grade lumber is available in all
four use categories. However, design values
are not assigned to economy grade, as it is
not intended for structural applications.
Grading Appearance Lumber
Appearance lumber, in contrast to struc-
tural framing lumber, is graded on the basis
of how it looks. It includes a variety of non-
structural grades intended for applications
where strength is not the primary consider-
ation. Many products in this category are
often used in paneling, siding and mould-
ing applications. Natural characteristics,
such as knots and pitch pockets, and manu-
facturing flaws are taken into account in
grading appearance lumber.
There are two general categories of
appearance lumber: Select and Common.
Select is better quality and is used where
the finest appearance is of prime impor-
tance. The highest grades in this category
are seldom grade stamped to avoid defac-
ing the product. The general purpose
grades, such as commons and alternate
boards, typically are stamped.
Select lumber is graded with lettersB &
BTR, C and Dwith the best quality rang-
ing downward from B & BTR through D.
Select lumber is graded with lettersB &
BTR, C and Dwith the best quality ranging
downward from B & BTR through D.
Grade B & BTR Almost entirely free
from defects. May contain a few blemishes or
small defects. May be given a natural finish.
Grade C Limited number of blemishes or
small defects, and its appearance ranks only
slightly less than B & BTR. Recommend for all
finishes where appearance is important.
Grade D Unlimited number of blemishes
or defects that can be hidden by painting.
Not suitable for natural finish.
Common lumber is graded by numbers
with 1 as the best and 5 the poorest.
Grades for some lumber, such as Idaho
white pine, are named.
Common board grades are suitable for a
variety of applications. The best Common
boards may be used where small knots are
desired and the lowest grades are generally
used for economical construction.
No. 1 Common Tight-knotted, sound
stock considered watertight. Defects limited
in size. Used when a fine, knotty appearance
is desired.
No. 2 Common Considered tight-grain
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
4
LUMBER GLOSSARY
Board any piece of lumber no more
than 1 thick.
Board Foot unit of measurement of
lumber. One board foot is 1' long, 1'
wide and 1" thick.
Burl is a swirl or twist in the grain of
the wood, which usually occurs near a
knot but does not contain a knot.
Clear VG lumber with vertical grain
and free of knots used for finish work
where appearance is important.
Dimension Lumber lumber that is 2
to 4 thick, such as 2 x 4, 2 x 6,
4 x 4, etc.
Furring or Tile Strip support struc-
ture, generally 1 x 2 or 2 x 2, for
paneling. Placed vertically or horizon-
tally against existing wood, plaster or
cement walls. Can be fastened with
nails or adhesives. Needed when walls
are not level and true.
Grades measurement of lumber quality.
Moulding shaped wood or plastic, avail-
able in finished or unfinished form for trim
use on painted or paneled surfaces.
Paneling plywood or hardboard cov-
ered with paper, vinyl or genuine wood
veneer. Also, solid-sawn lumber milled
to a pattern and intended for use as
wall or ceiling covering.
Plywood constructed of three or
more layers of wood laminated or
glued at right angles to each other for
rigidity. Available in varying thicknesses
and grades.
Shelving Board term used to refer to
1 thick boards that are 6 wide or
wider. Most common are 1 x 8 or 10.
Surface Measure refers to the sur-
face area of a board in square feet. To
determine surface measure (SM), multi-
ply the width of the board in inches
and fractions by the length in feet, and
divide by 12, rounding off to the near-
est whole number.
Warp any variation from a true or
plane surface. Warp includes bow,
crook, cup, twist or any combination.
stock. Large defects. This grade is primarily
used for paneling, shelving and other uses
calling for knotty lumber with a good appear-
ance.
No. 3 Common Occasional knot holes
plus larger and coarser defects than those
found in No. 2 stock. This grade is widely
used for shelving, paneling and siding as well
as fences, boxes, crates, sheathing and indus-
trial applications.
No. 4 Common Low-quality boards
including defects such as minor decay and
holes. It is more widely used than any other
grade. It is often used in general construction
for subfloors, roof and wall sheathing, con-
crete forms, low-cost fencing, crates and other
uses.
No. 5 Common Only requirement is that
it hold together under conditions of ordinary
handling. It is intended for economical con-
struction where strength and appearance are
unimportant.
Home improvement retailers will do a
significant portion of their volume in 3 or
4 Common or C-Select, but make sure you
find out how the customer plans to use
the lumber. It is even advisable, and sim-
pler for the customer, to identify lumber
for consumer sales as all-purpose, semi-fin-
ish and finish.
In addition to grading, moisture content
of lumber is an important consideration.
While not always the case, drier lumber is
usually stronger, more stable and more
costly. Green lumber, marked S-Grn, has
the greatest moisture content and may
warp as it dries. Dry lumber is marked S-
Dry, with 19 percent moisture content or
MC-15, with 15 percent moisture content.
Lumber can be air- or kiln-dried; if kiln-
dried, it may be so marked.
Merchandising
When dealing primarily with con-
sumers, retailers need not be overly con-
cerned about lumber grading. If you also
sell to contractors and tradesmen, grading
is important. A professional builder will
use a lower grade for framing, whereas a d-
i-y customer is more concerned with how
the board looks. He relates the look of the
lumber to its qualitythe better it looks,
the better it must be.
However, since there are quality differ-
ences, how can an employee help the
average homeowner who does not know
or careabout grading?
Many retailers identify, display and price
lumber so the average customer can find
and select the type of lumber he or she
needs. They describe the lumber in general
terms and use color-coding to identify and
price each kind. They simply mark the
board ends with colored markers; prices are
color-coded the same way. The same coding
applies regardless of board size.
Although lumber is traditionally sold by
the board foot, few consumers understand
this method of measurement. They are
usually interested in buying pieces of
wood, so pricing by the piece is more
effective in a consumer-oriented outlet. As
a matter of information, though, a board
foot equals a board 1" thick, 12" wide and
12" long. For example, a shelving board 1"
x 12" x 4' would be four board feet, a 1" x
6" x 4' would be two board feet.
Stores stocking limited inventories generally
carry two common thicknesses1" and 2",
including 2" x 4", 2" x 6" and 2" x 8" widths.
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
5
ARSENIC TREATED WOOD TO BE PHASED OUT
With public interest groups clamoring for
action, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) decided to move quickly to settle some
of the debate over the safety risks posed by
arsenic in pressure-treated wood.
The pressure-treated wood industry has volun-
tarily agreed to discontinue residential use of
wood treated with chromated copper arsenate,
also known as CCA. By Jan. 2004, EPA will not
allow CCA products in wood used in play-
structures, decks, picnic tables, landscaping
timbers, residential fencing, patios and walk-
ways. In 2001, 13 public interest groups had
petitioned the EPA and Consumer Product
Safety Commission to take action related to
CCA products.
The transition period will provide consumers
with increasingly more non-CCA treated wood
alternatives as industry manufacturers undergo
conversion and retooling of their equipment
and practices. New labeling will be required on
all CCA products, specifying that no use of
CCA will be allowed by the wood-treating
industry for the affected residential uses after
Dec. 31, 2003.
The EPA has not concluded that CCA-treated
wood poses unreasonable risks to the public for
existing CCA-treated wood being used around
homes or from wood that remains available in
stores. Some studies suggest that applying cer-
tain penetrating coatings (oil-based semi-trans-
parent stains) on a regular basis (one re-appli-
cation per year or every other year) may
reduce the migration of wood preservative
chemicals from CCA-treated wood.
Arsenic is a known human carcinogen, so the
EPA believes any reduction in the levels of
potential exposure to arsenic is desirable.
When children play outside, whether around
CCA-treated play structures or not, they
should wash hands prior to eating. Also, food
should not be placed directly on any outside
surface, including treated wood. CCA-treated
wood should never be burned, as toxic
chemicals may be released as part of the
smoke and ashes.
In 2001, the EPA had approved a consumer
awareness program sponsored by the Treated
Wood Council. The program includes safety
labels on each piece of lumber, consumer safe-
ty information sheets, a Web site
(www.ccasafetyinfo.com) and a toll-free num-
ber (800-282-0600).
Consumers who work with CCA-treated wood
are encouraged to use common sense to
reduce potential exposure. Specific actions
include sawing, sanding and machining CCA-
treated wood outdoors, and wearing a dust
mask, goggles and gloves when performing
this type of activity. Clean up all sawdust,
scraps and other construction debris thorough-
ly and dispose of it in the trash. Do not com-
post or mulch sawdust or remnants from CCA-
treated wood. Work clothes should be washed
separately from other household clothing
before wearing them again.
EPA is continuing to evaluate public comments
and input from a scientific review panel on
methodologies to perform a risk assessment for
residential settings and potential exposure to
children from CCA. The risk assessment on
CCA is part of the reregistration of the chemi-
cal under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act.
The Treated Wood Council, speaking for the
manufacturers, said the industry remains
behind the safety of wood products treated
with EPA-approved preservatives, including
CCA. CCA will continue to be manufactured
for industrial use such as for utility poles.
Ten- and 12" lengths are maximum. Some
stores will stock 4" x 4" and 4" x 6" widths up to
10' long.
Dimension lumber describes wood that
is 2" thick or thicker. A 2 x 4 is considered
dimension lumber, while pieces 1" thick
are considered boards, called shelving
boards if 6" or wider. Dimension lumber,
particularly in 4" thicknesses, need not be
longer than 10'. A commonly promoted
item is the 2" x 4" x 8' economy stud.
It should also be noted that the actual
thickness of lumber is smaller than the
numbers used to designate it. For example,
boards referred to as 1" thick will be "fin-
ished and dressed" to about 3/4" thick.
Lumber standards permit even smaller
dimensions for properly dried lumber
without impairing its construction quality.
The difference usually amounts to about
1/4", finishing a 2 x 4 to 1-1/2" x 3-1/2".
Some wood-treating processes cause dif-
ficulties when customers finish new wood.
A number of mills and treatments are
involved. Lumber treated with water-repel-
lent solutions can sometimes cause paint
to peel or stains to bleach out. Penta- or
creosote-treated lumber is not intended to
be painted.
Since many of the treated dimensional 2
x 4s and 1 x 6s sold by d-i-y retailers are
used for exterior decks, they may be paint-
ed or stained before the treatment has
time to weather out or dissipate.
If there is any doubt about the condi-
tion of the wood, solvent-based stains
should be used. If a mill-applied color
coating is evident, do not use a water-base
coating since the mill-applied coating was
put on to repel water.
Ask your lumber source what processes
are used on your lumber and what cautions
you should suggest to your customers about
painting or staining this lumber.
Western Lumber
Western softwood lumber is one of the
most commonly used building materials.
There are more than 15 commercially
important Western softwood species. The
lumber from several of the Western soft-
wood species shares performance proper-
ties and is similar enough in appearance
that many species are grouped together
into "marketing categories." The species
within these groupings are often manufac-
tured, sold and used interchangeably in
the marketplace.
The most common Western lumber
species groups for framing are Douglas fir
and Hem-fir, although a variety of Western
pine and spruce species are also used in
structural applications. Western species
used for framing are known for their ease
of workmanship and nailing as well as
their strength and dimensional stability.
Approximately 30 percent of all Western
lumber produced falls under the appear-
ance grade category. This is due to the fact
that Western woodsespecially Ponderosa
pine, Sugar pine and Idaho white pine
machine extremely well, allowing them to
be used in moulding and millwork appli-
cations where patterns are often applied.
The dimensional stability and excellent
finishing characteristics of species such as
Western cedar make it a favorite for wood
siding and paneling.
There are three general classifications
for Western lumber appearance grades:
1. High Quality Appearance Grades
(Selects, Finish and Special Western Red
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
6
INTERPRETING GRADE MARKS
The Western Wood Products
Association (WWPA) regularly checks
the quality of its mills production. It
provides rules for grading Western
lumber. The following symbol shows
the five basic elements that can be
found in a lumber grade mark.
a WWPA certification mark.
b Mill identification. May be firm name,
brand or assigned mill number. A list
of mills, by number, is available from
WWPA offices.
c Grade name, number or abbreviation.
d Species by individual species or
species combination.
e Condition of seasoning at time
of surfacing.
SPECIAL PURPOSE STRUCTURAL GRADES FOR DECKS
Deck Heart and Deck Common are two grades of redwood suited for exterior surfaces
such as decks. These grades are manufactured in 2" thicknesses, in 4" through 6" widths.
Like other grades, Deck Heart and Deck Common are available green or dry. As with other
special-purpose grades, all Deck Heart and Deck Common lumber must be grade stamped
or otherwise identified by hammer branding and an RIS (Redwood Inspection Service) cer-
tificate of inspection. The principal difference between the two grades is that Deck
Common may contain sapwood without restriction.
VENEER GRADES FOR PLYWOOD
ASmooth and paintable. Neatly made
repairs permissible. Used for natural finish in
less-demanding applications.
BSolid surface veneer. Circular repair
plugs and tight knots permitted.
CKnotholes to 1". Some knotholes to 1-
1/2" if total width of knots and knotholes is
within specified limits. Synthetic or wood
repairs. Limited splits allowed.
C-PLUGGEDImproved C veneer with
splits limited to 1/8" wide knotholes and
borer holes limited to 1/4" by 1/2".
Synthetic repairs permitted.
NSmooth surface natural finish natural
veneer. Select, all heartwood or all sap-
wood. Free of open defects. Allows not
more than six repairs, wood only, per 4' x 8'
panel, made parallel to grain and well-
matched for grain and color.
Cedar grades).
2. General Purpose Boards (Commons,
numbered 1 through 5).
3. RadiusEdged Patio Decking Grades
(Patio 1 and Patio 2).
Only those products that carry the
WWP registered trademark have been sub-
jected to the rigorous inspection and qual-
ity control mechanisms of the Western
Wood Products Association (WWPA).
When a grade stamp or documentation
indicates "WWPA Rules," but does not
include the WWPA logo, it indicates the
products have been graded to WWPAs
Western Lumber Grading Rules, but have
not been subjected to WWPAs own quali-
ty control and inspection services.
Detailed information on Western soft-
wood species is available by contacting the
Western Wood Products Association, 522
SW Fifth Avenue, Portland, Ore., 97204;
phone (503) 224-3930.
Redwood
Most redwood sales will come from
heartwood and sapwood grades. Each of
these types of redwood comes in several
grades from a fine finish appearance to a
rougher, less attractive finish.
Heartwood and sapwood grades are fur-
ther defined as Architectural and Garden
grades, descriptions that also denote their
general use.
Architectural redwood is the strongest
redwood; it is normally kiln-dried and
used for structural and finish applications.
Garden redwood comprises lower grades
that are not kiln-dried and are commonly
used for decks, fences and other outdoor
garden uses.
Heartwood ranges in color from a light
reddish brown to a darker cinnamon
brown with no light-colored streaks. It
contains natural barriers to termites and
decay and thus is suited for applications
that come into contact with the ground.
Sapwood contains cream-colored streaks
that contrast with the red heartwood. It
should not be used in contact with the
ground because the sapwood streaks are
not as resistant to moisture and insects.
Unless specified otherwise, redwood is
cut with a combination of vertical and flat
grain. Vertical grain is milled so that a
cross section of growth rings appears with
grain lines parallel to the face of the
board. Flat grain is cut along the growth
rings, exposing a marbled face.
Redwood can be finished in several pat-
terns such as bevel, channel, shiplap,
tongue-and-groove or textured.
These include surfaced-texture, which is
a smooth planed surface that emphasizes
grain and color, or saw-textured in which
one or more faces of the piece are resawn
for a rough appearance. This surface
increases the woods natural finish-holding
ability and resists or obscures smudges and
scuffs, making it good for exterior siding
and less formal interior paneling.
Customers should be advised to use top
quality, hot-dipped galvanized, aluminum
alloy or stainless steel fasteners that will
not rust, corrode or discolor the wood or
lose their holding power by rusting away.
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
7
RECOMMENDED FINISHES FOR REDWOOD
EXTERIORS
In most cases, application of an exterior fin-
ish will enhance redwoods outstanding
performance and add to its durability.
Water repellent with mildewcide, a rec-
ommended natural finish alone and an
excellent basecoat for paint or stain,
reduces checking and the effects of dirt and
weather, resists mildew and avoids natural
darkening. With 2 coats, wood gradually
lightens to buckskin tan.
Bleaching oils containing mildewcide
produce permanent driftwood gray,
eliminating darkening. They may contain
or can be mixed with water repellant and
gray stain.
Semi-transparent stains in light colors
tone wood without hiding grain patterns.
Water repellant is contained in or can be
mixed with these low-maintenance finishes.
Heavy-bodied latex-based stains apply
solid colors that obscure woodgrains but
highlight textures. They should be applied
over compatible oil-based primer.
Paint ( oil- or latex-based) should also be
applied over compatible oil-based primer.
Particularly with saw-textured wood, two
topcoats will last up to 8 to 10 years, twice
as long as one topcoat.
Factory finishes. Redwood siding may be
special-ordered with factory-coated water
repellant, paint primer or stain; this can be
more economical and uniform in quality
than most field applications.
INTERIORS
Walls and ceilings protected from dirt and
moisture perform well unfinished and may
darken gradually to a cinnamon color; direct
sun lightens woodtones.
Wax finishes, with or without stain tone, add
rich soft luster to wood and provide some
water resistance. Theyre easier to remove if
applied over 2 coats of sealer.
Penetrating oil or Danish oil, a lightly pro-
tective clear finish for walls and ceilings away
from moisture, enriches woodtones and pre-
vents wood from drying out.
Clear lacquer, recommended in a satin tex-
ture, will protect walls, ceilings, dividers, trim
and other surfaces that are cleaned occasional-
ly with a dry cloth.
Clear sealers (alkyd resin or polyurethane) are
best for kitchen and bathroom areas. Recom-
mended 2 to 6 coats to withstand hard scrub-
bing and give wood an appearance of depth.
Varnishes, (semi-gloss alkyd resin or
polyurethane)- are for all wood near heat and
moisture except in bathrooms. 2 coats will
darken wood, yet enhance grains and textures.
Stains, (alkyd resin or synthetic) may be applied
for various color effects. Wiping each coat before
it dries highlights grains and textures: wax, seal-
er or varnish overcoat is recommended.
Paint, (oil-based or alkyd resin) applied over
alkyd resin primer, forms a smooth, solid,
water-resistant film, good for color accents on
paneling and cabinet trim or edges and sur-
faces touched frequently.
Redwood lumber takes and holds many finishes better than other woods for top performance and
design versatility. The range of available finishes can protect and enhance redwoods natural qualities or
modify colors to blend with other materials, structures and settings.
NOT RECOMMENDED FOR EXTERIORS
Clear, film-forming sealers or varnishes that yellow and crack in sunlight; non-drying organic oils
that attract dirt and nourish mildew: water-absorbent low-luster alkyd resin paints.
Source: California Redwood Association, Mill Valley, CA
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
8
REDWOOD GRADES AND USES
DESCRIPTION
Heartwood Grades
Clear All Heart- normally kiln-dried, well-manufactured, and free of
defects on one surface: surfaced or saw-textured. Finest Architectural
heartwood grade.
Construction Heart- contains knots of varying sizes and other slight
imperfections: usually unseasoned. Surfaced or rough.
Merchantable Heart- economical grade; slightly larger knots than
Construction grades; holes limited to size of knots. Allows checks, some
splits, and some manufacturing flaws. Unseasoned, surfaced or rough.
Sapwood Grades
Clear- same general quality as Clear All Heart but contains sapwood in
varying amounts. Normally kiln-dried, some imperfections that are not
permitted in Clear All Heart. Surfaced or textured.
B Grade- quality grade containing sapwood. Limited knots and other
characteristics not permitted in Clear All Heart and Clear. Kiln-dried or
unseasoned; surfaced or saw-textured.
Construction Common- same general characteristics as Construction
Heart but permits sapwood in varying amounts. Unseasoned or sea-
soned; surfaced, rough or saw-textured.
Merchantable- same characteristics as Merchantable Heart but con-
tains sapwood in varying amounts. Unseasoned but can be
ordered surfaced or rough.
Other Grades
Select Heart- tight knotted heartwood resistant to insects and decay:
face free of splits or shake. Usually unseasoned; surfaced or rough.
Select- same general characteristics as Select Heart but contains sap-
wood in varying amounts: some imperfections on back side not permit-
ted in Select Heart. Usually unseasoned; surfaced or rough.
Finger-jointed- Clear All Heart and Clear boards up to 24 made of
kiln-dried pieces finger-jointed and end-glued. Normally surfaced
mixed grain.
USE
Siding, paneling, trim, cabinetry, moulding, fascia, soffits, millwork,
decks, hot tubs, garden structures.
Decks, posts, retaining walls, fences, garden structures, stairs or
other outdoor uses.
Fences, retaining walls, garden structures.
Siding, paneling, trim, cabinetry, moulding, fascia, soffits, decking, gar-
den shelters.
Siding, paneling, trim, fascia, moulding, decking, garden shelters.
Unseasoned: decking, fence boards, other above garden uses.
Seasoned; rustic sidings.
Fence boards, railings, other above ground garden uses.
Decks, posts, garden structures, curbing, retaining walls.
Decking, fence boards, garden structures, other above ground uses not
requiring durability.
Fascia, exterior trim, exterior siding, interior paneling, trim, molding.
Source: California Redwood Association, Mill Valley, Calif.
Southern Pine
Southern pine has high strength, resist-
ance to wear and holds fasteners well. It is
often used in homes and other structures.
Southern pine grade descriptions for boards
and shiplap range from 1 through 4, with 1
having the highest quality and best appear-
ance. The largest hole permitted is 1/16".
No. 2 is characterized by tight knots and
is generally free of holes. No. 3 is good,
serviceable sheathing, usable for many
applications without waste, while No. 4
contains usable portions at least 24" long.
Southern pine dimension lumber is
graded from Select Structural to Dense
Select and Structural, with a more complex
grade system ranging from No. 1 and No.
1 Dense to No. 3 and No. 3 Dense. The
higher the number, the lower the grade.
Southern pine studs also must meet strin-
gent requirements as to straightness, strength
and stiffness. Light framing wood, 2" to 4"
thick and 2" to 4" wide, is graded as
Construction, Standard, Utility and Economy,
with Construction being the best grade.
Pine Shelving
Pine is used for shelving, and most d-i-y
inventories range from 1" x 1" to 1" x 12"
widths, up to 12' long. Widths increase in
1" increments from 1" x 1" to 1" x 6" and
then go by 2" increments to 1" x 8", 1" x
10" and 1" x 12".
It is not necessary to carry shelving
longer than 12' in 6", 8", 10" and 12". About
70 percent of your shelving board sales will
be in the common 4' and 6' lengths.
Many stores do a big business in what
they call garage shelving, actually No. 4
grade pine. This board is suitable for use
in garages, basements and storage chests,
where looks are not important.
TREATED LUMBER
Redwood and cedar are naturally
durable woods and relatively resistant to
the ravages of weather, termites and fun-
gus. However, because of its lower expense
and long life, commercially treated wood
has become predominant in backyard con-
struction projects. Pressure treatment is a
process by which chemical preservatives
are forced deep into the cells in the wood
under pressure.
The chemical treatments go under several
proprietary names. There are four major wood
preservatives categories: creosote, pen-
tachlorophenol, inorganic arsenicals and alter-
natives.
Wood pressure treated with creosote is pri-
marily used in railroad ties, utility poles and
piling. It is also used for timbers in highway
bridges and guard posts, as well as for marine
use in bulkheads, docks and seawalls.
Pentachlorophenol is widely used for
treatment of utility poles. The vaulted ceil-
ings over sports arenas, swimming pools,
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
9
REMOVING AND RESTORING REDWOOD FINISHES
HOW TO REMOVE FINISHES
I Sanding or brushing removes pigmented stain finishes. Set galvanized nail heads below the
surface before sanding.
I Water-blasting with fine, high-powered spray removes old finishes and grime to prepare for a
new finish.
I Burning with a blowtorch should be done only by an expert: not recommended if a natural
finish is planned.
HOW TO RESTORE FINISHES
I Use mild detergent and warm water to remove dirt and grease.
I Mild cleaner or detergent and diluted household bleach will remove mild mildew; severe
mildew requires trisodium phosphate and perhaps oxalic acid (which is a poison and should be
handled with rubber gloves and kept away from skin and eyes).
I Nail stains can be removed by same method as for severe mildew: avoid by using stainless
steel, aluminum or top-quality, hot-dipped galvanized nails.
I Fresh stains or discolorization can be removed with detergent and water: trisodium phosphate
and diluted household bleach usually remove stubborn stains.
I Properly installed vapor barrier controls paint peeling, blistering and flaking caused by moisture
under a non-breathing film finish.
More information is available from the California Redwood Association, 591 Redwood Highway, Mill
Valley, CA 94941.
FINISHING TIPS FOR
EXTERIOR REDWOOD
I Apply finishes on windless days.
Temperature should be between 50
and 70 F.
I Surfaces should be clean and dry.
I New unseasoned wood should air dry
one month before finishing.
I Back-priming is recommended for all
exterior finishes, particularly paint.
I Dont use wire brushes or steel wool
because metal particles may become
embedded in the wood and can cause
stains. Use stiff-bristle brushes.
I Use finishes recommended for wood
exteriors.
I Follow manufacturers directions and read
warnings about toxicity.
I Dont mix incompatible materials. Finish
failures may result from mixing in com-
patible products or applying them over
one another.
I Saw-textured redwood holds stains,
water repellents and bleaches up to twice
as long as smooth-surfaced wood.
I Redwood grade marked Certified Kiln
Dried will provide the best finish reten-
tion available.
I To avoid nail stains, use stainless steel,
aluminum or top-quality, hot-dipped
galvanized nails.
I Periodic rinsing with a garden hose will
remove dirt and grime from siding.
Stubborn build-up can be removed by
scrubbing with a bristle brush with a
solution of warm water and a mild deter-
gent. Rinse afterward.
I Splash lines can be minimized by an
occasional hosing of the unaffected
area, which will even the appearance
of the wood.
Source: California Redwood Association,
Mill Valley, CA.
churches and shopping centers are some-
times made of glue-laminated beams treat-
ed with pentachlorophenol. In addition, it
is used extensively in fresh water piling
and bridge timbers.
Pressure-treated wood used for decks is
usually treated with inorganic arsenical
compounds chromated copper arsenate
(CCA) and ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate
(ACZA), as is wood for agriculture and gar-
den stakes. A unique process occurs within
wood during and after the pressure treating
and curing process that fixes the chemical
preservative so it is virtually insoluble.
Leaching is negligible, and the finished
product poses little threat to people or pets.
It is a commonly used for gazebos, play-
ground equipment and marinas.
For more information, click (How to Plan
a Deck) or (How to Build a Deck).
The alternative treatmentsACQ and
copper azolewere developed to alleviate
the reservations that some people have
about traditional preservatives.
Application of the alternatives is very
similar to that of CCA, although the pre-
servative chemicals differ. Currently a
small part of the treated wood market, the
use of alternatives is expected to increase.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
has issued guidelines for both manufacturers
and users of pressure-treated wood. It is a good
idea to have copies of the users guidelines
available for purchasers of treated lumber.
The wood will still absorb water, so the
treatment is not considered waterproof,
but rather decay-proof. Water itself does
not actually cause wood decay; a fungus
that feeds on wood cellulose does. These
treatments delay or stop growth of decay-
causing fungus and render the wood use-
less as a food source for termites.
Frequently treated species include
Ponderosa pine, Lodgepole pine, Douglas
fir, Hem-fir and Southern yellow pine. The
treating process offers protection against
rot, decay and termites indefinitely. The
lumber is treated to varying retentions to
meet different specifications. The reten-
tion level to which the lumber is treated
expressed in terms of the pounds per cubic
foot (pcf) of preservative oxide retained in
the wood after treatmentdetermines the
level of resistance to deterioration. A
retention rate of .40 is usually recom-
mended for ground contact.
Because most treated lumber uses water
as the vehicle for the chemicals, the wood
may have to be redried in kilns or allowed
to air dry if it is to be painted. Treated
wood, used for applications such as barn
poles, is shipped wet and left to air dry.
Some brands of treated wood now avail-
able are also impregnated with water repel-
lent for protection against moisture damage.
Remind consumers that treated wood
should not be burned in open fires because
toxic chemicals may be produced as part of
the smoke and ashes. Avoid frequent or pro-
longed inhalation of sawdust from both
treated and untreated wood. When sawing
and machining wood, wear a dust mask and
wash exposed areas thoroughly after use.
Also, remind customers that no wood is
so naturally resistant as to be maintenance-
free. Protective finishes, like water repellents
and preservatives, are the best way to avoid
damage from water and sunlight.
STRUCTURAL-USE
PANELS
I PLYWOOD
Plywood is a laminate made from thin
sheets of wood. These sheets of wood are
called veneers. Layers are made up of one or
more veneers laminated together with paral-
lel grain. Each layer is glued perpendicular
to the next, creating a strong, stiff panel.
Varying thicknesses are available in ply-
wood, but the most common are between
1/4" and 3/4" thick. Each sheet generally
measures 4' x 8', but larger sizes are avail-
able. Some manufacturers will also supply
pre-cut panels in an assortment of sizes
ranging from 2' x 2' to 4'x 4'.
Plywood panels can be made from scores
of different species, but the most common
are Douglas fir and Southern pine.
Several grades and surface finishes are
available in softwood plywood, which is
manufactured in two basic types: Interior
and Exterior. Interior-types can have a mois-
ture-resistant glueline or a fully waterproof,
exterior glueline, but neither type should be
recommended for permanent exposure to
the weather or marine applications.
Interior-type plywood is available in a
wide range of grades, with the most com-
mon being C-D, Exposure 1 (usually called
CDX or sheathing). Exposure 1 panels
have fully waterproof glue, but other fac-
tors, such as veneer grade, preclude them
from carrying an exterior rating. A-D
Exposure 1 is another popular Interior-
type and can be used for indoor projects if
only one paintable side is needed. Some
retailers, especially those who sell to con-
tractors, carry underlayment-grade ply-
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
10
QUALITY CONTROL MARK
Pressure-treated material should be identified with the mark of an accredited independent inspection
agency. This assures compliance with American Wood Preservers Association (AWPA) standards. The
following information should be included on the end tag or ink stamp:
A Year of treatment.
B Trade Mark of ALSC-accredited
quality control agency.
C The preservative used for treatment.
D Preservative retention level.
E Applicable AWPA standard.
F Proper exposure conditions.
G Treating company and plant location.
H DRY or KDAT procedures, if applicable.
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
11
wood, designed for floors.
Exterior-type plywood does not contain
D-grade veneers. The most popular grade
for the d-i-yer will probably be A-C EXT,
which has one paintable surface and can
be used outside. Sanded panels used out-
doors will, however, show the natural
effects of weathering so finishing with
paint is often recommended. A-A EXT is
also available if both sides will be exposed.
Plywood siding, an Exterior-type plywood,
can be used for either siding or paneling.
It is available in standard patterns such as
texture 1-11, reverse board and batten and
others. Most have a textured surface such
as rough sawn. Many manufacturers also
offer proprietary patterns.
Some plywood is referred to as shop
grade. A shop grade panel is one that has
been manufactured to meet the require-
ments of a specific grade but failed to pass
quality control and has been marked "shop
cutting panel." Usable pieces can be cut
from these panels, but they should never be
recommended for structural applications.
"Mill certified" panels do not carry the
trademark of a building code-approved qual-
ity control agency and cannot be used in
structural applications regulated by building
codes. They may be used for projects such as
shelving, storage sheds or doghouses.
Plywood used for indoor applications can
be finished in a number of ways: stained,
painted or sealed with a clear finish.
If the panel will be used outside, edges
should be sealed with the same stain or
primer to be used on the face. Plywood
siding can be finished with semi-transpar-
ent or opaque stains, but best protection
and durability can be expected with an
acrylic latex house paint and companion
primer. Acrylic latex house paint is the
only finish recommended on sanded ply-
wood used outdoors. The panel should be
clean, and pitch streaks or sap spots
should be sealed before finishing.
Plastic laminates, tile or other surfaces
can be applied to untextured plywood, but
be sure to recommend a panel with a solid
face such as C-C Plugged.
A complete guide to all plywood and
OSB grades is available from APA-The
Engineered Wood Association, P.O. Box
11700, Tacoma, Wash., 98411; phone
(253) 565-6600.
Oriented Strandboard
Oriented strandboard (OSB) is a struc-
tural-use panel used for roof sheathing,
subfloors, underlayment, single-layer
floors, exterior siding and wall sheathing.
It is composed of elongated, thin strands
of wood that are bonded with resin under
intense heat and pressure.
In making OSB, the strands are arranged
in three or five layers, with the outside
strands running lengthwise and the inside
strands random or crosswise. The strands
are compressed under pressure to form a
solid panel.
Production techniques provide a uni-
form panel free of knotholes that holds
nails and screws securely. It is available
in 4' x 8' panels in thicknesses of 3/8",
7/16", 15/32", 19/32" and 23/32". Other
panel thicknesses are typically available
on special order.
OSB is currently produced in three
grades: sheathing, single floor and siding.
For further details concerning OSB codes
and specifications, contact APA-The
Engineered Wood Association at (253)
565-6600, or the Structural Board
Association (SBA) at (416) 730-9090.
Both APA and SBA members clearly
mark all certified boards intended for use
in construction with an APA, TECO
(Timberco Inc.) or PSI (Professional Service
Industries) certification mark.
A variety of other wall sheathing prod-
ucts are available, including cement
boards and gypsum boards. Compared to
OSB, these alternatives provide better
moisture resistance, hold fasteners better
and can serve as a fire-rated barrier.
However, they must be installed in combi-
nation with metal braces or supplemental
wood to provide adequate shear resistance.
Gypsum sheathing is core-reinforced
with cellulose fiber and does not feature a
separate surface layer like gypsum wall-
board. An embossed drainage pattern on
the panels back guards against moisture
trapping. Cement boards are non-com-
bustible and work best with adhered
veneer surfaces (thin brick, ceramic tile
and textured acrylic stucco finishes) in
humid or severe climates.
I HOW TO FASTEN
STRUCTURAL-USE PANELS
Nail size is determined primarily by
structural-use panels' thickness and appli-
cation. For most structural applications,
common or box nails are used. Casing
nails can be used instead of finish nails if
a heavier nail is needed for finish work.
Space nails about 6" apart for most work.
Closer spacing is needed for thin plywood.
Recommend flat-head wood screws
where nails will not provide adequate
holding power.
Screws and nails should be countersunk
and filled with wood dough or putty for
finish work.
When gluing, remember that end grain
absorbs glue quickly, so suggest applying a
preliminary coat of glue.
OTHER ENGINEERED
WOOD PRODUCTS
I HARDBOARD
Hardboard is an engineered wood
PLYWOOD EXPOSURE
DURABILITY CLASSIFICATIONS
The American Plywood Association has four
exposure ratings it can give plywood panels it
trademarks. These ratings are:
EXTERIOR has a fully waterproof bond
and is designed for applications subject to
permanent exposure to weather or moisture.
EXPOSURE 1 has a waterproof bond. but
other compositional factors may affect bond
performance. Therefore, designed for use
where construction delays or moisture con-
ditions might be encountered before protec-
tion can be provided.
EXPOSURE 2 has an intermediate glue
and should be used only when there may
be moderate moisture or weather exposure
before protection is provided.
INTERIOR glue used in bond intended
for interior use only.
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
12
product made from wood
chips that are mechanically
reduced to wood fibers and
then bonded together into
panels through heat and pres-
sure. The panels, which are
thin, grainless, dense, uni-
formly textured, strong and
bone-dry, are finally humidi-
fied and trimmed to size.
Hardboard, also known as
"wood fiber substrate," is used
in exterior siding, interior
paneling, garage door panels,
perforated board, furniture,
toys, floor underlayment, cabi-
nets, shelving and many other
items. It is often used by d-i-
yers in home remodeling projects or
smaller projects such as building a work-
bench or doghouse.
Hardboard can be sawed, shaped, rout-
ed and drilled, or bent and die-cut. It
will accept all types of paint, lacquer or
varnishes, but is not recommended for
use in areas of high temperature or
humidity because warping can occur.
Particleboard
Particleboard is a hard, dense composi-
tion board made of very small particles
of wood bonded together with resin
under intense heat and pressure. It
comes in various thicknesses from 3/8" to
3/4" and in panels 4' wide by 8', 10' and
12' long. It is often used in non-structur-
al applications, such as interior construc-
tion in closets and as an underlayment
because it does not warp.
Recommend cutting with a carbide blade,
and ensure that it does not get wet because
it can swell. It is also sold as precut shelving
and sometimes covered with a laminate.
Laminated Veneer Lumber
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is engi-
neered to span longer distances and sup-
port heavier loads than ordinary lumber.
Common applications for LVL include
headers, beams, columns and posts.
LVL is made from veneers glued up to
1-3/4" thick, then sawed to the required
size. Beams range from 5-1/2" to 18"
deep, in lengths up to 66'.
While it will not shrink, twist or split
like ordinary dimension lumber, LVL may
cup when exposed to wetting on one side.
Remind your professional customers that
LVL has to be handled, stored and fas-
tened differently than dimension lumber.
I-Joists
I-joists are composed of a thin oriented
strand board or plywood web that is
bonded to the top and bottom flanges of
lumber or LVL. They are typically 9-1/4"
to 30" deep and up to 60' long.
Primarily used as a structural compo-
nent in roof and floor systems, wood I-
joists can also provide support as win-
dow, door and garage door headers.
Using I-joists in flooring nearly elimi-
nates the problem of squeaky floors.
Other advantages include strength, stiff-
ness, light weight and durability.
Special installation procedures must be
followed when working with I-joists. They
may require bracing before the subfloor is
laid, plus special joist hangers. Some I-
joists come with predrilled knockouts.
Glulams
Glue laminated timbers were one of the
first engineered wood products and have
become popular as the supply of long,
large dimension sawn timbers has shrunk.
Glulams are made from standard dimen-
sion lumber glued face to
face. Lengths go up to 150',
using finger-jointed materi-
als.
First used in commercial
construction, glulams are
now used frequently as
girders and garage door
headers in residential con-
struction. Engineers have
now developed a glulam
that uses fiber-reinforced
plastic in the lower part of
the beam to create lighter,
stronger and less expensive
timbers.
Parallel Strand
Lumber
Used in framing, parallel strand lum-
ber (PSL) consists of long, thin strands of
wood bonded together in a patented
microwave curing process.
PSL beams range from 1-3/4" to 7"
wide, 5-1/2" to 18" deep, and up to 66'
long. The major advantage PSL beams
have are their ability to carry heavy
loads over long spans, plus the beams
will not shrink, warp, twist, split or
crown.
I PANELING
Panel installation is a relatively simple
task for d-i-yers and results in major
improvement in a home while minimiz-
ing maintenance once it has been
installed.
There are three types of prefinished
paneling: softwood, hardboard and ply-
wood. A number of species are available
for softwood paneling, including the
light-toned colors of Englemann spruce,
Idaho white pine and Hemlock. Medium-
toned colors include Ponderosa pine,
Sugar pine, Lodgepole pine, and Douglas
fir. Dark tones are Western red cedar and
Incense cedar.
For specifying purposes, softwood pan-
eling can be divided into "knotty" and
"clear" grades. Knotty grades for paneling
are 2 & Better Common and 3 Common.
For clear paneling, the d-i-yer can choose
TYPICAL APA TRADEMARK
Panel grade
Span rating
Tongue-and-
groove
Exposure durabili-
ty
classification
Thickness
Mill
Number
Product stan-
dard
the Finish grades (Superior and Prime) or
Select grades (C & Better Select or D
Select). In Idaho white pine, the corre-
sponding knotty grades are Sterling and
Standard, and the Select grades are desig-
nated as Supreme, Choice and Quality.
Hardboard panelings have vinyl, print-
ed or paper surfaces that make them look
like genuine wood, although they must
be identified as not being genuine wood.
Woodgrain finishes are the most popu-
lar panels, but other varieties are avail-
able in solid colors, marbleized patterns
and novelty designs.
Nearly all panels come in 4' x 8'
sheets, while the thickness will vary from
1/8" to 5/32".
Certain types of certified hardwood
plywood wall paneling carry a back
stamp that conforms to product descrip-
tion guidelines of the Federal Trade
Commission. The stamp appears on
structurally rated and flame-spread certi-
fied hardwood plywood paneling.
The stamp conveys information on the
plywood glue type, flame-spread rating
(fire resistance), structural description,
wood species on face and veneer grade.
Wood panels and simulated wood pan-
els come either smooth or V-grooved to
give an equal or random-plank effect.
Other decorative panels include smooth,
pre-hung wallpaper on plywood and tile
board. Kitchen and bathroom paneling
requires a durable and washable surface
because it is exposed to moisture, dirt
and grease.
Some hardboard panels have a scratch-
resistant, high-gloss plastic finish, often
with designs. These panels resemble the
roll laminates used in countertops. They
resist moisture and grease and wipe clean
easily. They are well suited for kitchens,
baths, nurseries and children's rooms
where easy cleaning is needed.
Panels of this type, made of composi-
tion board, are considerably more dense
than conventional wood-grained panels.
Sometimes special saws are required to
cut them.
Also in the panel classification are per-
forated board sheets, either in full 4' x 8'
sizes or in the promotional 2' x 4' sizes.
These perforated panels are made of com-
pressed wood.
Perforated panel boards with a thick-
ness of 1/8" are the most commonly pro-
moted, but these may not be sturdy
enough to support much weight if used
for storage of heavy items. Perforated
panels with a thickness of 1/4" should be
recommended if large areas are paneled
or if heavy items, such as power tools,
will be hung on them.
In addition, when selling perforated
panels, you have an excellent opportuni-
ty to build add-on sales with hooks and
accessories for these panels. Perforated
panels can have 1/8" or 1/4" diameter
holes, with hooks appropriately sized.
V-groove paneling has grooves spaced
to fall on 16" centers (studs) so that nails
can be used in the grooves to fasten pan-
eling to building studs. The grooves also
hide seams where pieces are joined.
There is a lot of important information
to learn before recommending a type of
paneling. First is where it will be used
(such as above or below grade). Second is
how much wear and tear it must endure.
Third is how important quality and cost
are. Next is the type of home decor it
must match. Last is how adept the con-
sumer is at installing the paneling.
With this information, you can decide
what to emphasizecost, durability,
strength, quality, style or ease of installa-
tion. Paneling is one of the building
materials that can also be sold effectively
as a home fashion, the same way you
would sell paint, wallpaper or other wall-
coverings.
How To Panel
The first order of business when panel-
ing over existing wall is finding the stud
locations. A stud finder is an add-on item
to suggest. After the do-it-yourselfer
finds the studs, a chalk line made from
ceiling to floor is the best way to indi-
cate where to nail.
Badly cracked or uneven walls require
furring strips, shimmed as required, to
provide a level surface. These should be
applied horizontally every 16", beginning
at the bottom. Your customer will also
need vertical furring strips every 48"
where panels are joined. Paneling should
be attached to furring strips at all four
edges; if the previous surface is in bad
shape, it will take time to prepare it for
the paneling.
Paneling applied over a concrete or
masonry wall should have a continuous
vapor barrier of foil or plastic film
between the wall and the furring strips.
Once the preparatory work is done,
installing the paneling should go quick-
ly. Walls must meet at accurate right
angles. To find out, the homeowner can
set panels up around the room or along a
single wall. This also permits shifting of
panels to achieve the most pleasing
graining effect before installing panels.
D-i-yers should allow a 1/4" clearance
when cutting out for doors, windows,
heat ducts, etc. There should also be 1/4"
clearance above the floor and below the
ceiling. Molding and trim will cover this
space. Wider moldings can be used at top
or bottom if there are slight variations in
ceiling height.
Ordinary hand and power tools can be
used to cut paneling. Straight cuts should
be made with a crosscut handsaw; cross-
cut or combination blades should be
used with circular saws. When cutting
with handsaws, cuts should be made
from the face side of the panel so that
rough edges are formed on the back of
panels. If using a circular saw, cut from
backside of paneling. Coping or compass
saws or jigsaws can be used for curved or
inside cuts.
If walls are in good condition, panels
can be applied with contact or panel
adhesives or nails. Contact adhesives set
quickly. D-i-yers must work quickly and
there is little room for error. Each panel
needs to be accurately measured and cut
before adhesives are applied and panels
put into position.
Panel adhesives are easier to use. They
are applied from a cartridge and require
about 24 hours to cure fully. It is recom-
mended that panels be fastened to fur-
L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
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L UMBER & WOOD P RODUC T S
14
ring strips with #19 (1") brads to hold
the panel in place while the adhesive is
applied. Three to five sheets of paneling
can be glued with a cartridge of panel
adhesive.
Although the most satisfactory way to
install panels is a combination of nails
and adhesives, panels can be nailed to
the subsurface. If this method is used,
nail holes should be filled with stick
fillers color matched to the paneling.
Colored nails also are available to blend
with the grooves or face of the panels.
A third method of installing paneling
is by applying moldings or splines. This
can take more than beginning d-i-y skill
as the splines or moldings are fastened
over the paneling seams. Use of moldings
can cover nailing areas, panel cuts or
slight damage to the edges of the panels.
It is generally recommended that a
customer store paneling where it is to be
used for several days before installing it
so that the wood adjusts to the humidity
level of the home.
Better grades of paneling, regardless of
kind, will have sealed backs. This stabi-
lizes the hardwood so that it will not eas-
ily warp if humidity or moisture content
in the air is high.
A step-up grade of paneling has a luan
base with wood grain printed paper
glued or laminated to the face. Since it is
a printed finish, it means every sheet has
perfect graining. It is obtainable in dif-
ferent grain patterns, any color, any
shade. It is protected by a light, transpar-
ent finish, but will scratch if abused. A
printed panel can be refinished if a cus-
tomer tires of its looks or if the sheet has
been badly scratched. Wood stains or a
prime paint coat can be used.
Another type of printed sheet achieves
the graining effect with a thin piece of
vinyl laminated to a wood base. This is a
more durable finish that will withstand
considerably more abuse. It has all the
features of the printed paneluniform
grain, a wide range of wood-duplicated
tones, grains and colors.
Top-line paneling is wood veneer over
a hardwood core. It is harder to match
natural grains in these panelings when
doing a large wall or full room. The fin-
ishes are protected with a durable trans-
parent finish and wear well.
For more information, click (Installing
Paneling).
MOULDING
I WOOD MOULDINGS
Wood mouldings are manufactured
unfinished and prefinished. In addition
to stained, prefinished wood mouldings
are also painted, veneered or vinyl-
wrapped over finger-jointed wood, parti-
cleboard or MDF substrates.
Wood mouldings are produced in one-
foot increments from 3' to 16'. Retailers
who sell mainly to contractors may want
to carry a variety of lengths to meet vari-
ous interior applications. Home improve-
ment retailers may also want to stock a
variety of lengths for use in both tradi-
tional moulding applications and interior
decorating projects.
Ponderosa and Sugar pine, particularly
the unfinished variety, are the most pop-
ular softwood species used for wood
mouldings. Other softwood species
include Douglas-fir, Western hemlock,
Radiata and Southern Yellow pine, as
well as hardwood species such as Poplar,
Oak (Red and White), Cherry and Luan.
Finger-joints are used to make long clear
lengths out of lumber containing defects.
The finger-joint can be hidden with
paint finishes or veneers.
The least expensive prefinished wood
moulding has a printed finish, similar to
that used in paneling. The next step up is a
vinyl wrap on a wood substrate, which pro-
vides resistance to scrapes and bumps.
Width and style of mouldings are
often determined by local building styles
and decorating trends. Common mould-
ing types include cove, crown, casing,
base, quarter round, half round, full
round, hand rail, chair rail, inside corner,
outside corner, cap and picture mould.
When buying moulding, d-i-yers
should measure the area requiring
moulding and then round off to the next
full foot. In other words, if measure-
ments indicate 33' of moulding are need-
ed, the purchase should be at least 34'.
Wood moulding can be installed using
corner blocks (inside or outside), rosettes
or plinth blocks, which eliminate the
need to miter corners. This is the easiest
installation method and, depending on
the style of the blocks used, can give a
dramatic effect.
If the intended installation will
include miters, remind customers that
every 45-degree miterfor corners,
around windows, doors, etc.creates
waste and requires extra material. If
there are many such miters, they should
purchase 10 percent more moulding than
their measurement for good insurance.
More precisely, for each miter, add the
width of the piece you are mitering to
the length you needthis will give you
the exact length of moulding to get.
Moulding can be glued or nailed, using
colored nails to match prefinished mould-
ings if desired. Otherwise, nails should be
countersunk and wood fillers used to hide
holes. White woodworking glue or contact
adhesives can be used. A good miter box
is needed for professional joints.
For tight joints, suggest that intersect-
ing pieces be both glued and nailed.
For more information, click (Working
With Mouldings).
Non-Wood Mouldings
Plastic mouldingswhich also come
unfinished and prefinishedare matched
to or compatible with common paneling
finishes.
The appearance, feel and application
of mouldings made from vinyl, styrene
and other plastics have many of the
characteristics of wood. All can be sawed
with a hand or power saw and glued or
nailed without splintering.
CHAPTER ELEVEN:
FLOOR & RUG CLEANERS
LAUNDRY SUPPLIES
STORAGE AND DISPOSAL SUPPLIES
COOKWARE
PLASTICS
TABLEWARE
CUTLERY
FOOD PREPARATION
MISCELLANEOUS HOUSEWARES
HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE
BATH ACCESSORIES
NON-ELECTRIC
HOUSEWARES &
Cleaning Supplies
11
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
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FLOOR AND RUG
CLEANERS
Electric Floor Polishers and Scrubbers
Floor polishers and scrubbers leave floors with
a longer-lasting polish with less effort.
Features vary from model to model, but
top-of-the-line appliances have three-speed
motors to scrub and apply wax at lower
speeds and polish at higher speeds. They also
may have extra brushes that convert them to
rug shampooers.
Lightweight versions with detachable
handles can also be used for stripping and
wood refinishing.
If the appliance picks up water after scrub-
bingan optional functionthe machine
must dry the surface thoroughly before being
used to apply wax; moisture will smear the
waxed surface. Floors should be swept before
using one of these units to ensure that loose
dirt does not block the water pickup openings.
Solvent-based waxes should be recom-
mended for polishers because they will not
smear as will self-polishing, water-based and
resin waxes.
Vacuum Cleaners
Upright and canister vacuums fill general
purpose cleaning needs. Personal preference
dictates which type a consumer will purchase;
both (with appropriate attachments) perform
household vacuuming chores, including lift-
ing dust from drapes and upholstery.
Convenience features include carpet-pile
selectors, bag-change signals, retractable and
extra-long cords.
Lightweight stick vacuums, used primari-
ly for quick cleaning, handle much like a
broom. The motor is housed in the handle.
Some depend on suction for cleaning while
others have a brush or comb in the nozzle
to loosen dirt.
Cordless, battery-operated or corded, elec-
trically operated hand-held vacuums are
another quick clean-up convenience.
Battery-operated vacuums run for a short
time on each charge. Both types provide
enough suction to pick up surface dirt.
Some come with tool attachments.
Neither the stick nor hand-held vacuums
are good substitutes for standard upright or
canister household vacuums.
Heavy-duty shop vacuums for use around
garages, patios and workshops pick up wood
shavings, sawdust, bits of metal, twigs and
other light debris.
Wet vacuums will draw up water as well as
dry dirt. Sizes most often used around homes
are 5-, 6-, 10- or 12-gal. capacity.
These vacuums have heavier construction
than household machines. Features include a
steel or plastic drum, stronger suction, extra
filters to protect the motor from heavy dirt
and larger hoses to allow relatively large debris
to pass through without clogging.
Accessories include extension wands,
crevice tools and floor nozzles with brushes.
Cleaning effectiveness of any vacuum is
determined by suction, not horsepower.
Nozzle and agitator construction are
important, as is brush placement. Review
of manuals and manufacturer literature
will provide specific information on the
units you sell.
Rug Cleaners
A wet shampooer carries a liquid shampoo
solution in the tank; rollers distribute the
shampoo, and brushes lift the nap of the rug
and work shampoo into the pile. Tank capaci-
ty ranges from two to four quarts.
Dry shampooers, primarily for Oriental and
noncolorfast fabrics, substitute powder for the
liquid shampoo. Again, rollers apply the pow-
der and brushes work it into the carpet. The
powder is removed with a vacuum cleaner.
Heavier-duty electric steam or dry units
are usually handled as rentals, with the
consumer buying the steam detergent or
cleansing powder. Wet and dry units are
not interchangeable.
A steam cleaner injects a solution of hot
water and detergent into the carpet under
pressure and removes it immediately with
powerful suction.
The dry cleaner spreads on the cleansing
powder and works it into the carpet; the pow-
der is then vacuumed up.
Some types of steam and dry cleaning units
operate with rotary brushes. Others use an
oscillating or vibrating brush. Some vibrating
brush units are powerful enough to pull dirt
particles through from the carpets underside.
A final method of carpet cleaning is an
aerosol spray. It is the easiest method and suit-
able for spot cleaning.
The aerosol is sprayed directly on the car-
pet, allowed to dry and vacuumed up.
Brushing the foam into the carpet with a stiff
brush increases its cleaning action.
For best results with any cleaning method,
carpets should be thoroughly vacuumed
before cleaning to remove loose surface dirt.
Carpet Sweepers
Hand-operated carpet sweepers are another
means of picking up surface dirt in a hurry.
Most have adjustable settings for thick or thin
carpet pile and can be set low enough to clean
bare floors.
Nylon or rubber wheels with nylon bear-
ings and nylon bearings in the brushes mean
smooth and long-wearing operation. Cleaning
action comes from nylon or mixed-bristle
brushes and metal combs that lift dirt from
carpets into the sweeper.
Compact storage and reasonable prices are
the prime selling features of carpet sweepers.
Upholstery Cleaners
Upholstery shampooers clean with liquid or
aerosol shampoo.
Liquid shampooers apply shampoo directly
to the upholstered fabric; the material should
not be saturated.
Aerosol shampoos work through a brush
attached to the can. The brush combines a
foam-rubber pad with nylon bristles to spread
VACUUM CLEANER CARE
Remove lint and hair from brushes and
wash occasionally with mild detergent. Use
damp cloth for interior of canister shell and
dust bag cover.
Replace bag frequently; it can burst with-
out being completely full. Plaster dust and
other fine dusts can clog the pores of the
bag, cutting off air flow.
Replace paper filters. Permanent plastic fil-
ters should be washed occasionally and
allowed to dry completely before put back.
Watch for small objects lodged in hose or
fan. If they cannot be removed easily, find a
repair center.
the cleaner and work it into the fabric.
Most upholstery shampoos are safe for col-
orfast fabrics, but it is wise to test before cover-
ing the entire piece.
Some steam cleaners also come with an
upholstery-cleaning hand tool. The tool is
attached to the machine and the cleaning pro-
cedure is the same as in cleaning carpets. A
special steam detergent for upholstery is
designed to prevent overwetting.
I WAXES AND POLISHES
Floor WaxesWater based, solvent
based and polymer are the three major
kinds of floor waxes.
Water-based and polymer waxes dry to a
high gloss without buffing; solvent-based wax
requires vigorous buffing. This is best accom-
plished with an electric polisher. One-step
waxes clean and wax simultaneously.
Water-based wax should be recommended
for asphalt, vinyl, vinyl asbestos and rubber-
tiled floors; solvent-based waxes produce a
hard, shiny finish and are best for wood, cork
and terrazzo floors.
Self-polishing waxes, such as polymer or
resin, will yellow or discolor and wear off in
heavy traffic areas; they should be stripped off
and reapplied after three or four coats. Water-
based waxes can be damp mopped without
damaging the shine, but use of detergents will
eventually dull the finish.
Wax Removers
Most wax removers contain chemicals that
can be injurious if splashed in eyes or come in
contact with the skin. It is a good idea to sug-
gest rubber or plastic gloves as protection.
Some general purpose cleaners, either those
that contain ammonia or require it to be
added, will remove wax; but if the wax
buildup is heavy, a special remover will ease
the task.
I MOPS
Inexpensive cotton string or rayon wet
mops have a tendency to mildew and rot if
stored damp. Better-quality nylon/rayon
blends or sponge-rubber mops resist rot and
mildew and are less likely to shed.
Cellulose sponge mops with single or
double heads wash floors, mop up spills,
apply self-polishing wax and other cleaning
compounds. All have some form of squeez-
ing mechanism.
Dust or dry mops are made of cotton,
wool, nylon or nylon/acetate blends. Those
of 100 percent nylon yarn generate static
electricity as they move across the floor and
attract dust and lint better than other mate-
rials. Quality dry mops should have flexible
plastic or metal handle-to-mop connectors
to slide under low furniture.
Other quality features in both wet and dry
mops are replaceable heads, long, smooth
handles and rust-resistant plating.
I BROOMS AND BRUSHES
Brooms and brushes are made of natural or
synthetic fibers held together by staples, wire
or ties.
Heavy-duty patio brooms are usually made
of coarse natural fibers such as palmetto,
palmyra or brass fiber; indoor brushes and
brooms have softer fibers such as Tampico
horsehair or broomcorn.
Synthetic fibers are unaffected by water, are
more durable, pick up more dust and are less
likely to break or shed.
I FLOOR MATS
AND RUNNERS
Indoor/outdoor mats have nonskid back-
ings and rough surfaces to remove mud, dust
and snow from shoes and boots.
Outdoor natural hemp and cocoa fiber mats
and those made of heavy rubber or vinyl links
may be hosed clean.
Indoor mats of nylon pile with nonslip
backing can be washed with soap and water.
Chemically treated mats are machine wash-
able, but after several washings should be
retreated with dust-attracting chemicals.
Vinyl runners protect carpeting from dirt
and dust; they, too, can be cleaned with soap
and water. When weight is placed on the run-
ner, cleats grip carpet to prevent slippage.
I HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS
Every cleaning and polishing compound is
a chemical formula of some kind. They are
potential health hazards if not used according
to directions and if not stored properly. Labels
will warn of possibly dangerous ingredients
and you should remind customers to read and
heed the labels.
Polishes should be used for whatever
surfaces they are recommended for and
for the purpose stated on the label: to
clean metal or chrome or to polish glass,
porcelain, bathroom tile or wood panel-
ing. These agents come in cream, paste,
liquid or aerosol form and some will clean
more than one finish.
For furniture, there are wax, oil and cream
polishes and silicone-based polishes that pro-
tect plastic or laminated surfaces from scratch-
es, fingerprints and static.
All-purpose household cleaners usually
spray on and require no rinsing to remove
stains, fingerprints, heel scuffs and
kitchen grease. Oven cleaners are stronger
than general household cleaners and con-
tain chemicals harmful to the skin.
Rubber or plastic gloves are a good add-on
sale for any cleaning agent.
Aerosol powder spot removers that are
sprayed on, allowed to dry and brushed out
are safe for most clothing fabrics as well as car-
peting and upholstery.
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
3
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICAL SAFETY
Keep Chemicals, especially flammables
and aerosols, away from open flames.
Read the labelwhen you buy it and
each time before you use itand follow the
directions explicitly.
Store flammables and aerosols in a cool
place, away from gas and oil furnaces and
heaters.
Store dangerous and poisonous products
where children cannot reach them.
Use chemicals as they are intended; dont
experiment.
FLOOR CARE
SCRATCHES: Blend in surface scratches by
applying paste or liquid wax and buffing
well. Use furniture touch-up polish to cover
deeper scratches.
SPILLS: Wash the stained area promptly
with household vinegar. After three to four
minutes, wipe dry. May be necessary to
repeat several times. Black heel marks can
be removed by rubbing with liquid wax
and fine steel wool.
LAUNDRY SUPPLIES
I IRONING TABLES
AND COVERS
Most ironing tables have perforated or
metal-mesh tops that allow heat and steam to
circulate and rubber-tipped tubular legs to pre-
vent slipping or marring floors. Table heights
are adjustable.
Other convenience features include built-in
cord holders, outlets with extension cords, or
flaps on both sides of the table that can be
extended to convert it to a worktable.
Sleeve boards are especially useful for home
seamstresses. Average dimensions are 21" to
27 long and 5 to 7 wide.
Better ironing table covers are made of
heat-resistant, nonscorch material such as a
combination of Teflon treatment and poly-
ester, fiberglass or silicone-aluminum finished
cotton. They are made of heavier material that
wears longer than promotional grades. They
are cut more fully and have sturdier ties.
Ironing pads, usually made of plastic or
foam rubber, keep the cover from slipping,
prevent damage to tabletop or to buttons and
zippers and make a smoother ironing surface.
I DRYING RACKS
Major considerations in the choice of a dry-
ing rack are stability, number of lines and
smooth construction.
Smooth rungs, whether made of wood,
aluminum, steel or plastic, are important in
indoor racks which are frequently used to
dry sheer fabrics that could be snagged.
Collapsible racks that can be stored when
not in use offer from 15 to more than 50
of drying space.
A post-type dryer on tripod legs, more
suited to garage, basement or patio use, has
individually strung plastic lines that provide
up to 100 of drying space. It can be folded
for storage.
The most compact indoor dryer is one that
fits into a shower. Steel racks are held against
two walls by spring tips. The line holder is
mounted on rack wall and lines attached to
the facing rack. Lines retract when not in use.
An umbrella-style outdoor revolving clothes
dryer is fitted into a permanent ground box.
Lines are plastic coated and metal parts are
aluminized or galvanized to resist rust. Drying
capacity ranges from three to six average
washer loads.
Quality indicators for all kinds of drying
racks include the number of lines on each
arm, length of arms, gauge of arms and post
and type of metal finish.
I CLOTHES POSTS
AND LINES
Clothesline posts should be galvanized or
coated with aluminum enamel to prevent
rust. T and acorn posts are commonly used.
T posts are embedded in cement or installed
in a ground box. T posts have from four to
eight line hooks which permit the line to be
stretched between T posts.
Acorn (or round-hub) posts have pronged
tops that hold four lines. These posts can be
installed the same as T posts, but lines can
be strung to trees, garage or house instead of
to a matching post. T installations require
two posts.
Disappearing clotheslines require one post.
A metal case holding the lines is mounted on
a wall. Lines are attached to a handle, pulled
out, locked to desired length and fixed to a
post, another wall or a tree. When not in use,
lines are wound back into the case. They can
be installed inside or out.
Pulley lines are strung through a pulley so
the user can hang or remove clothes from one
location by pulling the line through the pul-
ley. Only solid braided line or multifilament
line is suitable for pulleys. Other types of line
can be used but may not wear as well; wire
line should never be used.
Other types of line include plastic-coated
steel line which cleans readily but damages
easily and tends to sag. Plastic line with a
polyethylene core wears well and can be used
with pulleys.
I LAUNDRY ACCESSORIES
Most cleaning and laundry departments
carry an assortment of accessories which ease
washday chores.
Ironing caddies to hold freshly ironed gar-
ments have either single or double lightweight
tubular steel bars and wheels or casters for
portability. Some have height adjustments
and all can be folded for storage.
Other accessories include laundry carts and
sorters which combine fabric pockets with
tubular frames to organize and transport gar-
ments for laundering.
STORAGE AND
DISPOSAL SUPPLIES
I GARBAGE CANS
Galvanized steel and plastic are materials
used in the manufacture of garbage and trash
cans. Galvanized cans are durable but may be
subject to rust in damp climates; plastic con-
tainers are lighter weight and will not rust but
can be blown about by a strong wind.
Galvanizing is fusing rust- and corrosion-
resistant zinc to steel. Top-quality items are
made from heavier gauge steel and galvanized
after fabrication to ensure complete coverage.
Promotional lines are usually made of pre-
galvanized steel sheeting. Rough treatment
during manufacture may produce minute
cracks that permit moisture to seep in under
the coating. Vulnerable spots are side seams
and the seam where the bottom is attached to
the sides.
I PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Plastic garbage-can liners and trash bags
are a necessity for nearly all consumers.
For greatest resistance to tears and punc-
tures, bags should be made of 1.5 to 1.8 mil.
thick plastic.
In general, bags are sized as follows:
garbage-can liners, 17" x 19"; wastebasket lin-
ers, 22" x 35" to 33" x 40"; lawn bags, 33" x
48" to 34" x 56".
Oversize heavyweight storage bags, an
adaptation of standard-sized bags, offer the
advantage of sealing tight to keep out dust,
dirt, bugs and moisture. Sizes as large as 5' x 9'
will hold a full-sized bike, mattress, sofa or
whole Christmas tree. Small sizes will seal up a
single chair or a rack full of off-season clothes.
A handful of mothballs in the bag will deter
mice as well as bugs.
Storage bags should be semitransparent
so you can see whats in them and heavy-
weight to prevent tearing and punctures.
Extra-long twist ties should be included to
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
4
seal the bags tight.
Plastic drop cloths help do-it-yourselfers
protect furniture, carpets and floors from
paint spills. They can be an excellent add-
on item in paint and decorating depart-
ments. The most popular sizes are 9' x 12'
and 10' x 20'. Thicknesses range from .0003
mil. to 3 mil.
Plastic sheeting has a wide variety of
uses, including: cover for pools, boats, fire-
wood and barbecue grills; a moisture barrier
in home weatherproofing; landscaping and
underlayment; shrubbery protection, and
ground or car cover.
COOKWARE
To sell cookware, you must know not
only an items construction features, but
also why it appeals to your customer. Keep
the following selling tips in mind when you
talk to your customers:
Sell a color that blends with the total
kitchen decor. Also, make sure the color finish
doesnt pose a cleaning chore.
Remember that a porcelain or ceramic coat-
ing on a pan doesnt affect cooking perform-
ance; the pan has the cooking characteristics
of the base metal.
A smooth, nonporous surface, with or with-
out a nonstick finish, doesnt harbor food par-
ticles. There should be no interior seams or
crevices to retain food. Check to see if the fin-
ish is dishwasher safesome, such as
anodized aluminum, arent.
Size is important. How large is the fami-
ly? Sell a pan that will hold enough food,
but not so large it wastes storage space and
burner heat.
Consider storage. If a kitchen is small, the
buyer may want pans that nest, hang or
stack. Will the finish scratch if the pans rub
together?
A pan should be heavy enough not to burn
food or warp (warped and dented pans can
develop hot spots that may burn foods) and
tough enough not to break when dropped or
subjected to direct heat.
Pan lids should fit snugly into the rim, so
the pan will hold heat and moisture better,
cook faster. However, they shouldnt be so
tight that force is necessary to remove them.
Pan bottoms should be flat, or slightly con-
cave, and designed to flatten when heated.
They should be wide enough to cover the
burner completely and not waste heat.
Look at handles and knobs. They should
be fastened securely, be sized and shaped so
theyre easy to hold, and made of a stay-
cool material, such as wood or plastic. They
should be balanced with the weight of the
pot to prevent tipping, and should have
flame guards.
Know what your customer is looking for
and stress buying the best quality budget
allows. To know if a utensil is worth the
price, youll have to know general quality
features and relate them to specifics covered
in manufacturer literature.
I METAL COOKWARE
Metal transfers heat quickly and evenly
from the heat source to the food; this, and its
durability, make it an efficient and popular
cookware material.
Metal cookware sales will also get a boost
from the popularization of induction cook-
tops. In induction cooking, heat is transferred
through magnetic attraction. So the cookware
used must be made of a magnetic material,
such as cast iron. To test pans, use a common
kitchen magnet.
Aluminum
Aluminum pans have a natural selling
pointthey provide good results. Aside from
copper, aluminum is the best heat conductor
used for cookware. It has even heat distribu-
tion and no hot spots where food will stick
and burn.
Aluminum heats rapidly and evenly, and
cools almost as quickly when removed from
stove burner, so it will not keep foods warm
for serving unless extremely thick. It is also
relatively lightweight.
Aluminum pans are not all alike; their
method of manufacture and gauge (or thick-
ness) make the difference. The two most com-
mon manufacturing methods are stamping
and casting.
Stamping involves placing flat sheets or
round blanks of aluminum, rolled to specified
thickness, in a press that forms the utensil.
After finish is applied, handles are attached.
In the casting process, molten aluminum
alloy is poured into molds. When the metal
has cooled, the pan is removed from mold.
Medium- and light-gauge utensils are
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
5
WHAT IS GAUGE?
Gauge is the thickness of metal used in
cookware. The lower the gauge number,
the thicker the metal. For example, 10
gauge is thicker than 16 gauge.
A rule of thumb to apply to cookware is
that 10 to 18 gauge metal is suitable for
range-top use; 20 and 22 gauge is too
thin for use over direct heat and may
result in burned food or a warped pan.
Baking pans may be thinner gauge, but
must be sturdy enough to maintain shape
under normal usage.
HOW TO FIGURE SIZE, CAPACITY OF METAL COOKWARE
Capacity of
Saucepans and
Saucepots
Capacity of
Frying Utensils
Markings
Order of
Dimensions
Tolerance of
Normal Margin
of Error
Fullest liquid measure at over-flow
or liquid capacity expressed in
quarts
top outside dimensionbottom
outside dimension may also be
stated
Marked permanently on utensil of
on removable label
Not applicable
1/4 total dimension size; 5% total
liquid volume
Liquid measure at over-flow full; for
casseroles, expressed in quarts
Not applicable
Marked permanently on utensil or
on removable label
Round utensilsdiameter by
depth; rectangular utensilslength
by width by depth
1/4 total dimension size; 5% total
liquid volume
TOP-OF RANGE WARE OVENWARE
stamped, while heavier and more expensive
ones are either stamped or cast. Both are one
piece with no seams or hard-to-clean corners.
Pans used for top-of-range cooking are at
least 18 gauge. The heavier the pan, the more
durable it is and the more it costs. A top quali-
ty pan could be about 5 to 7 gauge.
Thinner metal (22 gauge) offers more
chances for food to scorch and it may
dent or warp.
Aluminum range-top pans have satin-
finished bottoms (to speed heat conduc-
tion) and sides that are polished, chrome
plated, anodized or covered with porce-
lain or ceramic.
Aluminum bakeware with a dull or
anodized finish absorbs heat quickly, while
highly polished bakeware reflects heat.
The outside walls of cake pans and cookie
sheets usually have shiny finish to bake light
golden cakes or to keep cookies from brown-
ing too much on the bottom.
Best metal pie pans have satin or anodized
finish to absorb oven heat which is conducted
quickly and evenly to the pie. Nine inch is
most common, but other sizes are available.
Muffin pans, also used for cupcakes, are
sold in 6- and 12-cup sizes. Mini-size muffin
pans are also available.
Covered roasters are for fowl or less-tender
cuts of meatthose that require both heat
and moisture to become tender. Shallow, rec-
tangular, open roasting pans are designed for
tender meat cuts.
Cooking tools made of wood, plastic or
smooth-edged metal are recommended for use
with aluminum. Sharp-edged tools such as
knives, mashers and beaters may scratch it.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel pans are smooth, hard, warp
and scratch resistant, nonporous and excep-
tionally durable. Adding chromium and nickel
to steel alloys makes the utensil stainless by
forming an invisible film that protects the sur-
face from rust, corrosion, pitting, cracking,
chipping and tarnishing. The chromium
renews the film if anything mars it.
Stainless steel bakeware is usually solid
stainless steel, while range-top utensils com-
bine stainless steel with other metals.
The reason for this is that stainless steel
does not conduct heat as rapidly or as evenly
as aluminum. To improve heat conduction, it
is combined with aluminum, copper or car-
bon steel.
Different manufacturing methods produce
ply pans in several combinations of metals
that are bonded together before the utensil is
formed. These include:
Two-ply pansstainless-steel interior with
another metal on the outside. Occasionally
this is reversed.
Three-ply pansstainless steel on the inside
and outside with another metal as the core.
Bottom-clad panssolid stainless or three
ply with another metal applied to the bottom
of the pan after it is formed.
Five-ply/ bottom-clad utensilsmade by
three-ply process with two clad layers on
the bottom.
Five-ply pansstainless steel on both the
inside and outside surfaces with three layers of
aluminum forming the core.
Like aluminum, stainless steel can have
a highly polished or satin finish, and for
the same reasons. Again, heavier gauge
denotes quality.
Cast-Iron Ware
Cast-iron ware is one of mans oldest forms
of cookware. Todays cast-iron implements are
alloys that permit thinner (and lighter-weight)
pans with greater strength.
Most common items of cast iron are chick-
en fryers, skillets, roasters, Dutch ovens, broil-
ers and grills, as well as specialty items like
muffin or corn-stick pans.
Cast iron heats more slowly than other
metals, but distributes heat evenly and main-
tains a steady surface temperature desirable for
browning, pan broiling, slow stewing or bak-
ing. Cast-iron skillets have become more pop-
ular with the recent cooking trend toward
blackened meats and Cajun recipes.
Cast iron requires different care from other
cookware metals (see chart on cleaning metals
and finishes). The addition of nonstick interi-
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
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HOW TO CLEAN AND CARE FOR METALS AND FINISHES
Always follow the manufacturers instructions for cleaning and caring for metals and finishes. Generally
its best to wait for pans to cool before washing or rinsing them, as they may warp if submerged in
cold water while still hot.
ALUMINUM- should be washed in warm, soapy water. Hand rather than machine washing is
recommended. The extremely hot water in automatic dishwashers, combined with minerals in
water and detergents, may discolor aluminum, especially colored anodized finishes. Remove
stains with a non-abrasive cleaner.
STAINLESS STEEL- should be washed in hot, soapy water or warm ammonia and water solution,
thoroughly rinsed and immediately dried to avoid water spots. Use mild, stainless steel cleansers
or light scouring with a plastic or stainless steel scouring pad to remove most stains; dont use
steel wool, chlorine bleach or alcohol.
CAST IRON- is usually pre-seasoned (coated with unsalted fat and heated to prevent rusting),
unless porcelain coated. It should be washed in warm sudsy water and frequently treated by
coating the cast iron interior surface with unsalted shortening, left until its next use, then wiped
out. To re-season, scour the pan completely, rinse and dry; then coat the inside with unsalted fat
and leave in moderate oven for two hours. Remove and wipe off excess grease.
COPPER- to remove discoloration use commercial cleaner or a mixture of flour, salt, lemon juice
and ammonia applied before regular washing.
CHROME- wash with warm water and soap or detergent. Do not use abrasive cleaners.
PLASTIC LAMINATES- wash with detergent and water or a mild cleaner. Although strong and
heat-resistant countertop coverings, they should not be used as cutting boards, trivets or hot
pads, as they can be cut and burned.
ACRYLIC ENAMEL- use soap or detergent in warm water for cleaning. This exterior finish can be
marked or damaged by ammonia, alcohol or bleach.
BAKED ENAMEL- somewhat chip-resistant, it is used on cabinets and appliances. Use soap or
detergent in warm water or household cleaner. Do not use abrasives, alcohol or chlorine bleach.
PORCELAIN ENAMEL- commonly used on bathtubs, sinks, appliances and cookware. Use soap
or detergent in warm water- mild cleaner if necessary. A sharp blow with a hard object may chip
porcelain enamel.
or coating and porcelainized exterior finishes
makes cast iron easier to care for. However,
interior coatings rob cast iron of its browning
ability, often regarded as its most desirable
characteristic.
Copper Cookware
Copper is the best conductor of heat among
cookware metals; it not only distributes heat
evenly, but holds heat to keep foods warm. It
is, however, heavy and expensive, and it dents
and tarnishes easily.
Copper cooking surfaces must be lined with
a coating such as stainless steel or a nonstick
coating; otherwise they may produce toxic
salts when exposed to some foods.
Also, cooked foods left in contact with
uncoated copper may become discolored. The
discoloration isnt appealing, but is harmless
in most cases.
Copper is used mostly in combination with
other metals, such as stainless steel (see sec-
tion on stainless steel).
Tin Ware
Tin, like cast iron, is one of the older metals
used in cookware. Although it may be subject
to warping and denting, pure tin will not rust
and this characteristic makes it an ideal plat-
ing for steel utensils. However, tin ware will
rust if the tin plate is cut and the steel
exposed. It is manufactured into durable,
lightweight and inexpensive baking pans.
Much tin ware now has an embossed, sil-
ver-like finish which reduces sticking and per-
mits retention of grease in the batter.
Chromium-Plated Steel
Chromium-plated steel utensils are stamped
from cold rolled steel, polished and then plat-
ed with copper, nickel and chromium. These
pans offer a shiny, hard chrome surface that is
dent and warp resistant and maintains its
nontarnishing surface with ordinary dish-
washing.
They are also available with nonstick
interiors.
Exterior Finishes
Aside from natural metal exteriors, the
emphasis on colorful kitchens has created a
big market for colored cookware and that
means special exterior finishes. Porcelain
and ceramic coatings are most often used,
since they offer solid colors and designs on
an easily cleaned surface. Some pans and
skillets are painted.
Porcelain is a form of durable glass bonded
to metal at a high temperature.
Porcelain-enamel cookware should not be
used over a high heat for a prolonged time;
extreme high temperatures may cause the
porcelain to melt.
Better grades of porcelainized cookware
are seamless. Price differences can be traced
to thickness of metal, number of coats of
porcelain, design and color, and accessories
such as nonbroil-over covers and heat-resist-
ant plastic handles.
Ceramic coatings are clay based and applied
to metal in much the same way as porcelain.
Either coating can be applied to steel, alu-
minum, stainless steel or cast iron after the
pan has been formed. Both offer a hard, lus-
trous finish that normally will not scratch,
rust, fade or peel. However, it may chip or
crack if the pan is dropped.
Other finishes for metal cookware include:
Anodizedlayer of aluminum oxide elec-
trochemically applied to sheet aluminum; is
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
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WHAT IS RANGE-TOP WARE?
Range-top ware includes items used on top of the stove that come in direct contact with heat. Food is
cooked by conduction- transfer of heat through pan to food. Basic to this category are:
SAUCEPANS- have one long handle, come with or without lids in 5/8-qt. to 4-qt. sizes.
SAUCE POTS- have two side handles, 2-qt. to 20-qt sizes.
SKILLETS- also called fry pans. Have one long handle, broad bottoms, shallow sidewalls. Come
6 to 12 diameters, round or square, regular or saut (with curved flaring sides) shapes, with or
without lids.
DUTCH OVENS- like sauce pots only made of heavier gauge metal. May be used on burner or in
oven for slow cooking or braising meats.
KETTLES- 8-qt. to 16-qt. covered utensils with bail handle.
GRIDDLES- have one long handle, two side handles or bail handle, wide bottoms, shallow side-
walls; are round, square or oblong.
TEA KETTLES- have curved or bail handles, 6-cup to 5 qt. capacity. Conventional or whistling.
Whistlers may have flip-up spout covers and trigger handles.
WHAT IS OVENWARE?
Ovenware includes baking pans, roasters
and other pans used in the oven. Food is
baked or roasted by absorbing heat from the
surrounding air. Combines with conduction
where food touches its container. Basic to
this category.
CAKE PANS- round, square or oblong
with slightly tapered sides. May have loose
bottom for layer cakes or movable cutter
bar to help remove cake. Angel food or
bundt pans are circular, have high, tapered
sides and tubular stem. Loose-bottom
pans may have groove to catch overflow
of batter.
PIE PANS- round pans with flared sides.
May have rim to catch excess juice.
COOKIE SHEETS- flat, rectangular pan
with one, two or three open sides.
BREAD OR LOAF PANS- narrow, deep
rectangular pans with flared sides.
MUFFIN PANS- also used for cupcakes.
Oblong or rectangular tray-like pan with 6
or 12 individual cups.
ROASTING PANS- open or covered,
round, rectangular or oval, some with lift-
ing rack. Sizes range from 12 to 18.
Generally, 12 to 16-lb. Fowl, 18-lb. Roast
or 16 to 20-lb. Ham requires 16 roaster;
16 to 22-lb. Fowl, 25-lb. Roast or 20 to
25-lb. Ham requires 18 roaster. Roasting
pan is open; roaster is covered pan.
BROILING PANS- large flat pans.
Perforated top lets fat from meat drip into
tray below.
The American National Standards Institute
has established size measurements for
layer cake, loaf cake, tubed cake pans, pie
pans, muffin pans and roasting pans. Most
manufacturers show sized or dimensions
on the label or stamp or imprint them on
the outside bottom of the pan.
There should be at least one inch of space
between all sides of bakeware and the
sides of the oven: ovenware should be
sold according to inside measurements of
the customers oven.
stain resistant. Color finish can be applied by
soaking in color bath.
Britepolished and buffed finish.
Enamel (acrylic, alkyd, epoxy,
polyurethane)organic material baked onto
interior or exterior of aluminum or stainless
steel. In variety of colors.
Platedlayer of chrome, copper or brass
plated onto aluminum or stainless steel.
Satindull finish; speeds heat absorption.
Applied by brushing.
Silkscreenporcelain or acrylic paste forced
through design on screen and baked on exte-
rior surface.
Sunrayinterior finish. Applied by rotating
pan over light abrasive, like sandpaper.
Synthetic finishes may fade from pro-
longed subjection to high heat or after
repeated washing with dishwasher deter-
gent. An anodized finish can be permanent-
ly damaged by soaking in strong detergent
or washing in a dishwasher.
Enamelware
Enamelware is slightly different from
porcelainized cookware in that it is coated
completelyinside and outwith porce-
lain enamel.
The coating can be applied to steel,
stainless steel and cast iron. The porcelain
is applied after utensil is formed to create
a smooth nonporous surface. In normal
use, these pans are not affected by aging,
heat, humidity or food acids, and there-
fore can be used for cooking, baking,
roasting, serving and storing.
Less-expensive enamelware may chip or
scratch easily, but better-quality utensils have
heavier coatings and are more chip resistant.
I GLASS COOKWARE
Heat-resistant glass and glass-ceramic cook-
ing utensils also fill the need for an attractive
dish that can be used for mixing, cooking,
serving and storing.
Major selling points are attractiveness, one-
dish convenience, a nonporous surface that
does not stain, absorb food flavors or hold
food odors. There is little danger of warping,
bending, denting, discoloring or pitting, but
they may break. Ordinary dishwashing will
clean these utensils.
Glass-Ceramic
Although glass-ceramic pans can be used
for range-top cooking, they are better suited
for baking, broiling or roasting. They are slow
heat conductors, but because they hold heat
longer than metal, overall cooking time is
about the same.
Glass-ceramic cookware designed espe-
cially for range-top cooking has integral
handles of the same material so they stay
comfortable to the touch on top of the
range and will not melt or warp when
used in ovens. Transparent, tinted glass-
ceramic range-top cookware can be used
on gas or electric ranges as well as in con-
ventional or microwave ovens and under
broilers for browning.
Glass-ceramic cookware can be used for
storage, too; it is not affected by tempera-
ture changes and can go from refrigerator
to oven safely.
Heat-Resistant Glass
Heat-resistant glass is like glass ceramic in
that it can be used for storing, cooking and
serving. Some pieces can be used on the
range, while others are suitable only for the
oven. Manufacturers labels usually include
recommended usage.
Those designed for baking can be taken
from refrigerator and put into a preheated
oven. However, heat-resistant glass range-top
products cannot be taken directly from refrig-
erator to range topthe temperature change
and direct contact with heat may cause them
to break.
Sudden cooling may be detrimental to heat-
resistant glass itemsthey should not be put
in water while still hot.
When glass or glass-ceramic dishes are used
for baking, oven temperature should be
reduced by at least 25.
I MICROWAVE COOKWARE
As a result of the increase in microwave
oven sales, microware has emerged in a vari-
ety of materialsglass, glass ceramic, plastic
and paper. Some cookware specifically for
microwave ovens can also be refrigerated,
frozen and used in conventional ovens.
Many consumers may not want to or can-
not invest in a whole new set of cookware and
will want to know which articles they already
have can be used in the ovens.
When talking to customers, whether selling
them microware or telling them which cook-
ware they can use in their microwaves, its
important to stress that they know their par-
ticular modelits limitations, features and
operationand follow its manufacturers
instructions and suggestions.
A simple test to determine if a dish is
microwave safe is to place the dish in question
in the microwave along with a cup of cold
water in a known microwave-safe item.
Microwave on high (100 percent) power for
one minute. If the water has heated and the
dish has remained cool, its microwave safe. If
the dish tested has gotten warm or hot, it
should not be used in the microwave oven.
A container used in microwave cooking
must allow microwaves to pass through both
it and the food. Contrary to popular belief,
some metal can be used in microwave cook-
ing; its reflective properties can even help pro-
tect food which might overheat in some areas.
Aluminum foil for shielding, small skewers
and shallow food convenience trays can be
used in microwave ovens; however, metal
should be kept at least 1 away from oven
walls, and deep trays and metal pans arent
suitable. Foil-lined cartons shield food com-
pletely, and dont heat food at all.
Generally speaking, shallow containers
produce better results than deep ones;
round shapes tend to be better than square
or rectangular ones. Microwaves travel in
straight lines, bouncing around the oven in
irregular patterns. Therefore, sharp corners
allow more exposure to microwave energy
so the food in these areas dries out before
the center is cooked.
Plastics for the most part are transparent to
microwave energy and are ideal for microwave
use. A variety of plastics is available, and the
quality of the plastic in microwave ovenware
has much to do with its safety. Engineered
plastic (heavy-duty industrial grade) is not
only more expensive than many plastics, its
likely to damage a microwave oven.
The Society of Plastics Industry is develop-
ing test methods for manufacturers of plastic
cookware to use as guidelines in evaluating
the durability and safety of their products.
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
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NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
9
Newly developed, heavy-duty plastic
microwave cookware that is not harmful to
microwaves comes in a variety of shapes and
sizesfrom casserole dishes to muffin pans.
Some of this cookware also can be used in
conventional ovens at low temperatures.
Its a good idea to check with the man-
ufacturers of the microwave ovens you
sell for the brand or type of microwave
ovenware they suggest.
In general, plastics are stain resistant,
break resistant and freezable, but the com-
bined production of steam and hot fans
in microwave ovens can distort some of
the less-durable plastics.
Those labeled to withstand boiling
water, or as dishwasher safe, are often rec-
ommended for microwave use because
they can take the heat of food for short
reheating and thawing periods without
melting or distorting. For true cooking,
exotic resins like PBT, TPX, etc., have 350
to 450 melting points.
Melamine dishes are usually limited to
one or two minutes of cooking time by
most oven manufacturers, if theyre rec-
ommended at all, because they can
become very hot and scorch or crack.
Wood and natural materials such as straw
are usually limited to one or two minutes of
cooking time by most manufacturers of
microwave ovens. The inherent or soaked-up
moisture and fats in wood can absorb the
microwaves and cause the wood to heat,
resulting in drying, cracking or scorching.
Ceramics, including pottery and earthen-
ware, are suitable for use in microwave ovens,
but oven manufacturers recommend that they
be tested first. Some ingredients that absorb
microwave energy and heat rapidly to a high
temperature are present in some ceramic dish-
es. Large amounts of these particles can result
in the dish overheating and breaking.
Glass cookware is identified as heat resistant
or nonheat resistant, while most glass-ceramic
cookware is classified as glazed or unglazed.
Most manufacturers recommend the use of
heat-resistant glass or glass-ceramic cookware
for microwave cooking.
Nonheat-resistant glass dishes are not treat-
ed to withstand the extreme and uneven heat
normal in microwave cooking; i.e., the glass
remains cool while food gets hot; the hot food
then transfers heat at the points where it
touches the glass, causing uneven heating in
the glass that leads to breakage for nonheat-
resistant glasses.
Glazed glass-ceramic dishes are not rec-
ommended for microwave oven use. The
glazes contain relatively high percentages
of ingredients which absorb microwave
energy, causing the dishes to heat rapidly
to high temperatures. This may result in
breakage or could cause burns or spills if
they are picked up without potholders or
oven mitts by someone not expecting the
dish or cup itself to be hot.
Heat-resistant and unglazed glass-ceramic
ovenware is highly recommended for use by
both ovenware and microwave-oven manufac-
turers because they are nonporous and cannot
absorb moisture of food.
I WATERLESS COOKWARE
Waterless cookware describes a heavy-gauge
pan with tight-fitting cover that requires only
a small quantity of liquideither added by
the cook or present in the food itself. Low
heat is of utmost importance for food cooked
by steam rather than by water.
Use the following three points to sell water-
WHAT CAN YOU USE TO COOK FOOD IN YOUR MICROWAVE?
Heat Resistant Glass
(without metal parts or decoration) Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Glass-Ceramic
(without metal or plastic parts) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Pottery Earthenware Stoneware
Fine China/Porcelain * * No No * *
Paper** Yes No No No Yes No
(short time) (not re-usable)
Plastics Yes* Yes* No No * *
Metal Cookware/Bakeware No * Yes * Yes *
Metal Decorations on Glassware Dinnerware No* * * * * *
Dinnerware Glazed No Yes No No Yes Yes
Unglazed Glass Dinnerware Yes Yes No No Yes Yes
Crystal/Cut Glass Antique Glassware No No No No Not *
Recommended
Microwave Browning Dish Yes No No No No Yes
*See Manufacturers Directions
** Does not include paper products manufactured for microwave ovens
Some microwave dishes use metal parts for shielding and are safe for microwave use.
TYPE OF MICROWAVE CONVENTIONAL TOP OF BROILER FREEZER DISHWASHER
UTENSILS/ DISHES OVEN OVEN RANGE
less cookware:
1. Metal pans are formed with graduat-
ed thickness that, at a low temperature,
spreads heat throughout the pan,
although only a small area may come in
direct contact with the food. Heat reaches
food from all directions.
2. Rims and covers are made so that a ring
of moisture forms in the crevice between
cover flange and inside rim. This seals pan lid
to the body and seals steam, moisture, flavors
and odors inside pan. Covers are heavy
enough that they wont be pushed up by
steam collecting inside.
3. The pans are self-basting. Steam forms in
the pan, rises to the lid and falls back again
and again into the food to keep it moist and
juicy. No basting or stirring is necessary if the
lid is not lifted. This only lets moisture escape
and prolongs cooking time.
I CLAY COOKWARE
The porous nature of terra cotta cookware
allows for unique cooking methods. The cook-
ware can be submersed in cold water prior to
use; the clay absorbs the moisture which is
then slowly released during cooking. If used
dry, the food produces a thin, crisp crust
because of moisture lost to the clay.
The cookware can be used in conventional,
microwave and convection ovens. They are
available in a variety of shapes from lasagna
pans to muffin pans. Accessory items, such as
wine coolers, are also available.
I PRESSURE COOKERS
AND FRYERS
Slightly different from other range-top
ware are pressure cookers and pressure fry-
ers. Both specialize in fast cooking and
retention of natural flavors, vitamins and
colors of fruits and vegetables.
Pressure cookers have steam-tight covers
that permit steam pressure of 5 to 15 lbs.
Average size is 4-qt. capacity, but larger sizes
(up to 22 qt.) are available. Foods cook under
steam pressure three to 10 times faster than in
ordinary pans. Flavors do not evaporate into
the air or drown in water because cooking is
done with no air and a small amount of water.
An important selling point is how eco-
nomical pressure cookers are. First are fuel
savings because a whole mealmeat and
vegetablescan be cooked in one pan on
one burner. Second are grocery costs.
Pressure cooking will tenderize less tender
and cheapercuts of meat.
If your customers have large gardens,
point out that cookers with a selective 5-,
10-, 15-lb. control double as pressure can-
ners and provide (according to the U.S.
Department of Agriculture) the only safe
way to can low-acid foods.
Because of construction features, steam
venting and pressure-control devices on
pressure cookers differ according to the
manufacturer. Read instruction sheets with
those you sell. Be thoroughly familiar with
them to tell customers how to use a pres-
sure cooker.
Low-pressure fryers fry foods in oil under
pressure in about one-third of the time of
conventional frying. Designed especially
for pressure frying, these cookers main-
tain a pressure level around 5 to 6 lbs. per
square inch. For proper browning and
pressure frying, the oil should reach a
temperature of 350 F. Available in 4- and
6-qt. capacities, a pressure fryer features a
pressure regulator, vent tube, safety vent
and clamp to hold the lid on. Check man-
ufacturer information for complete con-
struction features as well as proper use
and care instructions. Although pressure
frying cannot be done in a conventional
pressure cooker, regular pressure cooking
can be done in pressure fryers.
I NONSTICK FINISHES
Easy cleanup . . . cooking with less oil . . .
moderate pricesall reasons why consumers
buy products with nonstick finishes.
Because DuPonts Teflon and
SilverStone finishes are most widely
known, information here deals with
them. Other nonstick finishes include
Fluon, made by ICI America, Inc.; Halon,
made by Allied Corp.; Debron, and T-Fal.
I TEFLON TFE FINISHES
Teflon TFE nonstick finishes are referred
to in the plural because the application
process involves two coats: a primer with
adhesive properties and a top coat of
enamel containing color.
Teflon II coatings are scratch resistant and
can be used with
smooth-edged metal
kitchen tools; they are
available on all kinds of
utensilrange-top
cookware, some small
appliances and bake-
wareand can be applied to aluminum, stain-
less-steel, cast iron and glass cookware, both
electric and nonelectric.
Only those items bearing the Teflon II
Certification Mark meet DuPonts standards of
hard-based application and can be considered
scratch resistant.
Teflon-S, another nonstick finish manufac-
tured by DuPont, is used on products such as
steam irons, garden tools, range hoods and
drill bits; it is not used on cooking utensils.
Certain other finishes, such as Tufram, have
a hard material added to the Teflon; but
according to DuPont, the surface, although
harder, loses some of its nonstick properties.
What Will Teflon Do?
When Teflon is applied to cookware, it pro-
duces a nonstick surface that reduces cleaning
time and effort because food will not stick and
burned-on residue comes off with ordinary
dishwashing.
This same nonstick property makes it possi-
ble to cook without grease or cooking oils.
But Teflon is not a miracle covering. It
wont keep food from burning if the pan gets
too hot. It wont replace the flavor that cook-
ing oil gives food, but neither will it substitute
a foreign flavor or endanger health.
How to Use Teflon
While it isnt necessary to use cooking oils,
in some instances it is recommended. As a
general rule, follow the recipeespecially for
baked foods. The nonstick finish assures that
the finished product will come out of the pan
cleanly and completely.
A new Teflon-coated pan should be washed,
rinsed, dried and conditioned before it is used.
Conditioning means covering the surface
lightly with cooking oil, and this is particular-
ly important for frying pans, grills and bake-
ware, except angel food pans. (If an angel
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
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food pan has been greased for any reason, the
Teflon coating should be cleaned by rubbing
vinegar or lemon juice over the entire surface,
then washed thoroughly in hot suds, rinsed
and dried.)
No matter what the base material, Teflon-
coated frying pans and grills should be pre-
heated. Medium to medium-high heat is
best for aluminum and low to medium heat
is best for porcelain-enameled pans. High
heat, above 450, should be avoided because
(1) food may burn and (2) the Teflon coat-
ing may discolor. Discoloring will not
destroy the nonstick quality, but the pans
appearance will suffer.
Although food will not stick to Teflon fin-
ishes, grease may build up and cause stains
and discoloring. Minor stains are normal and
do not harm surface, but large stains, caused
by improper cleaning or overheating, may
result in the loss of nonstick property.
These stains and coloration can be partially
removed or reduced by simmering any of the
following solutions 15-20 minutes in the
stained pan:
1. 3 Tbsp. oxygen bleach and one tsp. liq-
uid dish detergent in one cup water.
2. 3 Tbsp. automatic dishwasher detergent
in one cup water. Wash, rinse, dry and again
condition with shortening or cooking oil.
Proper cleaning involves washing the pan
with a soft cloth or sponge in hot water and
detergent after each use and periodically
scrubbing the surface with a plastic or rubber
scrubber. A plastic-mesh dishpad or rubber
scraper will remove a stubborn spot, but steel
wool or scouring powder should never be
used. Nylon, plastic, wooden or rubber uten-
sils are preferred. Metal utensils can be used
with care, but do not cut in the pan.
Automatic dishwashing will not harm
Teflon surface, but may discolor the under-
coated outside of the pan. When rinse water
beads and runs off, Teflon surface is clean.
I SILVERSTONE
Manufactured by DuPont, SilverStone is a
nonstick finish developed for heavy-gauge alu-
minum cookware.
Applied in a three-coat system and baked
on at 800F, SilverStone has a smoother cook-
ing surface than Teflon and is more resistant
to scratching, peeling and chipping.
Its care and use is the
same as for Teflon II.
SilverStone Supra has
most of the same prop-
erties as regular
SilverStone coatings,
but is more abuse resistant than earlier
SilverStone. The Supra line costs about 20 per-
cent more at retail than the regular
SilverStone-coated items.
PLASTICS
Quality plastics have a definite place in
housewares sales, and consumers who buy
them are demanding and discriminating.
Most plastic housewares are either thermo-
plastic or thermosetting plastic.
With so many different plastics in use,
you must be able to explain the differences
in terms of proper use and care as well as
the quality features that make the difference
in price.
Thermoplastics
Kitchen storage items and food-preparation
utensils are examples of thermoplastics which
include rigid or flexible polyethylene, nylon,
vinyl and acrylics.
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PLASTICS GLOSSARY
ACRYLIC- warm to touch. Available in translucent, transparent and opaque colors. Resists sharp
blows, but scratches easily. Can be damaged by perfume, gasoline, cleaning fluid, etc. Has slow
burning rate; will not flash ignite.
ACRYLONITRILE- rigid material with high resistance to heat, breaking and shattering. Can be
crystal, transparent or opaque.
COPOLYMER- the process of combining two plastics-such as polyethylene or polypropylene- into
a heavy duty plastic used in trash and garbage cans.
EXPANDED STYRENE- lightweight foam material used for all-plastic picnic jugs, ice chest, etc.
Good insulator. Can be punctured; when too light or thin is subject to fairly easy breakage.
HIGH-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE- high resistance to heat; is slightly translucent and more rigid
than ordinary polyethylene. Resists sub-zero freezer temperatures without cracking or becoming
brittle, dishwasher safe.
HIGH-IMPACT POLYSTYRENE- much stronger than ordinary polystyrene. Also rigid with lustrous
finish. Breakage under normal usage is rare.
MELAMINE- thermosetting plastic used mostly in dinnerware and for handles of some kitchen
tools. Is mar-resistant and virtually unbreakable. Impervious to detergents, cleaning fluids, alco-
hol. Dishwasher safe.
NYLON- rigid thermoplastic material with glossy surface; almost unbreakable and resist heat and
cold. Can be boiled but not scoured. Will ignite if it comes in contact with open flame.
PHENOLIC- thermosetting plastic with good resistance to heat. Used for handles on cooking
pans, etc. Can be boiled.
POLYTHYLENE- lightweight, thermoplastic that feels waxy; is resistant to chemicals and moisture
and flexible enough to squeeze. Wont stiffen or become brittle from cold; resistant to chipping,
crushing and peeling, but will not last with abrasive cleaning or sterilizing.
POLYPROPYLENE- in some formulations is among the strongest plastics available. Rigid, lustrous,
heat-resistant and boil-proof.
POLYSTYRENE- rigid or semi-rigid thermoplastic with satiny smooth or textured finish. Shatter-
proof; resists most foods, drinks, household acids and oils. Burns if subjected to direct flame. Can
be used for containers, molded products and sheet material. Occasional contact with boiling
water wont hurt it, but repeated immersions are not recommended. Unlimited range of trans-
parent, translucent and opaque colors.
THERMOSET POLYESTER- rigid plastic used mostly in higher-quality microwave cookware.
Withstands heat up to 400 F. Boil-proof and stain-resistant.
UREA- heat-and scratch-resistant thermosetting plastic. Not affected by detergents, cleaning flu-
ids, alcohol. Comes in a wide range of colors.
VINYL- soft, pliable and resilient thermoplastic that resists stains; wont peel or become
gummy like rubber. Abrasive cleaners and direct heat are harmful. Can also be a rigid material.
In the manufacturing process, heat and
pressure are applied to dry materials in a
mold. The finished product melts when
resubjected to heat, making thermoplas-
tics unsuitable for cooking utensils.
In fact, these items should never be left
near an open flame of a hot stove where they
may come in contact with direct heat.
However, containers made of boilable plas-
tic can be taken directly from the freezer and
dropped into boiling water.
Some thermoplastics are rugged enough
to withstand severe weather extremes and
the constant battering that trash and
garbage cans take. These are found in
plastic cans that are lighter weight than
good metal cans and wont crack, dent,
warp or rust.
Thermosetting Plastics
During manufacturing, thermosetting
plastics become hard and brittle with the
application of heat and pressure. The
product retains its rigid form regardless of
subsequent applications of heat.
Melamine, phenolic, urea, plastic-laminat-
ed and fiberglass-reinforced materials are
made this way.
Thermosetting plastics are primarily used
for appliance knobs and handles, bottle caps,
radio and TV cabinets, laminated countertops
and melamine dinnerware. Probably the most
familiar use is for heat-resistant handles on
metal cookware.
Although thermosetting plastics are not
affected by moderate heat, you should
warn your customers not to inadvertently
leave a detachable pot handle or
melamine dinner plate near intense or
direct heat. While they will not melt like
thermoplastic, they may warp.
Care Pointers
Plasticseven the bestshould be
washed with a mild soap or nonabrasive
cleaner. Abrasive cleaners and scouring
pads may permanently mar the finish.
Solvents and liquid cleaners may etch
the finish of some plastics, notably
polystyrenes.
Today, many plastics are boilproof or safe
for washing in an automatic dishwasher, but
tell your customer to read the manufacturers
fact tag or label before washing the item.
Marks of Quality
Quality in plastic housewares may be
more difficult to distinguish than in some
other lines. Theres no gauge to go by, but
there are differences.
Virgin plastic is one big quality differ-
ence. Less expensive products may be
made from reclaimed plastic, which may
dry out and crackvirgin plastic wont.
Better quality is apparent in weight of the
item and thickness of walls, sides and bot-
toms. Also, look for a snug seal in lids.
TABLEWARE
Knowledge of interior decorating
themes is as vital to selling tableware as is
how it will be used. Read consumer shel-
ter magazines for decorating tips and
trade magazines for product availability
and new trends.
Combine that information with the prod-
uct knowledge and selling pointers included
here and youll be able to sell anything in the
tableware line.
Selling Tips
The prime selling tip for any kind of table-
ware is find out what it will be used for. Then
let the following facts guide you in your rec-
ommendations:
Melamine or lightweight glass ceramic din-
nerware is good for everyday use. Neither
breaks easily.
Earthenware or stoneware is a step up
from melamine.
Moderately priced glass tumblers are
frequently made from heat-treated glass.
This means they wont break with normal
treatment.
Thermal tumblers are virtually unbreak-
able, so they are often used for childrens
dinnerware.
Stainless-steel flatware offers attractive
styling and easy care.
Chrome-plated ware is pretty to look at,
practical and requires minimal care. Makes a
nice, moderately priced gift.
I DINNERWARE
Ceramic Dinnerware
Ceramic is a word that applies to the
process of making clay vessels and to the fin-
ished products, including china and porcelain.
Certain signs indicate inferior china
inspect your stock so you find them before
your customer does.
Major trouble signs are:
Thick areas called puddles in plates and
saucers. They show up when piece is held
up to light.
Blisters, pitting, bumps or waviness in
glaze. It should reflect light evenly.
Rough edges on bottom of plate or rim
of cup.
Crack in glaze indicating weakness
where handles are joined to body.
Black or brown speck, gray sheen or
dull color.
Breaks in decoration.
Two other forms of pottery are earthenware
and stoneware. Stoneware is harder than
earthenware and both are heavier and harder
than porcelainthe harder the pottery, the
less readily will it break.
Glass dinnerware may be made of pressed
or more durable laminated glass. Pressed-glass
dinnerware is usually transparent and may be
clear or tinted. Laminated glass provides con-
siderably more rugged dinnerware in white or
tinted body colors and a range of decorations.
Melamine Dinnerware
Melamine is a thermosetting plastic that
is heat resistant, rigid and virtually inde-
structible. (See section on Plastics for char-
acteristics and care of melamine.) It pro-
duces lightweight, colorful dinnerware that
stands up under relatively hard use. An
independent testing agency has discovered
certain quality defects that may show up in
melamine dinnerware, regardless of price.
Before you display or sell a set, check it for
the following problems.
Scuffs, scratches, cracks, dents, pinholes,
pits, blisters, wrinkles, chips, chalking, dull
spots, orange-peel surfaces.
Patterns off-center or wrinkles at edges
because underlay is too large for plate.
Cup handles badly attached or mold marks
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13
not burnished properly.
Bases of dinner plates or serving platters
warped so they dont stand solidly.
I GLASSWARE
As with any product, glassware comes in
varying qualities.
Lime glass is used for machine-made glass-
ware. It resists scratches but does not have the
sparkle or tone of crystal.
Crystal is made from lead or flint glass
that produces a brilliant jewel-like glass
and produces a clear, musical note when
gently tapped.
Most better-quality glass is made by blow-
ing or pressing.
Blown glass is fed into molds and shaped
by compressed air. Pressed glass is manufac-
tured by pouring molten glass into precast
forms and pressing it into shape. If a block
mold is used, the item will have no seam;
with a hinge mold, the finished piece will
have a seam.
Among characteristics common to all glass-
wares are strength, durability and resistance to
heat and acids. Heat treating increases resist-
ance to breaking. To avoid breakage, glassware
should not be subjected to extreme tempera-
ture changes.
In most stemware, the bowl is made sepa-
rately and later attached to stem and foot.
Pitcher handles are usually applied after the
body is but while the glass is still hot.
Better-quality glassware is free of mold
marks. Lower-quality tumblers frequently
have two or three mold marks along upper
portions, a thick rim or lip at the top and tiny
air bubbles trapped in the walls.
Medium-priced lines include colored and
textured items.
Thermal Ware
Insulated thermal items include tum-
blers, pitchers and casserole serving dish-
es. Although they cannot be categorized
accurately as glassware, these pieces serve
the same purpose. In addition to being
lightweight and almost unbreakable, ther-
mal ware offers an insulating characteris-
tic that glass does not. Food or liquid put
in these containers will stay hot or cold
for long periods.
Better thermal ware has double-walled con-
struction with a glass or plastic inner lining,
an insulating space between the linings and
an unbreakable plastic outer jacket sealed to
the inner lining at the top. The outer jacket
gives the ware its decorative value.
I FLATWARE
Stainless-steel flatware patterns are diverse
and attractive.
Lower-quality stainless-steel flatware is
lightweight, may break under stress and has a
dull finish. It may be made of an alloy instead
of pure stainless steel, and handles may not be
fastened on securely.
Better stainless steel is heavier, has a uni-
form high-glass mirror finish which retains
without polishing, has no rough spots
(especially on fork tines) and is pure stain-
less steel. Forks and spoons are one piece
and knife blades are attached to handles so
securely there is little danger of their com-
ing apart. Most knife handles are hollow
and many blades are tempered steel.
I CHROME-PLATED WARE
Most pieces of chrome-plated ware are
serving dishes and accessories that look like
silver but wont tarnish. The chrome may
pick up fingerprints, but they come off with
soap and water. Under no circumstances
should chrome plating be scouredthe sur-
face will scratch.
Lower-cost items frequently have only a
thin coating of chrome which may
scratch or chip, leaving the base metal
exposed to rust.
Better pieces are stamped from sheet brass
or steel, engraved or embossed (if a pattern
is desired), formed and smoothed into fin-
ished shape. Then theyre plated, first with
nickel, then with chrome. This process elim-
inates rough spots or imperfections.
CUTLERY
Surveys have indicated that American con-
sumers use kitchen knives an average of
10,000 times a year. This means that selling
quality, higher-priced kitchen knives, as well
as shears and scissors, should remain prof-
itable, especially if salespeople are well
informed on the items proper use, care, fea-
tures and price comparisons.
I KNIVES
Knives are sold singly or in sets, but it is
best and usually more economical to recom-
mend a set. Also suggest a storage case or rack
for the knives, as jostling in drawers increases
the chance for chips in the blade and shortens
the life of the knife.
Knives are made from steel, and generally,
the more carbon in the steel, the better the
blade will hold its edge.
Steels containing relatively high amounts of
both chromium and carbon will hold an edge
and resist stains, and are usually the most
expensive. Carbon steel is a term commonly
used to denote nonstainless knives.
Carbon steel is easier to resharpen than
stainless steel, but it will rust and discolor
more easily.
Quality of stainless-steel knives depends on
the amount of carbon steel they contain.
Cheaper ones are low carbon and cant be
hardened or tempered, which means they
wont hold a cutting edge and cant be sharp-
ened satisfactorily.
More expensive high-carbon stainless-steel
knives have a polished finish, a hardened and
tempered cutting edge (some with tungsten
coating), which retains its sharpness for a long
time and can be sharpened when necessary.
No matter how good the knife, it will
become dull with time, when the edge
turns as a result of coming into contact
with hard surfaces.
To stand up to heavy use, better-quality
knives should have properly fitting handles
and high-quality, stain-resistant blades. Better-
quality knife blades are manufactured through
a process that can be broken down into four
basic steps:
1. Hardeningheating blades at high tem-
perature.
2. Quenchingrapid cooling of red-hot
blade in oil, water or salts.
3. Temperingreducing the brittleness
quenching causes by reheating slowly at a
lower temperature. Tempered steel produces
an edge that stays sharp longer and is less like-
ly to break under strain.
4. Grindingforming the cutting edge.
Grinding
Knives are flat, hollow or taper ground,
beginning at the back of the blade and
working toward the edge. The blade may
retain visible grinding marks and this can
have an effect on service or blade life of
stainless-steel blades. The smoother the
finish on nonstainless blades, the more
resistant they are to corrosion.
A flat-ground knife resembles a thin wedge,
thickest part at the back slanting in a smooth
V shape to cutting edge. These knives are usu-
ally heavier than hollow ground and may
have a broader cutting edge.
Hollow-ground knives have a concave
area (or indentation) on each side gradu-
ally reducing thickness of blade to a razor-
sharp cutting edge. The slant (or grinding)
begins about midway on the blade.
Another version is concave grinding
which begins closer to the back and
grinds the blade thinner.
Flat-ground edges become thicker with
sharpening; hollow-ground edges remain
thinner as they are ground back toward the
back of the blade.
Taper-ground knives have an additional
grind which eliminates a shoulder, giving an
even, more uniform and smooth taper. This
minimizes the blades resistance as it cuts,
making it seem sharper.
Thickness of a knife blade also helps
determine a quality product. Better small
knives, such as parers, will be .062 gauge
steel; utility and light slicing knives will
be .085; and heavy slicing knives, butcher
knives and cooks knives are generally
.100 gauge steel or heavier.
Edges
V edging produces a straight carving edge.
It is so-called because a cross-section of the
blade shows a perfect V shape with the wide
part at the back and point at the edge.
Cannell or rolled edging is modified V edg-
ing. The blade is ground like a V edge to with-
in 1/32 of the edge, and then rolled. This
produces a broader cutting edge like that used
for butcher knives.
Two other kinds of edgesscalloped and
serratedare used for sawing or cutting hard-
to-cut foods. The scalloped edge is a wavy
edge with broad valleys between points. A ser-
rated edge is similar to scalloped, but the teeth
are much finer and closer together.
Scalloped edge requires a sweeping cut-
ting motion and produces a clean cut neces-
sary for meat. The advantage of the scal-
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
14
TYPES OF KNIVES
BREAD KNIFE- long, wide blade with ser-
rated edge for ripping food apart rather
than cutting. Used for cutting light density
foods such as bread.
BUTCHER KNIFE- (6-12, sharp broad
blade, straight edge)- cuts, separates, dices
and trims raw meats, fish and poultry; can
be used as cleaver to open lobsters or
chop through bones and joints.
CLASSIC GROUND PARING KNIFE-
(3)- dices, slices, peels fruits and veg-
etables; finely slices or slivers olives,
etc., for fancy salads.
CLEAVER- splits, chops, pounds, dices or
slices. Back of cleaver can be used to
pound meat.
CLIP-POINT PARING KNIFE- (3)- general
kitchen use for peeling, paring, skinning,
seeding and pitting fruits and vegetables.
CHEESE SLICER- split-tip blade slices easily
through cheeses.
COOKS UTILITY KNIFE- (5, scalloped
edge)- cuts sandwich fillings; trims and
cuts large vegetables; removes kernels
from corn-on-the-cob.
CURVED CITRUS KNIFE- (double ser-
rated blade)- cuts and loosens citrus
fruit sections.
FISH FILLETING KNIFE- (8)- flexible
blade skins, bones, fillets fish.
FRENCH COOK KNIFE (8)- chops, dices,
cleans onions, celery, peppers, etc.: carves
hot roasts; slices sandwich loaves; sections
corn-on-the-cob; cuts noodles; disjoints
raw chicken.
FROZEN FOOD SLICER- special serrated
edge cuts through frozen vegetables and
meats (including large cuts).
LARGE SLICER- (9, scalloped edge)- slices
ham, sausages, cold roasts, rolls, angel
food cake, bread.
ROAST CARVER (8, scalloped edge)-
carves round and boneless roasts, raw
roasts, cheeses, melons.
ROAST CARVER (9, straight of scalloped
edge)- carves and slices roasts, steaks,
whole hams, leg-of-lamb, turkey, raw
chicken, melons
SPREADER- broad, rounded, paddle-like
blade for spreading soft sandwich fillings.
STEAK KNIFE- pointed tip, scalloped
edge; can also have rounded tip and/or
carving edge.
STEAK AND POULTRY SLICER (7-1/2,
scalloped edge)- cuts ham, cold roasts,
fowl, steaks, bread and cakes.
TRIMMING KNIFE- long, narrow blade.
Used for boning or trimming ham
bone, leg-of-lamb, roasts, etc.
UTILITY KNIFE (5)- slices, cuts or cores
fruits and vegetables; trims meats.
UTILITY SLICER (6, scalloped edge)-
slices steaks, roasts, hams, leg-of-lamb,
cold meat, fruits, peppers; fillets fish; dis-
sects poultry.
(Note: Generally recommend a wide blade for roasts and a narrow blade
for cold meat or fowl.)
loped edge is that the points prevent the
insides of the arcs from being dulled on the
cutting surface. Serrated edges take short
strokes and are inclined to tear the food;
they are best for hot bread.
The two last types of edges are honed and
polished. Honed, found on a majority of
household cutlery, is accomplished by grind-
ing steel down to a cutting edge on a honing
wheel. The polished edge is applied by pol-
ishing on a felt wheel after honing; it is
extremely sharp and delicate.
Handles
Most handles are wood, with higher-priced
knives having rosewood handles. Other better
knives have walnut, beech, maple or high-
quality plastic handles.
Handle construction is important. The
knife must be balanced properly, the handle
must be attractive and it must be made
from a material that wont split, crack or
chip. Right- and left-handled contour-grip
handles are also available.
A properly balanced knife has its greatest
weight in the handle end. When the knife is
held loosely in the hand, the blade should
hang comfortably. This is especially important
with long-bladed knives.
The tangthe portion of the blade extend-
ing into the handleis attached by riveting,
friction or cementing. Whichever method is
used, the handle should be attached so it
wont come off under strain.
Tangs are full, half, round or flat. Full
and half tangs are riveted in the handle;
round tangs are cemented; flat tangs are
friction held, sometimes with a pin driven
through the end. A handle with a half
tang has two rivets only and isnt as
strong as one with a full, three-rivet tang.
Better knives are constructed with no
crevices to gather food where blade
attaches to handle.
Cemented and friction-held handles are
common among the less-expensive knives,
although a round tang with a bolster may
be found on fine carving knives, and profes-
sional carbon steel knives may have fric-
tion-held handles.
The biggest problem with friction-held han-
dles is that they may loosen and come off if
they get wet. Dishwashers are especially hard
on them.
Care Pointers
For a knife to perform its best, here are a
few pointers to suggest to customers.
1. Use the knife for what it was intended.
Dont try cutting wire with a carving knife.
2. Store knives individually. Keep them in a
cutlery rack, partitioned box or in the card-
board sleeves the manufacturer puts on them.
Knocking or scraping together in a drawer can
dull or chip the edge.
3. Cut on a slicing board. It protects kitchen
work surfaces and may retard edge dulling.
4. Wash and dry after each use, by hand
unless manufacturer tag indicates it can be
washed in an automatic dishwasher.
5. Keep blade away from direct heat.
I SHEARS AND SCISSORS
Shears and scissors may look alike, but they
differ in length, construction and use. They
are made in both right- and left-handed mod-
els, and since 10 percent of all humans are
left-handed, its worthwhile stocking a few
left-handed models.
Shears measure 6 to 14, have one round
handle for thumb and one oblong handle for
two or more fingers and are used for heavy
cutting tasks.
Scissors measure 3 to 6, have two small
matching ring handles and are used for light
cutting jobs.
Shears and scissors are made from one of
four methods:
Castmade from molten metal cast in a
form. Cannot be tempered, set or satisfactorily
resharpened. Are brittle and will break easily.
Often fitted with rivet instead of screw.
Cold-pressed steelmake from pressed
steel and are relatively soft. Do not hold
sharp edge.
Hot-forged steelmade of one-piece hard-
ened and tempered steel. Superior to cast and
cold-pressed shears. Useful for barbering and
light household work. Heavy-duty forged
shears will cut carpet and leather for shoes.
Inlaidblade section made of high-car-
bon crucible steel welded to malleable
steel frame and fitted with screw. Blades
are hard enough for most household jobs.
Present little danger of breaking and can
be resharpened if necessary.
Quality Features
The best shears have blades of equal hard-
ness and are set so that one blade cannot cut
into the other, which impairs smooth opera-
tion and eventually damages one or both
blades. They are fitted with a screw that can
be adjusted and repaired if it gets loose or
worn. Some can be snapped apart for cleaning
of individual blades.
Lower-quality shears are made of cast iron
or steel and may break. Blades will not hold
an edge for long and require frequent
although unsatisfactory resharpening. They
may be of unequal hardness so that the hard-
er blade will damage the softer one.
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WHAT IS RANGE-TOP WARE?
Range-top ware includes items used on top of the stove that come in direct contact with heat. Food is
cooked by conduction- transfer of heat through pan to food. Basic to this category are:
SAUCEPANS- have one long handle, come with or without lids in 5/8-qt. to 4-qt. sizes.
SAUCE POTS- have two side handles, 2-qt. to 20-qt sizes.
SKILLETS- also called fry pans. Have one long handle, broad bottoms, shallow sidewalls. Come
6 to 12 diameters, round or square, regular or saut (with curved flaring sides) shapes, with or
without lids.
DUTCH OVENS- like sauce pots only made of heavier gauge metal. May be used on burner or in
oven for slow cooking or braising meats.
KETTLES- 8-qt. to 16-qt. covered utensils with bail handle.
GRIDDLES- have one long handle, two side handles or bail handle, wide bottoms, shallow side-
walls; are round, square or oblong.
TEA KETTLES- have curved or bail handles, 6-cup to 5 qt. capacity. Conventional or whistling.
Whistlers have flip-up spout covers and trigger handles.
Some have a rivet assembly, which cannot
be repaired if rivet gets loose, and when this
happens, there is no way to maintain proper
blade stress. Handle rings may be rough and
cause scratches or blisters.
Care Pointers
Taking proper care of shears and scis-
sors keeps them in better working condi-
tion longer. Keep them dry, oil them occa-
sionally around the screw and frequently
remove lint and dirt from cutting edges. If
they are kitchen tools (used with food),
wash and dry them thoroughly. Follow
manufacturers instructions and file them
for future reference.
FOOD PREPARATION
As interest in backyard gardening grows, so
does the market for canning and freezing sup-
plies. Its a matter of economicshow else to
make the most of a bountiful harvest than to
make it last through the whole year?
Canning is a very broad term. There are
three types of canning: water bath for process-
ing acid foods (fruits, tomatoes, pickles, relish-
es) at 212F; steam-pressure canning for pro-
cessing low-acid foods (most vegetables,
meats, soups) at 240F; and open kettle (for
jellies only) which involves simply cooking
and pouring into sterilized jars. In addition to
kettles, water-bath canners and steam canners,
some customers will want a blancher to scald
foods, especially fresh corn and soups.
In addition to jars and lids, customers will
be needing paraffin, timers, choppers, strain-
ers, food presses, ladles, long-handled tongs,
jar and freezer-bag labels and markers, fun-
nels, jar wrenches, jelly strainers, jar lifters,
pea shellers and corn cutters.
Some people prefer freezing because the
process is easier. You can freeze a greater vari-
ety of foods than you are able to can and
some contend that foods taste more like
theyre fresh from the garden than after can-
ning. However, maximum storage time for
frozen fruits and vegetables is 8-12 months
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
16
SCISSORS AND SHEARS
SCISSORS
BUTTONHOLE SCISSORS- small scissors
with adjustable screw and notched blade
for cutting buttonholes of different
lengths.
EMBROIDERY SCISSORS- blades have
sharp points. Used for fine needlework.
GENERAL USE SCISSOR- one rounded
and one pointed blade. Length varies from
3 to 6.
MANICURE SCISSORS- cuticle scissors
have two sharp-pointed curved blades; nail
scissors have two short heavy blades.
POCKET OR SCHOOL SCISSORS- two
blunt points for safe carrying.
SEWING SCISSORS- also called light trim-
mers; for lighter work like darning, ripping
and millinery projects.
THREAD SNIPS- unique shape, different
from other scissors or shears. Are light-
weight and designed to fit into palm of
hand. Can be used on thread, fabric, rib-
bon, fish nets, string, light wire, harness
ties, electronic filament, film, etc.
SHEARS
BARBERS SHEARS- used for cutting hair.
Unlike other shears, have equal-size han-
dles.
BENT TRIMMERS- handles are bent slight-
ly upward to cut dressmaking or other
materials that must lie flat.
KITCHEN SHEARS- long shank gives
added leverage for heavy cutting. Top
blade is serrated. Can be used to cut light
wire, linoleum or rope as well as for food
preparation. Some have notched grip for
unscrewing jar caps and hook for opening
beverage bottles. Some have decorator-
colored handles.
PAPER SHEARS- also called desk, station-
ers, blueprint, editors, advertising,
bankers or paper hangers shears. Have
long, swinging blades (up to 16 long)
that cut straight edges in large sheets of
paper. Paper hangers shears usually have
wider blades and larger finger holes.
PINKING SHEARS- meshing teeth cut reg-
ular zig-zag edge. Important in dressmak-
ing because they leave nonraveling edge.
Can be used on plastics and synthetics.
Some have ball-bearing pivot to cut with
less effort.
POULTRY SHEARS- wide, long, curved
blades. Some have ordinary shear handles;
others have long-straight handles.
Specifically designed for preparation of
chicken, turkey or other fowl.
SCALLOPING SHEARS- similar to pinking
shears. Used for finishing seams in dress-
making; also for cutting decorative edges
on felt, suede, chamois, leatherette, oil
cloth, plastic.
STRAIGHT TRIMMERS- general purpose
household or dressmaking shears.
TAILORS SHEARS- long blades that cut
from point to point. Handles are bowed
and shaped to fit the hand.
less than for canned goods.
The latest home preservation process is
dehydration, which dries food at a con-
stant temperature of 120 F without burn-
ing it. A special dehydrator accommodates
18-20 lbs. of food at a time. Properly
stored, dried foods will keep for years in a
minimum amount of space and their
nutrient value is preserved.
MISCELLANEOUS
HOUSEWARES
I STORAGE UNITS
Turntables, racks, shelves, bins and drawers
are particularly efficient for storing smaller
items. Also useful are the door and wall units
that organize larger items.
Turntables are 101/2 to 21 in diame-
ter, single or double tier, some with lidded
plastic containers or bin-like sides and
partitions up to 7 deep.
They are useful in cabinets and cupboards
to hold containers of food or cleaning
agentsalmost any hard-to-store item.
Because they rotate on steel ball bearings at
the touch of a finger, it is easy to pick out
whatever is needed without reaching around
or moving jars that might be in the way.
Caddies may be one, two or three tiers, but
each tier is compartmentalized or slotted to
hold various sized and shaped objects.
Caddies not only hold small, easily mis-
placed items for storage, but can be carried
around so contents are at hand when needed.
Storage drawers can be hung over a
work counter or fastened under overhead
cabinets where they slide out and tilt
down. Some drawers are designed to hold
just about anything while others are espe-
cially for baked goods. For moree informa-
tion, click (Kitchen Storage Ideas)
Closet Storage
Closet storage systems are the newest addi-
tions to the closet storage hardware group.
Systems can be sold as a package, for definite
types of storage and space requirements, or by
the piece to let consumers build their own
storage units.
Most storage systems are made up of dif-
ferent racks, poles and shelves, to help make
use of dead closet spaceabove and
below shelves, the backs of doors, etc. Racks
and shelves are usually vinyl-coated wire,
with protected tips for no-snag use. Quality
features include heavy-gauge wire for hold-
ing heavy loads without bending, and
expandability. Look for units that allow cus-
tomers to add on to the system as needs
grow. Part of the advantage of carrying
organizing items individually as well as in
systems, is allowing the customer more flex-
ibility in using the items, and offering add-
ons to the systems in the future.
Storage products offer another advantage
they are useful in all rooms of the house.
Both the individual pieces and the system can
be used in laundry rooms, garages, base-
ments, kitchens and offices. Some items are
designed to serve specific purposes, such as
belt and tie racks, while others, such as
undershelf bins, shelving systems and hooks,
can be put to use anywhere.
Another traditional storage idea, taken one
step further, is growing in popularitycorru-
gated cardboard and plastic storage units.
While cardboard and plastic are not recom-
mended for rugged use, the different boxes
and furniture designed from them serve well
for light use. Traditional furniture such as
dressers and chests of drawers, are now made
of cardboard, and plastic has entered the
sweater box, hat box and organizer category
as well. These materials are also popular for
underbed storage units.
I WOODENWARE
If youre looking for a specialty line, look
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
17
METHODS OF HOME CANNING
OPEN KETTLE- Food is cooked in an ordinary kettle or pot, then packed into hot sterilized jars
and sealed without processing. Use only for jams and jellies. It is unsafe for canning other food.
WATER BATH- Food is processed in jars at boiling temperature (212F.) in a large covered pot or
kettle with a rack and deep enough for the water to cover the tops of the jars one or two inches
without boiling over. Use only for acid foods: fruits, tomatoes and sauerkraut, or for processing
pickles, jams and jellies. It is unsafe for canning low-acid foods.
PRESSURE COOKER- Food is processed in jars at 5lbs. (228F.) or 10 lbs. (240F.) pressure in a
steam-tight covered cooker with a rack, and fitted with a pressure control or gauge. Use at 10
lbs. for low-acid foods: meat, poultry, seafood and all vegetables except tomatoes and sauer-
kraut. Use at 5 lbs. for acid foods like fruits, tomatoes and sauerkraut.
HOW TO SELECT JARS AND LIDS
Always use standard Mason jars made for home canning. These will have the manufacturers name
blown in the glass. Do not use one trip commercial jars. Choose one of the lids illustrated. Be sure to
follow manufacturers directions for using each lid.
A. A flat metal lid with sealing compound and a metal screw band, which fits any standard
Mason jar.
B. A Porcelain-lined zinc cap with shoulder rubber ring, to fit a standard Mason jar.
C. A wire-bail type with glass lid and rubber ring.
Half pints are processed the same as pints. One and one-half pints are processed the same as
quarts. The U.S. Department of Agriculture does not recommend canning fruits, vegetables,
meat and seafood in half-gallon jars.
Metal
Screw Band
Metal Lid
With Sealing
Compound
Seals Here
Porcelain
Lined
Screw Cap
Rubber
Seals Here
Glass Lid
Rubber
Seals Here
Wire Bail
at woodenware.
Most likely candidates for starting inventory
include salt and pepper grinders, spice racks,
salad sets, planters, ash trays, magazine racks,
towel racks, shadow boxes, cup-and-saucer
racks, wall shelves and wall-cabinet bars.
Woodenware takes special handling and
heres where product knowledge comes in
handy. A few tips on proper care given to your
customer will save a ruined piece of wooden-
ware and a dissatisfied customer:
1. Store in a dry place.
2. Dont soak in water.
3. Wash in warm suds after use, rinse and
thoroughly dry immediately.
4. Discard cracked woodenware; it can
become a breeding place for bacteria.
5. Remove surface stains by light rubbing
(with the grain) with soapy steel-wool pad
and rinse.
6. Scratched surface can be restored by
removing old finish with sandpaper and rub-
bing with mixture of mineral oil and pow-
dered pumice.
I COOKING
THERMOMETERS
Meat Thermometers
Meat thermometers are useful for cooking
on an outdoor grill or rotisserie where heat is
not regulated, although they are more gener-
ally used for roasting.
Cooking times in cookbooks are only
approximations; the size and cut of meat or
temperature when put in the oven greatly
affect cooking time. A meat thermometer
accurately measures when the meat is done.
Point of thermometer shaft must be insert-
ed in the center of the thickest part of the
meat, away from fat and bone. Thermometer
usually registers room temperature when
inserted; if temperature drops when inserted,
meat is not completely thawed and may
required additional cooking time. When ther-
mometer registers temperature called for in
the recipe, meat is done.
Some meat thermometers have two point-
ersone to be preset for desired temperature,
the other to register actual temperature. When
both pointers are together, meat is done.
Temperature range: 130F to 190F.
Candy/ Deep Fry Thermometers
Although designed to gauge temperature
of candy and cake icings, candy thermome-
ters can be used for many stove-top cooking
jobs including deep frying and cooking jel-
lies. This thermometer must be clamped on
the side of a pan so that stem almost touch-
es bottom of pan or at least 2" of stem are
submerged in contents. It will register exact
cooking temperature.
Oil that is too hot will burn the outside of
food while the inside isnt cooked, and oil not
hot enough will be absorbed by food. A
candy/deep-fry thermometer will ensure prop-
er oil temperature.
Temperature range: 50F to 400F.
Oven Thermometers
Oven temperature varies from front to back,
side to side and shelf to shelf depending on
distance from heating element. Movable oven
thermometers give exact temperature at a spe-
cific spot in the oven.
Oven thermometers are column or dial
models. Column thermometers are likely to
register a more accurate temperature, but dial
models are easier to read. Column variety can
be washed in soapy water, but moisture may
leak into and damage a dial thermometer.
Temperature range: 100F to 600F.
Refrigerator-Freezer
Thermometers
Refrigerator-freezer thermometers give accu-
rate reading of temperature inside refrigerator
or freezera particularly important piece of
information in knowing whether freezer is
cold enough (0F to -20F) to keep food
frozen. If used in refrigerator, there should be
one thermometer in the shelf section and one
in the freezer compartment.
I HOUSEHOLD SCALES
Kitchen scales are accurate enough to
give rough weights in preparation of food
or to show grossly short-weighted food
purchases. Better scales are accurate to
within one ounce, and have weighing
capacity high enough for large roasts and
fowl. Markings are graduated by ounces
and pounds. For most accurate readings,
food should be placed in the center of the
scale platform so it is properly balanced.
To see if pointer is registering correctly,
press empty scale platform lightly with fin-
gers, lift hand and see where pointer settles. If
it stops somewhere other than on zero, it is
out of adjustment. Most scales have a zero-
adjustment lever or knob to bring pointer
back to zero when it gets off register.
Dietetic scales are smaller, more accurate
versions of kitchen scales. They usually meas-
ure in both ounces and grams and weigh up
to 16 oz., with 1/2-oz. graduations. Accuracy
is of utmost importance.
I NONELECTRIC CAN
OPENERS
Hand Can Openers
A clamp-on can opener clamps on the edge
of the can so a cutting wheel pierces the lid. A
gear, attached to a butterfly handle, rotates
the can, shearing off the lid.
The main disadvantage is that the rotating
gear may slip. Reclamping may cause jam-
ming, which makes turning butterfly handle
difficult. This, in turn, frequently leads to
spilling contents of the can.
Clamp-on openers will open all sizes
and shapes of cans, but are difficult to
clean properly.
Deluxe hand can openers are chrome-plat-
ed, die-cast aluminum. Some have magnetic
lid catchers and coated or wooden handles for
hand comfort.
Wall Can Openers
Lever can opener has a lever on top that
raises steel cutter wheel (sometimes nylon
lined) for the can to be inserted. Lowering the
lever pierces can lid, and turning a handle
rotates can and cuts off lid.
Single-action opener has no lever, but a
rotating handle operates cutter wheel for
piercing and cutting the lid.
Deluxe models have a magnetic lid lifter
which holds the severed lid and keeps it from
falling back into the can, a bottle opener or
bottle opener/knife sharpener attachment.
Some cutting wheels can be removed for thor-
ough cleaning.
Wall can openers usually leave a smoother
can edge than hand openers.
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NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
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I TIMERS
Some cooking timers are dial-setting
devices that will measure any amount of
time up to one hour. They tick off seconds
and a bell rings when time is up. They have
metal or plastic housings. Some are digital
and work off batteries; they can be set to
run as long as 24 hours.
Other household timers can be attached to
appliances to turn them on and off. Some
only start appliance or turn if off after it has
been running an hour or so; others can be set
to turn appliance on, let it run for a preset
period and turn it off.
Another type of household timer governs
lights. Once set, it will turn the lights on and
off each day at the same time until reset or
unplugged. Some of these will operate appli-
ances as well. Some can be set for multiple on-
off cycles or variable timer periods.
I FOOD PREPARATION
Utensils necessary for food preparation,
such as gelatin molds, mixing bowls, measur-
ing cups and spoons, colanders, juicers, bever-
age servers and refrigerator dishes, are made of
aluminum, stainless steel, glass or plastic.
Metal mixing bowls and measuring cups
and spoons are lightweight, nonbreakable
and nonrusting. Finishes are stain resistant,
nonsmudging and do not impart metallic
taste to food.
Glass mixing bowls and measuring cups are
made from heavy, break-resistant or tempered
heat-resistant glass. Although most items can
be used for storing food in a refrigerator or for
baking, they should not be taken directly
from refrigerator and put in a hot ovenand
they should never be used on top of the stove.
Measuring graduations are visible both
inside and outside a cup or bowl. Metal con-
tainers have measure marks stamped into
walls while marks are molded into glass.
Unbreakable plastic mixing bowls may
come with a large handle for easy gripping
and a rubber ring around the base to anchor
the bowl in place. Some beverage pitchers
offer three-position lidspouring, screening
ice and closed. Some measuring cups and
food-keeper containers are transparent and
tinted for quick content identification.
Following recent food trends, manufactur-
ers have come out with small, manual gadgets
to fix specialty foods.
Pasta makers are a good example. Most con-
sist of rollers and several cutting edges,
adjustable to make different types of pasta.
Some include drying racks and other acces-
sories, and some are even decorated to com-
plement certain table serving sets.
Hand-cranked ice cream makers are back in
style, with a few changes. Most manual ice
cream makers make only a pint or a quart.
They are made of plastic, and other types of
frozen desserts can also be made in them.
I PANTRYWARE
Pantryware includes modern counterparts
of the storage containers found in an old-fash-
ioned pantrycanisters, breadboxes, cake-
cover sets, almost any kind of small, portable
storage item.
Materials are plastic, ceramic, stoneware,
metal-plated steel or vinyl-clad steel.
Canister sets (usually four containers in
graduated sizes for flour, sugar, coffee and tea)
come in a variety of styles; containers can be
freestanding, stacked, grouped in a rack,
housed in a cabinet, stacked on a turntable or
combined with a breadbox.
Some paper dispensers hold one roll of
paper, while others hold threepaper towel-
ing, waxed paper and aluminum foil.
The simplest kind consists of a roller to
hold the paper and let it pull off easily, per-
haps with a serrated cutting edge. Deluxe
models dispense as much paper as desired, cut
it off on a concealed cutter and retract the
excess. All can be wall mounted, but some are
designed to be fastened under an overhead
kitchen cabinet.
I SELF-ADHESIVE
COVERINGS
Decorative vinyl coverings are no longer
limited to use as shelf linings or as color spots
around kitchen or bath. Wider rolls and heav-
ier weights, plus an almost unlimited range of
colors, patterns, woodgrains, metal tones and
textures, suit them for many home decorating
uses including wall covering.
The narrower (18) lighter-weight vinyls
are most often stocked in housewares
departments. The wider, heavy-gauge (6, 7
and 8 mil.) vinyls are usually considered
decorating products.
Most vinyl coverings adhere instantly when
a protective backing is stripped off; however,
one type can be removed and repositioned
and becomes permanent after several minutes
in one position. They should not shrink after
application so the seam where the two pieces
meet should not spread.
The 18-wide rolls usually hold 25 yds. of
vinyl which is sold in 6 and 12 packages.
If you are selling roll vinyl by the yard,
youll need to know how to estimate proper
amount. One running yard equals 41/2 sq.
ft. of covering. Find out from your customer
the square footage of the area to be covered
and divide that by 41/2 for the number of
yards needed.
Other shelf liners include paper, vinyl and
plastic roll goods. They are either nonadhe-
sive, or have a very light adhesive so they lie
flat on the shelf, forming a protective lining
for the shelf.
I WEATHER INSTRUMENTS
Indoor or outdoor thermometers register
only temperature where they are located.
Most outdoor thermometers come with suc-
tion cups or mounting brackets to hold them
to window or window frame where they can
be seen through the window.
Indoor-outdoor thermometers register both
temperatures. They mount inside the house
with a capillary tube that extends outside.
Minimum-maximum thermometers register
low and high temperatures. Indicators inside
the thermometer tube are positioned by
movement of mercury to show minimum and
maximum temperatures since previous set-
ting. Homeowner can move temperature indi-
cators with reset magnet on outside of ther-
mometer whenever he wishes.
These are the three most common house-
hold weather thermometers. Special ones
include those for use in autos (suction or mag-
net mounted, visor mounted or antenna
mounted), water-temperature thermometers,
swimming-pool thermometers, bath, class-
room and dairy thermometers.
Barometers measure atmospheric pressure
and indicate possible changes in weather.
Based on the principle that a column of mer-
cury at sea level reaches a maximum height of
30, barometers operate on a spring that regis-
ters atmospheric pressure ranging from 28 to
31 on a dial. Because the 30 figure is accu-
rate only at sea level, a barometer may register
31 in good weather, depending on the alti-
tude where it is located (atmospheric pressure
decreases with rise in altitude). High readings
mean good weather; low readings (around 28
or 29) mean changing or stormy weather.
Most barometers have dual pointersone to
register atmospheric pressure, the other to be
hand set to show change in pressure.
Hygrometers are also called humidity
guides because, obviously, they measure
humidity. They only measure itthey dont
control it as do humidistats. They register
from 1 to 100 representing the percentage of
moisture in the air.
Other weather instruments often carried in
hardware stores and home centers are rain
gauges and wind compasses (also called
anemometers) to measure rainfall and wind
velocity. Although weather instruments are
primarily functional, like almost everything
else in a home, they have become decorator
items as well.
Simple thermometers have highly styled
metal cases or brightly colored mounting
boards. Thermometers, barometers, and
hygrometers are combined into home or
office weather stations set in wood mount-
ing. Some manufacturers also make matched
pairs of the three weather instruments in one
case and a clock in another. Other versions
also include a weatherband radio to pick up
continuous weather reports.
These combinations are more expensive
than single pieces, but they make excellent
gift suggestions.
HOUSEHOLD
FURNITURE
Household furniture, much of it ready to
assemble (RTA) for easy transporting, fills a
need for attractive, lightweight, conveniently
stored tables, chairs and stools for informal
living and entertaining, and can bring big-
ticket, layaway or credit sales.
With plated steel legs, padded seats, colored
or woodgrain vinyl tops and styles to go with
any home decorating plan, these pieces can
become a permanent household item or, if
space demands, can be stored and used only
when needed.
Generally, household furniture frames are
made of tubular steel with one of three finish-
es (in order of durability)chrome plated,
brass plated or painted. Legs should be capped
with rubber or plastic tips or plastic glides.
Tabletops or shelves many have woodgrain
metal finishes or colorful, washable, stain-
resistant coverings. Chair seats and backrests
can be padded with foam rubber or wood
fiber and covered with washable vinyl or an
easy-care fabric.
I FOLDING CHAIRS
AND TABLES
Some chairs have Y-fold structure, like that
of card-table chairs. Quality chairs, however,
look like living room or family-room chairs
when set up. Seats are about 16 square and
17 to 18 from the floor. With either con-
struction, chairs nest for storage.
Tables formerly were braced, but now many
are made of painted tubular steel with leg
locks and vinyl tips or glides and stain-resist-
ant vinyl tops. Better tables are 40 in diame-
ter or 35 square, 271/2 or 28 high.
I TRAY TABLES
Tray tables have tubular steel legs that are
usually chrome or brass finish with rubber or
vinyl tips if legs are straight; tips are not nec-
essary if legs are formed in a U shape from a
single continuous piece of tubing.
Tops vary in size and shape, but most are
made of painted steel or fiberglass. Better
models have fabric-in-fiberglass and wood-
grain patterns.
All units fold for storage, and more expen-
sive sets come in wheeled storage racks. Some
high-end table sets are made of wood, with
natural wood finishes.
I UTILITY TABLES AND
SERVING CARTS
The difference between utility tables and
serving carts is that tables are multishelved for
storage and have small casters. The carts have
a more decorative finish, handles and large
casters or rubber-tired wheels.
Shelf surfaces of utility tables are normally
steel painted in kitchen colors. Better models
have larger, stronger shelves, stronger chrome-
plated tubular steel legs and frequently have
built-in electrical outlets.
Shelves of serving carts can be removed to
be used as trays. Some carts have drop leaves
or other adjustments to convert them to buf-
fet carts. Better carts have woodgrain shelves
and brass-finished frames or enameled finish.
Serving carts are versatile and may double
as bookshelves or plant stands. Many utility
and serving carts will fold down neatly for
compact storage.
I STOOLS
No matter what particular use the stool
has, tubular steel legs will have chrome,
brass or painted finish, be spread at the base
for stability and capped with plastic tips or
glides to protect floors. Occasionally, frames
are made of lightweight wrought iron. Seats
and backs are padded and vinyl covered in
decorator colors. Some lines are made of
fiberglass, wood or rattan and better models
have leather seat pads.
Step Stools
Step stools are a combination of a two-step
ladder and a kitchen stool. The two steps pro-
vide enough lift to reach high cabinets,
shelves or curtain rods, and chair seat is right
height for sit-down ironing or working at
kitchen bar or sink.
With some stools, seat lifts up for access to
the steps, while on other models steps swing
out. Those with swing-out steps must be
designed so that steps stay in place under seat
when stool is moved.
Most step stools have a backrest, which
serves a dual purposesupport and comfort
when used as a chair and as a steadying device
when used as a small ladder.
Most models fold up for compact storing.
Bar and Counter Stools
Bar and counter stools are generally used at
breakfast or basement bars. Normal seat
height is 17 or 24 for breakfast bars and 30
for basement bars. Better pedestal stools adjust
to various heights to suit specific needs.
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
20
Most models have backrests and footrests
(usually chrome plated) for comfort, with
adjustable footrests on better stools. Almost all
have swivel seats, better ones with nylon or
ball bearings. Promotional lines frequently
have unstable rotation devices.
Bath Stools
The most important feature of a bath
stool is strength and a widespread base to
reduce danger of tipping. Legs have chrome,
brass or painted surfaces and should be
capped with rubber or plastic tips. Frame
construction may be wire or steel tubing,
but tubing is stronger.
Upholstery must be durable and water
resistant, preferably washable vinyl. Styling
varies from modern round stools to stools
with backs and vanity types.
Juvenile Furniture
Some of the most popular juvenile fur-
niture resembles adult furniture, just
downsized. But unlike its adult counter-
part, special quality features are a must in
juvenile furniture. Durability, for
instance, is of major concern. Safety is
another. Highchairs, tables, baby furni-
ture, dressers and desks must be able to
take the abuse a young child can dish out.
Check for doweled joints on baby furni-
ture made of hardwood.
When selling highchairs, cribs and security
gates, make sure bars are spaced so that the
child cannot get his/her head wedged
between them.
Easy cleanup is another consideration with
juvenile furniture. Food, paint, crayons and
other materials should not stain the furni-
tures finish.
Car seats are becoming hot items, partly
through growing public concern over traf-
fic safety and because laws have made
them mandatory for children under a cer-
tain age or size.
Quality features in baby and toddler car
seats include heavy padding, water and stain-
proof covering, easy belt attachment and
detachment and sturdy construction that will
withstand severe impact. Higher-end seats
will usually be adjustable to fit a growing
child, so the parent does not have to buy sev-
eral car seats as the child gets bigger.
Booster chairs or seats are legal in some
states for toddlers. The booster seat allows the
child to use the regular seat belt by boosting
his height so the belt fits in the correct posi-
tion. Check your states regulations pertaining
to car seats. Be able to recite them to cus-
tomers and recommend the right seat for all
age children.
Seats should not have decorations or acces-
sories protruding from them that might injure
a child in an accident.
BATH ACCESSORIES
Bath accessories need creative merchan-
dising to reach greatest sales potential.
Because decor is as important in the bath
as in any other room in the home, in-
use, or total-effect displays are a big
plus in selling bath accessories.
This means grouping bath products as
they are used by the homeowner rather
than as they are listed on your inventory
sheet. It means cutting across departmen-
tal lines into housewares, hardware,
plumbing and electrical.
The products described here are those nar-
rowly defined as nonelectric housewares.
I HAMPERS
Hampers come in many colors and finishes,
made of several materials including wicker,
vinyl and wood.
Proper ventilation is necessary to keep
damp clothes and towels from mildewing. A
fiber or wicker hamper, coated to resist splin-
tering and warping, offers good ventilation,
while others have padded tops.
I BATH SCALES
Quality is the important selling feature
for bath scales. Several points immediately
identify a good scale:
1. Weighing mechanism is reliable, long-
lasting and accurate. Digital scales offer
extreme accuracy plus easy reading.
2. Bottom is fully enclosed to keep dirt out
of mechanism.
3. It doesnt rattle when turned over or
handled.
4. It has a smooth finish that cannot be
damaged by kicks or scuffs.
5. It has a zero adjustment lever or screw to
reset scale on zero if it gets out of adjustment.
Lower-priced scales are likely to have a
baked enamel or plastic finish. Although these
finishes are popular because of the color possi-
bilities, they are more vulnerable to chipping
and breakage.
Electronic Bathroom Scales
Electronic scales work similarly to mechani-
cal scales but weight is shown in LED or fiber
optic numbers. Most require batteries and are
activated when weight is placed on them.
I ACCESSORIES
Accessories include bathtub and shower
mats and caddies, adhesive safety appliques,
bath and shower grab bars, bowl brush sets,
wastebaskets, soap dishes, towel bars and
rings, tumbler holders, tissue holders, robe
hooks, screens and space-saver shelves.
Because these items must not rust, they are
usually made of ceramic, hard rubber,
chrome-plated steel, brass, plastic, or chrome
and plastic combinations.
Many bath accessories, like soap dishes,
towel bars and tissue holders, can be recessed
into the wall or surface mounted.
Quality Features
Weight and finish are quality signs in
metal accessories. Less-expensive fittings are
stamped and will have rough finishes. Better-
quality fittings have thicker bars, rings, etc.,
with a mirror finish free of imperfections.
Number of metal coatings also signals
quality. An inner coating of nickel pro-
vides durability while an outer coating of
chrome gives the item its gleaming finish.
Others have a triple coatingfirst copper,
then nickel, finally chrome.
Quality differences in plastic accessories are
more difficult to recognize. Inexpensive items
are thinner and lighter weight. Some
reclaimed plastic will crack and chip with age.
Occasionally, rough edges or mold marks indi-
cate less than top quality.
Good plastic accessories have smooth cor-
ner surfaces and will feel like they are made of
substantial material.
NON- EL EC T RI C HOUSEWA RES
21
CHAPTER TWELVE:
OUTDOOR LIVING
BARBECUE GRILLS
INSECT REPELLENTS, LIGHTS, TRAPS
OUTDOOR FURNITURE
POOL CHEMICALS
SPORTING GOODS
HUNTING
FISHING
CAMPING EQUIPMENT
BICYCLES
POWER VEHICLES
ARCHERY
TEAM SPORTS
RACQUET SPORTS
WATER SPORTS
GOLF
YARD SPORTS
SNOW SPORTS
FITNESS
OUTDOOR LIVING &
Sporting Goods
12
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
2
OUTDOOR
LIVING
BARBECUE GRILLS
Barbecue grills come in a variety of models
and price lines from inexpensive promotional
grills used primarily as traffic builders to more-
expensive gas units.
Function, durability, design and color are
the four features to stress when selling out-
door grills. Examine the cooking features, the
ease of height adjustment, the weight of the
metal, efficiency of the windscreen, etc.
A critical factor in judging grill quality is
the weight of the metal used. A deluxe grill is
usually made from heavy-gauge aluminum or
heavy sheet metal, and is larger and longer
than inexpensive models.
Many of these grills measure up to 5' long
and include food-preparation areas, high-
quality cutting boards, warming ovens and
heat gauges.
They may feature an electric motor-driven
rotisserie, built-in lights or electric outlets for
plugging in percolators, etc.
If the cooker is built squarely on four
wheels, its portable despite its weight. Slightly
less-expensive models have wheels at one end
and a handle at the other, so they can be lift-
ed and rolled about.
Heat-resistant, fired-on porcelain or ceramic
provide color. Generally, the most popular col-
ors are those which dominate housewares.
Next in price are less-expensive grills
which follow the design of top-of-the-line
versions, but are of lighter material and lack
add-on features.
They come with rotisseries, adjustable
grates, etc. In some cases, accessories may be
added at extra cost, but quality doesnt match
that of better models.
Low-cost promotional grills are usually of
very light metal and consist of a round piece
of metal forming a concave fire bowl, with a
round grill mounted above it. The grill can be
raised or lowered to move the cooking surface
farther from or closer to the bed of charcoal. It
is usually mounted on tripod legs, two with
wheels and one without.
Some promotional models with features
such as hoods and rotisseries seem very
similar to top-of-the-line cookers, but
these extras are of varying quality.
Another option is the hibachi grill, a small
unit which copies the Japanese cook stove of
the same name. Better models are usually of
cast iron with an adjustable grill plate. They
may have a slanted design for draining grease
and a draft adjustment to regulate the intensi-
ty of the heat.
Hibachis are most popular among apart-
ment dwellers, condo owners or young mar-
rieds with limited patio or outdoor space.
I COVERED GRILLS
Covered grills, too, vary widely in size,
quality, extra features and price. They have
hinged or unhinged covers; some are square
or rectangular; some resemble an old-fash-
ioned kettle and measure from 18" to 36" or
more across the fire bowl. They feature
damper controls, ash catchers and racks to
hold charcoal up where air can circulate, pro-
viding greater and more even heat.
These grills are available in charcoal, gas
and electric models. The charcoal type comes
in three basic designs. The most expensive is a
redwood wagon, usually on wheels, with the
kettle set into a cabinet.
The common type of covered grills rests on
three or four legs; small tabletop models and
picnic models are available.
Gas and electric covered grills are similar to
the gas and electric grills, described below.
I GAS COOKERS
Gas cookers are easier to light, require no
waiting for the fire to start, and require less
cleanup after cooking.
These grills use volcanic rock briquettes or
steel bars to convert gas to radiant heat. Using
volcanic rock preserves the taste of outdoor
cooking without charcoal.
Temperature controls adjust heat from low,
to slow cook hams, roasts, turkeys, etc., to
high heat for quick grilling of steaks or burg-
ers. Gas grills range in size from 160-515
square inches or more of cooking surface.
Some models have post mounts to sink and
connect to gas outlets for permanent installa-
tion; others have portable mounts to connect
to a gas hose or gas bottles.
WHAT A SEAL MEANS
Seals of approval, listing, etc., provided by trade associations, testing organizations and publications
are not warranties or guarantees. The manufacturer of the product gives a warranty on it.
These seals and listing are used as indications that the product has met certain voluntary standards.
Salespeople need to be familiar with such seals and listings and point out to customers exactly what
they mean.
UNDERWRITERS LABORATORY (UL) Indicates the product has been tested for fire, casualty
and electrical safety and that it can be expected to be reasonably safe for normal use. Testing is
conducted on items considered hazardous to life or property. The tag includes special notifica-
tion if only a portion of the item has been tested. Many electrical items and appliances must be
UL listed to meet specifications of the National Electrical Code and local building codes.
OUTDOOR POWER EQUIPMENT INSTITUTE (OPEI) Indicates participation in a voluntary
safety-testing and inspection program by more than 90 percent of U.S. power lawn equipment
manufacturers; means products meet American National Standard Institute (ANSI) specifications.
POWER TOOL INSTITUTE (PTI) Means the tool fulfills the safety rules established by the PTI,
that the tool has been inspected under power, contains built-in grounding system or double
insulation, and that instructions for safe operation accompany the tools.
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING Indicates products perform the function for which they were designed
reasonably well, safely and for a reasonable time. Awarded only to products advertised in Good
Housekeeping magazine and whose advertising claims in the magazine are found to be truthful
by the Good Housekeeping Institute. Offers replacement or refund if product is defective.
CONSUMER REPORTS Monthly publication of Consumers Union offers descriptions, test
results and ratings; evaluates products by brand name; findings are based on laboratory tests,
controlled-use tests, expert opinion and experience by consumer panels; does not endorse or
guarantee any product.
A small gas grill using two propane tanks of
the torch-kit type combines portability with
the benefits of gas cooking. These units can be
taken nearly anywhere.
Be cautious in connecting portable LP gas
cylinders, making sure valves do not leak at
the connection. Using gas grills also presents
the hazard of flash flame-ups. When a cus-
tomer has trouble getting a unit started, or
when the flame goes out but the LP gas valve
is still open, unburned gas builds up in the
covered grill. Advise customers to open the
grill to clear the gas before trying to reignite
the unit, or the built-up gas will flash, with
possible danger to those around the grill.
I ELECTRIC GRILLS
Electric grills use electric elements over an
infrared reflector or use volcanic rock bri-
quettes placed on an electric element to pro-
duce radiant heat.
These units are controlled thermostatically.
They include a hood for protection, decorator
weather-resistant finishes, and weatherproof
electrical connections. Elements are either
120v or 240v.
Electric grills have a readymade market in
areas where apartment regulations or city
ordinances prohibit the use of open flame
grills. Open units without volcanic rock can
be used indoors as long as they are designed
with a drip pan for hot grease.
I SMOKERS
Smokers combine heat, smoke from aro-
matic woods, and moisture from liquid
vapors to baste meat, poultry or seafoods.
Most smokers are round, with single or dou-
ble grids.
I GRILL ACCESSORIES
There is a wide range of grill accessories
available to boost add-on sales.
Heavy plastic or vinyl covers prolong the
life of a grill and prevent rust and corrosion.
They fit all sizes and shapes of grills and are
especially useful for grills stored outdoors.
There are also numerous accessories to use
on a spit or with a rotisserie motor. These
include chicken baskets which tumble food
while turning; spit baskets of welded-mesh
grids with adjustable covers to hold large cuts
of meat, and two-pronged spit forks to hold
large cuts of meat on the spit rod.
Charcoal sales offer brisk repeat business. In
addition to standard and self-lighting bri-
quettes, special hickory or mesquite chips can
impart a smoked flavor to food.
There is also a wide variety of charcoal
lighters available for repeat sales, from liquid
starters to solid or jelly, as well as electric and
chimney-style starters.
All liquid lighters should be started carefully
with a long fireplace match or torch, and only
after allowing the liquid to soak into the bri-
quettes. Generally, the lower the flash point
(the lowest temperature at which a com-
bustible liquid will ignite in air), the more
hazardous the material. Most liquids are safer
if they have a flash point above 100F; below
that point they are flammable.
Virtually all lighter fluids on the market
today have flash points between 100F and
130F, and gradations between these points
are very narrow. Since the surrounding tem-
perature affects flash pointsfluids will light
more quickly in warm weather than in cool
more care should be taken during hot weath-
er; and liquids with a flash point higher than
125will be difficult to light in cool months.
Lighter fluid should never be applied to
burning or glowing coals, as this could cause
immediate flare-up.
Better grades of fluid will reduce smoke and
may provide nonflash features to eliminate
flare-up. They will also have less odoran aro-
matic content of 5 percent or below is best.
PVC containers allow fluids to be applied
safely from a greater distance and the contain-
ers can be almost completely emptied.
With an electric charcoal lighter, the
heating coil is buried in the charcoal and
the unit is plugged into a 120v outlet. Only
the heating unit goes into the charcoal. The
coil works in as little as five minutes and
the coals are ready to broil 10 minutes after
removing the lighter.
Electric lighters should have the
Underwriters Laboratories label. Plugs and
connections should be tightly fitted and have
cord insulation intact.
Chimney-style starters look like a piece of
stovepipe with a handle. Charcoal loaded into
the pipe piles up on an interior grate with
enough space beneath for crumpled newspa-
per. When the newspaper is lighted, the
flames pass up through the charcoal, fanned
by the draft the chimney creates.
Jelly and solid lighters can be started
with a fireplace match without flare-up.
Jellies should not be added to a fire
already burning. Solid lighters can be
tossed into the grill or placed next to live
coals with a poker or tong.
Cooking tools and utensils are available as
sets or open stock in practically unlimited
variety. A common characteristic is a long
handle for use over a hot fire. Turners, forks,
brushes, knives and tongs are most common.
Quality tools have good hardwood han-
dles, a nice finish and may have holes in
the end for hanging. They are chrome
plated or stainless steel to withstand food
stains, heat, rust, etc.
Caps, aprons and gloves are also popular
with barbecue chefs. Best sellers are colorful
and well made, easy to launder and large
enough to offer real protection to the wearer.
INSECT REPELLENTS,
LIGHTS, TRAPS
Antibug lights have special yellow coat-
ings to cut out the blue light in ordinary
bulbs, which attracts night-flying insects.
They are available as incandescent bulbs for
standard sockets as well as floodlights.
These lights do not repel bugs; they simply
dont attract them.
Another way to eliminate insects is with a
portable, flameless insect fogger that rids
outdoor areas of bugs for hours. Using an
ordinary propane cylinder as propellant, the
fogger produces a dense, dry fog that pene-
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
3
KNOW STORAGE LIMITS
Retailers should be aware of fire protection
codes pertaining to the amount of flammable
and combustible liquids they can safely
stock, both on the salesfloor and in storage.
Any question concerning fire protection
codes should be directed to your local fire
marshall or to the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA), 1 Batterymarch Park,
Quincy, MA 02169, or www.nfpa.org.
trates under leaves and through shrubs. It is
ideal for camping, picnics, hunting and for
commercial sales to schools, churches, etc.
I INSECT KILLERS
Insect killers destroy pests without
chemical pesticides, poison or fogging,
and are available in two basic models:
electronic and those that drown insects.
Most electronic insect killers have
either an incandescent or fluorescent light
inside (not harmful to the human eye) to
attract flying insects into an electrical
grid, which kills them on contact. In gen-
eral, the higher the voltage, the greater
the luring power and coverage a unit will
have. Most residential bug killers have an
average wattage of 4,500-6,000.
Tests indicate that black-light fluores-
cent lamps (BL) are the most successful
attractant. Fluorescent black light-blue
(BLB), which filters out visible light, is
also popular, but the filters increase the
cost of the lamp.
Compared to fluorescent, incandescent
lamps are less energy efficient and have
less ability to attract pests.
Some electronic bug killers are self-cleaning.
This means that there is enough power that
bugs are burned off when they hit the electric
grid. At lower wattages, bugs will stick to the
grid and clog it, limiting its effectiveness. In
addition, lower-wattage bug killers may not
kill bugs, but only stun them, particularly
larger insects such as bumblebees.
Bug killers should be placed in line of
sight 25' to 50' from the area to be cleared
and operated 24 hours a day. However,
they are most effective at night without
the interference of the suns ultraviolet
light.
Other models extinguish insects by
drowning them. As with electronic bug
killers, an ultraviolet light attracts bugs to
the unit. A fan contained in the unit
blows insects into water with a teaspoon
of household detergent added so bugs
cant float, and drowns them.
Available accessories include handing
brackets, posts and collection trays to
adapt units to indoor use.
Other methods of trapping insects include
adhesive traps and ribbons which stick to the
insect so that it cannot fly or crawl away, or
traps that are constructed so the insect can get
into the trap but cannot get out.
OUTDOOR
FURNITURE
Aluminum, PVC and plastic resins are the
primary materials used in construction of out-
door furniture, mainly because theyre light-
weight, weather resistant, easy to move, bright
and colorful and not necessarily expensive.
Chairs are available in a wide price range and
variety of styles, from straight chairs to arm
chairs to lounges to rockers.
Quality features include heavy construc-
tionthicker, heavier metal or plastic tub-
ingand folding joints that open and close
tightly without binding.
With webbed furniture, a quick quality
test is to count the horizontal and vertical
strands of webbingthe more strands, the
better the chair. Rewebbing kits contain
enough of the individual strands or a large
enough one-piece cover and the necessary
fasteners for chairs or lounges.
Size also varies with quality. Some inex-
pensive items are so small they are
uncomfortable.
Settees and chaise lounges are usually more
expensive. They may be heavily padded, and
some higher-priced models have springs in
the mattresses or padding. They arent weath-
er resistant, however, and should be protected
(plastic coverings are available).
Decorative cast-iron furniture duplicates the
intricate curlicues of Victorian furniture and
makes a good sale for someone who wants a
special look for their patio or yard. These
items are merchandised year-round and are
usually sold as setstwo chairs, settee and
tablealthough they can be sold separately.
The main quality feature to look for is
weather resistance. Three coats of enamel are
preferable and bolts should be rust resistant.
Rattan and bamboo furniture are also
popular patio items, but they require better
protection from the elements and are found
more often in enclosed porches or patios.
Quality picnic tables and benches are of
solid redwood, which withstands adverse
weather. Rectangular tables range in size
from 30" to 72" long; round and square
tables are also popular. Other redwood fur-
niture includes patio chairs, rockers, coffee
tables, end tables and umbrella tables.
Furniture of this type can be sold in groups
of three to five pieces.
Cypress wood is sometimes stained to
look like redwood and passed off to unwit-
ting buyers as the better-quality product.
POOL CHEMICALS
As backyard swimming pools remain pop-
ular, pool chemicals are packaged and mer-
chandised for the consumer market.
Manufacturers also provide information
about their specific products. Consumers
should be reminded to check recommenda-
tions and instructions carefully before using
pool chemicals.
The addition of swimming-pool chemicals
can round out an outdoor living department.
However, you must carry the essential chemi-
cals and supplies for complete pool mainte-
nance, and you must be able to explain their
uses to customers.
I CARE CHEMICALS
Stabilized Chlorineto sanitize the pool
water. Sold in sticks, tablets, granular and liq-
uid form.
Super Chlorinatorsor shocker, used
at the opening of the pool or for extra
sanitizing power.
Stabilizerscyanuric acid used to minimize
chlorine dissipation from sunlight.
Acidmuratic or sulfuric acid designed to
lower the waters pH. Sold in liquid or granu-
lar form.
Soda Ashraises the waters pH.
Mineral and Metal Adjusterschemicals
to prevent staining, equipment corrosion
and scaling due to minerals and calcium in
the water.
Algae Inhibitors and Algaecideschemicals
to prevent the growth of algae which causes a
green tint to the water and a slippery film to
form in the pool.
Water-Testing KitsTest kits are designed
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
4
to test for one specific chemical, or for a
range of chemicals and pH balance, depend-
ing on the product. Test kits usually use
chemically treated strips that turn color when
exposed to pool water, or tables that turn the
water colors to indicate the condition of the
water. These chemicals should be used in
proper sequence, which is 1) balance pH; 2)
chlorination; and 3) shock or super chlorina-
tion. Missing the first step in this sequence
can result in overchlorination.
I POOL ACCESSORIES
Along with pool chemicals, a d-i-y pool care
center needs pool brushes, extension handles
and floats. Cross merchandise some other out-
door living goods with the pool itemspatio
accessories or deck furniture, for instance.
SPORTING
GOODS
SPORTING GOODS
I HUNTING
Though guns and ammunition are the
foundation of a hunting department, acces-
sories, clothing, cleaning equipment, game
calls, etc. make the mix complete.
There are three types of guns of interest to
the typical do-it-yourself retailer: shotguns,
rifles and handguns.
Rifles and shotguns differ in two ways. First,
rifles have a system of ridges and grooves in
the barrel (called rifling) that imparts a
rotating motion to the bullet and increases its
accuracy. Shotguns are smooth barreled.
Second, rifles fire one bullet or projectile
at a time. Shotguns normally fire a large
number of shots or pellets at a time,
although they can fire large single slugs
when used to hunt big game.
I AMMUNITION
Ammunition for a rifle or handgun is called
a cartridge; for a shotgun, the term shell is
proper, although shell is sometimes used for
both kinds of ammunition.
Rimfire Cartridges
With rimfire cartridges, the guns firing pin
strikes the edge of the rim, compressing it and
igniting a primer that has been spun into the
rim of the cartridge by centrifugal force. The
primer then ignites the powder and an
increase in gas pressure propels the bullet out
of the barrel.
Rimfire cartridges are used in 5mm and .22-
caliber firearms. In the .22 caliber, they come
in three categoriesshort, long and long rifle.
All come in both standard and high velocities,
some with a few special loads.
Standard velocity rimfire ammunition is
more accurate, but has less impact than
high-velocity ammunition, which is built
for use in hunting.
Centerfire Cartridges
Centerfire cartridges come in a variety of
sizes and designs.
A few basic points are common to all:
revolver cartridges are rimmed; automatic pis-
tol cartridges are rimless, and rifle cartridges
may be either.
Some of the cartridges will fit several brands
of guns, and some are interchangeable. If a
store sells much centerfire ammunition, an
interchangeability chart is helpful.
In a centerfire cartridge, primer is located in
a pocket in the center of the base of the
shell. When struck by a firing pin, it ignites
the powder, generating gasses which force the
bullet out of the barrel.
Cartridges come in a variety of designa-
tions. In all cases the number preceding the
slash indicates caliber. However, there is no
commonality to the numbers after the slash.
The 38/55 Winchester is a .38-caliber bullet
originally loaded with 55 grains of black pow-
der. The 250/3000 Savage is a .250-caliber bul-
let that develops about 3,000-feet-per-second
velocity. The 30/06 Springfield is a .30-caliber
cartridge adopted in 1906 for an Army rifle.
Nor is bullet diameter identical with caliber
of the weapon. Rifling enlarges a portion of
the barrel about .008 inches. The bullet must
fill the entire groove; thus, the bullet diameter
for a .30-caliber rifle is .308 inches.
Centerfire rifle cartridge cases have a bottle-
neck shape, with the case larger than the bul-
let except where the shoulder tapers down
to the diameter of the bullet.
Most centerfire handgun cartridges have
short, straight cases.
The actual bulletthat portion of the car-
tridge propelled through the barrel to the tar-
getwill differ in shape, weight, size, length
and coverings or jackets. A lead core is com-
mon, but the bullet may have a jacket of steel
or copper or aluminum alloy. The bullet is
constructed so that expansion will either be
accelerated or retarded upon striking the tar-
get, depending upon the type of animal being
hunted, the range and the degree of penetra-
tion required.
Steel-shot loads use nontoxic steel shot
which is required in specific hunting areas in
27 states. Steel shot is being produced for
hunting ducks and geese; lead shot for this
kind of hunting will be phased out by 1991.
Shotgun Shells
A shotgun shell begins with a paper or plas-
tic tube encased in a brass head, flanged so it
can be grasped by the extractor of the gun.
The primer, located in the center of the brass
head, ignites the main powder charge when
struck by a firing pin.
Above the powder is the wad column that
seals gas generated by burning powder. The
column pushes a charge of shot and protects
it against gas deformation when shot is mov-
ing down the gun barrel. The end of the shell
is crimped to hold the contents.
A plastic shot container keeps the pellets
from flattening against the inside of the bar-
rel, improving pattern performances. Most
plastic wads include a special shock absorber
which protects the shot from compress flat-
tening when powder is ignited.
Power behind the shot is determined by
type and amount of powder. Amount of pow-
der will vary from 2-1/2 to 4-3/4 drams,
depending on gauge and type of shell. The
most common shell, a 12-gauge field load,
contains about 3 to 3-1/4 drams of powder.
Dramsor drams equivalentrefers to
the amount of present-day powder that would
equal in velocity the stated dram weight of
the black powder first used in shotgun shells.
Amount of shot in each shell varies with
type of load and with the size of shell.
Common load designations are standard,
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
5
heavy and magnum. For example, one manu-
facturer of 12-gauge 2-3/4 shells has 1-1/8 oz.
of shot in his standard load, 1-1/4 in his
heavy load and 1-1/2 in his magnum load.
Shot size also varies in diameter. This deter-
mines the amount of shot in a single shell.
Shot is numbered from 12 down through 7-
1/2, 6, 5, 4 and 2 (intermediate sizes) to BB
size. The smaller the number, the larger the
shot. From there it is measured in buckshot
sizes, from 4 downward to 0 and 000 before
reaching slug size, which is slightly smaller
than the diameter of the gun barrel.
A 1-oz. load of No. 12 shot has about 2,385
pellets, while a No. 5, 1-oz. load contains only
about 170 pellets.
A few guidelines: small shot, used for quail
or woodcock, would be 71/2, 8 and 9; larger
birds (ducks or pheasants) or rabbits could be
hunted with 5 or 6 shot; geese might be hunt-
ed with No. 2 shot.
I RELOADING EQUIPMENT
Shotshell Reloading
Basic tools and supplies required for reload-
ing shotshells include:
Reloading toolSimilar to cartridge-reload-
ing press in that it can combine tools needed
for decapping, recapping, charging powder,
ramming wads, charging shot and crimping
and sizing the shell. Price varies accordingly.
User will have to buy separate equipment if
reloading tool does not handle any of these
functions.
Powder scale or measureIf user does not
have one on the reloading tool, he will need a
scale or measure. Measure comes in both
adjustable and fixed charge type.
Wadding and wad settingTraditionally, a
cardboard wad went into the casing immedi-
ately over the powder charge; filler wads were
positioned between cardboard and shot. Most
sportsmen now use one-piece plastic wads.
Most reloading tools have a built-in wad pres-
sure gauge.
Shot measureNeeded if reloading tool
does not have it. If user has adjustable powder
measure, he can use it for shot. Otherwise, he
can use powder scale.
Full-length hand resizing dieNeeded if
reloading tool does not have die built in.
Hand resizing dies are available that resize the
brass head as well as the case tube.
Cartridge Reloading
Only centerfire cartridges can be reloaded.
Reloading must be done with absolute accura-
cy; cartridges must be the right length and
powder charges must be those recommended
by manufacturers.
The equipment needed to start:
Reloading press or hand toolMost reloads
will want a bench press. Price depends upon
how many functions it will perform.
A turret at the top of some presses rotates
resizing and seating dies and powder measure
so user can perform all these steps in sequence
on the press without having to change dies
and move to a separate powder measure.
DiesTwo die rifle sets are most common,
one for full length and/or neck resizing, one
for bullet seating. Pistol die sets are usually
made up of three dies.
Powder scaleWeighs out proper measure
of powder. Good thing to have, even if cus-
tomer later purchases powder measure, so that
he can double-check powder measure at inter-
vals to see if it is discharging proper amount.
Powder measureEliminates need to
weigh each charge separately; throws proper
charges of powder each time.
Case lube and padUsed to apply thin
film of oil on cases for resizing; cases are rolled
on the pad.
Other items customer may needLength
gauge to check length of cases or trimming if
they have been fired in different rifles or if
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
6
SHOTGUN GAUGE
12 Gauge
.729"
ACTUAL SIZE
16 Gauge
.670"
28 Gauge
.550"
410 Gauge
.410"
20 Gauge
.615"
Bullet
Cartridge Case
Powder
Primer
Bullet
Cartridge Case
Powder
Primer
Crimp
Top Wad
Shot
Filler Wads
Over Powder
Wad
Powder
Brass Head
Base Head
Primer
CENTER RIFLE CARTRIDGE SHGOTGUN SHELL RIMFIRE CARTRIDGE
(.22 CAL.)
rifle produces some stretch; case trimmer;
chamfering deburring tool to facilitate seating
of bullet; loading blocks; primer flippers; case
neck brushes, and powder funnels.
I SHOTGUNS
Shotguns are available in several common
gauges10, 12, 16, 20, 28 and .410 bore.
Gauge measurement is based on number of
uniform lead balls weighing one pound; 12
gauge is approximate diameter of a lead ball of
which 12 weigh one pound; 16 gauge is diam-
eter of a lead ball of which 16 weigh one
pound, etc. The one exception is .410 bore,
which is actually .410 caliber (representing
.41" interior barrel diameter). In terms of
gauge, it is 67 gauge.
Shell length is measured in inches; it is the
overall length of a fired shell with the crimp
open. A 2-3/4" shell measures about 2-1/2" to
2-5/8" before it is fired, but 2-3/4" overall after
firing. This method of measuring conforms to
standard chamber lengths of shotguns. A gun
with a 2-3/4" chamber will thus handle shells
of the proper gauge up to 2-3/4" length.
The shot pattern is spread of pellets at any
given yardage. Most loads are tested for pat-
tern at 40 yards; the exceptions are .410-bore
loads and 12-gauge and 20-gauge skeet loads,
which are tested at 25 yards.
The percentage of total shot charge reg-
istering within a 30" circle (20" for .410)
at these distances determines the quality
of the pattern. No two patterns are exact-
ly the same; an average of results is taken
from at least 25 patterns.
Each gun has a partial constriction of the
bore at the muzzle end. Its purpose is to con-
trol patterns. By using different degrees of
choke boring, it is possible to control the
spread of the shot charge for the best distribu-
tion of pellets at various ranges.
For example, the bore diameter of a 12-
gauge gun is .729". If the diameter at the muz-
zle end is reduced to .694", the constriction of
.035" (difference) will control the shot suffi-
ciently to give patterns averaging about 70
percent of the shot in a 30" circle at 40 yards.
Known as full-choke boring, this is intended
for long-range shooting. This table shows the
percentage of shot expected with various
choke borings:
PERCENT AT 40 YARDS IN 30" CIRCLE
CHOKES
Full Choke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70%
Modified Choke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60%
Improved Cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50%
Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40%
A customer should select the degree of
choke according to the range at which most
of his shots are taken.
Most hunters find the following borings
give the best results, though much
depends on shooting conditions and per-
sonal preference:
Full choke for ducks, geese, pheasant,
crows, turkey, fox, raccoon and trap
shooting.
Modified choke for rabbits, doves,
squirrels and for all-around usefulness
including ducks, quail, etc.
Improved cylinder, special skeet for
quail, grouse, woodcock, partridge, rail
and skeet shooting.
Shotgun barrels usually come 26", 28"
and 30" long and 20" and 22" long with
rifle sights.
Long barrels afford longer sighting
radius, a steadier swing and more accurate
aim in the deliberate long-range shooting
common to hunting ducks or geese. They
also minimize discomfort of muzzle blast.
Added weight reduces recoil.
Short barrels can be brought to bear on a
target more quickly and easily under crowded
conditions, such as hunting rabbits or quail in
a cornfield or in heavy brush.
Many better guns have a ventilated rib on
top of the gun barrel, which serves several
purposes: It helps dissipate heat waves along
the barrel experienced in repeated firing, it
contributes to the handsome appearance of
a gun, it helps reduce canting (turning the
gun on its barrel axis), and it provides a uni-
form sighting plane for more-accurate shot-
gun pointing.
For example, if the shooters eye is as little
as 1/2" off the true line of sight, his shot pat-
tern can be off approximately 4' at a distance
of only 40 yards.
To determine the correct stock length, the
shotgun should be held vertically in the hol-
low of the bent elbow and measurement
taken from the side of the forearm to the tip
of the trigger finger. The trigger finger should
just reach the trigger, or the front trigger if it is
a two-trigger double-barrel gun.
Double-Barrel Shotgun
Double-barrel shotguns offer the advan-
tage of two quick shots from differently
choked barrels. The gun may have one or
two triggers. If there is only one, it can be
set to fire either barrel first.
Two basic styles are barrels side by side or
one over the other.
Single-Shot Shotgun
Simplest and least expensive of the five
basic shotguns is the single shot. It is an excel-
lent beginners gun, ideal for training a young-
ster how to handle a firearm.
The barrel usually is hinged on the frame
with hammer outside and cocked by hand.
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
7
BEWARE OF UNSAFE ARMS AND
AMMUNITION COMBINATIONS
Ammunition used in a firearm must be
the same caliber or gauge as that
marked on the firearm by the manufac-
turer, according to the Sporting Arms
and Ammunition Manufacturers
Institute, Inc., Wallingford, Conn.
Those in possession of guns that are not
marked with the caliber or gauge should
have a qualified expert determine the car-
tridge or shall that can be safely used in
the firearm. Guns that have the original
marking overprinted or changed should
also be checked.
The firing of a cartridge or shell other than
the size for which the firearm is cham-
bered can result in the cartridge or shell
rupturing and releasing high pressure gas
capable of damaging or destroying the
firearm and seriously injuring or killing any
nearby person.
These are countless combinations of spe-
cific cartridges and firearm chambers that
are unsafe. Many of these unsafe combi-
nations are easy to recognize because of
significant dimension differences between
the cartridge and firearm chamber. At the
same time, similar chamber and cartridge
dimensions can be dangerous. The safest
insurance is to use the cartridge or shell
designated by the firearm or ammunition
manufacturer for use in a specific firearm.
Some are hammerless. This means that
the hammer is inside the frame, cocked by
the same motion that opens the gun for
insertion of a shell. Single-barrel, single-shot
shotguns are usually lightweight, meaning
substantial recoil.
Auto-Loading Shotgun
The hunter can fire an auto-loading shot-
gun as quickly as he can pull the trigger and
with no other action on his part once the gun
has been cocked. The auto loader operates
much like a slide-actuated gun except that the
action which ejects spent shell and loads fresh
shell comes from recoil or pressure of powder
gas rather than from the shooters own action.
Gas-operated auto-loading shotguns are
becoming the most popular type of action
because of lighter recoil and faster second and
third sets. They are made in 10, 12, 16, 20, 28
gauges and .410 bore with a wide variety of
interchangeable barrels.
Bolt-Action Shotgun
Bolt-action shotguns require manual opera-
tion by the shooter to eject the spent shell
and bring a new shell into firing position.
This is done by grasping the protruding bolt
handle and pulling it upward and back, then
pushing it forward and down.
The gun is safe and dependable, with rela-
tively low cost.
Pump Shotgun
The magazine of a pump-(slide) action
shotgun usually holds up to four shells,
with an additional shell in the chamber.
The five shells can be fired as fast as the
shooter can operate the slide back and
forth, aim and pull the trigger.
Pulling the slide back withdraws the empty
shell case from the chamber and ejects it from
the receiver. Moving it forward carries a fresh
shell into the chamber and leaves the gun
cocked and ready for another shot, allowing
the experienced shooter to fire repeatedly
without removing the firearm from his shoul-
der. Some manufacturers make slide or pump
shotguns with interchangeable barrels for use
under different conditions.
I RIFLES
Type of ammunition used divides rifles into
two categoriescenterfire and rimfire. With
the former, the cartridge is fired by striking a
primer in the center of the cartridge. The lat-
ter is fired when the firing pin strikes the rear
of the cartridge along the rim.
The most common rimfire rifle is the .22
caliber, offering moderate power, accuracy and
range. It is a good performer at ranges of 25 ft.
to 150 yds. Another, more powerful rimfire
rifle, fires a 5mm (.20 caliber) rimfire mag-
num cartridge with great accuracy and effec-
tive impact at ranges of 150 yds. and more.
The caliber of a rifle is usually measured in
hundredths of an inch, so the .22 is 22/100ths
of an inch in diameter.
High-velocity .22 varmint rifles and larger
caliber guns are centerfire.
Auto-Loading Rifles
An auto-loading rifle requires a separate
trigger pull for each shot, but no other action
once it has been cocked. Recoil or expanding
powder gas operates the action to eject spent
shell and put a new one into the chamber.
Slide-Action Rifle
Pump or slide-action rifle is popular with
hunters and casual target shooters.
The pump functions like the pump shotgun
with a long tubular magazine which holds as
many as 20 or more .22 short- or 15 .22 long-
rifle cartridges.
Some pump rifles have quickly detach-
able clip magazines holding four or more
cartridges.
Bolt-Action Rifle
The simplest, safest and least-expensive rifle
is a single-shot bolt action. A cartridge is
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
8
RIFLE AND SHOTGUN ACTIONS
Because rifle actions are similar to shotgun actions, descriptions of shotgun actions apply also to rifle
actions. Theres one type of rifle action, the lever, that isnt used in modern shotguns.
Pump Action, Single Barrel Repeater
Automatic Action, Single Barrel Repeater
Break Action, Single Barrel, Single Shot
Break Action, Over-and-Under Double Barrel
Bolt Action, Single Barrel Repeater
Break Action, Side-by-Side Double Barrel
Lever Action Rifle
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
9
loaded into the chamber by closing the bolt,
extracted by opening the bolt. The gun is
reloaded by placing a fresh cartridge in place
and closing the bolt again.
A step-up version of the single shot-bolt
action is the bolt-action repeater. It features
a magazine filled with cartridges so each time
the bolt is opened and closed a fresh cartridge
moves into the firing chamber.
Lever-Action Rifles
A common action for both .22 and larger
centerfire guns is the lever-action rifle.
It works much like slide action except that
it uses a downward and forward movement of
the lever beneath the trigger housing to eject,
load and cock the weapon. The lever is quick,
easy to use, and multiplies the operators force
in extracting spent cartridges.
I HANDGUNS
Handguns may not be common stock to d-
i-y retail outlets, but the ammunition they use
frequently is. Youll need some understanding
of the guns to sell the right ammunition.
Handguns come in a variety of calibers,
with .22, .25, .32, .357, .38 and .45 the
most common.
Automatic Pistol
Cartridges are held in a magazine encased
in gun handle. These are fed into the chamber
by a spring. Each time the slide covering the
barrel assembly moves backward it ejects a
spent cartridge. When it moves forward, it car-
ries a new cartridge into position to fire. The
gun will continue to fire each time the trigger
is pulled, once the action has been cocked by
pulling the slide back and releasing it.
Revolvers
A rotating cylinder filled with cartridges is
the basic design of a revolver. Each time the
cylinder moves it brings a cartridge into firing
position under the hammer and into perfect
alignment with the barrel. When the hammer
strikes the cartridge, it fires the shell still in
the cylinder.
Two styles of revolvers are common. A sin-
gle-action revolver requires the hammer to be
cocked by hand before firing. A double-action
revolver may be cocked first and then fired, or
it may be fired without first cocking by
pulling the trigger so that it cocks and then
releases the hammer on a single pull.
I NONPOWDER GUNS
Air, spring or CO2 guns are found in most
sporting goods departments. Technically,
they are not firearms because they do not
use a powder charge to propel a bullet.
They do have sales possibilities because
restrictive laws on conventional firearms have
made them more accessible to sportsmen and
target shooters.
Pneumatic guns, both rifles and pistols,
operate on air pressure built up by a spe-
cial pump which is part of the gun mech-
anism. Gas guns empty small cylinders of
compressed CO2 (carbon dioxide) to pro-
pel a pelleteither BB size or largerwith
a small measured burst of expanding gas.
Nonpowder guns are not recommended
for hunting because of their low velocity.
They are sometimes used for pest control.
I MISCELLANEOUS
HUNTING PRODUCTS
Hunting Clothes
Hunting clothes handled most frequently
by d-i-y stores include coats, vests, pants, hats
or caps, and boots.
Camouflage clothing is popular, particularly
in areas where there is big-game hunting.
Better quality hunting coats have
bloodproof game pockets or bags and
access from either side. They are fully
lined in the back and sleeve, with under-
arm ventilation. They should feature
sewn-in recoil pads and pockets or loops
for shells. Quality vests should include
the same features.
Pants, like coats or vests, are two-ply
Army duck, hard to rip or tear, with
water-repellent finish. Belt loops and
pockets should be larger than on conven-
tional trousers. Seat and knees should be
lined or reinforced.
Game Calls
Game calls imitate turkeys, geese,
ducks, etc., and bring the prey closer to
the hunter. They require considerable skill
for effective use.
Decoys
Waterfowl hunters use decoys, life-sized
models of ducks and geese, to lure birds with-
in gun range.
Gun Cases
Vinyl gun cases are most popular, with cot-
ton or suedecloth used promotionally.
The best gun cases have a molded rubber or
plastic tip to protect the front sight and muz-
zle of the gun, well-sewn or riveted handles to
withstand rough treatment without tearing,
and soft lining to prevent marring of the gun.
Cleaning Kits
Cleaning kits normally include a rod, brush,
tip for holding patches, solvent, gun oil, etc.
Rifle and shotgun kits vary in diameter
of the rod, but interchangeable tips are
included in some; a rifle rod can also be
used in a shotgun.
The typical shotgun kit is a universal size
for all gauges from .410 to 12 gauge.
Pistol kits come in specialized calibers, such
as .22, .32 or .45, and have shorter rods, usual-
ly only 12" long.
Telescopic Sights
Telescopic sights are mainly used by target
shooters, varmint and big game hunters
because they magnify the target and increase
accuracy.
For general hunting, scopes are usually
made in two- to four-power magnification.
The intended use determines type and power
of scope selected.
Variable power scopes, adjustable to
increase magnification as high as 12 times, are
available. They are much more expensive than
fixed power scopes.
Varmint rifle scopes usually are eight-
to 12-power.
A lower power scope gives a wider field of
view and is considered more useful for
hunting relatively close objects in brush or
wooded areas.
Animal Traps
Steel animal traps are of several types. Cage-
type traps do not harm animals. When the
animal enters and takes the bait, the
door falls to secure him in the cage.
Long spring trap jaws are actuated
by a V-type spring extending from the
jaw. Small sizesfrom 0 to 1-1/2have
a single spring, while larger sizes usual-
ly have two springs.
Jump type has a spring located
under the jaws. Coil-spring trap jaws
are activated by one or two coil
springs. Guarded or loss-stopping traps
have a special leg guard and are used
primarily against muskrat. The last is
the killer type. It features a scissors
action that kills the animal instantly.
Basic sizes are No. 1 for muskrat, No.
1-1/2 for mink, No. 2 for fox, and Nos.
3 and 4 for beaver.
Most states require traps to be
tagged, meaning that every sale of
traps should include the tie-in sale
of
trap tags.
I POCKET KNIVES
Aside from price differences, there are
three dividing lines in pocket knives.
Included at the lower end of the three are
boys knives; in the middle are better-
quality mens pocket knives, and on top
are specialty sporting knives and collec-
tors knives.
A knife must be sharp, must stand
sharpening, hold an edge and be easy to
operate. Good balance, which results in
handling comfort, is a quality feature that
should be aggressively sold.
Carbon cutlery steel makes the best knife.
Its controlled hardening and tempering
assure a cutting edge that is hard, but not
brittle, and easily snapped, but can rust
quickly. Stainless steel will not rust.
High-carbon stainless steel holds edges
very well, but requires more time and
effort to resharpen.
Special, fatigue-resistant steel should be
used for springs in any good quality knife,
because the spring cannot be replaced.
The knife can only be opened and closed
as long as the spring retains its strength
without snapping. Brass or nickel silver
linings are used around these springs
because steel rusts and prevents proper
opening and closing.
Due to the rust factor, steel is a less-desir-
able trim than nickel silver, but handles can
be of many materials. Plastic is frequently
used, as is a cured, unbreakable synthetic
material. Bone-stag and rosewood handles are
attractive, but may break easily.
Sporting knives include fixed-blade hunt-
ing and filleting knives and lockable knives,
which come with longer and broader blades
than are commonly found on folding pock-
et knives. Lockable knives offer the conven-
ience of a folding knife with the safety of a
blade locked in open position.
Among the folding knives are pen- and
jackknives. Both have two blades; penknife
blades open on opposite ends of the knife;
jackknife blades open from the same end.
Multipurpose knives of the Swiss Army
and Boy Scout variety fill a number of
camping needs including eating utensils,
filleting blades, screwdrivers, can openers
and bottle-cap lifters in addition to one or
two standard blades.
In addition to sporting knives, a retailer
may stock several specialty knives depend-
ing on market demands. These include
cattle knives with even-ended handles,
straight sides, oval ends and three
or four blades. Stock knives are
similar but usually have serpen-
tine handles with oval or square
ends. Other specialty knives are
made specifically for jobs such as
pruning, cutting roofing or
linoleum, chopping corn, etc.
FISHING
I RODS
Most rods are made of glass,
although bamboo fly rods are avail-
able. Tubular or solid-form glass
rods are used. The former offers
lighter weight and better balance.
The solid models feature greater
durability.
Graphite, the most expensive rod
type, offers more strength and a
better feel to the fisherman.
Rods come in one-, two-, three- and four-
piece models. This refers to the tip or rod
section, not the handle. Thus a rod that has
a handle that detaches from a single-rod
section is not considered a two-piece rod. In
the two-piece rod, the tip section itself
breaks down into two sections. The three-
and four-piece rods are sometimes called
backpackers and designed for fishermen
who carry equipment a long distance.
Bait-Casting Rods
Available in lengths varying from 4-1/2' to
6' or 6-1/2', these rods are listed by type of
actionlight, medium or stiff. They are used
for casting bait, plugs or other artificial lures.
Choice of a solid or tubular rod depends on
individual preference and the type of fish
being sought. Bass or similar light freshwater
fish are caught easily on a tubular rod, but the
fisherman going after pike or muskie should
use a solid rod. Better grades of heavy tubular
rods have the same strength as solid rods.
Surf-Casting Rods
Surf-casting rods are made in both one- and
two-piece models, much stronger than fresh-
water equipment. They range from 7'6" to 13'.
Desired action depends on line and lures and
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
10
POCKET KNIFE
Swedge
Point
Nail Mark
Master Blade
Back
Tang
Spring
Bolster
Lining
Tommy-On Pin
Bolster
Handle
Handle Pin
Master Rivet
Handle Pin
Bolster
Tommy-On Pin
Side Center Scale
Punch
Center Scale
Spring
Screwdriver
Cap Lifter
Shackle
Kick
Brand
Edge
Canopener
Bolster
Lining
Bolster
End Rivet
Handle Pin
Shield
Shield Pin
Handle Pin
End Rivet
Bolster
type of fish being caught.
A good surf-casting rod has a long butt
handle to give the fisherman extra leverage,
with a medium-tip end for casting 4- to 6-
oz. weights.
Fly-Casting Rods
Fly-casting rods differ in action depending
upon type of lure used. A stiffer rod is pre-
ferred for dry (surface) flies, and a more flex-
ible rod for wet (subsurface) flies. They
come in lengths from 6' 6" to 9' 6".
Rod, line and lure must be matched for
desired balance and action.
Spinning Rods
Spinning rods are similar to bait-casting
rods except for the larger guides or rings on
the rod to control the line. They feature a
straight butt with the reel attached beneath
the handle.
The reel is attached by a fixed seat in
most models, but slip-ring attachments are
used, too.
Although 6-1/2' to 7' spinning rods are
most common, they also are available in
longer and shorter models. Longer rods usual-
ly are two piece or backpacker models in
three or four pieces.
Spin-Casting Rods
Spin-casting rods differ from bait-cast-
ing rods in that they are longer (6'-7'),
have faster, more responsive tips, and
guides are usually of the larger spin vari-
ety. Longer rods are two-piece, ferrule
jointed for easy carrying and storage.
Other Rods
Boat rods, used for saltwater fishing, come
in one- or two-piece models up to about 9'6"
long. The rod may be used to make short casts
from a jetty or pier.
Big-game rods may have roller guides
instead of simple guides. These are built for
deep-sea trolling for larger game fish.
Cane poles, sold mainly for bank or boat
still-fishing, come in lengths from about 10' to
20', usually at 2' intervals. These may be a sin-
gle piece or jointed with slip or screw ferrules
in three sections.
I REELS
Personal preference and ultimate use are
determining factors in the experienced fisher-
mans selection of a reel. The beginner may
need guidance, but the more experienced
angler will have firm opinions on exactly
what he wants.
Bait-Casting Reels
A bait-casting reel has a spool that revolves
on the cast and on the retrieve to pay out and
take up line. Lightweight reels run from 4 to 6
oz., heavier-duty reels from 7 to 8 oz.
Quality features are adjustable drag,
antibacklash and a level wind mechanism
which distributes line evenly over entire
spool. A heavier-duty reel may have wider
spools with greater line capacity than the typi-
cal lightweight reel, which takes 100 or more
yards of 9- or 12-lb. line.
Spin-Casting Reels
A spin-casting reel has a stationary
spool. It, too, is mounted on top of the
rod and controlled by a mechanical
thumb or pushbutton.
Enclosed in a housing with a front hole, the
spool of a spin-casting reel lets out line like a
spinning wheel during the cast. Flight of the
lure can be stopped by pushing down on the
button or lever. On the retrieve, a pickup pin
rewinds the line.
Saltwater Reels
Larger and heavier than reels designed for
freshwater fishing, saltwater reels have greater
line capacity and are built stronger to with-
stand heavier use, larger lines and lures, dam-
age from salt and sand, etc.
Level wind features are included on lighter
trolling and bait-casting reels. A good,
adjustable drag device is a must.
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
11
RODS AND REELS
Detachable Handle
One-Piece Rod
Detachable Handle
Two-Piece Rod
Cork Grip Offset Reel Seat Fore Grip
Aluminum Butt Cap
Spring
Locking
Device
Reel Handle
Bait-Casting Rod
Spin-Casting Rod
Fly-Casting Rod
Surf-Casting Rod
Spinning Reel
Spin-Casting Fly Reed
Bait-Casting Reel Single Action Reel
Fly-Casting Reels
A fly reel does not operate during the cast.
In fly fishing, the line is pulled by hand. It is
this loose line that is cast by the fly rod to
carry lures.
With a large-diameter spool and narrow
width, the fly-casting reel comes in single
action (ungeared) and automatic models. A
spring rewinds line on the automatic reel,
winding up as the line goes out and retrieving
by the touch of a lever.
Fly-casting reels come in both horizontal
and vertical models, each based on the posi-
tion of the spool.
Spinning Reels
A spinning reel has a spool that does not
turn at any time. Line is pulled over the end
of spool by the weight of the lure; during
retrieve, line is rewound by a pickup device
that travels around the spool. Since weight is
not needed to turn a spool, use of light lines
and lures is possible. Spinning reels mount
beneath the rod.
Ultralight spinning reel is for sport fishing.
It uses lighter tackle and a lighter line and has
more action. The lightweight reel is used
mostly for inland, lake fishing.
I TERMINAL TACKLE
Terminal tackle includes items used at or
near the end of the fishing linehooks,
swivels, floats, etc.
Hooks come in a wide range of sizes and
designs. Among the most popular designs are
Aberdeen, Kirby and Carlisle, with differences
in the length and shape of the shank, angle of
the point, amount of curve in the hook, etc.
Sizes run from 6/0 to 1/0 to 1 to 1, in
order of descending size. This means that
a 6/0 hook is the largest and a 14 hook is
the smallest.
Hooks are sold already snelledwith a
leader attached. These are preferred by many
anglers, despite greater cost. Weedless hooks
have a spring-loaded wire loop attached near
the eye, pulled down to and hooked over the
barb to prevent snagging.
A split shot is the most common sinker.
Others include pinch-on style and bass-casting
weights. The pinch-on is used with simpler
fishing gear. Bass-casting weight is used for
bottom fishing or trolling.
Swivels prevent twisting or snarling lines.
Better-quality swivels are made with ball bear-
ings in tapered raceways.
Most floats are made of plastic materials,
but cork is available. Better floats have spring
actions for easy adjustment and attachment.
Sizes range from 1/2" to 2-1/2" in diameter.
Panfish floats run about 6" long and vary in
body shape.
I LURES
Lures come in a variety of sizes, shapes, col-
ors and construction materials. Every fisher-
man will have his favorites. The sporting-
goods salesman should know which fish in
his area are hitting on what kind of lures.
Most casting lures weigh from 1/2 to 1 oz.
but artificial lures used with spinning tackle
often weigh from 1/8 to 1/2 oz. Saltwater spin
lures or jigs may go up to 8 oz.
Each lure is classified as surface, subsurface
or deep running, depending upon the depth
at which it operates.
In years past, only flies were used with fly-
casting rods. Now miniature plug-style lures
are used with fly rods. Flies fall into two cate-
gorieswet for fishing just below the sur-
face and dry for fishing on top of the water.
I LINES
Selecting the proper line is important and
more difficult than it appears. A line that is
too light will break or stretch when fighting a
fish. A line that is too heavy puts excessive
strain on rod and reel. In fly fishing, the
wrong weight or type of line makes successful
fishing difficult.
Line is either monofilament (single strand)
or braided. Monofilament line is nylon, invisi-
ble to fish and always used with spinning rigs.
Braided lines come with and without cores.
This line is used primarily with bait-casting
reels because it is easier to cast.
All line, except fly line, is rated by the num-
ber of pounds of direct tension required to
break itthe pound-test rating. When
extreme strength is required, as in big game
fishing, wire line is used.
In spinning and bait casting, the heavier
the line, the poorer it will cast. It is important
to balance the rod, reel and line to achieve
proper performance.
Fly Line
Fly line must be treated separately. It
has its own rating system and is required
to do special jobs.
Some flies float on the surface. Others
are designed to work submerged, so the
fly must be matched with either floating
or sinking fly line. This is the first deci-
sion that must be made.
In fly fishing, the weight of the line carries
the cast, not the weight of the lure or a hunk
of lead. Fly line is sold by weight rather than
by strength.
Altering weight distribution along the line
alters its casting properties. Three types of
weight distribution are available in fly lines.
Level line has the same diameter through-
out its entire length. Level line is usually used
for lures such as bass bugs and for fishing
where the smoothness of laying down the lure
is not too important.
Double-tapered line allows a slower,
smoother cast with a dry or wet fly.
Should damage occur to one end of the
line, it can be reversed.
Weight-forward (torpedo) taper line is
designed for shooting line into the cast. It is
used when distance is important. The running
line, back of the oversized portion, offers less
resistance feeding through the rod guides and,
being lighter, carries along better.
Fly lines are specified by a combination of
letters and numbers. The numbers refer to the
weight of the line and the letter to the type, L-
6-F, for example, is a level, 6-weight, floating
line; DT-6-S is a double-tapered 6-weight, sink-
ing line; WF-5-S is a weight-forward, 5-weight,
sinking line.
Spinning lines are usually monofilament, as
are lines for saltwater surf casting.
Leaders
A leader is a piece of monofilament line,
invisible to fish, that is attached to the fishing
end of the line. The leader is usually 6' to 8'
long and slightly weaker than the line. It is
designed to break before the rest of the line so
the fisherman will not lose much line in the
event of break.
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13
When using braided or fly line, the leader
also is used to fool the fish, which can see a
piece of braided or fly line.
In fly fishing, the weight and design of the
leader is matched to the line. The butt diame-
ter of a tapered leader should be no less than
two-thirds the diameter of the end of the fly
line. A level leader is sufficient with heavier
flies, such as streamers and bass bugs. Tapered
leaders are used only in fly fishing.
I MINNOW BUCKETS
Floating and nonfloating buckets are
offered, with the former the more popular
and expensive. A bucket usually has a
two-part design with an outer shell that
holds water and an inner bucket that can
be lifted out, draining the water so min-
nows can be picked out of the inner buck-
et by hand. Most common sizes run from
10 to 20 quarts.
I LANDING NETS
Small landing nets usually have twine or a
thong attached to the end of the handle for
hanging on a belt. Larger nets, designed for
use in a boat, have longer handles. Best mod-
els feature a floating handle for retrieval.
Length or depth of the net itself varies form
18" to 36". Width of opening differs from one
model to another. Handles can range from
only a few inches to 4' or more.
I TACKLE BOXES
The simplest tackle box has a single tray
that lifts out, while more complex models
have an entire series of hinged trays attached
to a split lid to open out flat or in a stair-step
arrangement.
Some manufacturers have designed boxes
with built-in lights for night fishing. Materials
most frequently used for tackle boxes include
aluminum, steel and plastic.
CAMPING
EQUIPMENT
The best salesman of camping gear is a per-
son who uses it. The list of camping gear and
accessories is nearly endless.
As with all big-ticket items, when a cus-
tomer is willing to invest in expensive
equipment, he expects the salesperson to
be able to answer questions and know the
product. Quality and performance are
important in camping gear. The camper
needs to be sure the equipment will not
fail miles from help.
I HEATING EQUIPMENT
Campers have two choices in heating
propane or gasoline.
A flameless heater operates on gas up to 18
or 20 hours without refilling. This type of
heater, which has an open screen-mesh top, is
rated by the number of BTUs of heat it gives
off. Small models are rated at 3,500 BTUs,
with other models going up to 8,000.
The other heater type, fueled by propane, is
a radiant heater with a bowl-shaped deflector
that directs heat in a powerful stream. These
heaters are also rated by BTU output and
range from 3,500 up to 5,000 BTUs. They light
instantly, burn as long as 16 hours with two
propane tanks and cannot be affected by
wind, cold, etc.
Portable electric heaters are another alterna-
tive, particularly for use in public or private
campgrounds, where electrical outlets are usu-
ally available.
Small, inexpensive to operate and easily
stored, portable electric heaters should be pro-
moted as good insurance measures to camp-
ing enthusiasts.
I COOKING EQUIPMENT
Customer satisfaction in camp stoves is
directly related to the size and number of
burners. A larger stove is a far more satisfacto-
ry because it lets the camper cook with two or
three full-sized pots, pans or skillets at one
time, impossible with smaller stoves.
Propane and white (unleaded) gasoline are
commonly used fuels. Propane has the advan-
tage of simplicity, but costs more.
Gasoline stoves require the camper to
pump air pressure in the fuel tanka poten-
tial drawback.
A butane-cartridge stove simplifies fuel
problems, but is not as powerful as propane or
white-gas stoves.
Most campers use regular kitchen utensils
for cooking, but special, self-storing utensil
kits are available.
Accessories which fit over burners to
convert stove to griddle, and drums,
which can be set on top of burners to
make ovens, are available.
Every camper needs an ice chest for perish-
able foods. These are made of aluminum,
steel, ABS, polyethylene or polypropylene
plastic with varying types of insulation.
Polyurethane or expanded styrene are most
common.
Better chests offer trays and dividers. All-
metal or better plastic chests should have a
spout for draining off water created by melt-
ing ice blocks or cubes. Handles on both
ends for easy mobility are essential, as is a
secure latch.
Foam chests are usually inexpensive
promotional lines and should not be sold
to persons who are looking for a longer
useful life. Guides to quality in foam
chests are weight, handle installation,
ribbed bottoms, etc.
Picnic jugs should not be confused with
vacuum jugs. The former gives relatively
short-time protection of liquids. Picnic jugs,
also called beverage coolers, are designed to
keep liquid cold. They are made of plastic or
metal with polyurethane or expanded styrene
insulation in the body.
Vacuum bottles have steel, aluminum
or molded-plastic cases with glass vacuum
liners of steel or stainless-steel liners.
Some have carrying handles. Regular vac-
uum bottles come in pint and quart sizes
with both standard and wide-neck open-
ings; stainless-steel bottles come in pint,
quart and half-gallon sizes.
Replacement glass fillers are available.
Rusting of the outer containers is eliminated
with the molded-plastic outer shell or the alu-
minum or stainless-steel models. The stain-
less-steel case with the stainless-steel liner
vacuum bottles are likely to last the longest.
Vacuum bottles under 16-oz. capacity
particularly those intended for use by
childrenmust pass a drop test indicating
that broken liners will not harm young-
sters. Manufacturers will include a warn-
ing on labels if the bottle is not tested for
child use.
I LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Flashlights are the most common supple-
mental lighting item for campers, making bat-
teries a staple item for everyone who buys
camping gear.
Besides battery-operated lighting devices,
there are three major fuels used for camp
lighting; propane, gasoline and kerosene.
Kerosene is the least satisfactory. It tends to
give uneven, flickering, yellowish light.
Gasoline lanterns are available in unleaded
types, in both single- and double-mantle sizes.
They require pumping up pressure as with a
camp stove. Most will burn 10 to 12 hours on
one fuel refill, although they will require
repumping of pressure several times during
that period.
Propane lanterns are simple to use and
require no pumping. The fuel is readily
available.
There are several kinds of electrical lights
available to campers. One type operates off
regular lantern batteries and serves as a small
table light. Another, drawing power from a
conventional lantern battery, operates a fluo-
rescent light fixture. Some models also work
from standard 110-volt current.
A fluorescent light that plugs into a
cars cigarette lighter produces as much
light as a 60- or 100-watt bulb (depending
on size). It can burn all night for several
nights in a row without depleting power
in a cars battery.
Most lighting devices come with handles or
hooks for easy portability and for suspending
from a tent pole, tree limb, etc.
I SLEEPING EQUIPMENT
Mattresses
Air mattress sizes and styles vary. Most com-
fortable are those made with a tufted or
sewn effect. Least comfortable are those with
large air cells, which sometimes run full
length of the mattress. Better models are larg-
er, usually about 72" x 28" with promotional
models generally about 70" x 24".
Twelve-volt electric pumps are available for
inflating mattresses. Some have built-in foot
pumps. Universal foot-pump inflators with
valves to fit all mattresses are available.
Foam pads serve the same purpose, but
do not require inflation. They occupy
more space, but eliminate any possibility
of leak or puncture.
Sleeping Bags
Quality sleeping bags are made of goose or
duck downextremely expensive. By regula-
tion, even a bag tagged 100 percent down
may have up to 15 percent feathers or fibers.
Any lesser percentage must be on the label,
such as 75/25, meaning 75 percent down,
25 percent feathers.
Loft is a trade term for fluffiness. This
marks the difference in insulating materi-
als. Northern goose has the best loft,
retaining its shape almost indefinitely,
even after repeated crushing. Its costly
and cant be washed.
Sleeping bags can be dry cleaned if
properly aired out after the cleaning
process. Some solvents used in dry clean-
ing give off poisonous fumes and could be
dangerous to the user if the fumes become
trapped in the sleeping bag.
Most bags are machine washable and
dryable. Its best to check manufacturers
cleaning instructions.
The more insulating material, the better the
sleeping bag. Insulating fabrics made of
Dacron 88, Holofil II, DuPont Fiberfill II,
Permaloft, Acryloft and DN-500 can closely
equal goose downs loft, insulating ability and
light weight. They are less expensive, wash-
able and nonallergenic.
Bonded-insulation filling eliminates the
need for quilting and reduces cold spots at
the point of quilting.
Zipper construction is an important quality
factor. Weight and size of zipper are more
important than materials used.
The zipper should be double stitched,
applied so that there is an insulated flap run-
ning along the inside of the zipper when the
bag is in use.
Size is a factor. Finished rather than
cut size is most important. Best-quality
bags are larger than the standard 75" x
33". A camper should look for a bag 8" to
10" more than his height. Some bags are
constructed so they can be joined togeth-
er as a double-sized sleeping bag.
I TENTS
Most campers start with tents because they
are a relatively simple and inexpensive way to
begin. From this point, they move toward the
purchase of more sophisticated and expensive
productstrailers, trucks, campers, etc.
The first thing to find out is what kind of
camping the customer has in mind. If he
plans to back pack or canoe camp, 14 lbs. is
considered maximum tent weight.
Experienced campers try to stay under 8 lbs.
Aside from weight, fabric is the most
important element in tent cost, and the
major key to quality. A thread count of
130 means that, per square inch, there are
about 70 threads running one way, 60 the
other. The higher the thread count and
the lower the fabric weight (expressed in
oz. per sq. yd.), the better the tent will
hold out the elements.
Spun-polyester sidewalls contribute to
weight reduction in construction. Many tent
fabrics are treated in much the same way a
raincoat is treated to further resist water. This
adds a little to weight.
Construction quality features include lap-
felled or French seams (providing four layers),
preferable to less-costly flat seams, which are
not as good at keeping out water.
Eaves and main corner seams should be
reinforced with an additional strip of web-
bing. This adds strength to the seams and
helps the tent keep its proper shape.
Areas where guy ropes and poles attach
should be reinforced with heavy webbed
tape backing to keep loops from ripping
out of the tent in a heavy wind. A top-
quality tent will have either pressed-on
metal grommets or sewn-in rings where
poles or stakes fit.
In most areas, insect protection is as
important as protection from the ele-
ments. A sewn-in floor and mosquito door
are definite quality factors. Good ventila-
tion is equally important.
Last major consideration is size. The
customer should figure a minimum of 2-
1/2' x 6-1/2' floor space for each person
who will sleep on the tent floor. If cots
are to be used, add another 50 percent to
space requirements.
Pup Tents
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Popular with Scouts, pack campers, etc.,
pup tents are designed only for sleeping,
and hold one or two persons. Size is limit-
ed, with a base about 5' x 7' and a height
of only 3'6" to 4'.
Exterior Frame Tents
The cabin style tent with exterior frame
construction has more room than an umbrella
tent and is easy to set up.
The umbrella tent requires ribs extending
like umbrella ribs on an exterior-frame design.
The exterior frames afford more interior room
and easier set up. These are available in a vari-
ety of sizes to fit camping needs.
BICYCLES
Energy conservation, enjoyment and physi-
cal fitness sell bicycles. While juvenile models
make up a significant portion of sales, the
higher-ticket, lightweight, multispeed bikes
have made phenomenal inroads.
According to the Bicycle Manufacturers
Association, bicycles are considered practical
for trips within a five-mile radius.
There are bicycles to fit everyones budget
and transportation needs: tourist bicycles,
characterized by light weight and several
speeds; minibikes, compact enough to fold
and park inside an apartment or carry in
the trunk of a car; tricycles, not the chil-
drens type, but 24" wheel models popular
with adults, and tandems, the bicycles
built for two.
Other types are the lightweights, often
called racing bikes, and sidewalk bicycles with
trainer wheels.
Bicycles bring young parents and young
customers into the store. Theyll bring in older
adults, too, for physical fitness. Cities now
have thousands of miles of bicycle paths.
Although profit margins may be short, dol-
lar sales are large and still worthwhile.
Customers are willing to buy better
bicycles, which improve margins as do
sales of bike accessories.
Touring Bicycles
A long-time favorite has been the 10-speed
touring bike with a derailleur gear-changing
mechanism, thin, high-pressure tires and rac-
ing-style handlebars.
The construction of this type of bicycle
affects its performance. The easiest to ride of
the touring bicycles are lightweight, have a
rigid frame, sturdy pedals, a comfortable seat
and quality bearings.
A light, rigid frame with quality bearings is
the best combination. If the frame is not rigid,
it will tend to flex under stress. This wastes
energy that could be used to propel the bike
and makes handling and pedaling difficult.
Many touring bicycles are equipped
with a number of safety and convenience
features including:
Auxiliary brake leversthese parallel the
horizontal portion of the handlebars. They
enable the rider to apply brakes without
reaching for the primary brake levers.
Quick-release wheelsthese consist of cam-
lock levers that allow the biker to free the
wheels from the frame by turning a lever
without tools. It eases disassembling the bike
or removing the wheel.
Aluminum wheelsthese perform much
better than steel wheels in wet braking tests
conducted in independent studies by con-
sumer groups.
All-Terrain Bikes
All-terrain bikes or ATBs have sturdy,
heavy frames; balloon tires with pro-
nounced tread that will withstand abuse
and soften the ride; wide, straight handle-
bars and many different gear speeds for
easy pedaling in a number of situations.
These bikes are designed for trail riding
and some models are geared for riding on
city streets. The features of these bikes
stress durability, ease of control, pedaling
ease and safety on out-of-the-way trails as
well as the road.
Transbar Power Bikes
Transbar power bikes feature an unusual
propulsion system that makes the bike attrac-
tive to riders who dont have the leg strength
for normal pedaling.
The pedals move up and down, instead of
round and round. The levers keep the pedals
always poised for a power stroke. That reduces
the motion wasted in cranking a normal pedal
back into the power position.
The pedals attach to opposing bars that
seesaw lengths of bicycle chain across a
pair of ratcheting drive gears on the rear
hub. An idler mechanism changes the
direction of the chains with each stroke,
so that pushing down on one pedal brings
the other back into position. Gear ratios
are altered by changing the point at
which the chains attach to the bars.
Selling Features
Regardless of the bicycles you sell, there are
certain step-up qualities you can talk about to
upgrade or even double your sales. Some are
for appearance or looks only; others provide a
measure of extra life, durability, easy mainte-
nance, comfort, safety, etc.
For example, chrome-plated rims and
fenders are better looking, easier main-
tained. Chromed and/or heavier-gauge
chain guard is sturdier and better looking.
Whitewall or striped tires may be attrac-
tive, but reflective tires contribute to
cycling safety, especially at night.
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RULES OF THE ROAD
FOR SAFE BICYCLING
1. Obey all traffic regulations, signs, sig-
nals and markings.
2. Observe all local ordinances pertaining
to bicycles.
3. Keep right; ride with the traffic, not
against it. Ride single file.
4. Watch out for drain grates, soft shoul-
ders, other road surfaces.
5. Watch out for opening car doors or
cars pulling out into traffic.
6. Dont carry passengers or packages
that interfere with your vision or con-
trol.
7. Wear a good helmet.
8. Be careful at intersections, especially
when making a left turn.
9. Use hand signals to indicate turning or
stopping.
10. Use reflectors and lights at night for
required protection.
11. Ride a safe bike. Have it inspected peri-
odically.
12. Ride your bike defensively. Watch out
for the other guy.
Study your wholesaler or manufacturer cat-
alogs carefully for specific features.
Selling a bicycle equipped with even a few
of the accessories available could double the
sale. Bicycles can be fitted with carrier racks,
saddlebags, bike trailers; carts that attach to
the bikes seat, lights, generator lights, horns,
speedometers, and child-carrier seats.
Reflective tape is available for clothing,
bicycle-tire walls, frames, etc., to promote
night safety.
Care of Bikes
All bikes need to be cleaned thoroughly
at least once a year. Use a soft, damp
cloth or small, soft paintbrush to wipe off
dirt. Remove mud or grit from frame,
wheels, chains and sprockets.
Lubricate chains and multispeed gear
shifts frequently with a light coat of ordi-
nary household oil.
Car wax can be used to keep paint and
metal parts shiny.
Keep tires inflated to proper pressure
for better wear. Replace broken spokes.
Tighten loose ones.
Check lights, reflectors and horn fre-
quently to make sure they are in proper
working condition.
POWER VEHICLES
I MINIBIKES
Simple, stripped-down minibikes with cen-
trifugal clutches are designed primarily for the
young and not permitted on the road. A larger
class of bike with 50-70 cc engine displace-
ment is popular with outdoorsmen. Most of
these types must be licensed for road use. This
larger variety of bike is available in either
automatic or manual transmission.
I MOPEDS
The moped is a motorized version of a bicy-
cle. Because it retains foot-operated pedals, it
offers the advantages of a power vehicle and a
bicycle. Its name, moped, is a combination of
motor and pedal, since either can be used to
power it.
A moped motor is small enough to keep
the cycle lightweight. Top speed is around 30
mph, with about 150-mpg economy.
These motorized vehicles are legal in
most states.
I GO-CARTS
Carts are basically two types: a racing cart
and a fun cart for everyday use. The latter
comprises 90 to 95 percent of the market.
Most are lawnmower-engine-powered
units of 3 to 8 hp. On live-axle carts,
the engine drives both rear wheels with
no differential, allowing more traction for
racing, but greater turning difficulty. On
stub-axle carts, the engine drives the
left rear wheel only, providing less trac-
tion but easier turning. The latter is
preferable for fun carts.
ARCHERY
To successfully sell archery equipment, a
salesperson should be well versed in the basics
of the sport. Although bow hunting is the
backbone of the archery business, target
shooting should not be overlooked.
Types of Bows
One-piece fiberglass bows are generally used
for children. They are sometimes sold individ-
ually but are usually merchandised in a set
with arrows, armguard, glove or tab, target
face and instructions.
Conventional or recurve bows are made of
laminated wood and fiberglass and come as
either one-piece bows or take-down bows with
a wood or metal handle and separate inter-
changeable limbs. Recurve bows are available
as target bows, hunting bows or bows used for
both purposes.
Unlike conventional bows, which increase
in draw weight as you start to pull back the
string, compound bows reach peak (or full)
draw weight as you start to pull back the
string, and let off to a lighter weight (called
relaxed weight) at full draw.
The design of eccentric wheels on the ends
of the limbs determines the percentage of let-
off, with 50 percent being usual on hunting
bows. This means that on a 50-lb. bow, you
only hold 25 lbs. at full draw, allowing the
shooter to hold longer with less strain.
Hunting Bows
Hunting equipment constitutes more than
80 percent of the total archery business. The
selection of the right hunting bow is based on
the customers size, strength, experience and
hunting objectives.
Hunting bows vary in draw weight from
30 to 80 lbs. Lighter draw weights are
used for hunting small game, heavier
weights for big game. More experienced
hunters like a heavier bow, but beginners
may find a heavy draw too difficult. Most
beginners learn faster with a light, low-
cost bow. Average draw weights for draw
bows are 45 to 50 lbs. and 50 to 55 lbs.
peak weight for compound bows.
Draw length is important on a com-
pound bow, since it is part of the bow
design. Many compounds now have an
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16
Tip
HUNTING BOW
Face or Belly
Serving
String
Nock
Lower LImb
Stabilizer
Handle
Arrow Rest
Arrow Plate
Sight
Window
Stabilizer
Upper Limb
Back
Nock
adjustable peak weight, meaning that the
customer can increase his draw weight as
he becomes more experienced, or lower
the draw weight in order to use the same
bow for target shooting.
Hunting bows come with limbs of solid
fiberglass or laminations of maple and fiber-
glass. Laminated limbs are more expensive
and usually provide a smoother release and
slight increase in arrow speed. Fiberglass limbs
are durable and long lasting.
Hunting Arrows
Fletching (feathers of plastic vanes) on
hunting arrows should be at least 4-1/2" long
and helical fletched to provide spin in flight
for stability with heavy hunting heads. Plastic
vanes have replaced turkey feathers. They are
waterproof, working well under hunting con-
ditions. Arrow length and spine (degree of
stiffness) must be properly matched to archer
and bow.
The most accurate way to determine proper
arrow length for the beginner is to use a meas-
uring arrow, available from most manu-
facturers. If using a yardstick, measure
from chest to fingertips with arms
stretched forward, palms held downward
against the yardstick.
The arrow should be weight matched to
the peak weight of the bow. The length
should be 3/4" to 1" longer than target
arrows, to keep the hunting head clear of
the bow and archers hand. Average hunt-
ing-arrow length is 29" for recurve and
30" for compound bows.
Hunting arrows are made from wood
(usually cedar), fiberglass or aluminum.
Cedar is the cheapest, excellent for begin-
ners. Fiberglass is durable. Because alu-
minum offers the best flight consistency,
most hunters favor these arrows.
Better-quality hunting arrows have inter-
changeable points, allowing the archer to
switch from blunt points for small game or
practice, to field points and razor-sharp
hunting heads. Stocking two or three types
of points should satisfy most needs.
Target Bows
Selection of the proper target bow is
based on the same elements as the hunting
bowsize, strength, experience and target-
shooting objectives. Target bows are often
longer and heavier than hunting bows and
generally lighter in draw weight.
Target recurves vary in length from 60" to
70", with draw weights from 20 to 40 lbs.
Compound target bows usually are shorter
with peak weights from 25 to 50 lbs.
Target Arrows
Target-arrow length is determined from
the archers draw length. Spine weight
should be matched to peak draw weight.
Target archers have to experiment for the
best arrow flight.
Fletching on target arrows is smaller
than on hunting arrows, usually 2-1/2" to
3-1/2" long. Points are either field-point
style or the smaller, bullet-shaped target.
Accessories
Accessories are generally the most prof-
itable portion of the archery equipment
market. Common accessories include
quivers, arm guards, finger gloves, tabs
and string sleeves.
Quality quivers hold an adequate number
of arrows, cover arrowhead or points and
keep the arrows from rattling against each
other. They are usually made of vinyl or
leather. Back quivers strap around the body
and can be hung from tree stands or blinds,
but they allow arrows to rub together,
dulling points and making noise.
Hip quivers have individual arrow clips
to prevent rubbing and noise and are rela-
tively inexpensive and compact.
Bow quivers are made of rigid plastic or
fiberglass and attach directly to the bow.
While these provide easy arrow access and
good maneuverability, some hunters think
the bow quiver adds unnecessary weight
to the bow.
Arm guards are made of leather or vinyl
and strap to the arm to protect it from the
bowstring. Most arm guards are short and
are worn between the elbow and wrist;
longer arm guards that cover above the
elbow are useful for hunting with loose
clothing to prevent the string from snap-
ping against sleeves.
Leather tabs protect fingers from bruis-
es and blisters caused by bowstring fric-
tion. They also ensure a smoother and
more accurate string release. Some
hunters use plastic or rubber sleeves over
the string where the fingers grip the string
in place of a tab.
TEAM SPORTS
Team outfitting is a profitable business.
It requires no warehousing or floor space,
but a lot of product knowledge.
No matter what kind of team you are
serving, sell safety and quality. These are
paramount considerations in purchasing
decisions for sporting equipment.
I FOOTBALL
A good football is made of select cowhide,
with good lining and stitching to be sure it
retains its shape. Less-expensive models use
lower-quality leather composition or plastic.
Plastic kicking tees are made in several
designs. There is little difference between
them, and no reason to stock or sell more
than one kind.
Helmets should have a tough plastic shell
with an interior webbing or padding to pre-
vent shock from being transmitted directly to
the skull. The more points of suspension, the
more protection the helmet gives the wearer.
For maximum safety results, each helmet
must be individually fitted to the player
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
17
HUNTING ARROW
Fetching
Point
Nock Cock Feather Cresting Shaft Footing
who will wear it. It must cover the back of
the head and base of the skull, it must not
turn when struck, and it must not fall over
the eyes when hit from behind.
Shoulder, hip, thigh and knee pads are
made of plastic, with 100 percent nylon
padding sewn with nylon.
Shoes should support the ankle as well
as provide good traction. Highest quality
shoes have kangaroo or good split-
cowhide uppers, top-quality leather
insoles, cleat posts of tough steel with a
broad base firmly locked in position.
Linemen usually prefer over-the-ankle
hightop shoes for greater support while
back and ends usually prefer a lighter,
low-cut (oxford) style.
Mouthguards are required equipment.
Fitted guardsthose molded exactly to
the teeth of the individual wearing
themare the best type.
I BASKETBALL
A rubber-covered basketball is adequate
for beginners, but vinyl or vinyl and
nylon covers give longer-lasting wear.
Best-quality basketballs no longer have
leather covers. They are made of a nylon
carcass covering the bladder and all
encased in a composition cover.
Backboards are sold in several grades,
depending on the type of material used.
They are made of particleboard, hard-
board, encapsulated fiberglass over a
wood core and pure fiberglass. Steel back-
boards are used for playgrounds, while
fiberglass is most popular indoors.
Basketball goals are made of tempered-
steel rimsthe greater the diameter of the
rim material, the better the goal. These
come in 3/8", 1/2" and 5/8" sizes, all with
the same 18" opening.
Nets vary in thread size and are sold in
both 8 and 12 loop. Threads are made of
cotton, nylon and all-weather polyester.
I BASEBALL AND
SOFTBALL
Balls
All baseballs follow the same specifica-
tions of size and weight with horsehide
covers, composition centers and wool-
yarn windings, but they differ with the
quality of materials used. Softballs, on the
other hand, differ in types of center
(kapok or cork), type of cover (rubber or
leather), etc.
Bats
Baseball bats come in different sizes and
weights, depending upon the age of the
player and individual preferences. An
important feature for many customers is
type of grip; they look for material that
will not slip in sweaty hands.
For participation in some leaguese.g.,
Little League, Pony Leaguebats must
meet certain specifications of size, weight,
etc. If you are selling baseball equipment
to teams or individuals in these leagues,
be sure you know the specifications,
approved styles and models, etc.
Ash or hickory are the woods used for
both softball and baseball bats. The best
bats are made of ash. Medium-priced
models are made of hickory and walnut.
Bats range in length from 33" to 36".
Aluminum bats are also sanctioned for
official league play. They come in a vari-
ety of colors. Manufacturers claim they
are unbreakable.
Quality is especially important in bats.
Low grades in other types of sporting
equipment wear out faster; a low-quality
bat may break with the first hit.
Gloves
Baseball gloves vary considerably in
price, depending on the quality of materi-
al and workmanship. Horsehide is inferior
to top-grain cowhide.
Fielders gloves come in six-finger, five-
finger, four-finger and three-finger styles. In
more expensive models, finger loops inside
the little finger and thumb are a comfort-
able aid for controlling the glove for fast
action. The flex pad is a scientifically
designed area that forms a firm foundation
over the fleshy part of the thumb.
Basemans mitts come in double-pocket,
extended-palm, trapper, spear and catchers
styles. Some mitts have an adjustable wrist
loop, giving every hand a tailored fit.
RACQUET SPORTS
I RACQUETBALL
The game, similar to handball, is played
with a short racket by two, three or four
persons, indoors, in an enclosed hard-
wood court.
The primary equipment is a racket, rubber
ball, soft-sole shoes and protective glasses.
Rackets
A racquetball racket is similar to a ten-
nis racket, except that it has a much
shorter shaft.
Rackets are made of fiberglass, graphite,
wood and metal (usually aluminum).
They come in different shapes for player
preference, although they must not
exceed 27" as the combined total of
length and width.
Other Equipment
The racquetball ball is a hollow rubber
ball with a smooth outside covering.
Some types are pressure regulated.
Optional equipment includes a hand
glove, available for men and women in
left- and right-hand styles.
Other accessories include sweatbands for
head and wrist, and equipment bags for car-
rying clothes, shoes, rackets and balls.
I TENNIS
Tennis Balls
Tennis balls are sold in pressure-packed
cans to keep the balls livelier longer.
Tennis shoes and gym shoes are com-
monly spoken of as being identical, but
the true tennis shoe has a completely
smooth sole, while gym shoes have
tread for suction or similar configura-
tions on the sole.
Only completely smooth soles are permit-
ted on some types of composition courts.
Do not sell gym shoes as tennis shoes unless
you know the buyer is planning to play on
hard surface or clay courts.
Wood Rackets
Better-quality tennis rackets are sold by
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
18
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
19
sporting goods specialty stores or stores
with large sporting-goods departments. In
a smaller sporting-goods department, the
only rackets likely to be sold are low-end
models, designed for beginners or occa-
sional players.
Most rackets are strung with nylon
monofilament in cheaper models and multi-
ply in better rackets. Gut is used for stringing
fine rackets for those who play frequently.
When selling tennis rackets, be sure the
head is flexible and the grip fits the cus-
tomers hand properly.
Rackets that add fiberglass and steel to
wood have extra power and life, while retain-
ing the string-protective benefits of wood.
WATER SPORTS
I SWIMMING
Just a few items are aimed at the swim-
mergoggles, snorkel, masks, nose and
earplugs and swim fins.
Swim goggles are for the underwater
swimmer. They permit him to see easily
without danger of eye injury. Quality gog-
gles have rubber frames with shatterproof
lenses. They should be watertight with
adjustable head straps to permit setting
for a comfortable position.
A snorkel and mask permit the
swimmer to breathe normally under
water through plastic breather tubes
which extend above the water. On some
models a valve at the upper end of tube
keeps water out of the tube if it should
go underwater. An airtight seal is provid-
ed over the swimmers nose and eyes.
Swim fins are made of rubber or plastic
with adjustable straps to fit any size foot.
Rubber is preferable because it floats.
Scuba-diving equipment gets its name
from the initials of Self-Contained
Underwater Breathing Apparatus, the full
name for equipment carried by a scuba diver.
A highly technical product line, scuba equip-
ment should be sold by someone with special
knowledge and experience in its use.
I BOATS AND MOTORS
Boats 10' to 14' long are most popular
models sold in d-i-y stores. These may
have flat bottoms, V bottoms or semi-V
bottom design and be made of aluminum,
plywood or fiberglass. They are used for
fishing, waterskiing and other general
marine activities.
Plywood boats are generally the lowest
priced, with fiberglass the most expensive and
most versatile from the standpoint of uses.
There is a vast market for marine prod-
ucts. Safety equipment is a leader in this
field. Included are life-belts and vests and
floating seat cushions, usually made of
kapok filling in a plastic cover. These
should have handles that can be grasped
easily by anyone floating in the water.
Horns, lights, buoys, boarding ladders, boat
hooks, etc., also fall into the marine-safety
category. Specialty items range from anchors
to tachometers, deck hardware to trailers.
Outboard motors can be used with any
of these types of boats. Gasoline-powered
motors are rated on the basis of horse-
power, with the intended use determining
how much horsepower is needed. Lower-
horsepower motors are used for fishing,
while more speed and powerfrom 40 to
50 hp upare needed for waterskiing.
This highly specialized line requires
much study and consultation with sup-
plying manufacturers and distributors.
I CANOES
Design, construction and materials vary
with each manufacturer, but all canoes have a
rib framework of wood or metal with body of
wood, aluminum, fiberglass or petrochemical
compounds such as polyethylene.
With accessory motor mounts, some
canoes accommodate small outboard
motors around 5 hp.
I WATERSKIING
Most popular types of water skis are made
of wood or fiberglass. Wood skis may have a
plastic or melamine facing. Skis vary in
length, but most are about 5'6" to 6'6" long.
Width varies with the length. A typical, 69"
ski will normally be about 63/4" wide. The
ski should have movable heel cleats to
adjust to any foot size.
Tow ropes vary with price. Braided
polypropylene is used for top quality tow
ropes. Most ski tow ropes are 75' long,
and many have a float attached to the
line. All will have a handle, some with a
special two-piece handle that can be
joined for one-piece use.
Skiing vests (or jackets) or belts are a
safety must. The selection of vest or belt
is largely a matter of customer preference,
although vests are required in some forms
of competition.
Kapok filling is used for lower-quality
vests, with plastic foam the filler for more
expensive vests. Fabrics vary, but one of
the biggest quality differences is found in
sewing and workmanship. Look for dou-
ble-sewn seams in better vests.
GOLF
I BAGS
Golf bags vary in price, depending upon
quality and style of material, workmanship,
features, etc. The larger, heavier bags generally
offer more pockets for balls, tees, shoes, etc., a
hood to protect the clubs in transit, carrier for
an umbrella and dividers to keep clubs from
rubbing against each other.
I CLUBS
A full set of golf clubs consists of four
woods, eight irons and a putter. An expe-
rienced golfer will often add a fifth wood
and one or two specialty irons. A wedge is
the most common specialty club.
Low-priced starter sets include two
woods, four irons and a putter.
The woods begin with the driver (num-
ber one wood) used only on the first shot
off each tee. Other woods are numbered
two through five. The higher the number
on the club, the greater the loft of the
club face, the shorter the shaft and the
shorter the potential for distance.
A standard set of irons is numbered two
through nine. The putter, available in
designs and sizes to suit personal prefer-
ences, is purchased separately.
Irons, like woods, are designed so that the
greater the club number, the greater the loft
of the ball and the less distance it will travel.
Better clubs may come with a choice of
weight, length and stiffness of the shaft.
Shafts are made of steel, aluminum and
fiberglass.
Graphite is being sold to top players, but
it is usually offered in the driver (#1 wood)
only. Graphite is also very expensive.
I BALLS
Golf balls are available in several types,
with individual preference the main factor
in selection. Balls are made with liquid,
steel, air and vinyl centers and in varying
amounts of compressionmedium com-
pression for an average golfer, high com-
pression for a better, more-powerful golfer.
Golf balls with more durable cutproof
covers have tremendous sales appeal, par-
ticularly for the average golfer. Bright-col-
ored covers add visibility.
I CARTS
Better carts are usually die-cast alu-
minum. A folding assembly lets the
wheels roll free after the cart is folded up.
Economy models have tubular-aluminum
frames with riveted assembly, but rarely last
more than a season with frequent usage.
YARD SPORTS
Four of the most popular backyard sports
are badminton, croquet, horseshoes and vol-
leyball. All are available as complete sets.
Badminton rackets look like tennis
rackets but are lighter weight with longer
handles. Play is similar to tennis,
although shuttlecocks or birdies are
used instead of balls.
The only equipment needed to play
volleyball is a net (larger and heavier than
a badminton net) and a volleyball.
SNOW SPORTS
While only a very few do-it-yourself
stores get into specialized winter sports
such as downhill and cross country skiing
or hockey, most dealers in snow regions
carry some snow toys.
The classic snow sled with metal runners is
still the most popular. Molded plastic sleds
are generally dish shaped; the entire bottom
of the sled comes in contact with the snow.
These are designed to run in soft snow where
metal-runner sleds wont go. Toboggans, too,
have some popularity, as families spend more
time together outdoors.
FITNESS
Americans are shaping up, as evidenced
by the tens of millions of joggers buying
special running gear for which style is as
important as function.
Running shoes provide added comfort
and support not available in ordinary tennis
shoes. They are lightweight, with synthetic
as well as leather uppers. Rubber soles are
specifically designed to cushion the con-
stant pounding a runners legs sustain.
Mini-trampolines allow joggers to run
indoors all year round. The trampolines
average about 3' wide, have a nylon run-
ning surface and steel springs. They are
also useful for runners with leg injuries
who cannot run on hard pavement.
Jogging shirts and shorts are designed
for various climate conditions to provide
maximum body comfort and perform-
ance. Sweatbands, hats and ankle weights
add to accessories.
Beyond jogging and running, but often
in conjunction with these sports, both
men and women are utilizing weight
training to condition their bodies.
Barbells are used with two hands while
dumbbells are used with one hand. Barbells
are usually steel; dumbbells can be made of
metal or molded plastic filled with sand.
Weights on barbells and some dumbbells
are permanently affixed or can be added.
I HOME GYMS
Home gyms and fitness equipment
enjoy widespread use. A study commis-
sioned by the National Sporting Goods
Association (NSGA) indicates that more
than 10 million people work out with
their home equipment and accessories;
and the number is growing.
A top-of-the-line home gym has weight
stack, bench slant board, handlebar and
leg lift/curler. Other types of home gyms
feature a rolling board with a system of
pulleys to exercise the muscles by pulling
body weight up and down a steel track.
Both types of gyms are usually made of
tubular-steel frames.
I INVERSION SYSTEMS
Another form of exercise equipment is
inversion systems. These systems stretch
the back by allowing the person to hang
upside down, either from a bar and boots
or with legs curled around a pad, hanging
just from the hips.
Both types of inversion equipment are
generally made form tubular steel. They
can be mounted in doorways and there
are also freestanding platform models.
I ROWING MACHINES
For customers interested in just one
major piece of exercise equipment,
experts recommend a rowing machine,
which works muscle groups throughout
the body and provides an aerobic work-
out. Quality models with strong shock
absorbers and seats that slide back and
forth smoothly cost at least $300.
I EXERCISE BIKES
Exercise bikes strengthen the legs and
make leg and hip muscles more flexible,
as well as burning a lot of calories.
A good exercise bike will have a wide,
easy-to-adjust seat for comfort; pedals with
straps that let exercise work on the up- and
downstrokes; a rigid frame; adjustable han-
dlebars; resistance control (a calibrated con-
trol is easiest to reset); easy-to-read gauges; a
resistance mechanism (either a caliper brake
or belt around the flywheel); and a large,
heavy flywheel (the bigger and heavier it is,
the smoother the ride).
Other exercisers include hand presses,
which use coiled-spring tension to help
firm arm muscles, jump ropes, chinning
bars, etc.
OUT DOOR L I V I NG & SP ORT I NG GOODS
20
CHAPTER THIRTEEN:
PAINTS
AEROSOLS
WOOD FINISHES
INTERIOR DECOR
PAINT SUNDRIES
HOUSEHOLD ADHESIVES
REPAIR/PATCHING TOOLS & MATERIALS
CAULKS AND SEALANTS
GLAZING MATERIALS
LADDERS
PAINT &
Decorating
13
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
2
I Paint should be viewed as a project starter,
since the consumer rarely needs just a can of
paint to complete their project. A good
salesperson should always try to build on a
basic paint sale by asking the customer
about the surface they intend to paint on,
which helps them suggest the right paint
and applicator. And since poor surface preparation leads to dissatisfied customers,
make sure employees are familiar with the ins and outs of proper surface preparation
and stress these points to the customer.
Consumers often lack the information they need to complete an entire paint and
decorating project. Sometimes the vast array of choices can be confusing to con-
sumers, who may find their options overwhelming when choosing a caulk, spray
paint or wood stain. The emergence of the Internet has led manufacturers to devel-
op Web sites that can help educate customers before they head to a store. Still, many
consumers expect their local retailer to have all the answers.
Consumers are becoming more knowledgeable about decorating projects, but
what they really want are products that make their work easierboth faster to com-
plete and more satisfying to look at when completed. Make sure your employees are
prepared to explain why certain products can bring inferior results when used on dif-
ferent surfaces.
Decorative finishing has arrived as a strong growth category, as consumers have
become interested in a wide range of projects such as faux finishing and stenciling.
Many retailers have responded to consumer demand by going beyond just having a
well-stocked inventoryhosting project clinics, designing attractive vignettes and dis-
plays, having color-matching computers on the salesfloor or hiring design consult-
ants. Along with personal selling skills, having the right knowledge about products
and their capabilities is instrumental to ensuring sales of paint, coatings, applicators
and other decorative items.
The paint category has been a target of legislation in recent years, with regulations
passed regarding lead-based paint and the sale and use of spray paint. In addition,
national standards for volatile organic compounds (VOC) took effect in 1999,
although some states are adopting even more stringent regulations on their own.
Retailers should educate themselves to answer questions about reformulated prod-
ucts. For example, some reformulated oil-based products require more applications
and take longer to dry. Be sure that you and your staff take time to familiarize your-
selves with the products you carry and the regulations in your area. Request and read
manufacturer literature and product labels.
PAINT &
Decorating
PAINTS
Paint is comprised of three components:
the binder, the pigment (color) and the liq-
uid. The best paints contain a higher volume
of solid material (binder and pigment) than
ordinary paints do.
The binder is the most important factor in
paints durability. The type and amount of
binder affect several aspects of the products
quality, such as stain resistance, crack resist-
ance, adhesion and gloss.
Pigment is comprised of the finely ground
particles that are dispersed in the paint. The
most common prime pigment is titanium
dioxide (TiO2), which is used in both oil-
based and latex paints. Meanwhile, extender
pigments provide bulk, and they enhance
qualities such as stain and chalk resistance;
better paints have a lower ratio of extender
pigment to binder.
The paints liquid is either water (in latex
paints) or solvent (in oil-based).
Additives are also used in paint to
enhance performance, application, appear-
ance or protection. Mildewcide is one addi-
tive used in exterior paints, while preserva-
tives prevent spoilage during storage.
Latex Paints
Latex paints are easily applied. Latex
paint films on exterior wood also allow
moisture to evaporate through the filma
quality that will help reduce blistering. In
addition to being thinnable with water,
the advantages of latex paints (compared
to oil-based) are:
o less odor
o water cleanup
o non-flammability
o faster drying times (one to three hours)
o ease of touch-ups
o ease of application, even on damp surfaces
o better gloss and less fading on exterior
surfaces
o no yellowing on interior surfaces
o greater flexibility
o a lesser likelihood of cracking and peeling.
Top-quality latex paints tend to have
binder that is 100 percent acrylic, which
gives them excellent durability on diverse
surface styles, including masonry and alu-
minum. They also adhere better, making
them less likely to flake.
The disadvantages, especially of some
lower-quality products, are poorer adhesion
to badly weathered or chalking surfaces and,
in some cases, less effective hiding qualities.
Oil-Based Paints
Oil-based paints consist of a pigment that
exists within a substance made of resins and
thinners. When thinners evaporate, the resins
form a hard coating and the pigment pro-
vides the color. The contents of oil-based
paints make them harder to apply, although
this same characteristic can also give them a
heavier coverage on the first coat.
The best qualities of oil-based paints are
their effective penetration of the surface and
excellent adhesion. And oil-based paints have
advantages over latex paints in a couple of
specific circumstances: they adhere better to
chalky surfaces and they provide better results
for anyone repainting a surface that already
has four layers or more of oil-based paint.
If a consumer does not want to invest in a
high-end latex paint, he or she can be
advised that an oil-based paint may provide
better flow and leveling than a lower-end
latex paint, as well as smoother finish after
drying with fewer brush or roller marks.
However, oil-based paints have certain dis-
advantages, particularly the odor and the
longer drying time (8 to 24 hours). Solvents,
thinners or turpentine are also necessary for
cleanup, and oil-based paints cannot be
applied to moist surfaces.
Interior Paints and Enamels
Interior finish paints are sold in both
water-based (latex) and oil-based (alkyd) for-
mulations. Latex paints are the most com-
mon sold for interior projects. Interior paints
are available in different gloss levels such as
flat, satin, eggshell, semi-gloss and high-
gloss, although there are no industry stan-
dards for these terms.
High-gloss enamels provide a tough,
washable finish for areas that endure a lot of
traffic or wear and for rooms that require
resistance to moisture, dirt and greasesuch
as the bathroom and kitchen.
Flat paints leave a duller (or matte) finish
without shine. Flat paints are usually applied
to ceilings and irregular wall surfaces, except
in kitchens and baths where semi-gloss or
gloss paints can better withstand the frequent
washings required in these two rooms. Flat
paints usually have either an alkyd base that
thins with turpentine or mineral spirits or a
latex base that thins with water.
Alkyd flat paints may hide better with
one coat than latex flats do, but brushes
and other tools must be washed with tur-
pentine or a similar solvent. Latex flats
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
3
RECOMMENDING THE PROPER PAINT
OIL-BASED EXTERIOR PAINTSPrimer is needed on new wood and new hardboard (includ-
ing pre-primed) for oil-based exterior paints. Two- or three-day wait recommended before any
oil-based paint is applied after rain. They are not recommended for application over masonry.
Requires 12 to 48 hours to dry, depending on local conditions. Clean brushes and tools with
turpentine.
LATEX EXTERIOR PAINTSNeed alkyd or good latex primers on new wood. Have a man-
made latex binder rather than naturally occurring oils, but even most exterior oil-based prod-
ucts contain a man-made binder. There are very few 100 percent oil paints left today. They are
resistant to moisture and dry to touch in 30 minutes (under normal conditions). Brushes and
rollers wash in water.
VINYL-BASED EXTERIOR PAINTSNeed latex primer on new surfaces. Should be applied in
heavy layers. Takes four to 12 hours to dry. Brushes and rollers wash in water.
INTERIOR PAINTSLatex paints are water-based; alkyd paint, oil-based. Water-based paints
dry faster than oil, and, as a rule, do not give off painty odors common to oil. Quality alkyd
paints form a tough non-porous surface that makes them conducive to washing. Latex is easier
to use because cleanup is done with water.
EPOXY COATINGSRequire undercoat and surface preparation. Go on like paint, but look
like porcelain after they dry. Used on ceramic tile, walls, bowls and appliances. Will not stick if
applied over ordinary paint. Offers the toughest finish available.
spread easily, especially on porous sur-
faces, and seldom require a primer. Tools
can be cleaned with water.
Satin and eggshell finishes are typically
recommended for most walls. Although low
in sheen, they are easier to clean than flat
paints due to their higher binder content.
Semi-gloss paints are recommended for
windows, doors, wood trim and other
woodwork; these surfaces get more wear,
fingerprints and soil than walls. Because
glossier enamels wash more readily, they
are more desirable. Semi-gloss latex paints
serve well as finishes for wood trim areas.
They, too, can be cleaned with water.
Enamels and gloss paints tend to show
brush and roller marks, so preparation of
interior surfaces is vital to good end
resultsas is careful application by the
painter. Surfaces must be washed thor-
oughly and rinsed with clear water and
then completely dried before repainting.
Cracks and holes must be repaired, and
patched areas must be spot-primed.
If surfaces are badly soiled, a trisodium
phosphate (TSP) cleaner may be necessary.
However, phosphates are a recognized pol-
lutant. TSP is more prone to deposit crys-
tals that impair adhesion than some other
products are. When repainting glossy sur-
faces, sufficient cleaning materials must be
used to dull surfaces, or they should be
lightly sanded. (An alternative to sanding
is a liquid cleaning/dulling solvent).
High-gloss surfaces typically do not pro-
vide good adhesion for new coats of paint;
deglossers may be necessary.
Also be sure that consumers know not
to paint over wallpaper. Once painted,
wallpaper is extremely difficult to remove.
Low-emissivity interior paint can lower
heating and cooling costs. It acts like a
premium interior latex paint, but contains
low-E particles that reflect radiant energy
to keep rooms feeling warmer in winter
and cooler in summer. It operates in prin-
ciple like low-E glass windows.
I EXTERIOR PAINTS
House Paints
Latex and oil-based house paints are for-
mulated to withstand wear and exposure
to severe weather conditions. Many manu-
facturers offer specific formulations for
regional climates.
For good adhesion, surface preparation is
critical. Consumers should scrape as much old
paint as possible from the surface and then
sand to feather the edges of scraped areas. The
surface then should be washed with a strong
detergent solution. For more information, click
(Removing Old Paint & Varnish).
Latex exterior paint is available with
polyurethane added, so it can be applied
over dirty or chalky surfaces without scrub-
bing or sanding.
Major problems associated with house
paints are generally due to:
o failure to follow manufacturers directions
o excessive moisture
o painting wet surfaces
o painting during inclement weather
o failure to use proper primer coat
o failure to clean the surface completely.
Any of these conditions can cause blistering,
peeling, early fading or similar problems. For
more information, click (Correcting
Common Paint Problems).
Trim Paints
Trim paints are chosen to contrast with
house color. They dry quickly to a hard fin-
ish; they are primarily for use on window
frames, shutters and railings.
They are not recommended for large
surfaces.
Flat finishes, which mark easily, should
not be used on doors, door frames or other
areas that are exposed to wear. Satin or gloss
paints are recommended for these areas.
Masonry Paints
Masonry surfaces include stucco, concrete,
brick, cement, etc. Most masonry paints are
acrylic latex-based. Oil-based paint is not rec-
ommended for masonry because of the resid-
ual alkalinity in the masonry.
Most latex-based masonry paints require a
special pre-treatment or bonding primer to tie
down old chalk and dust before application.
Rough surfaces should first receive a
coat of block-filler. Acrylic elastomeric
coatings bridge cracks and pinholes to pro-
vide the best waterproofing.
Powdered cement paints, which have a
shorter exterior life than latex coatings,
must be mixed with water. They can be
applied only over a porous masonry surface
such as brick, stucco or concrete, or over
surfaces that have been previously coated
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
4
HOW TO ESTIMATE FOR HOUSE AND INTERIOR PAINTS
DISTANCE AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE
AROUND HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT
HOUSE IN FT. 12 15 18 21 24
60 feet 1-1/2 gal. 2 gal. 2-1/4 gal. 2-1/2 gal. 3 gal.
92 2-1/4 2-3/4 3-1/2 4 4-1/2
124 3 3-3/4 4-1/2 5-1/4 6
140 3-1/2 4-1/4 5 6 7
172 4-1/4 5-1/4 6 7-1/4 8-1/2
DISTANCE PAINT FINISH
IN FEET CEILING CEILING CEILING CEILING FOR FOR
AROUND ROOM 8 8-1/ 2 9 9-1/ 2 CEILING FLOORS
30 feet 5/8 gal. 5/8 gal. 3/4 gal. 3/4 gal. 1pt 1 pt.
40 7/8 7/8 7/8 1 1qt. 1 qt.
50 1 1-1/8 1-1/8 1-1/4 3pts. 1 qt.
60 1-1/4 1-1/4 1-3/8 1-3/8 2qts. 3 pts.
70 1-3/8 1-1/2 1-1/2 1-5/8 3qts. 2 qts.
80 1-1/2 1-5/8 1-3/4 1-7/8 1gal. 5 pts.
CHART COURTESY OF HYDE TOOLS AND DUTCH BOY PAINTS.
with this same kind of paint. For proper
adhesion, the old surface must be wetted
down thoroughly and the paint applied to
the damp surface.
Masonry paint can be waterproof as well
as decorative. For best color retention,
coat with a good acrylic latex paint 30
days after application of waterproof
masonry paint.
Gutter Paints
Latex paints adhere better to galvanized
steel and aluminum gutters. Oil-based
works better on tin gutters.
Galvanized gutters require priming both
inside and out. Pickling them with a 5 per-
cent muriatic acid solution is recommend-
ed. They may also be cleaned with a coarse
cloth that has been dampened with paint
thinneror they can be left unpainted for
three to six months to allow weather etch-
ings for better adhesion.
Oil-based paints should never be applied
directly to unpainted galvanized metal.
They will eventually peel off. A galvanized
metal primer must be applied first. Acrylic
latex paint can be applied to unpainted
galvanized gutters as long as they have
been cleaned thoroughly.
Shingle Paints
Shingle paints are used primarily to pro-
vide surface protection for wood shingles.
These paints are low in pigment and leave
only a light color on the surface.
In some instances, shingle paints may
be applied without a primer. Where the
surface is badly weathered, recommenda-
tions may call for a companion primer,
undercoater or two finish coats. Check
manufacturers literature for recommenda-
tions with specific products.
Floor Paints
Floor paints (or deck enamels) are
designed for surfaces that will be exposed
to foot traffic and other wear and tear
common on household floors. Ordinary
high-gloss enamel is not suitable.
Floor enamels are formulated to with-
stand such weather and wear on wood and
concrete. They come in both oil-based and
latex formulas.
Since oil-based paints will not adhere to
damp surfaces, they are not recommended
for many concrete surfaces, especially in
moisture-prone areas like basements and
patios. Poor adhesion, peeling and lifting
are common effects of concrete flooring
on oil-based paint.
Conventional floor paints also work
poorly on garage floors. Hot car tires make
the floor paint stick to the tires and lift off
the floor. Concrete floors that have been
penetrated by oils, gasoline, etc., are virtu-
ally impossible to paint anyway because
cleaning these surfaces well enough to
make paint adhere is very difficult.
However, an extra advantage of latex floor
paints is that resilient floor tile can be laid
without removing the old paint. This is not
possible with other floor paints.
I SPECIAL-PURPOSE PAINTS
Acoustical Ceiling Paint
Special acoustical ceiling paint forms a
porous film that will not reduce the noise-
reducing properties of acoustical tile. It can
be applied with a brush, roller or sprayer.
Luminous Paint
Luminous paint is designed to glow in
complete darkness for up to 12 hours after
exposure to direct sunlight. It is used on
wall plates, house numbers, stair edges, fuse
boxes and other spots around the house.
Glow-in-the-dark spray paint sticks to
almost any surface, from car keys and bicy-
cles to tools and toys. It is green and easily
applied in a one-step application. Exposure
to light recharges painted surface.
Aluminum Paint
High-quality aluminum paint is alu-
minum blended with a resin base. It
works equally well on almost any surface
and may be brushed or sprayed. Colors
become more intense with age.
Aluminum paint can be used on all
interior and exterior metal or wood sur-
faces, or applied to metal flashing, gut-
ters, downspouts, tools, tool sheds, patio
furniture, pipes, mailboxes, fences, etc.
Do not apply aluminum paint during
freezing temperatures; paint should dry at
least overnight before recoating.
Texture Paint
Texture paint seals most minor imper-
fections in walls and ceilings and leaves a
decorator finish, although larger holes
and cracks must be filled.
Texture paint is available as a liquid base
with tinting colors or as a powder in several
colors. The paints also come in several consis-
tencies, ranging from smooth formulas to
larger texture particles in sandy textures
including even coarse stucco finishes, which
create the deepest texture.
If desired, rollers, putty knives, trowels
and other applicators create a variety of
patterns or designs, such as swirls and
deep texture finishes. After these finishes
have been applied and allowed to dry, the
surfaces can be painted any color. Texture
paint also may be tinted before application.
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
5
DOS AND DONTS OF
INTERIOR PAINTING
DO
Wash all grease and dirt off walls and
woodwork.
Patch cracks in walls and ceilings
before painting.
Seal all new surfaces with a primer.
Scrape off all loose paint and sand the
surface to a smooth finish.
Stir paint thoroughly before any appli-
cations.
Allow new plaster to dry before painting.
Properly ventilate area to be painted.
DONT
Dont expect good results on dirty sur-
faces.
Dont paint over a damp surface with
oilbase paints.
Dont apply the second coat of paint
until the first coat has dried properly.
Dont sand woodwork across the grain.
Dont change cans of paint in the mid-
dle of a wall area.
Dont add thinner to the product
unless directions call for it.
Lacquers
Lacquers are the fastest-drying finishes. In
fact, consumers should be advised to work
fast with lacquers. Also suggest a 50/50 mix-
ture of lacquer and lacquer thinner (each
preferably made by the same manufacturer).
Lacquers should be applied only to new
wood or over previously lacquered surfaces.
They cannot be used over old paint or var-
nish; the solvents will lift old finishes.
Lacquers should be handled with
extreme caution. Fumes are noxious
especially dangerous to the user in a
closed room. In addition, fire and explo-
sion hazards are much greater than with
ordinary paints and varnishes.
Lacquers are available in clear or colors.
They are usually difficult to apply by brush.
However, some manufacturers do offer spe-
cially formulated versions that apply more
easily with a brush.
Lacquer thinners are required to clean tools.
Epoxy Finishes
Epoxy finishes are primarily for bare or
previously finished wood floors. They also
eliminate dusting when applied to con-
crete floors. They penetrate rapidly and can
be applied with a brush or mop.
An epoxy finish adheres to most surfaces
and is especially good for doors, cabinets,
trim and furnitureany interior wood sur-
face where a clear-gloss, easy-to-clean finish
is desired. It resists detergent, oil and alkali,
but may lose gloss and chalk under exposure
to sun and weather.
Epoxy finishes are formulated in one- or
two-part systems. Two-part epoxies come in
kits containing equal size cans and contents
are mixed; they are more chemical- and abra-
sion-resistant than one-component epoxies.
Paint Additives
Conditioners can be added to either oil-
based or latex paints for a variety of rea-
sonsto keep edges wet longer, to pre-
vent lapping, to allow the paint to cover
better or to lessen drag on the paint appli-
cator. Conditioners also lessen paint clog-
ging in spraying systems. Some additives
are designed to give latex some of the bet-
ter qualities of oil-based paints.
Odor killer is a new additive that is particu-
larly useful for oil-based paints. It is added on
a per-quart basis and is relatively inexpensive.
One new paint additive uses new technolo-
gy to transform paintable areas into magnetic
surfaces. Magnetic paint, which can be used
with any type or color of latex, oil-based,
acrylic or enamel paint, has liquid metal
properties that will attract magnets. Users
can then hang pictures, signs, artwork or any
magnetic items they choose. It can also be
used as a primer to turn a wall into a magnet-
ic chalkboard. Two coats are recommended
for best results.
Insecticides can be added to paint, but
they should be added for outdoor use only.
Insecticide is poured into the paint, and the
paint is then applied as usual. Insects sus-
ceptible to the poison include spiders, ants,
silverfish, ticks, roaches and earwigs.
Some paint manufacturers warn that
additives may not live up to their claims.
They may even have adverse effects, such
as increasing mildew growth. They can
also void paint warranties, so check man-
ufacturer policies and literature.
Primers
Priming the surface before applying a top-
coat ensures better and longer-lasting results.
Primers and stain-killing primer-sealers are
designed to seal porous surfaces, block out
stains, promote adhesion of the topcoat and
hide unwanted colors.
Primers improve adhesion, prevent
stains on the surface from bleeding
through the finish paint and seal porous
surfaces. Sealing the surface helps save on
paint and prevents paint resins from soak-
ing unevenly into the substrate.
Ferrous metal surfaces should be primed
with two coats of primer. Using an acrylic
latex or oil-based, corrosion-resistant primer
will reduce the likelihood of the rust reap-
pearing. The primer should be applied
immediately after cleaning the surface and
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
6
HOW TO HANDLE LEAD-BASED PAINT
Customers who mention that they currently have lead-based paint in their homes should be
strongly warned not to remove it themselves before they proceed with their repainting or
remodeling projects. Such activity can release dust or chips from lead paint into the airstirring
a dangerous substance into the atmosphere of the home.
Exposure can cause irreversible damage to children and adults alikesuch as nervous-system
damage, slowed growth and other problems in children and reproductive problems, mental
difficulties and nerve disorders in adults.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) and the National Paint and Coatings Association (NPCA) discourage d-i-yers from per-
sonally removing lead paint from their homes. A professionally trained contractor should do the
job instead if the lead-based paint has significantly deteriorated. Lead-based paint that is not
peeling, chipping, cracking or flaking should be left untouched.
Federal law requires that contractors distribute a lead hazard information pamphlet before
beginning renovations in houses built before 1978. (Lead-based paint has not been manufac-
tured for d-i-y use since 1977.) Both landlords and sellers are required to disclose known infor-
mation about lead-based paint hazards in the property. Buyers have up to 10 days to check for
lead hazards. Landlords, sellers and renovators must share specified educational materials with
residents.
Property owners also should contact the nearest office of the U.S. Department of Housing
and Urban Development (HUD) for advice on lead abatement. State health and environ-
mental agencies can help as well. Financial assistance is sometimes available. In 1995, NPCA
launched a lead hazard control initiative. The Community Lead Education and Reduction
Corps focuses on establishing lead-safe housing at affordable costs and on educating com-
munities on lead safety.
NPCA offers lead educational materials at www.paintinfo.org. A free brochure, Dealing With
Old Lead Paint: A Practical Guide for Consumers, is available by writing to NPCA Lead
Brochure, Dept. PRN, 1500 Rhode Island Ave., NW, Washington, D.C. 20005 or e-mail at
npca@paint.org. For more information on lead in paint, contact NPCA at (202) 462-6272, the
National Lead Information Clearinghouse at (800) 424-LEAD, the National Lead Abatement
Council at (800) 590-NLAC or the National Retail Hardware Association at (317) 290-0338.
letting it dry. A stain-blocking primer
should be applied to new galvanized metal
before applying an oil-based topcoat.
Some customers may request that you
tint the primer to match the tint of their
paint. This often reduces the need for a
second coat of paint, since the color in
the first coat is less likely to be diluted by
the primer.
Acrylic block fillers should be used to
prime concrete block.
Stain-killing primer-sealers are oil-
based, water-based or shellac-based. They
prime virtually anything that needs paint-
ing, including metal, masonry, wood, dry-
wall and previously painted surfaces. They
are typically white-pigmented and can be
tinted to match the color of the topcoat
to reduce the amount of finish paint
needed for the job.
Shellac-based primer-sealers are ideal
for interior woodwork and spot-priming
knots on exterior wood. They are best for
sealing off troublesome stains from water
leaks, mildew and fire damage, and seal
off odors from smoke and pets. They
clean up with alcohol or a 1:3 solution of
household ammonia in water.
Water-based primer-sealers bind mod-
erately chalky surfaces and offer good
adhesion to glossy surfaces and metals.
They are almost odorless and clean up
with soap and water.
Oil-based primer-sealers can be used on
both interior and exterior surfaces. They
work well for nicotine stains and cedar
bleed. They give off a low odor and clean
up with mineral spirits (paint thinner).
AEROSOLS
Aerosol consists of propellant and the
product itself, which can be in the form
of a liquid, foam or semi-solid. Valve
modifications have improved the spray
pattern of aerosol paints; some permit
spraying in any position, even upside
down to touch up water spots on ceilings.
There are three kinds of propellants: hydro-
carbons (liquid propellants), carbon dioxide (a
compressed gas) and dimethyl ether.
Hydrocarbons are effective as propel-
lants because they turn to vapor as the
product is used and then fill the void left
by the decrease in product.
Carbon dioxide does not maintain a con-
stant pressure, so it is best recommended
where a coarse, wet spray is needed and
where the distance to be sprayed is short.
Inhalation of substantial amounts of
the propellant gases may be harmful to
health. Caution customers that aerosols
are effective and safeas long as the
product is used in well-ventilated areas.
For most aerosols, instructions on the can
make usage easy, but paint is different
because kinds and qualities vary greatly.
The first place to evaluate quality in
aerosol paints is on the canby noting
the percentage of paint to propellant. The
fill ratio used by manufacturers will vary.
So will the kinds of propellant.
The most common propellant is a light-
weight hydrocarbon. A common fill ratio
for a hydrocarbon is about 77 percent/23
percent. That means a 16 fluid oz. can
would contain 10 ozs. of paint by weight
and only 3 ozs. of propellant.
The formulation of the paint itself can
vary. Some formulas cover better; others
last longer; some provide a brighter gloss.
Aside from those differences, the type of
finish and length of wear are used to classi-
fy paints used in aerosols. Generic terms
such as enamel and lacquer are used,
but they also encompass a variety of film-
forming resins with differing characteristics.
Read labels and manufacturers literature for
a description of actual features.
Primers, stainless steel coatings, faux
finishes, anti-slip sprays, rust preventers
and graffiti removers all come in aerosol
form. A combination stain and varnish is
also available in an aerosol spray,
although it is tricky to apply evenly.
Spray-on latex paint is available that is
safe to use indoors or outdoors, resists
scratches and cleans up easily with soap and
water. It can be applied to wood, metal,
wicker, clay, plaster and plastic materials.
There are also three different spray-on
glass finishes. The transparent paint can
be used to add color to glass making it
look like stained glass. The semi-transpar-
ent paint gives a frosted glass look. The
reflective finish can be used to create mir-
rored finishes.
Numerous cities and a handful of states
have enacted legislation to regulate
aerosol spray paint, either prohibiting
sales to minors or requiring spray paints
to be locked up. Make sure you are famil-
iar with any requirements in your area.
WOOD FINISHES
Wood Sealer/ Wood Conditioner
Wood sealer is used on softwoods to help
tame wild grain patterns and to even up
stain absorbency. The sealer penetrates the
wood, which allows a more even color
appearance and grain pattern.
Wood Stains
There are two major types of wood
stains: semi-transparent and solid-color
(opaque). Semi-transparent stains can be
applied over bare wood or wood previous-
ly coated by a semi-transparent stain (but
not sealed). Solid-color stains can be
applied over bare wood and previously
stained surfacesand even over painted
surfaces that are in sound condition.
The essential difference between the
two types is: Semi-transparent stains
impart color, but the texture and the nat-
ural grain of the wood continues to show
through; while on solid-color stains, the
texture still shows through, but not the
grain itself.
Exterior stains are used primarily on
wood siding and shingles, decks, outdoor
structures and furniture. They are avail-
able in latex and oil-based formulas. Oil-
based stains penetrate the wood, and they
erode with weathering. Latex stains do
not typically fade as rapidly. When stain-
ing exterior wood decks, semi-transparent
oil-based stains are generally a better
choice. Solid-color stains are better for
decks with badly weathered wood.
Because of their excellent adhesion proper-
ties, latex stains are often recommended for
surfaces that were previously stained or paint-
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
7
ed with oil-based products. Latex is also rec-
ommended for woods such as cedar, redwood
and cypressthose that have natural resist-
ance to rotting. However, putting a light-col-
ored stain on these woods can result in
brown discoloration. Latex stains also can
withstand less abuse than their oil-based
counterparts.
If the deck is made of pressure-treated
wood, it should be stained two to five
months after installation. Many home-
owners believewronglythat pressure-
treated wood is automatically protected
from the elements. It is protected from
insects, but it remains vulnerable to sun
and moisture, which can cause splitting,
drying, cracking and graying.
There are water-repellent preservative
stains, which contain a fungicide and
water repellent. They protect against
decay and mildew, as well as warping,
splitting, cracking and general deteriora-
tion. Water-repellent stains can be oil- or
latex-based stains in transparent and
semi-transparent finishes.
Clear coatings come in both water-
based and oil-based formulations, for inte-
rior and exterior use. They are applied on
bare or stained surfaces such as doors,
windows, trim and furniture.
Timber oil is a wood finish designed to
penetrate exotic hardwoods such as
mahogany and teak. This specialty wood fin-
ish helps preserve the hardwood and main-
tain its natural appearance. Available in sever-
al shades, timber oil is a combination of tung
oil, linseed oil and long-oil alkyds. In general,
teak should be treated with oil-based formu-
las. Since teak is denser than many other
common woods, wood protector should be
applied with a brush or by rubbing it in with
a cotton cloth.
Interior stains, used for furniture and
woodwork, come in either pigmented or
dye categories. Both can have oil, synthet-
ic or water bases. Pigmented stains color
the wood with the same type of pigments
used in paint. They range in color from
almost clear to semi-transparent. They are
easy to applyusually brushed on or
wiped on with a rag, then wiped off
enough to control the depth of the stain.
They leave no brush or lap marks if
applied properly. Dye stains are more dif-
ficult to use and are more frequently used
by professionals. Most dye stains come in
powdersto be mixed in a solventand
most are highly flammable. D-i-yers most
often use pre-mixed dyes.
Dye stains offer deeper penetration of
wood surfaces and less grain hiding.
However, they also fade more quickly
than pigmented stains and require more
effort to prepare the wood. Water-based
dyes tend to raise the grain on many
woods because the water penetrates the
wood and raises the tiny fibers. Wood
should be wetted first, then sanded down
before applying water-based dyes. Also
keep in mind that water-based stains dry
quickly, making it difficult to get an even
coat on a large surface.
Non-grain-raising (NGR) dyes are dis-
solved in a NGR solvent. They dry faster
than water-based counterparts, so applica-
tion must be faster to avoid lap marks.
Colored oil finishes, such as Danish oil,
tung oil or Swedish oil, provide coloring
and protection in one step. However, oil
finishes do not stand up to alcohol or
water the way polyurethanes do, so they
are not recommended for high-traffic,
abuse-prone applications.
But oils make nice, low-luster finishes
for furniture and other fine pieces.
Waxing can provide water resistance with
these finishes.
Stains may or may not protect the wood;
check manufacturers labels. An oil or
polyurethane finish can be mixed with the
stain, so the do-it-yourselfer can complete the
staining and finishing job in one step.
Varnishes
Varnish is a blend of oils and resins
that coat the surface of wood and gives a
transparent, protective coating, allowing
the beauty of the wood to show through.
It can leave a gloss, semi-gloss or satin
finish, depending on its formulation.
All varnishes must be applied with a
clean brush to a clean, dust-free surface in
a dirt-free area.
Varnishes fall into four groups, divided
by their base: alkyd, polyurethane, latex
or phenolic. Varnishes are typically mixed
with a tung oil or linseed oil.
Phenolic varnishes of modified pheno-
lic oils deliver the best durability, espe-
cially in exterior uses. They absorb ultra-
violet light and neutralize oxidation.
However, they also tend to yellow faster
than other varnishes.
Alkyd varnishes offer flexibility and
hardness in both interior and exterior
uses, but in exterior use they oxidize more
quickly. However, they do not yellow as
much as phenolics.
Polyurethanes are not generally recom-
mended for outdoor use. They yellow and
crack when exposed to ultraviolet light
unless ultraviolet light absorbers are
added. There are newer exterior
polyurethanes, but manufacturers specifi-
cations should be checked first for recom-
mended applications. Polyurethanes are
recommended for interior use on floors
because of their excellent protection.
Phenolic or polyurethane stains are bet-
ter in interior applications for water-
resistance and hard use, but customers
may object to the plastic appearance they
produce. Alkyds offer a more natural-look-
ing gloss for furniture and indoor archi-
tectural trim and doors.
Some varnishes offer the advantages of oil-
based coatings and the cleanup convenience
of latex. The acrylic coatings take from 30 to
90 minutes to dry and do not yellow the
wood. Some acrylic-based varnishes are even
durable enough for use on floors; check man-
ufacturers recommendations. For more infor-
mation, click (Removing Old Paint &
Varnish).
Shellac
Shellac provides a fast, hard-drying,
durable finish for furniture, woodwork,
hardwood floors and other wood-finishing
applications. It also functions as a sealer
and stain-killer on drywall, cured plaster
and new wood. Shellac is widely compati-
ble with other coatings, and it can be
applied over old shellac, varnish or lac-
quer finishes that are adhering well.
Most shellac is sold in a 3-lb. cut, the
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
8
consistency recommended for most uses.
The 3-lb. cut can be thinned to a 1-lb. cut
for applications such as wood sealer
before staining by thinning one quart of
shellac with three pints of alcohol.
For applications where water spotting
may be a problem, shellacked surfaces can
be protected with paste wax or varnish.
Shellac may be applied with a brush,
foam brush or from a can. Advise cus-
tomers when brushing to flow on the
shellac from a full brushwith minimum
brushingand not to re-brush areas, since
the alcohol-based solvent of shellac dries
quickly. Shellac offers convenient cleanup
in ammonia and warm water.
Wood Preservatives/
Waterproofers
Wood preservatives by themselves pro-
vide no protection against moisture or
water. Water repellency must be formulat-
ed into the product. Mildewcides are also
frequently formulated into preservatives.
Water-borne, water-repellent preserva-
tives for wood offer lower environmental
hazards and convenient water cleanup.
They provide an alternative to conven-
tional solvent-based, water-repellent
preservatives while retaining effectiveness,
rapid drying qualities and excellent
paintability. Preservatives should be reap-
plied periodically.
A water repellent helps minimize water
damage on pressure-treated and untreated
wood. Some water repellents also contain a
mildewcide to help control mold and mildew
growth. It is best to use water repellent that is
formulated for immediate application to pres-
sure-treated wood to avoid premature crack-
ing, splitting, splintering and warping.
Periodic re-applications help prevent water
damage as wood ages.
Wood toners are water repellents that
add color to highlight wood grain.
Although toners are not to be used as if
they are stains, adding color to a water
repellent gives wood the benefit of ultra-
violet light protection. Most toners on the
market are designed for use on pressure-
treated wood. Some repellents contain
ingredients that cause water to bead.
Specialty waterproofers include a multi-
surface formula that can be used on brick
and concrete, an aerosol version that
works well for small exterior projects, a
fence protector, a leather and fabric pro-
tector and a sport waterproofer specially
designed for use on outdoor fabric and
sporting equipment.
INTERIOR DECOR
Wallcoverings
The application of wallcovering can be
done well by do-it-yourselfers. Technical
advancements make hanging wallpaper a rela-
tively easy redecorating job. Two factors are
important when selecting wallpaper: pattern
and roll size. Wallpaper comes in border paper
(for decorative accents) and sidewall paper
(large rolls to cover whole walls). For more
information, click (Hanging Wallpaper).
Wallcoverings come in either pre-pasted,
self-adhesive or dryback form. Most wallpaper
is pre-pasted, which means it has been coated
with paste by the manufacturer. Pre-pasted
wallpaper must be dipped in water for several
minutes and applied wet to make the paste
stick. There are specially formulated pastes for
pre-pasted wallpaper. These pastes eliminate
the need for the water tray used to soak the
pre-pasted paper and shorten the time needed
for application. Another feature of these pastes
is it makes the paper easier to remove.
With self-adhesive wallpaper, the user sim-
ply peels off the backing and sticks it on the
wall. Although these coverings adhere almost
immediately, there is time to adjust them
before the adhesive hardens. A light tack
adhesive permits numerous repositionings
during the 30 minutes after application
required for the bonding to become perma-
nent; the covering can be removed later, leav-
ing no residue.
Dryback wallpaper has no adhesion to it,
so wallpaper paste must be applied. Make
sure to follow manufacturer specifications
when selecting which wallpaper adhesive to
use with dryback wallcoverings.
Most wallcoverings come in rolls of 20-
1/2", 27", 36" or 54" widths; each contains
36 square feet of covering and will cover
approximately 30 square feet of wall or
ceiling surface. To calculate the amount of
paper needed, find the total square
footage of the area to be covered and
deduct one-half roll for every standard-
size door or window.
Its also important to know the dye lot
number of the wallpaper in case more is
needed later, since there may be a slight
difference in color between dye lots.
Necessary tools include trimming knife,
plumb line and chalk, scraper, seam roller,
smoothing brush, paste brush and water
tray (for pre-pasted coverings). If the job
requires paste, check the kind of paper
before you sell the paste. Some coverings
require wheat paste, while others use liq-
uid vinyl adhesive or a vinyl paste.
As with painting, walls must be thor-
oughly cleaned before applying new cov-
eringdirt, grease and grime washed off,
old paint scraped and washed down,
cracks filled and smoothed. It is also best
to remove old coverings first.
Depending on the kind of wall surface
involved and the kind of covering, other
preparations may be necessary. For instance,
walls should be washed with disinfectant
before applying vinyl, enameled walls should
be scrubbed with a trisodium phosphate
cleaner, and sizing or primer-sealer should be
applied to either wall or covering.
Many of these coverings are described
as strippable or dry strippable, which
means that the covering can be pulled off
years after application. Peelable wall-
coverings can be removed with soap and
hot water, but sometimes leave a thin
layer of paper on the wall.
Wallpaper strippers are available in liq-
uid and gel form. They contain agents
that penetrate the material and weaken
the bond, ideally allowing the wallcover-
ing to be removed in whole strips. Water-
impermeable wallcoveringssuch as coat-
ed or painted wallpaper, foils, mylars and
some fabricsshould be perforated before
applying stripper. If wallpaper is particu-
larly difficult to remove, use a wallpaper
shaver, which features a razor-sharp
replaceable blade.
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
9
Window Shades
Window shades are made of heavy paper,
treated fabric, fiberglass or vinyl. Vinyl shades
and the better-quality fabric shades are wash-
able with a damp sponge or cloth.
Some shades, particularly those made of
fabric, ensure privacy while allowing light
to filter through. Others, such as vinyl, shut
out light as well. These can also reduce
incoming hot or cold air and help cut
demand on air conditioning or heating.
On the other hand, some forms of win-
dow shading allow at least a partially
unobstructed view while still shutting out
the UV rays that damage furniture, partic-
ularly in the summer. Static-cling window
film, which is available in window-size
kits and in bulk rolls, sticks to the inner
surface of the window. It is easy both to
installrequiring only water and a
squeegee and easy to peel off and store
for the next summer. This vinyl film
blocks up to 90 percent of UV rays.
In addition, roll-up, see-through tinted
shades have multi-layer polyester film
with a special invisible heat-reflecting
coating on the inner layers. A standard
spring-roll shade is available for smaller
windows. Heavy, close-weave window
screening is another possibility. Kits are
available for d-i-yers.
Size is important to consider when selling
window shades. Some have steel rollers that
adjust to the size of the windows; others are
pre-cut and packaged in standard sizes up to
6'; on still others customers can cut them to
the desired width at home.
If windows are not standard widths,
shades must be cut to size. Accessories
include mounting hardware and pulls.
Faux Finishes
Most decorative interior painting
involves the application of one or more
colors in broken layers over a different-
colored background, creating a mottled or
textured effect. Most of these techniques
begin with a base coat of solid-colored
semi-gloss or satin paint, followed by a
thinner coat of paint called a glaze. A
versatile glaze can be made using one part
interior latex paint, one part water and
four parts artists glaze.
Sponging is a simple technique that begins
with application of a solid base color of paint.
After the base coat dries, a glaze of another
color is dabbed on with a slightly dampened
natural sea sponge, creating a mottled look.
More than one glaze color can be used, but
each needs to dry before moving on to the
next; the use of quick-drying latex paint can
speed up the process. Some sponges feature
random patterns that can be used to create a
design that closely resembles patterned wall-
paper. One line of sponges comes with a plas-
tic handle that can be removed as well as a
smaller trim sponge for corners.
Ragging and rag rolling can achieve effects
similar to crushed velvet, parchment, chamois
leather, watered silk or brocade. As with
sponging, ragging begins with application of a
coat of paint in a solid color and allowing it to
dry. A crumpled cloth is then used to add
glaze in another color. To rag-roll, a cloth is
rolled into a sausage shape of varying tight-
ness, then lightly dipped into the glaze and
rolled gently across the base coat.
Ragging and rag-rolling results vary
according to the cloth material used.
Linen, lace and burlap are common choic-
es, but almost any material will do if it is
clean and free of lint.
For a slightly different effect, each of
these techniques can be done with a neg-
ative method. This involves applying a
base coat, then a glaze coat. A sponge is
then used to remove some of the glaze
before it has a chance to dry, partially
exposing the color of the base coat.
Color washing is a water-based decora-
tive wall painting technique that is
applied in thin, transparent layers. It
enables a wide variety of colorful textured
and faux effects including leather, suede,
marble, rustic or antique finishes.
Combing involves covering a wall with reg-
ular paint, applying a glaze and then running
a metal painting comb through the glaze.
Combing tends to darken the color of the wall
and it can be done in any direction. Cross-
hatching is when the wall is combed once
straight down and once horizontally.
Another faux finishing method includes
dragging. This entails applying vertical
sections (about 20" wide) of glaze, then
immediately dragging a wide, organic-
bristle brush through the glaze in one
long stroke from top to bottom, holding
the bristles against the surface with the
handle directly toward yourself. This
method is suitable for walls or furniture
pieces with a flat finish.
There is also marbling, in which a base
layer of white or color is dabbed on with a
damp sponge, and then a second glaze of a
different color is applied the same way, caus-
ing the two colors to marble. The two colors
can be mottled with the sponge or crumpled
plastic. Another glaze color can be dragged
across the surface with an artists brush to add
a veined look. Marbling is often done with
fireplace mantles.
Stenciling
Stenciling is often done in conjunction
with a faux finish for decorative effect. It
can be done on walls, furniture, fabrics or
just about any small item in need of a cre-
ative touch. Stencils come in a variety of
styles, themes and types. Ivy, floral and
garden themes are among the most popu-
lar, along with animal designs for chil-
drens rooms.
Stencils can be used for small borders
on up to large, full-wall murals. Patterns
can be single or multiple layers. They can
even be applied directly to wallpaper.
Parts of the stencil can be used as spot
motifs around doorways, windows, doors
or furniture.
Self-adhesive stencils can be pulled off
the wall and reused many times. They
adhere to just about any surface.
Stencils can also be enhanced to create an
embossed texture. Acrylic stencil paint
works for exterior applications with patio
furniture, doors and fences. Rub-on stencils
work well with wall tile in the bath or
kitchen. With rubber decorator stamps,
paint is applied to the stamp and then
pressed to the wall. Some stencils allow the
user to view their work as they progress
paint cremes are designed so the colors will
not run or drip behind the pattern.
Stenciling kits contain everything need-
ed to complete the project, such as stencil
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
10
sheets, paint cremes, cutters, stamps,
brushes and pattern books.
Also available are multi-colored litho-
graphs that provide the look of hand-
painted stencils without having to under-
go the time-consuming use of paint.
Simply position the stencil, rub and peel
back the design. A special seam roller cre-
ates a dry transfer and rubs the design
onto the surface. It can apply a perma-
nent, washable bond to many surfaces.
PAINT SUNDRIES
Brushes
Brushes are highly efficient for painting all
areas and for all types of paint. A poor brush,
however, will result in a poor finish. To guide
customers toward a professional-quality job,
salespeople need to know what makes a qual-
ity brush and how to recommend the right
brush for the job.
A quality brush has a high percentage of
bristles with flagged (split) ends, which is
important for holding and spreading paint.
The better the flagging, the more paint a
brush will hold and the fewer the brush
marks left on the painted surface.
A quality brush also has filaments that vary
in length for smooth flow and application of
paint. Bristles on a brushes used for precision
painting, such as sash brushes, should be
tipped. They have pointed ends, allowing
more precise control of the paint.
Paintbrushes are available in a broad
range of sizes. Smaller brushes should be
used for smaller areas and detail work; larger
brushes have higher paint capacity for larg-
er areas. The five major components of a
paintbrush are handle, ferrule, spacer,
epoxy and filament.
Wood is the traditional standard for pro-
fessional handles. Do-it-yourself quality
brushes have handles made of plastic,
which is popular because it resists water and
solvents and requires little care. The handle
is attached to the brush by nailing or crimp-
ing it to the ferrule.
Ferrules are made with either round or
square ends. Most smaller, thinner brushes
have ferrules with round ends; larger, thicker
brushes usually have ferrules with square
ends. Ferrules can be made of stainless steel,
rust-resistant steel, copper-coated steel, brass-
plated steel, nickel-plated steel or bright tin.
The filament is the most important part of
the brush that applies the paint. It can be
made of natural bristles or synthetic materi-
als. Today, because of the popularity of
water-based paints, which make China bris-
tle soften and flare, synthetic materials are
both necessary and widely used. Synthetic
filament is generally made of nylon or poly-
ester. It can be made in many cross-sectional
shapes and quality levels.
Bristle is the most popular natural fila-
ment, and the best quality comes from
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
11
PAINTBRUSHCONSTRUCTION
Square Trim
Chisel Trim
PAINTBRUSH GLOSSARY
ANGULARbristles are tipped. One end
on one side of the brush is longer, giving
working end a slanted appearance.
BUTT ENDSends of bristle originally
embedded in hide of hog are ends that
go into brush setting.
CHISELED EDGEworking end of brush
is shaped to resemble end of steel chisel
on both sides of brush. Most quality var-
nish brushes and a number of quality wall
brushes and sash tools have chiseled
edges on both sides.
FERRULEwood-, metal- or leather-
bound form into which bristle is set; also
holds handle of brush.
FLAG ENDSworking end of each bristle
and tapered filament is divided into fine
hairs called flag ends. Hold paint in brush
and help spread it evenly.
HEELED UPheel is section of brush
where butt ends fit into ferrule. When this
becomes clogged with paint, it is heeled
up and will not work efficiently.
RESILIENCYproper proportion of stiff
and soft bristles or filaments.
SQUARE EDGEworking edge of brush is
straight. Large brushes usually have square
edges with natural bend of bristle inclin-
ing toward center of brush.
TAPERtapered polyester, tapered nylon
and natural bristles are thick at butt end,
thinner at flag end. Tapered brushes of
each different material are made by
blending various sizes of tapered poly-
ester, nylon or natural bristle.
CARE SUGGESTIONS
BRUSHES
1. Clean brush immediately after use, before paint has a chance to harden. Use proper solvent
for oil-base paint; for latex-base paints, clean with warm, soap or detergent water solution. If
brush does not clean thoroughly, clean in paint thinner and rewash in warm detergent solution.
2. Comb wet bristles with metal comb.
3. If brush is to be stored for long periods, return to pouch supplied with brush or wrap in foil
or heavy paper, with bristles smooth and flat.
4. Always store flat or suspended from a nail or hook so that bristles are straight and the brush
is not resting on bristles.
5. Do not allow any brush to stand on end in either paint or water.
6. Do not soak a brush in water; it will damage either the filament or the epoxy setting and
cause the ferrule to rust.
ROLLERS AND PADS
1. Clean after every use, removing excess paint by rolling or pressing on a newspaper, then
washing in proper solvent or water.
2. Dry and wrap to store.
mainland China. Bristle varies in length,
stiffness and thickness. Bristle has naturally
split ends, called flags. Flags help to hold
paint in the brush so it is released evenly
throughout the stroke instead of all at once
on the first contact point. The soft, natural
flags on bristle must be manufactured on
synthetic filament.
Bristle is not recommended for use in
water-based paints. Bristle is also not good to
use on rough surfaces, which can break the
flags and quickly wear down the brush. Bristle
brushes work well for oil-based and alkyd
paints, stains, varnishes, urethanes and shel-
lac. Their naturally soft tips leave fewer brush
marks in the coating than other brushes.
Nylon is also very durable, outwearing
China bristle five to one, so the tips last
well. Nylon cleans up easier than other fila-
ments. Because of its durability, nylon is
great to use on rough surfaces. Easy clean-
ability makes it the best material to use with
fast-drying paints like acrylics.
Because of their low price, polyester
brushes are popular with d-i-yers. Polyester
absorbs no moisture, so it retains its stiffness
better than any other brushing material.
Polyester also resists heat well, allowing it to
be used with all kinds of coatings in all types
of conditions. The drawbacks are it tends to
be stiffer so it does not have the proper
amount of flex, it leaves brush marks in the
coating, it cannot be precisely tipped and it
is not as durable or as easy to clean as nylon.
The most popular synthetic paintbrushes
combine the best qualities of nylon and
polyester together in one brush. Polyester is
used in shorter lengths to give the brush
resistance to heat and stiffness when used
with water-based paints; nylon is used in the
longer lengths for precise tipping and maxi-
mum durability. The newest blended brushes
combine China bristles with either nylon or
polyester. Nylon/ polyester blends give out-
standing performance in all types of paint,
including latex, acrylics, alkyds and oil base.
The best filament is round and solid (not
hollow), because it lasts the longest and
cleans up easiest. The best synthetic filament
is made with a tapered shape, which gives
the brush a natural taper for precise cutting-
in. Because man-made filament does not
have natural flags, tipping processes were
developed to improve the spreading ability
of filament. There are several ways to process
bristle and filament. Because bristle has nat-
ural tipping, it is processed very minimally.
Synthetic filament, on the other hand, must
be processed to make it paint effectively.
Exploding the tips of filament bursts
them to make flags that carry paint and
spread it smoothly onto the surface. Bristle
has natural flags, so it is not exploded.
Another type of processing makes a sharp
point on the end of each filament; this
improves layoff and cutting-in abilities with
todays thicker paints. Still other processes
smooth the body or length of the filament,
which may become roughened after tipping;
bristle is sometimes smoothed as well. This
improves cleanability.
There are two basic paintbrush construc-
tion types: square and chisel. Filaments in
brushes with square construction are level
across the bottom, which also makes them
level at the top of the brush. Chisel con-
struction results in a rounded shape at the
base of the brush and a triangular, chisel
shape at the top of the brush.
Brushes can also be compared by brush
trim. With square trim, the end of the brush
is trimmed flat or horizontal. With chisel
trim, the end of the brush is cut to a dome-
like shape, which increases taper and cut-
ting-in properties. For more information, click
(Making Painting Easier).
Rollers
The major advantage of a paint roller is
the speed of application. The average d-i-yer
will do a quicker, smoother job with a roller.
Standard wall rollers, used in large open
areas, are 7" to 12" wide. Specialized rollers
can be any length from 2" to 18", depending
on the job to be done. Special rollers are
designed for painting on round surfaces or
into corners.
The best roller frames are made from
heavy-gauge wire, and they have end bear-
ings for smooth operation and a threaded
handle to accommodate extenders.
One critical element in any roller is the
type of fiber used in the cover. Mohair cov-
ers are especially good for applying enamel,
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
12
PAINT APPLICATORS
Paint Roller
Frame
Yoke-Mounted
Roller
Paint Pad Tray
Paint Pad Spattershield Roller
SUGGESTING THE RIGHT
PAINTBRUSH
For successful painting projects, con-
sumers need the correct brush to fit the
job. Various manufacturers recommend a
number of brush sizes and styles for spe-
cific painting projects.
LARGE SURFACESceilings, floors, chim-
neys, shingles, boats and pools.
Recommend a wall brush, 7/8" to 1" thick
and 3" to 6" wide; 4"-wide flatting brushes
are preferred. There are also lightweight
4" to 6" flatting brushes that are ideal for
large areas.
MEDIUM-SIZE AREAScupboards, floors,
eaves, large pipes, picket fences and table-
tops. Recommend a flat varnish or flat
sash brush, 2", 2-1/2" or 3" wide. Suggest
a 1-1/2" or 2" angular trim brush for win-
dow sashes. There are two kinds of sash
brushes: flat and angular.
SMALL AND CORNER AREAStrellises,
radiators, metal furniture, ladders, garden
tools and small windows. Recommend 1"
or 1-1/2" sash brush or small flat varnish
brush. For small window sashes, suggest
1" or 1-1/2" angular trim brush.
AUTOMOTIVE REPAINTINGrecom-
mend 2-1/2" or 3" soft-hair, flowing-style
brush, such as quality nylon or ox brush
or a good varnish and enameling brush.
FURNITURE REFINISHINGrecommend
a 1-1/2", 2" or 2-1/2" soft hair flowing-
style brush, such as a quality nylon or ox
brush, or a good varnish brush.
while lambs wool covers are excellent for
alkyd paints, but not latex. Synthetic fibers
make good all-purpose covers. In fact, about
95 percent of all roller covers are synthetic.
Roller fabrics are manufactured in one of
two ways: knitting or weaving. With a knit
fabric, the individual fibers are secured to the
backing with one pass-through. For this rea-
son, knitted fabrics are more likely to shed.
With a woven fabric, the individual fibers are
secured to the backing via two pass-throughs,
forming a W in the roller and locking in the
fibers, which helps eliminate shedding.
Woven fabric covers can be used with all
kinds of paint and surfaces. Knitted covers
work best with medium to highly textured
surfaces using flat finishes. You can determine
which roller covers are knitted and which are
woven by looking at the recommended types
of paints and surfaces on the roller package.
Another important factor is the length of
the nap. Smooth surfaces, such as plaster
and hardboard, require 1/4" or 3/16" nap. A
very short nap is used with enamels and
gloss finishes, and longer naps are used with
latex or flat paints.
Naps of 3/8" to 1/2" are used on semi-
rough surfaces such as light stucco, sand-
blasted metal, etc. Rough surfaces such as
concrete block or heavy stucco require
longer naps of 3/4" to 1-1/4".
Determinants of quality in any roller are
the type and density of the fibers used.
When some fibers absorb water, they
become matted and lose resiliency.
Core construction is also important. In a
quality roller, the core is round, has no con-
spicuous seams, shows no indication that the
fabric will separate from the core at the ends,
and does not deform when squeezed gently.
Some cores are made of untreated cardboard,
which will soften and collapse from excess
moisture; phenolic core (treated cardboard)
and plastic will hold up better in heavy serv-
ice. Other roller cores, made of polypropylene,
are thermally fused to the fabric cover, unlike
others in which the fabric and core are glued.
The density of the fiber determines the
rollers ability to hold paint and spread it
evenly. Inexpensive rollers that become mat-
ted or fail to spread the paint will produce a
mottled finish, regardless of the quality of
paint used. They may also leave lint on the
painted surface.
Roller shields are available to combat spat-
ter and drizzle. Some shields are incorporat-
ed into the structure of the tool.
Trim rollers work well on woodwork,
screens and other small areas that cannot be
painted with standard 9" rollers. They are
available in many different sizes and shapes,
depending on the area for which they are
designed. Mini-rollers quickly paint doors,
shelves, cupboards and other areas that would
be more time-consuming with a brush. They
often have long handles for painting hard-to-
reach spots.
An advanced type of roller is the paint
stick, which pumps paint straight from the
handle or the can to the wall, where it can be
rolled on with the attached roller. The advan-
tage is that the user does not have to deal
with drips or messy trays.
Roller Trays
Roller trays are a convenient way to hold
paint when using a paint roller. Most trays
have ribbed bottoms to remove excess paint
from a roller cover after filling it. Ladder-
lock legs permit them to snap onto a
stepladder. A
good quality
tray can last
indefinitely if
cleaned after
each use.
Plastic tray
liners are also available. One new tray fea-
tures a lid that closes and seals paint, roller
or brush inside the tray. This eliminates the
need to clean the painting equipment after
each use. It also saves paint.For more infor-
mation, click (Making Painting Easier).
Extension Poles
Extension poles or handles can make
roller painting both faster and easier for
hard-to-reach areas. They generally
range from 1' to 16' in length. Some
poles are adjustable, or telescoping,
to handle a multitude of painting
situations.
They also enable the user to stand
on the floor instead of a ladder when
painting high walls or ceilings.
Paint Pads
Like a roller, a paint pad applies
paint quicklybut it also offers several dis-
tinct advantages of its own. Rollers, because
of their circular motion, tend to spatter
paint, especially if rolled too fast. However,
pad applicators lie flat on the surface, allow-
ing the user to avoid spattering. In addition,
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
13
SUGGESTING THE RIGHT
ROLLER COVER
The most important factor in selecting a
paint roller cover is the surface that is going
to be painted.
SMOOTH SURFACESshort nap (1/4" to
3/16") cover. Longer nap can leave a pro-
nounced orange peel effect. Use on
smooth plaster, wallboard and smooth
wood.
MEDIUM SURFACES(slightly rough)
medium nap (3/8" to 1/2"); longer fibers
push the paint into rough surfaces with-
out causing orange peel. Use on sand fin-
ish plaster, texture plaster, acoustical tile,
poured concrete, rough wood and shakes.
ROUGH SURFACESlong nap (3/4 to
1-1/4"); longer fibers push paint into the
deep valleys of rough surfaces. Use on
concrete block, stucco, brick, Spanish
plaster, cinder block, corrugated metal
and asphalt or wood shingles.
GENERAL RULE
The rule for selling and using almost all
roller covers: The smoother the surface,
the shorter the nap; the rougher the sur-
face, the longer the nap.
SPECIAL SITUATIONS:
The application of catalyzed (two-part)
fiberglass or epoxy coatings. These coat-
ings have strong solvents that destroy nor-
mal covers. Special high-solvent covers are
available for these coatings.
The application of paint to extremely
rough surfaces occasionally requires an
extra-long nap roller cover (1-1/4" or
1-1/2").
The application of texture paint to a
smooth surface requires a special cover to
pull or peak the paint on the surface for
the desired texture. This is often referred
to as a stipple roller cover.
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
14
unlike a roller, a pad can be used in corners.
A second advantage is that a pad can be
used in corners. If a ceiling and wall are being
painted separate colors, a roller cannot be
used at the point where the two surfaces meet,
because the roller will mark the other surface.
Most pads are made of mohair or foam and
can apply either latex or oil-based paints.
Paint pads also have guide wheels or trim tabs
that guarantee a straight line at the point of
intersection. This same device allows for
painting around trim and moulding without
marring the second surface. Paint pads are
also an excellent way to apply waterproofing
coating to a deck or fence. Attached to a long
handle, they eliminate bending and stooping
and can be washed and re-used.
Manufacturers also offer pad trays for
quicker application. Some pad trays are even
equipped with a revolving
wheel to ensureand speed
upthe proper loading of
the pad. When a pad is
wiped on the revolving
wheel, the proper amount of
paint is picked up on the
surface of the pad.
Foam Brushes
Foam brushes have handles like regular
brushes, but a foam pad replaces the bristles.
Foam brushes are inexpensive so they are
often considered disposable; however, most
are durable enough to be cleaned and reused.
Foam brushes are ideal for clear finishes.
Most brands are not recommended for use
with lacquer or shellac, which have chemi-
cal formulas that attack the foam.
Texture Paint Applicators
Several prod-
ucts are
designed specif-
ically for the application of texture paints.
Among them are special stippling roller cov-
ers, some of which are foam with various
patterns etched into the surface. Others have
deep, looped material.
Special texture painting rollers have large
diameters to accommodate the heavier con-
sistency of texture paints. Texture edgers are
also available to provide texture where
rollers cannot reach.
Paint Sprayers
In some cases, spray painting is the most
efficient method. For instance, when the
user is painting large areas with the same
color or painting intricate surfaces such as
furniture or grillwork, other tools often will
not reach all surfaces. However, it requires
some practice to handle the equipment and
get an even paint covering.
Airless sprayers offer the easiest way to
spray paint. Airless sprayers eject paint at
high pressure. They must be handled care-
fully to avoid possible injury. An electric air-
less paint system consists of a paint contain-
er, high-pressure pump, motor, handle and
housing and pressure regulator. Extension
nozzles, longer suction tubes, extra nozzles
and viscosity measuring cups are optional
accessories. Important points to remember
in using an airless sprayer, as with other
types of sprayers, are proper paint consisten-
cy, pressure and tip selection.
Choice of spraying tip depends on paint
consistency, but generally the thinner the
paint, the smaller the tip needed.
Paint consistency also governs pump pres-
sure. Thinner materials such as stains, lac-
quers, enamels and sealers require less pres-
sure than heavier materials such as house
and wall paint.
Paints that have been formulated for
brush or roller application may be too thick
for spraying. They should be tested first and
thinned if necessary.
Other types of spraying equipment present
operational differences. For instance, a suc-
tion gun has a vent hole in the cover of the
paint cap. A stream of compressed air creates
a vacuum, allowing atmospheric pressure to
force material from the container to the
sprayhead. These guns usually are limited to
quart-size containers or smaller. They are used
where many color changes are necessary.
In a pressure-fed system, the material is
force-fed to the gun when large amounts of
the same color are being used, when materi-
als are too heavy to be siphoned from a cap
or container by suction, or when fast appli-
cation is required.
Non-bleeder sprayers cannot release air
until the trigger is pulled. These are used
when air is supplied from a tank or from a
compressor that has pressure control. On the
other hand, a bleeder gun releases air at all
HOW TO HANDLE PAINT COMPLAINTS
CHALKINGHouse paint wears off by this process. Slight chalking is desirable because it keeps
the surface clean and results in a gradual reduction in the thickness of the coating. Before
recoating, all chalk should be removed by scrubbing the surface with water or wire brushing.
CHECKING AND CRACKINGSlight checking is not a serious defect, but a warning signal to
repaint. Cause of this trouble is not allowing sufficient drying time between coats, and applying
a hard-drying finish coat over a soft undercoat. In contraction and expansion of the wood, the
elastic undercoat gives, but the brittle topcoat cannot. To prevent checking, wire brush the sur-
face before repainting. Allow first coat to dry thoroughly before applying finishing coats.
ALLIGATORINGAlligatoring (similar to checking) is more pronounced and will form a pat-
tern like an alligators skin. It is usually due to applying a relatively hard drying coat of paint
or varnish over a soft undercoat. In cases of severe alligatoring, the entire coat should be
removed with a blow torch, paint remover or scraper. Mild cases should be thoroughly sand-
papered, then primed.
WRINKLINGWrinkling is caused by applying a coat that is too thick. Painting at low tempera-
tures may also cause this condition. Avoid wrinkling by brushing all coats out thoroughly and
painting in weather 55 or above. Before repainting, remove wrinkled portion by sanding or
using paint remover. A new coat of primer should follow.
BLISTERINGBlistering occurs when water is present within rather than upon the surface. Heat
from the sun draws moisture to the surface and expands paint film into a blister. The only reme-
dy is to locate the cause of the moisture within the house.
MILDEWINGMildew is caused by moisture under the paint and appears as black, gray, green
or yellow spots on the painted surface. Scrub affected area with a mixture of household deter-
gent, bleach and water, and rinse. When dry, paint with a mildew-resistant paint. If possible, find
and remove the source of moisture.
times, thus preventing the pressure from
building until it pops the safety valve.
Also available is the rotary-disc airless
paint sprayer. An auger pump pulls paint
from a container mounted under the electri-
cally powered spraying head. It then sends
the paint into a high-speed spinning disc.
Centrifugal force from the spinning disc
causes the paint to flow through a variable
gate opening. The gate control regulates the
size of paint swath. The gate control also
eliminates the need for nozzles and reduces
the hazards of high-pressure injection.
High-volume, low-pressure paint sprayers
reduce the amount of overspray typically
caused by airless sprayers and air-powered
spray guns. Not only does more paint reach
the surface, but also painters save time and
money on paint and drop cloths.
Some paint sprayers can be adapted to
other useswith the right accessories. An air
gun attachment allows the user to blow dust
off of surfaces before painting. An adjustable
pressure-relief valve regulates maximum air
pressure on air guns. In addition, an inflater
attachment converts the sprayer into a
pump to inflate toys, tires, etc.
Tack Cloths
A clean, well-prepared surface is essential
for good paint results. The best way to clean a
surface before painting or repainting is to use
a tack cloth. A tack cloth is a varnish-impreg-
nated, open-mesh cloth. It picks up and holds
loose dirt, sand and other foreign particles
adhering to wood, metal, plaster and other
surfaces. Caution customers to use a tack cloth
on a surface immediately before applying each
coat and between sandings. Although the sur-
face is cleaned with a chemical, lint and dust
can accumulate rapidly, leaving a less-than-
perfect finish if not removed.
Drop Cloths
Drop cloths can be made of a variety of
materials, but usually they are plastic.
Heavy-duty, professional-quality canvas drop
cloths range in weight from 4 oz. to 12 oz.
Triple-coated, butyl-backed drop cloths offer
the best protection against paint spills, while
felt-backed and laminate-backed drop cloths
are other options.
The d-i-y painter should use drop cloths
to protect furniture, fixtures and floors
against common paint splatters and spills.
Sandpaper
Sandpaper is often needed to complete
preparation of a surface that is to be painted.
Customers should know that sanding will be
necessary to paint wood or glossy surfaces.
Five general types of sandpaper are com-
mon among d-i-yers: garnet, emery, alu-
minum oxide, silicon carbide and alumina
zirconia. Of these, the first two are natural
minerals or abrasives; the others are synthet-
ic materials that are tougher and longer
wearing than the natural abrasives.
Each of these types may be manufactured
on a variety of backings, including paper,
cloth and fiber.
Garnet is a reddish-brown natural abra-
sive. By special heat treatment, a tougher,
sturdier grain is produced. Garnet is used
almost exclusively in the woodworking field;
it is not suitable for use on metal.
Emery is a black natural abrasive that can
polish metal surfaces. Emery is typically used
in conjunction with an oil lubricant.
Aluminum oxide is the most common gen-
eral abrasive. It is a synthetic brown that is
hard and long-wearing. It is used on wood,
metal or painted surfaces and is well suited to
finishing high-tensile materials such as steels
and bronzes, as well as some hardwoods. See
packaging or manufacturers literature for
advisability of use on hardwood.
Silicon carbide is hard and sharpeffec-
tive in sanding low-tensile materials such as
cast iron, aluminum, copper or plastic. It is
also useful between coats of finish.
Alumina zirconia is harder than silicon
carbide and tougher than aluminum oxide.
It should be used for grinding and shaping
metal and woodnot for polishing.
All U.S.-manufactured sandpapers con-
form to the same numerical system for grad-
ing coarseness. The smaller the number, the
coarser the grit. Coarseness generally runs
from 12 (extra coarse) to 1500 (ultra-fine).
Grit finer than 600 is usually measured on
the European FEPA scale, and identified with
a P immediately before the number.
Micron coating abrasive has emerged as a
system of measuring very fine abrasive grit.
For example, 10 micron is equivalent to
P1500. These products are usually intended
for applications in opthalmic and automo-
tive refinishing.
Sandpaper for wet sanding has a flexible
waterproof backing. Usually coated with sili-
con carbide, it comes in several grits (from
60 to P1200) and is used for fine finishing
and polishing.
Sandpaper comes in two styles: open coat
(OC) and closed coat. Coat refers to how
densely the grain is adhered to the surface.
Closed coat means 100 percent of the sur-
face is covered with grain.
Open-coat sandpaper has greater spacing
between the grains, which prevents it from
clogging up as quickly with sanding residue.
Closed-coat sandpaper, however, fills more
rapidly with the substance being sanded and
must be discarded sooner. Consumers for
whom clogging is an issue should be direct-
ed to paper with a special anti-static surface
treatment, which resists such clogging.
Special sandpaper is also available for dry-
wall and plaster sanding. This abrasive
screen cloth is durable and more resistant to
fill from drywall compound and plaster.
The back of each sandpaper sheet con-
tains important labeling information,
including product and lot number, abrasive
type, grit size, whether it is open or closed
coat and backing. The backing weight is
rated by letter. A is the thinnest weight,
while C and D are the best options for
hand sanding of wood. X is effective for
heavy-duty sanding.
Keep in mind sanding-related acces-
sories, such as rubber or wood-sanding
blocks, which can be used to produce
more evenhanded sanding. Variations of
the traditional sanding block used with
sandpaper include sanding blocks and
sanding sponges coated with or made of
an abrasive agent. Major advantages for
these include the fact they tend to last
longer than sandpaper and they can take
the form of the item being sanded.
Steel Wool
Steel wool is a popular accessory item. It
should be used before painting on any
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
15
glossy surface.
Overall, its uses include removing grime
and sludge prior to refinishing, preparing new
surfaces, removing old coating to raw wood,
and for application in between coats of enam-
el, paint, shellac or varnish. It removes paint
from glass, furniture, tile and other surfaces.
Steel wool comes in grades ranging from
fine to coarse.
More water-based strippers and finishes
have led to a man-made synthetic steel wool
product. This product will not cause spot-
ting in wood, as standard steel wool can
when used with water-based finishes.
Among boat owners, bronze wool is a
popular alternative to steel wool.
I CHEMICALS
Brush and Roller Cleaners
Commercially prepared brush and roller
cleaners substantially reduce cleaningand
help applicators last for years. Before these
preparations are used, excess paint should be
brushed or rolled from the tools. If directions
are followed properly, cleaning is not a chore.
Commercially prepared, solvent-based
brush cleaners should not be used to clean
wet or fresh latex or acrylic paints from
brushes or rollers. Use soap and warm water,
or follow the paint manufacturers directions
for cleaning fresh latex from brushes. When
brushes have been rinsed thoroughly, they
are ready for reuse or storage. If paint has
dried or hardened in the heel of the brush, a
commercial cleaner should be used. To
remove dried paint, soak the applicator in
cleaner several hours or overnight. Then
comb the excess paint from the bristles,
rinse the brush with warm water and wrap it
in newspaper to dry.
Most brush and roller cleaners will not
harm either natural or nylon bristle brushes,
but they can harm synthetic bristles.
Synthetic brushes should be cleaned in accor-
dance with the manufacturers instructions.
If commercial brush and roller cleaners
are not used, tools must be washed thor-
oughly with turpentine or the appropriate
solvent (alcohol for shellac, lacquer solvents
for lacquer) until clean. When thoroughly
cleaned, they can be washed with soap and
water and set aside for future use.
Brushes that are used to apply more than
one coat of the same color do not have to be
cleaned between coat applications. Plastic can
be secured around the bristles to keep the
paint moist when the brush is not in use.
Paint spinners and brush combs can be
used to clean rollers and brushes.
Thinners
Most thinners include mineral spirits, tur-
pentine, alcohol and lacquer thinner.
Thinning often changes paint color slightly.
Therefore, all paint should be thinned at the
same time to ensure that colors do not
change in the middle of a job.
Mineral spirits are a petroleum distillate
solvent frequently used in the manufactur-
ing and thinning of oil-based paints.
Odorless mineral spirits have been refined to
remove some odorous components.
Turpentine has greater solvency than min-
eral spirits, causing it to work more quickly.
It also has a stronger odor and contains a
small amount of resin.
Alcohol is available in denatured, wood or
methanol form. Wood and methanol alco-
hols are extremely toxic and should not be
recommended for do-it-yourselfers.
Denatured alcohol, a safer substance, is used
for thinning and for cleaning shellac and
pigmented shellac primer. Alcohol is excel-
lent for removing grease and oil spots, fin-
gerprints and other smudges.
Lacquer thinner is available in many
grades and degrees of solvency and in sever-
al speeds of evaporation. Lacquer thinner is
an excellent cleaner for brushes used in any
paint product except shellacs. Since it leaves
no residue, lacquer thinner does not require
cleaned brushes to be washed with soap and
water. However, it is an extremely flammable
solvent that should be used with caution.
Paint and Varnish Removers
Chemical paint and varnish removers are
formulated to dissolve or soften old finishes
for easy removal. Some are a gel or semi-paste
formula and others are available in spray-on
or aerosol form. Methylene chloride is the pri-
mary solvent in traditional paint strippers, but
health concerns have been raised regarding
prolonged exposure to meth, which has led
to the development of safe non-meth strip-
pers. Some municipalities are seeking to ban
the sale of adhesives, sealants and primers
containing methylene chloride.
When using strippers, advise customers to
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
16
SOLVENT SAFETY TIPS
Since paint stripping and refinishing sol-
vents must be strong chemicals to work
properly, they also require certain precau-
tions before, during and after their use.
Here are some tips.
Keep away from sparks, heat and open
flames.
Disconnect power to electrical outlets,
switches and fixtures by unscrewing the
fuse or tripping the circuit breaker.
Turn off all pilot lights and other flames,
even if they are in other rooms or utility
closets.
Disconnect, unplug or turn off clothes
dryers, furnaces and water heaters. Be
especially careful to disconnect electric
igniters in gas systems that do not have
pilot lights.
Unplug or disconnect and do not oper-
ate electric switches or motors (refrigera-
tors, dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, fur-
nace blowers, electric or gas appliances,
stoves or heaters).
Keep all metal objects (scrapers, steel
wool pads) from contacting any electrical
outlet, fixture or switch.
Do not use, relight or reconnect any of
the above items until all smell of solvents
is gone.
Do not smoke, use matches or lighters
and do not allow others to do sowhen
solvents are being used.
Most solvent vapors are heavier than air
and tend to collect in low spots. Prevent
vapor build-up by providing fresh air ven-
tilation (cross-ventilation) at floor level
during and after use of solvents. Open all
windows and doors to create ventilation
and disperse fumes. (Fans are not recom-
mended because unless specially con-
structed, they can cause sparks.) Keep
vapors out of ventilation systems (furnace
and air conditioning ductwork and fans).
Keep products out of the reach of
children.
Close container after each use.
Do not transfer products to unlabeled
containers.
If paint is swallowed, follow the first aid
instructions on the label and contact a
doctor or poison control center.
read the safety and usage instructions on the
label, wear chemical-resistant gloves and pro-
tective clothing, ventilate the room if using
indoors and avoid exposure to the skin and
eyes. Drinking alcoholic beverages before, dur-
ing or after use of any solvents may cause
undesirable effects. Also, smoking or use of
open flames while using paint removers, even
if nonflammable, should not be permitted.
Nonflammable removers contain large quanti-
ties of chlorinated solvents, which form toxic
gases when the fumes come into contact with
flame or hot surfaces. The government has
revised standards that will require greater res-
piratory protection for commercial users of
meth-based strippers.
While non-meth strippers are safer to
use, they take longer to act and are more
expensive than their meth counterparts.
However, they stay active longer, which
means they can remove more paint layers
in a single application.
Products are designed specifically to
remove shellac, varnish and lacquer, paint or
stain. Some strippers change color to signal
completion of the process, and some
removers are formulated so that no after
wash or neutralizing is required. Be familiar
with manufacturers products and have their
literature available. If after wash is necessary,
neither alcohol nor lacquer thinner should
be used; the wax used in paint removers is
not soluble in those solvents.
Remind consumers that all strippers
should be brushed on in one direction to
make sure the chemical seals properly. In
addition, keep in mind that water-wash may
raise the grain of wood; it may darken or
even blacken some woods, such as oak.
Do your customer and your store a favor
by recommending the purchase of other
materials needed to complete the project.
Related items here include natural bristle
paint brushes, solvent-resistant gloves, safety
goggles, putty knives, drop cloths, stiff
brushes and rags.
For exterior uses, a chemical paint and
varnish stripper can be applied to an old
painted or stained surfacevia brush,
sprayer or rollerand then sprayed off
along with the old finish. Most strippers are
organic solvents or caustic salts available in
ready-to-use liquid form. Advise users to
avoid contact with skin and eyes, wear pro-
tective clothing and equipment, and use
care in handling. For more information, click
(Removing Old Paint & Varnish).
Refinishing Systems
Refinishing systems are designed to elimi-
nate the stripping, scraping and sanding
usually identified with refinishing furniture
and removing old varnish, lacquer or shel-
lac. Products can be merchandised individu-
ally or in kits.
Most kits refinishing solution is applied
with fine steel wool to small areas at a time.
The cleaned, original finish is then lightly
buffed with dry steel wool to open the wood
pores. A new finish can then be applied with
a clean cloththough homeowners should
first wipe away any excess finishing solution
with a dry cloth. Manufacturers offer several
finishes that preserve and seal the wood,
with the option of a high-gloss finish or a
more natural finish.
Besides refinishers that remove old fur-
niture finish and new finish solutions, fur-
niture cleaners for cleaning wax buildup
are available.
Organic, water-based strippers are an
alternative to traditional chemical strip-
pers. Water-based strippers soften varnish
and can be left on overnight without dam-
aging the wood. They can be applied over
the whole project at once with a thick
(1/8" minimum) coat.
Liquid Cleaners and Deglossers
Liquid cleaners and deglossers prepare sur-
faces before painting and assist paint and
varnish in bonding to old finishes. These
products are available in water- or solvent-
based formulations. Concrete cleaner is
specifically designed to clean and degrease
concrete and masonry surfaces and to pre-
pare concrete basement floors to be painted.
Rust Removers and Converters
Rust remover cuts through and dissolves
rust from metal surfaces. In jellied form, it
clings well to vertical surfaces. When users
brush it on, the rust dissolves quickly. These
products are extremely harsh on the skin;
protective gloves should be worn.
Rust converters react chemically to form a
metal shield that can be painted. By convert-
ing the rust to iron tannate, the converter sta-
bilizes the rusting process. The solution also
halts under-film corrosionanother plus,
since scraping, brushing and sandblasting
often do not remove rust that lies in cavities.
The solution is applied with a stiff brush or
aerosol spray and allowed to dry for 12 to 24
hours, depending on humidity (check manu-
facturer labeling and literature). Mill scale,
rust chips, loose rust, blisters, deteriorated
paints, grease and the like should be removed
before applying the solution.
Degreasers
Degreasers are available in solid, liquid and
aerosol form. They are used to remove dirt,
oil and grease from basement and garage
floors, driveways, patios and sidewalks.
Many are made for concrete only and
should not be used on blacktop surfaces.
Contents are spread evenly over the dirty
surface. Water is then applied. Then the sur-
face is scrubbed with a broom.
Contents should be left to penetrate the
surface for best results. Finally, the surface
should be hosed down with water.
Wallpaper Removers
Wallpaper can be removed with liquid
spray-on solutions, steamers, special gel for-
mulations or other tools. Product develop-
ments over the past decade have made a dif-
ficult task more manageable.
Traditional wallpaper removers wet the
paper and paste and then required a lot of
scraping. Wallcovering scrapers and shavers
feature an angled blade or head to prevent
wall gouging. Wallcovering scoring tools per-
forate waterproof wallcoverings so the
remover solution can penetrate the paste.
Now available is a wallpaper stripper based
on enzyme action that breaks down the paste,
destroying its adhesive strength. It is also
available in a water-based gel formulation that
can be applied with a brush or roller.
Another type of wallpaper removal system
is a special water-absorbent fabric that enables
water to work in a wicking action through the
wallpaper, which softens and weakens wallpa-
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
17
per adhesive and makes removal easy. The fab-
ric sheets can be reused many times.
Exterior Wood Treatments
Deck cleaners and restorers are designed to
clean and restore weathered wood surfaces
such as decks and siding by removing dirt,
mildew, algae and fungus stain. They are gen-
erally made of oxygen bleaches, chlorine
bleaches or oxalic acid-based formulas. Warn
customers to be cautious about protecting skin
and eyes while using these products. Some
contain harsh chemicals like sodium hydrox-
ide which is a corrosive agent.
Oxygen-type bleaches are effective at
removing mildew stains, dirt and weathered
gray residues.
Chlorine bleaches combat mildew but are
not effective at removing dirt or surface
deposits. In addition, if the chemical is not
rinsed properly, the chlorine salt can cause
the wood to gray prematurely.
Oxalic acid is not effective against mildew,
but it is the best choice for redwood or cedar
because it renders tannin and iron stains col-
orless. Tannins are natural resins contained
in cedar and redwood that react with iron in
fasteners or nails to cause blue-black stains.
Products that are formulated with thick-
eners will adhere better to vertical surfaces
such as siding and deck rails.
Wood Care Products
Lemon oil can be used to replenish fine
wood with its natural oils while protecting
the finish. It is best to use products that con-
tain no beeswax or silicones that could cause
a buildup or darken the wood.
Exterior wood filler, which is used for
exterior repairs, is cured to prevent fading
from ultraviolet light. Latex wood filler fills
gouges, holes and other imperfections. It
features little odor, can be stained and cleans
up easily with water. Solvent-based wood
filler looks like wood and can be sanded, cut,
drilled, stained, varnished and painted.
Water putty wood patch fills cracks and
holes in woodwork and sets loose joints. It
can be cut, sanded, chiseled and stained and
dries quick and hard.
Wood stain pens will hide minor scratch-
es, nicks and chips on furniture and woods.
Wood and swell lock swells and tightens
loose chair rungs, dowels and mortise joints.
Colored putty comes in a range of popular
wood shades to fill countersunk nail holes
and cracks on woodwork that has already
been stained. Oil-based putty in jars stays
soft and cures over a long time; water-based
putty in squeeze tubes sets hard and is com-
patible with waterborne finishes.
Putty pencils are heavily pigmented wax
sticks that resemble crayons. They fill and
color nail holes, joints, cracks and scratches to
match the shade of surrounding woodwork.
They are used often to avoid a major refinish-
ing project by hiding minor damage. Because
they are wax-based, putty pencils should only
be used on new woodwork after the final coat
of finish has been applied and hardened.
Wood hardeners are liquid consolidants
that seep deep into soft, deteriorated wood
fibers, then harden to restore strength and
some structural integrity. Depending on the
strength required, the formula can be water-
based, solvent-based or two-part epoxy.
Wood rebuilders are heavy-duty repair
compounds that replace rotted or broken
woodwork. They are usually two-part
resin/hardener polyester or epoxy systems,
and offer the best strength for holding nails
and resetting screws.
HOUSEHOLD
ADHESIVES
As much as with any product category,
retailers should be familiar with manufac-
turers guidelines on household adhesives.
The category can be confusing because of
the variety and the frequent overlap of
uses. Read labels and encourage your cus-
tomers to do the same.
Coverage varies with different types,
but the following guidelines may help. A
10.5-oz. cartridge provides 129' of 1/8"
bead, 32' of 1/4" bead or 14' of 3/8" bead.
Customers should be advised to use as
much adhesive as necessary. For most
products, the adhesive should squeeze out
from between the joints.
Safety is also a major factor. The federal
government, some state and some local
governments have regulations designed to
protect consumers from dangerous adhe-
sive products. Meanwhile, manufacturers
have developed non-flammable adhesives
that will do some of the same jobs as
older formulations; for instance, latex-
based and chlorinated solvent-based adhe-
sives have taken the place of some petro-
leum-based products.
White glue is a non-waterproof adhesive
used mostly for interior woodworking jobs
where a waterproof joint is not required.
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
18
NEW PAINT REGULATIONS CAUSING A STIR
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found in most paints, stains and coatings escape into the air
and contribute to pollution by reacting with emissions from various sourcesfrom cars to
treesthat consume nitrogen. Over the years, laws passed at the federal, state and local levels
have restricted manufacturers use of VOCs in their products.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established VOC emission standards for the
paint industry. Effective since September 1999, the regulations adopt national VOC emission
standards for architectural coatings. Many manufacturers were already complying with more
stringent VOC standards adopted by several states. Some are even formulating paints in flat fin-
ishes that have no VOCs and almost no odor.
Regulations have also been proposed that would eliminate the VOCs in oil-based paints.
Although contractors tend to prefer the solvent-based products more than consumers, the short-
term effect has been increased use of latex paints by contractors.
Some of the most stringent regulations affecting the paint industry are coming from California,
which is currently proposing even stricter limits on VOC emissions from architectural and indus-
trial maintenance (AIM) coatings. Similar regulations are being considered by all New England
and mid-Atlantic states as well as the District of Columbia.
Also in California, at press time a state regulatory agency was considering charging paint manu-
facturers an advanced disposal fee for every gallon of paint they sell. The fees would help fund
paint disposal by consumers throughout the state. Other states could pass similar rules in the
future.
Usually packaged in plastic squeeze bottles,
these inexpensive, milky-white glues dry clear
and are fast setting. Ready for use from the
bottle, they are widely used for bonding
paper, fabric, cardboard, cork and leather, as
well as wood. They can withstand a moderate
amount of strain.
Woodworkers glue has a faster grab than
white glue. It is usually tinted an off-white
or yellow. Woodworkers glue is used in
applications where better water resistance,
heat resistance and ease of sanding are
desired. Aliphatic wood glue, a general-pur-
pose adhesive, is also popular among people
who are doing woodwork, including those
building or repairing furniture.
Instant-setting glues, technically known as
cyanoacrylates, create a strong, instant bond
with a small amount of glue. Regular cyano-
acrylates will bond almost all non-porous
materials such as ceramic, some plastics, rub-
ber, metal or synthetics. These instant-setting
glues are in a gel form.
Most manufacturers recommend that con-
sumers do not use cyanoacrylates on glass,
although these glues will perform acceptably
on Teflon and polyethylene surfaces. They
also should not be used to fill gaps.
Some instant-setting glue can be used
on porous materials such as wood, leather
or paper; the exception is any foam that
cannot be bonded with cyanoacrylates.
Instant-setting glues quickly form a strong
bond. These glues should be handled care-
fully. Keep glue off hands.
Epoxy glues are one of the strongest
adhesives known. They are designed pri-
marily for the bonding of non-porous sur-
faces but can be used effectively on wood.
Available in clear, white or metallic finish,
all true epoxies come in two parts: a resin and
a hardener (or catalyst). These must be
mixed together before the adhesive is used.
Once mixed, the material will set permanent-
ly in a specified length of timemost will
permanently bond, even under water. The
bond will withstand practically all common
solvents when curing is complete.
Epoxies are excellent for sealing gaps and
will withstand vibration and shock; they
can be used on pipes, radiators, wood,
metal, ceramic tile, china, marble, glass and
masonry. Clean-up can be difficult.
Urethane adhesive is a one-part adhesive
offering the strength of an epoxy without
mixing. It requires clamping and 24 hours
to cure fully, but it does bond most materi-
als. Its strong bond will endure stress such
as that required to mend furniture, tool
handles and childrens toys. Polyurethane is
good for a bond between either similar or
dissimilar surfaces.
Contact cement can be used on many
surfaces, but the joints it makes may
come apart under a heavy load. Good to
bond laminates to countertops and cabi-
nets, or to glue plastic foam, hardboard or
metal to wood.
Instant adhesion makes contact cement
difficult to use. It bonds immediately with-
out clamping and resists water, temperature
extremes and fungi. Contact cement is most
effective when one or both surfaces are
porous or semi-porous. Contact cement
contains solvents that should be allowed to
flash off before assembly. Non-flammable
versions are available.
Clear cement works best on porous mate-
rials. With non-porous materials, clear
cement makes a good bond when applied
only around the edges. Clear cements are
familiar to youngsters as model airplane
glue. It is clear and colorless, it resists water
and is suitable for use on flexible as well as
rigid joints. These adhesives often contain
solvents such as toluene that can be abused
by children (sniffing).
Silicone rubber is for strong, flexible
joints on wood, dissimilar surfaces such as
metal, rubber, glass, ceramics, brick, wood
and polystyrene foam.
Plastic resin glue is powdered urea
formaldehyde glue. When mixed with water,
it makes highly water-resistant bonds.
Frequently used for furniture repair, it is
applied to clean, close-fitting surfaces and
cured under pressure for at least 10 hours at
70 F. The finished glue is non-toxic and
impervious to most materials.
Waterproof glue (also called resorcinol
glue) is a two-component adhesive of liq-
uid resin and powdered catalyst. Used in
wood joints, it cures under pressure in 10
hours at 70 F.
Casein glue is powdered casein that
mixes with water. It is less expensive than
plastic resin and waterproof glue and has
good filling qualities for heavy wood glu-
ing. It sets in three hours at 70 F.
Acrylic adhesives are non-flammable,
waterproof, two-part adhesives that hold
well under stress. Applied without mixing,
acrylic adhesives bond most surfaces
including oily or porous surfaces. Bond
forms in 30 to 60 seconds, with perma-
nent strength reached in 45 minutes. It is
not recommended for use on polyethyl-
ene or polypropylene.
Hot-melt adhesives come in several types,
including clear, hot-melt glue sticks for gener-
al-purpose use, white caulk sticks and sticks
formulated for wood repair. Hot-melt glue
sticks are used only in hot-melt glue guns.
Mastic is a general term for any thick
adhesive. Used in heavy-duty bonding
and construction, mastics are usually
applied with a caulking gun or trowel.
Heavy-duty adhesive is solid adhesive
for flat surfaces indoors and outdoors. The
adhesive permanently attaches rigid plas-
tics, ceramic, metal, finished woods and
glass. It has an industrial-strength bond
and resists temperature, water, oil, gas,
detergents and vibrations.
REPAIR/ PATCHING
TOOLS & MATERIALS
Wall Scrapers and Joint Knives
Wall scrapers are used to scrape old wall-
paper off walls and peeling paint from work
surfaces, to tape joints and to patch plaster.
Most do-it-yourselfers prefer 3", 4", 5" and
6" sizes. Professionals generally use 10 and
12" taping knives.
Quality wall scrapers have flexible, high-car-
bon steel blades that are hardened, tempered
and individually ground. Another mark of
quality is a design that allows for a single
piece of steel, which runs from the tip of the
blade to the end of the handle. Handles are
made of shatterproof plastic or wood.
Drywall joint knives come in larger sizes,
ranging from 5" to 16". The most popular
size is 6". Signs of quality are similar to those
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
19
of wall scrapers.
Less expensive wall scrapers or joint knives
are manufactured from high-carbon steel,
with blades securely fastened into a seamless,
shatterproof handle, frequently wood.
A corner tool is used to apply tape and
joint compounds when a perfect corner job
is desired. It is available in 3" or 4" sizes.
The process of installing drywall and gyp-
sum wallboard is relatively simple, but com-
pleting the project requires skill and drywall
finishing tools.
To achieve a smooth-looking surface, the
taping process covers the joints between the
wallboard panels. Joint cement is then
applied in thin layers and sanded to create
an even surface.
A corner roughing knife, a corner finish-
ing knife, a broad knife (usually about 10"
wide) and a utility knife are the basic tools
used in this project. The corner knife
embeds the tape on both sides of a corner. A
point on the knife pushes the tape into the
corner joint.
The corner finishing knife feathers the
joint compound over the edges of the tape
and leaves a smooth, sharp corner. The
broad knife feathers and smoothes joint
compound over flat joints. The utility knife
is used to smooth spackling compound over
nail holes, cracks and other rough areas.
Sponge rollers are also available for both
corners and flat areas to pick up and roll out
joint compound.
Ergonomics (the combination of comfort
and shape with the general effectiveness of
the intended application of the product) has
become an increasingly popular feature in
various hand tools. Retailers can expect such
issues of hand fit and versatility to be an
important selling point for scrapers and
knives as well.
Paint and Varnish Scrapers
A paint and varnish scraper (also called a
wood scraper) removes old finishes and
smoothes the surface with its sharp cutting
blade. When using chemical removers, con-
sumers should know to use a chemical-resist-
ant scraper. Plastic, chemical-resistant scrapers
tend to be gentler on wood than metal scrap-
ers.
Sizes range from the 1" bladeprimarily
used for small, hard-to-reach areasto a
5" blade. Most blades are made from tem-
pered, high-carbon steel and can be sharp-
ened with a file.
Razor-blade scrapers are used to scrape
excess paint off windows. They hold either
single- or double-edge razor blades. The
most popular type has a retractable blade
that slides in or out of the
handle.
Putty Knives
Putty knives range from
1" to 2-1/2". Generally, the
greatest demand is for 1-
1/4" and 1-1/2".
The finest quality putty
knife blades are made
from mirror-finished,
high-carbon steel and are
hardened, tempered and
individually ground.
The way the blade is attached to the handle
is a means of determining quality. Top-quality
models have blades running from the tip of
the blade through to the end of the handle.
Putty knives are used for scraping paint,
chipping out old putty, scraping off accu-
mulated grease and scraping old finishes
off furniture.
Multi-purpose Tools
Manufacturers have developed several
multi-purpose tools. One trim guard not only
keeps paint off adjoining surfaces, it can also
be used to smooth out wallcoverings during
application. Another multi-purpose tool that
resembles a putty knife can be used as a putty
knife, scraper, can and bottle opener, hammer,
nail and tack puller as well as a utility knife.
Electric Paint Removers
An electric paint remover, which contains
a heating element similar to an electric
appliance, is placed on the coated surface
and pulled along slowly. Users should follow
along with a scraper to remove the softened
paint. (However, this method is not recom-
mended on latex).
The tool should be kept in motion to pre-
vent burnt wood. Although a relatively safe
method of paint removal, an electric paint
remover still must be handled carefully.
Hot Air Guns
Hot air guns produce heat up to 1,000 F to
melt paint and remove it easily. Some guns
have variable heat settings. Unlike electric
strippers, the guns are held above the painted
surface (usually 2" to 4"), and a putty knife or
scraper then removes the paint.
Hot air guns can be used to remove var-
nish and paint, as well as to soften and
remove putty, laminate or dry paint and
wood finishes.
Masking Tape
Masking tape is a general-purpose, pres-
sure-sensitive tape. A quality masking tape
unwinds easily without splitting. It has
excellent ability to stick immediately and
securely to nearly all surfaces, yet pulls
away without damaging the surface.
Pressure-sensitive tape is also available for
securing carpeting, underlay and rugs. This
is a double-faced tape that adheres securely
to fabric and flooring, forming a bond that
prevents creeping, bulging and overlapping.
A pressure-sensitive tape is also available for
padding and absorbing shock. It is suggested
for covering bottoms of lamps, ashtrays and
bookends and is more durable than felt.
A multi-purpose tape consisting of
asphalt adhesive with aluminum facing
makes general repairs in roofing, gutter-
ing, leaking pipes and hoses in addition
to sealing cracks.
All-purpose tapes are increasingly being
replaced by tapes designed for specific tasks
such as for use on baseboards and trim,
glass, hard-to-stick surfaces, lacquer surfaces,
brick and tile, and delicate surfaces, as well
as two-sided tape for holding up drop cloth
and solvent-resistant tape designed for spray
painting projects.
Masking tools are available to make the
taping process go quicker. Some types offer
automatic tape alignment for applying
masking tape on trim and moldings.
Spackling Compound
This is a fine-ground, slow-setting powder.
It remains workable for three to four hours.
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
20
Spackling compound is excellent for patching
cracked plaster, filling nail holes, repairing
wall tile and smoothing surface imperfections
on unprimed wood. For more information,
click (How to Patch & Repair Drywall).
To save mixing, most companies make
spackling compound in paste form. This is
harder to work with, especially in larger
holes. Lightweight spackling is the easiest
to useit will not shrink, crack or sag and
requires little or no sanding. The com-
pound can be painted almost immediate-
ly. Patches with lightweight spackling,
however, are not as sturdy as those made
with powder-mix compounds.
One type of spackling changes color when
optimum drying time is achieved. It goes on
pink and turns white when dry.
Exterior spackling paste is for repairing
minor cracks, breaks and holes in wood and
masonry. It dries quickly, sands easily, is
resistant to mildew and weathering and is
ready to paint in minutes.
Wallboard joint compound comes pre-
mixed in quarts, gallons and five-gallon pails
for easy application to cover and finish gyp-
sum wallboard joints. Add a little water and
mix for at least one minute. It should be
smooth before using. Wallboard joint tape is
used with joint compound to help reinforce
gypsum panel joints. For more information,
click (Hanging Drywall).
Stucco patch repairs large cracks and holes
in both interior and exterior stucco. It
matches texture of the original stucco and is
durable and permanent.
Tile Grout
Tile grout is a white powder (also avail-
able in paste form) that becomes a strong
patching agent when mixed with water. It
is effective in areas subject to moisture
and strain. Frequently used to fill cracks
between bathtubs and walls, it can also be
used to repair cracks around kitchen
sinks, towel racks, soap dishes and wash
basins and for filling breaks between floor
and wall tile. It dries white, unless tinted
with a dry color.
Also available are a wide range of colored
tile grouts (sanded and non-sanded) that can
be used with all types of tile, marble, slate
and granite. Grout colorant renews or
changes grout color. It seals grout joints and
evens colors.
Grout sealer offers invisible protection
from grease, oil, stains, dirt, mold and
mildew for tile, grout and masonry. It can be
used on all sanded and non-sanded grout
colors, indoors or outdoors.
Grout cleaner is a non-abrasive cleaner
thats strong enough to cut through
grease, stains, mold and mildew but will
not erode grout.
Glazing Compound
Glazing compound is a long-lasting mate-
rial used for glazing wood or metal sash. It
remains semi-elastic under a smooth, firm,
wrinkle-free film that forms when the mate-
rial sets. It does not dry rock-hard and is eas-
ier to remove when reglazing.
It resists cold, heat and moisture and is used
for patching or sealing small openings or
cracks. Glazing can be tinted with oil color.
Joint Cement
Joint cement is used in drywall construc-
tion as a bedding compound for the joint
tape and as filler for nail holes. It is available
in powder or ready-mixed form. Some ready-
mixed types may also be used as texture
paint. One pound is sufficient for four lineal
yards of joint surfaces. For more informa-
tion, click (Hanging Drywall).
Patching Plaster
Patching plaster is a fast-setting powder
ready to use by adding water. It dries hard to
uniform, white color. It repairs and covers
large holes and deep cracks in plaster walls
and ceilings. Patching plaster may be drilled,
sanded and painted and can be textured to
match existing surface.
Plaster and Putty Pencils
Plaster pencils are used for repairing
cracks and small holes in plaster. They
require no mixing, have good adhesion and
dry quickly.
Putty pencils serve a similar purpose,
though they are colored to fill holes in
wood. Customers pick the putty pencil to
match the wood tones in their home.
Plaster of Paris
Plaster of Paris is a quick-setting white
powder used to repair wallboard, plaster
walls and ceilings, set bathroom wall fix-
turestowel racks, soap dishes, etc.and
for art projects. It hardens in 5-30 min-
utes. No more water than necessary
should be added; when water evaporates,
the plaster shrinks.
Putty
Available in either dry or pliable form,
putty repairs cracks, dents, breaks and
holes in furniture, wood and concrete
floors, woodwork, metal and other interi-
or surfaces.
In dry form (known as water putty
because water must be added), it dries to
the shade of new wood but can be tinted
with dry color. It sets rapidly, cannot be
reworked, dries hard and can be sanded,
tooled and finished like wood.
Pliable putty (also known as wood
putty because it is made from hardwood)
is rubbed on wood surfaces before paint-
ing to close pores in certain woods such
as oak, mahogany, walnut, chestnut, elm,
butternut, hickory, ash, rosewood and sat-
inwood. It is not synonymous with patch-
ing materials, which fill holes or cracks in
finished or unfinished surfaces.
Most wood putties come in paste form
and must be thinned; the container label
tells which thinner to use. Putty is
brushed on, rubbed, sanded and sealed
before finishing.
Wood putties are available in water-based
form, allowing greater safety, rapid drying
and less shrinkage. All wood putty patches
must be sanded flush with the old surface.
Patches can be stained, painted or varnished.
Epoxy Menders
Epoxy menders have excellent adhesive
qualities and are effective in repairing auto
bodies, appliances, plumbing, rain gutters,
playground equipment and garden tools.
Epoxy is a two-part resin and hardener.
These menders usually are white or metallic
color. Surfaces must be free of all foreign
materials, including paint, for epoxy
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
21
menders to work effectively.
The two must be mixed together before
the adhesive is effective. Once mixed, the
material will set permanently in a specific
length of timefrom a few minutes to 24
hours, depending on the room temperature.
The bond formed is waterproof and per-
manent and will withstand attack by practi-
cally all common solvents when final curing
is complete.
Because epoxy adhesives harden into solid
mass when mixed, they can also be used as a
patching or filling material for repair jobs.
They can be used to make permanent repairs
on cracked pipes or radiators or on rotted
wooden or metal gutters.
Vinyl Patching Kits
Vinyl patching kits contain a patching
material that forms a permanent patch
over holes, tears, etc., in vinyl. Some kits
require heat, while other patching materi-
al cures in air and requires no heat. Also
included in these kits is an assortment of
graining paper, used to reproduce any
design in the vinyl.
With a backing behind the hole in the
vinyl, patching material is brushed over the
hole and proper graining paper is laid over
the patch.
With material that requires heat, an iron
is then pressed over the graining paper to
apply the proper heat to the patching mate-
rial, causing it to take on the pattern of the
vinyl and to set properly.
An assortment of touch-up colors is
available to blend the patch into the color
of the vinyl.
Laminate Repair Kits
Laminate countertop repair kits provide
adhesive and filler to patch chips, burns and
scars in laminate surfaces.
Assorted decorator colors and wood
tones are available. Mixing time for color
compounds is usually unlimited to pro-
vide time for a perfect match before hard-
ener is added. After adding hardener and
mixing, filler cures in about five minutes.
Filler stands up to shock and is heat-
resistant up to about 200 F.
Fiberglass Patching
Fiberglass fabric for patching and water-
proofing is popular because of its continued
flexibility after application, preventing reap-
pearance of the same crack.
Sold in kits, it includes fiberglass tape and
oil-based mastic. After the tape is applied over
the crack, the mastic is brushed over the tape.
The edges are then feathered to blend with
the surface being repaired. Kits are recom-
mended for repairing rain gutters, roofing,
interior walls and wood surfaces.
Marble Refinisher
Marble refinisher restores mirror-like shine
on polished stone and removes light etch-
ing, watermarks, glass rings and dullness.
CAULKS AND
SEALANTS
Caulking and sealing are inexpensive
ways to seal air and water leaks in homes.
They can also prevent moisture damage
protecting wood, masonry and other sur-
faces from rain and windas well as
improving appearance by filling gaps.
However, no particular product is an all-pur-
pose solution or preventative.
Although caulk and sealant are
often used interchangeably, a sealant is
generally a high-performance caulk. A
product that meets or exceeds the require-
ments of American Society of Testing
Materials (ASTM) Specification C-920 is
considered a sealant because of its high-
performance characteristics, such as dura-
bility both inside and outside and during
inclement conditions.
If there are no specifications on the
labelor if the label says the product meets
requirements of ASTM Specification C-834
it is considered a caulk.
Sealants are used to close the crack or joint
between sills and foundations; where siding
joins window and door trim; openings around
external electrical outlets, electrical and tele-
phone cables; dryer vents; kitchen, attic and
bathroom vents; flashings; skylights; other
cracks and openings that leak water into
homes or that leak heated air and energy out.
Caulks, on the other hand, are appropriate
for most interior finishing projects; many do
not perform well in wet areas or outdoors.
Most caulks are best for sealing cracks that are
no more than 1/4" wide or 1/4" deep.
The following questions can help you
guide customers to the right caulk or sealant
for their projects.
o Where will the sealant be applied?
o What substrates or surfaces will be
caulked or bonded?
o How much movement or stress will be
endured by the joint to be sealed?
o What type of performance requirements
does the caulk need to meet?
Caulks come in formulations that can
withstand movement and temperature
changes. Most caulks are available in bulk
form and in caulking gun cartridges. In fact,
the label of the cartridge should contain a
list of the suitable uses for that item, as well
as the materials to which it will adhere.
Oil-based caulks are generally effective
for one to three years. They should be
used only in cracks and joints that have
no movement and that are accessible for
recaulking. Oil-based caulks become hard
and brittle. They are characterized by low
movement capabilities.
Latex caulks are effective for filling gaps in
baseboard and trim, as well as for caulking
needs around the window frame. They are
easily applied and clean up with water. They
are also paintable. However, they must be
applied in temperatures over 40 degrees.
They harden over time and are not flexible.
Vinyl latex caulks, which are usually effec-
tive for five years, are most effective on small
cracks in baseboards and little gaps around
windows. They are not effective in wet areas,
such as bathrooms or kitchens. Features
include water cleanup and ease of application.
Vinyl latex is non-flammable and paintable
but not very flexible. It hardens over time.
Acrylic latex caulk is a general-purpose
caulkmore flexible than vinyl latex caulks.
It is water-based, easy to apply, non-flamma-
ble and cleans with water. It adheres to most
surfacesbest on wood and masonryand
it can be painted shortly after application. It
is available in pigments that allow it to
match brick and tile, among other surfaces.
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
22
It remains effective for 10 to 15 years.
However, it is not recommended for an area
that is subject to excessive water collection.
It is flexible and it maintains that flexibility
over time. It should not be applied in tem-
peratures of less than 40 F.
Siliconized acrylic latex caulk should not
be confused with pure silicone caulks. It is a
good, all-purpose caulk for most interior and
exterior applications. This medium-perform-
ance, water-based caulk can withstand
greater movement than acrylic latex. The sil-
icone additives improve water resistance. It
can be used on the interior or exterior with
good adhesion, even to glass and ceramic
tile. It also comes in a variety of colors as
well as clear formulas. It applies easily
(though best applied in temperatures above
40 F), is non-flammable, paintable, mildew-
resistant and cleans with water. It endures
moderate temperature changes, with a life
expectancy of about 25-35 years.
Asphaltic caulks are designed primarily
for exterior use, especially for asphalt drive-
ways (loose or damaged shingles, flashings,
etc.). They have poor flexibility and low
movement capabilities. They are best used
in areas that do not get too warm or too
cold and in joints accessible for recaulking.
They also can be messy and stain wood,
clothing and substrates. Asphaltic caulks
must be cleaned with solvents.
Tub and tile caulk is a specialty perform-
ance caulk with added mildewcide to protect
against mildew growth in the areas (kitchen,
bathroom) where it is most likely to be used.
A silicone tub and tile caulk may give off a
strong odor and is more difficult to apply.
Some tub and tile caulks are more flexible
and crack-resistant. Adhesive formulas are
available to reset loose bathroom tiles and
repair grout as well as caulk around tubs.
Adhesive caulks are specialty all-pur-
pose caulks that combine a sealant and
adhesive in one. Polyvinyl acetate formu-
las offer stronger adhesive properties than
siliconized acrylic formulas. Adhesive
caulks are for interior and exterior use.
Water-based, they apply easily, are non-
flammable, clean up with water, and are
paintable and mildew resistant. They are
available in a variety of colors.
Solvent-based acrylics are good exterior
caulks that have a life expectancy of about
25 years. They also have a longer cure time
and odor. Some types must be heated before
application. These caulks are difficult to
apply and feature moderate movement capa-
bility and poor low-temperature flexibility.
Silicone caulk is good for use around bath-
tubs and sinks. It is water resistant and pro-
vides excellent adhesion to smooth surfaces,
such as metal, glass and tile, but it does not
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
23
SPECIFIC PROPERTY
SILICONIZED
ACRYLIC
SEALANTS
ACRYLIC
SEALANTS
LATEX OR
VINYL
CAULKS
SILICONE
RUBBER
SEALANTS
SOLVENT-BASED
BUTYL RUBBER
CAULKS
SOLVENT-BASED
CLEAR CAULKS
Superior adhesion to wide range of
building materials when dry.
Superior adhesion to wide range of
building materials when wet.
Maintains pliability over time.
Paintable with latex and oil-based paints.
Flexible at low temperatures.
Easy to applydoes not stick to fingers
and clothes.
Easy to clean up.
Low odor.
Can be applied at temperatures
below freezing.
Flammable.
Fast settingcapable of being sprayed with
water immediately after application.
Good water resistance.
PERFORMANCE GUIDE TO CAULKS & SEALANTS

adhere to masonry. Paint will also not stick
to it and it is difficult to apply. Smears must
be cleaned up with paint thinner.
There are specialty caulks formulated for
specialty applications or for consumers who
do not want to deal with caulking guns.
Rope caulk comes in a roll and can be
pressed into place by hand. Although tradi-
tionally messy, newer roll caulks have a
liner to prevent the caulk from sticking to
itself or to customers fingers during instal-
lation. Combination caulk/ trim combines a
siliconized caulk with a plastic trim cover-
ing. The consumer enjoys a no-mess instal-
lation and has a mildew-resistant, washable
moulding around the sink or tub areas.
Urethane caulk is elastic, which makes it
good for gaps of 1/4" or more or when join-
ing dissimilar materials.
Butyl rubber sealants are solvent-based,
with a life expectancy of two to 10 years.
Stringy, difficult to apply and slow curing,
they are most efficient when applied to open-
ings between similar surfaces. Not recom-
mended for openings wider or deeper than
1/4" or in 90corners. Butyl rubber is good for
sealing out water in lap joints. It is also a good
choice for metals and masonry, as well as out-
side for chimneys and gutters. These sealants
offer low to moderate movement capabilities.
Polysulfides are exterior high-performance
sealants available in one- and two-part for-
mulations with a life expectancy of 25 to 50
years. The one-part is easier to use but is not
recommended for joints greater than 3/4"
wide or 3/8" deep. It can be used in high-
movement joints. Objectionable odor, poor
low-temperature applicability and low
shrinkage is tempered by good adhesion. It
should be used on building joints as well as
highway and runway joints. Polysulfides
usually require a primer.
Silicone sealants are the most weather-
resistant and elastic of all sealants. They are
usually a higher-ticket purchase than other
caulks and sealants, but compared to other,
less-performing products the pricing has nar-
rowed. Silicones accommodate greater joint
movement over a wider temperature span
(-65 F to 400 F) than any other class of
materials. Lifetime warranties of durability
are available from some manufacturers.
Overall, silicone sealants have excellent
adhesion properties and will bond to woods,
metal, ceramic tiles and glass, although
some surfaces must be primed. Many sili-
cones may be used for both interior and
exterior applications and do not crack or
become brittle with aging.
Most silicones are moisture-resistant and
can be used in high-moisture areas such as
basements. In fact, silicone rubber sealants
are recommended for roofs and around
pools, where they will be continually
immersed in water. Bathroom silicones have
a mildew-resistant additive. However, most
silicones are not paintable and must be
cleaned up with solvents. Some consumers
also object to silicones odor, though newer
formulas are less offensive. Check labels and
manufacturer literature for proper usage of
the silicone sealants you sell.
Water-based elastomeric sealant provides
almost the same properties (though not the
wide temperature range) as silicone and at a
lower price. It also offers better adhesion to
wood and porous materials. Easily painted
and cleaned up with water, this type of
sealant has a life expectancy of 25-50 years.
These sealants do take longer to cure because
the water needs to evaporateand they
should not be applied during wet weather
because they might wash away. They also
should not be applied during cold weather
or else they will freeze.
Polyurethane foam is used for a variety of
jobs, most often around electrical outputs,
pipe penetrations and large voids or open-
ings. It expands to fill gaps, holes and voids
and is good for insulation purposes. It is
easy to apply, cures quickly, is paintable and
offers good adhesion.
A caulk remover can be used for indoor or
outdoor removal of old caulk. It quickly soft-
ens the caulk and is not harmful to surfaces.
Caulk Guns
After finding the right caulk for the job,
the second concern is how to apply it.
People buying caulk for small projects, such
as lying a bead of caulk around a window or
tub might consider a toothpaste tube-like
applicator that holds 2 oz. to 6 oz. When
finished with the project, the squeezable
caulk tube can be capped for future use or
thrown away.
D-i-yers and professionals generally buy
the more common 10-oz. tubes that are used
with a gun. Some caulk guns are designed
with a cartridge cradle, while others have
parallel frames that lay flat in toolboxes.
Ratchet guns are less expensive, but are
more difficult to use. To stop caulk flow on
the ratchet gun, the user must turn the pis-
ton so the ratchet disengages.
Smooth rod guns are more expensive, but
are easier to use than ratchet guns. With a
smooth rod gun, the user simply disengages
a quick-release thumb plate to stop the flow
of caulk. Drip-free smooth rod caulking guns
allow the piston to back up slightly after
each squeeze so the user does not have to
turn the piston or depress a lever to stop the
flow of caulk. Some models use an automat-
ic vacuum action to draw any unused caulk
back into the nose of the tube.
For large building projects, some profes-
sionals prefer bulk-loaded guns that are
filled from 5-gallon and larger containers
with a pneumatic system. To relieve the
stress of pulling a trigger for long periods,
some professionals use pneumatic guns that
work with a small compressor.
Power guns that operate with a rechargeable
battery pack are becoming popular with pros
and serious d-i-yers. For more information, click
(Weatherproofing Your Home).
GLAZING
MATERIALS
GLASS
Architectural glass is useful as glazing for
windows, doors, shower enclosures and
other household installations. It is governed
by the Consumer Product Safety
Commissions (CPSC) Safety Standard for
Architectural Glazing Materials.
Any retailer selling glazing materials for
installation in hazardous locations as
specified in the standard must sell only
those materials meeting the CPSC stan-
dard. Dealers and distributors who know-
ingly sell glazing materials that do not
bear the CPSC certification for use in the
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
24
specified hazardous locations can be pros-
ecuted and held liable for injuries sus-
tained in resulting accidents.
Glazing products manufacturers who
knowingly certify glazing materials that do
not meet the requirements for the standard
also can be prosecuted and held liable for
injuries sustained in resulting accidents.
The purpose of the standard is to reduce
or eliminate risk of injury associated with
walking, running or falling through or
against glazing materials. The standard spec-
ifies the following locations as hazardous:
o 1. Storm doors
o 2. Interior and exterior doors
o 3. Shower and bathtub doors and enclo-
sures
o 4. Certain glazed panels (in hazardous
locations)
o 5. Sliding or patio-type doors
All glazing materials manufactured for
use in these locations must comply with
the safety standard and must be tested and
certified by the manufacturer as conform-
ing to the standard.
Common safety glazing materials include:
Tempered glasscrumbles into small
pieces if broken and leaves no jagged or
sharp edges. Must be ordered to size.
Laminated glassplastic that is bonded
between two sheets of standard glass. Plastic
sheet retards shattering. Its finished thick-
ness is 1/4, which may be too thick for
most household replacement situations.
Wire-reinforced glasswire mesh
embedded in standard glass reduces the
chances of shattering (also 1/4 thick).
This product does not meet CPSC require-
ments for approved safety glazing, and
cannot be sold for use in the specified
hazardous locations. It is, however,
exempted from the CPSC requirements for
use in fire-retardant applications.
Standard glass can be sold for purposes
not covered by the safety standard. It comes
in three grades: AA for highest-grade work, A
for superior glazing quality, and B for gener-
al purposes. A non-reflective glass can be
sold for decorative framing.
Approved rigid plastics, including acrylic
and polycarbonateeasy to handle and can
be cut to size. Is less susceptible to breakage
than glass products and will fall into large
pieces with curved edges if it does break.
May scratch easily.
Scratches in plastics can be removed by
buffing with automotive paste wax contain-
ing no rubbing compound and can be mini-
mized if cleaned with plastic cleaner and
polish products.
Acrylic safety glazing is commonly used
to replace broken glass in windows and
doors. Acrylic plastic sheets are manufac-
tured in widths from 18" to 48" and
lengths up to 96".
When replacing single-strength glass with
acrylic safety glazing, recommend .100"
sheet thickness; when replacing double-
strength glass, recommend .125" thickness.
Composition GlassComposition glass
is imbedded with a transparent layer of
metal oxide particles; it cuts heating and
cooling costs. The metal layer causes the
glass to release heat half as fast as conven-
tional glass, thus keeping more heat in
during the winter and out during the
summer. Composition glass is used mostly
in double-paned windows; it usually
increases the cost of the windows.
Cutting Tools
Hand-held glasscutters for use on standard
(non-safety) glass have an alloy steel wheel at
one end to score the glass, and a ball knob or
notched second end to break the glass along
the score line. A table model with rotating
base cuts circles as well as straight cuts.
Similar tools are used for cutting laminated
and wire-reinforced safety glass. However,
laminated glass, often used in shower doors,
should be cut with a wheel no larger than
.170. A larger wheel will roll over the val-
leys in the pattern usually found on laminat-
ed glass and not give a continuous score. In
addition, the glass must be scored on both
sides since it is actually two pieces of glass.
The scores must align perfectly.
Wire-reinforced safety glass needs a score
only on one side. But after breaking, the
wire mesh must be cut just as the plastic
sheet must be cut on laminated glass.
Other glass-cutting tools include glass cut-
ters with interchangeable cutting wheels so
that glass of various thicknesses and textures
can be cut; cutting machines designed for
cutting ceramic tiles; and glass cutters that
dispense a fine bead of oil to ease glass scor-
ing. There are also point drivers especially
designed for picture framing and other glaz-
ing needs. Special glass pliers help grip the
glass for clean breaks.
Rigid plastics can be easily cut with special
plastic-cutting tools available from a number
of manufacturers.
LADDERS
The three basic types of ladders are
straight (extension), step and step/ exten-
sion. Stepladders include stepstools and plat-
form ladders, generally for home or light
commercial use. Multi-purpose ladders are
also available that can be used as scaffolding
and for other applications.
Quality classifications of step/extension
ladders include consumer (household), com-
mercial (mechanic) and industrial grades.
Ladder rungs are either flat, round or D
shaped. Stepladders use channels of 3" or
more for flat steps. D rungs are preferred
for step/extension and straight ladders.
Rungs must be capable of carrying an
800-lb. load as a household ladder, a 900-
lb. load as a commercial ladder, and a
1,000-lb. load as an industrial ladder. The
minimum size considered acceptable for
round rungs is 1-1/4", while 1-1/2" is the
minimum for D rungs.
Standards established by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) and
required for ladder identification are:
Type I, industrial, duty rated at 250 lbs.
For tradesmen, construction, maintenance
and industrial.
Type IA, extra-heavy-duty industrial, duty
rated at 300 lbs. for industrial use.
Type II, commercial, duty rated at 225 lbs.
For handymen, light maintenance, light
mechanics.
Type III, duty rated at 200 lbs. for house-
hold use.
All ladders should bear labels with ratings,
sizes and maximum standing heights.
Customers should be instructed on recom-
mended use.
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
25
Suggesting a Ladder
There are four major points to consider
when advising a customer about a ladder
purchase. First is the kind of activity
involved. Second is the demands of the
application. Third is the height the ladder
must reach so the climber may work from
a safe position. The last is basic material
from which the ladder is made.
In most cases, the intended activity will
make the choice obvious. For example, a
stepladder would be the choice to paint
interior walls and ceilings, while an exten-
sion ladder usually is needed to paint out-
side. If the job involves more effort than
usual, or will require more time on the lad-
der, try to sell up (a platform ladder instead
of a stepladder, for instance).
All ladders are designed to hold a cer-
tain weight. Therefore, ladders are
matched or job-rated to the physical
demands of the application. For instance,
a ladder used daily on a construction site
obviously should have a sturdier construc-
tion than the ladder used a few times a
year around the house.
The most important factor is the rated
load capacity (i.e., the aggregate working
weight of the user, his clothing and his
tools). For that reason, the duty rating is
described in terms of pounds.
Every ladders duty rating is color-coded.
A label in the appropriate color is promi-
nently displayed on the side rail. Look for
the proper duty ratings to match the high-
est level of use.
The height of the maximum safe work-
ing position for the ladder must also be
considered. The top of the ladder should
extend about 3' above the working surface
when in use. Stepladders should be high
enough for the user not to have to stand
above the second step from the top. (The
first step from the top carries a label
warning the user not to stand there.) On
extension ladders, the user should stand
no more than four rungs from the top.
The base of the ladder should be one-
fourth the distance from the top support
of the ladder to its bottom support.
Ladder Material
The most commonand generally the
most availablematerials for ladders are
wood, aluminum and fiberglass.
Wood ladders are non-conductive when
clean and dry. They also offer a natural,
firm grip for the workers feet and hands.
However, wood ladders are also heavy. A
pleasing traditional look, wide availability
and outstanding economy are among
wood ladders strongest attributes.
Wood ladders should be treated with two
coats of clear penetrating sealer or varnish.
However, opaque sealers should never be used
on wood ladders because they hide cracks or
other defects. Hinges and other moving hard-
ware should be lubricated periodically; if the
metal is not rustproof, however, it should be
treated with clear varnish or other rustproof-
ing material.
Aluminum ladders strongest advantage is
that they are lightweight, provide excellent
strength and offer reliable performance.
Aluminum ladders are corrosion-resistant and
require little if any maintenance. Non-rust-
proof metal ladders should be varnished peri-
odically. They conduct electricity, however, so
they should never be used when working
near energized electrical lines.
Fiberglass ladders offer a favorable blend
of the more desirable qualities of wood and
aluminum. Its non-conductive (like dry,
clean wood) but made of sturdy modern
materials (like aluminum). Fiberglass ladders
should be recommended for a customer
who is planning to use them regularly and
in varying circumstances.
Ladder Accessories
There are a number of accessories
designed for use with the different types
of ladders. These accessories increase the
safety, usefulness and versatility of ladders
and include:
Extension ladder stabilizers make exten-
sion ladders safer to use. Most models pro-
vide a wider or more stable base and pro-
tective covers to protect the work surface.
Ladder cinches can be used to hold an
extension ladder tight against the work
surface.
Levelers can be attached to the leg of a lad-
der to allow it to stand on uneven surfaces.
Accessories likepaint can hooks and trays
provide a convenient place for paint or tools.
Ladder jacks convert a pair of extension
ladders into a working platform that
reduces the number of times ladders must
be moved.
Specialty accessories like cable and V
hooks make it possible to rest an exten-
sion ladder against a wire or a pole.
Accessories for stepladders include mul-
tiple pocket tool holders and caddies for
added convenience. Specialty trays hold
paint cans, brushes, rollers and tools.
Paint can hooks attach to the ladder and
provide a secure place for paint cans.
Specialty accessories like conduit holders
can be used to hold such things as con-
duit, fluorescent light bulbs or pipe.
PA I NT & DEC ORAT I NG
26
LADDER SAFETY TIPS
Ladder users should learn the proper meth-
ods for working with a ladder. Spending
time learning how to use the ladder can
pay off in greater security and conven-
ience, extend ladder life and shorten the
time required for the job.
Dont use or repair a bent or damaged
ladder.
Dont test a ladder by jumping on it.
Dont use a ladder on slippery surfaces
or uneven ground.
Dont place ladder feet on power cords
or come in contact with electrical current
or power lines.
Dont climb down a ladder with your
back to the ladder or carrying a load in
your arms.
Dont over-reach, lean to one side or
stand on one foot.
Dont hurry or skip steps when getting
on or off the ladder.
Dont try to move a ladder while on it or
by bouncing or walking the ladder.
Dont leave a ladder unattended.
Dont position the ladder where it blocks
foot traffic or where it could be bumped
by a door.
Dont place the ladder on boxes, chairs,
furniture or other movable objects to try
to climb higher.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN:
PIPE/TUBE
PIPE FITTINGS
VALVES
PLUMBING TOOLS
TOILET PLUMBING
FAUCETS
SINKS
TUB AND SHOWER FIXTURES
WATER SYSTEMS
MISCELLANEOUS PLUMBING
PLUMBING
Supplies
14
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
2
I When browsing through a home
improvement retailers plumbing
department, it is easy to find
examples of the well-known con-
cept form follows function. For
example, new ergonomic faucets
offer consumers attractive, unique styles.
In fact, the once utilitarian departmentfilled with repair parts and
fittingshas evolved into another fashion area of the store. Do-it-your-
selfers want it alleverything from plumbing products that emphasize
fashion styles to the tools and parts needed to install them.
Todays consumers are also looking for products to help them
protect themselves and the environment. Safety features include
anti-scald faucets and grab bars, while water-saving devices are
another popular request.
When it comes to tackling plumbing projects, many do-it-your-
selfers are more hesitant to tackle the job on their own than they
would be for other d-i-y projects. As a result, they end up calling a
plumber to do jobs that they could easily do themselves if they just
had the right tools, materials and project knowledge.
With the ability to communicate this knowledge effectively,
retailers can instill the confidence that the average do-it-yourselfer
needs to successfully complete the job.
Instilling this confidence requires more than just having the right
products and an understanding of how a plumbing system works.
It also requires knowledge of a communitys local plumbing codes
and the specific plumbing projects these codes will affect.
Be sure to keep a copy of the local plumbing codes on hand and
be able to provide customers with a reference number to call and
check to see if they are planning their plumbing projects within
local guidelines.
PLUMBING
Supplies
PIPE/ TUBE
The heart of any plumbing system is the
pipe or tubing that carries water to various
points of use throughout a house and then
drains waste water back out again.
There are basically two types of pipe,
depending on its use-pressurized pipe and tub-
ing for carrying drinking (potable) water, or
pipe and tubing used for drainage, waste and
ventilation (DWV) applications. DWV piping
is always larger than pressurized pipe, which
tends to be smaller than 1 in dimension.
There are three basic types of pipe used for
both pressurized and DWV applications: plas-
tic, steel and copper.
Plastic Pipe
Because it is easy to work with, lightweight
and durable, plastic pipe is popular among do-
it-yourselfers for both pressure and drainage
applications. Installation costs are usually
lower for plastic materials, but in some areas,
its use in home plumbing systems is restricted.
Check local codes to see how and when plas-
tic pipe can be used in your area.
One of the major advantages to plastic pipe
is that it will not rot or corrode.
When metal pipe is buried underground,
care must be taken to drain water before tem-
peratures drop below freezing. Otherwise,
both pipe and fittings would rupture when
freezing water expands. These precautions are
not necessary with flexible plastic pipe. It can
be buried a few inches below the surface or
deep enough to protect the pipe against acci-
dental damage from digging or cultivation.
A disadvantage for some types, such as flex-
ible polyethylene, is that it cannot be used for
hot water lines. Any plastic pipe used to carry
drinking water should bear the National
Sanitation Foundation mark (NSF-pw).
Following is a list of common plastic pipes
and their characteristics. Piping made of
ABS, CPVC and PVC is classified as rigid
pipe; piping made of PE, PEX and PP is classi-
fied as flexible pipe. For more information, click
(Working with Plastic Pipe).
Pressure-Rated Plastic Pipe
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) comes in sizes
ranging from 1/2" to 2" and is always white in
color. It has excellent chemical resistance,
good crush resistance and impact strength
and is fire resistant (self-extinguishing). PVC
is used in pressure supply and drainage sys-
tems to carry water for golf-course sprinklers,
agricultural irrigation, underground gas-distri-
bution systems, industrial and chemical pip-
ing, corrosive fume ducting and crude-oil
transportation. Used primarily for cold water
supply, PVC is rated by wall thickness and
strength. Common ratings (from thickest to
thinnest) are Schedule 40, which is the most
commonly used type, Class 315, Class 200
and Class 125, which is generally used for irri-
gation. PVC is functional up to 120F (maxi-
mum) in pressure and DWV applications.
Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) has
excellent chemical, crush and fire resistance,
high-impact and tensile strength and is non-
toxic. Functions at 200F in pressure systems
and non-pressure systems. CPVC does require
special solvent cement different from cement
used for other types of plastic solvent welding.
Single-step solvent cements exist. However,
before using, tell customers to check local
building codes for acceptance. It is used in hot
and cold water supply systems and hot and
cold chemical distribution systems.
Polyethylene (black poly) or (PE) has excel-
lent chemical and crush resistance. Mainly
used for cold water supply. Has high-impact
strength and flexibility and good low-temper-
ature performance. Functions in temperatures
from -65to 120F in low-pressure applica-
tions and up to 200in non-pressure applica-
tions. Pressure ratings for black poly are from
80 lbs. to 200 lbs. per square inch (PSI). Both
160 and 200 can be used for potable water if
stamped with a NSF-pw stamp of approval.
Black poly is mainly used in low-pressure
water systems, such as golf course sprinklers;
to carry corrosive liquids and gases; as under-
ground conduits and gas pipe reliners; in
industrial and chemical laboratory drainage
systems; and underground gas piping.
Perforated PE is used as a corrugated drainage
pipe for foundation drainage.
Although there are many types and sizes of
plastic pipe available, the most popular for
home use is flexible polyethylene pipe with
1/2", 3/4" or 1" inside diameter. This pipe is
lightweight and can be cut with an ordinary
sharp knife or a fine-toothed hacksaw blade.
Crosslinked Polyethylene (PEX) PEX and
CPVC are the only flexible plastic tubing suit-
able for use with hot and cold water in pres-
sure systems. PEX has excellent chemical
resistance to acids and alkalis but is not suited
for fuel oil, gasoline or kerosene distribution
systems. PEX can be joined with heat fusion,
flare, crimp ring or compression fittings.
However, it is not solvent weldable. Several
plastic and metal fitting designs are available
for use with gray poly.
PEX has excellent strength characteristics.
Manufacturers claim that should water freeze
inside, the tubing will not burst. However,
some fittings used with PEX will break under
ice expansion. PEX is not to be used in con-
tinuously circulating hot water plumbing
loops. It is rated to function at 180F up to
100 psi. Do not use in applications where the
temperature of the water could exceed 180F
unless specifically approved by local building
codesfor example, a water heater relief line.
Polypropylene (PP) has excellent chemical
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
3
SIZES FOR WROUGHT IRON & STEEL PIPE
NOMINAL OUTSIDE INSIDE NO. OF
SIZE DIAMETER DIAMETER THREADS
IN INCHES IN INCHES IN INCHES PER INCH
1/4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.540 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.364 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
3/8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.675 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.493 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.622 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
3/4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.824 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.315 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.049 . . . . . . . . . . . .11-1/2
1-1/4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.660 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.380 . . . . . . . . . . . .11-1/2
1-1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.610 . . . . . . . . . . . .11-1/2
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.375 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.067 . . . . . . . . . . . .11-1/2
2-1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.875 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.469 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
4
PIPE DATA AT A GLANCE
TYPE OF EASE OF WATER FLOW TYPE OF MANNER LIFE PRINCIPAL REMARKS
PIPE WORKING EFFICIENCY FITINGS USUALLY EXPECTANCY USES
FACTOR NEEDED STOCKED
Brass,
Threaded
No threading
required.
Cuts easily,
but cant be
bent. Measur-
ing a job
rather difficult.
Highly effi-
cient because
of low friction.
Screw on
connection.
12 ft. rigid
lengths.
Cut to size
wanted.
Lasts life of
building.
Generally for
commercial
construction.
Required in
some cities
where water is
extremely cor-
rosive.
Often smaller
diameter will
suffice because
of low friction
coefficient.
Copper,
Hard
Easier to work
with than
brass.
Same as brass.
Screw on
or solder
connections.
12 ft. rigid
lengths. Cut to
size wanted.
Same as brass. same as brass.
Copper,
Soft
Easier to work
with than
brass or hard
copper
because it
bends readily
by using a
bending tool.
Measuring a
job not too
diffcult.
Same as brass.
Solder
connections.
Coils
usually soft.
Same as brass. Widely used in
residential
installations.
Copper
tubing,
Flexible
Easier than
soft copper
becasue it can
be bent with-
out a tool.
Measuring
jobs is easy.
Highest of all
metals since
there are no
nipples,
unions or
elbows.
Solder or
compresson
connections.
3 wall
thickness:
K: Thickest
L: Medium
M: Thinnest
20 ft. lengths
or 15 ft, 30 ft.
or 60 ft. coils.
(Except M)
Same as brass. K is used in
municipal and
commercial
construction.
L is used for
residential
water lines.
M is for light
domestic lines
onlycheck
Code before
using.
Probably the
most popular
pipe today.
Often a small-
er diameter
will suffice
becasue of low
ftriction coeffi-
cient.
Wrought iron
(or galvanized)
Has to be
threaded.
More difficult
to cut.
Measurments
for jobs must
be exact.
Lower than
copper
because
nipples and
unions reduce
water flow.
Screw on
connections.
Rigid lengths,
up to 22 ft.
Usually cut to
size wanted.
Corrodes in
alkaline water
more than
others.
Produces rust
stains.
Generally
found in older
homes.
Recommended
if lines are in a
location subject
to impact.
Plastic pipe Can be cut
with saw or
knife.
Same as cop-
per tubing.
Insert
couplings,
clamps; also
buy cement.
Threaded &
compression
fittings can be
used. (Thread
same as for
metal pipe.)
Rigid,
semi-rigid &
flexible.
Coils of
100-400 ft.
Long life & it
is rust and
corrosion
proof.
For cold water
installations.
Used for well
casings, septic
tank lines,
sprinkler sys-
tems.
Check Codes
before
installing.
Lightest of all,
weighs about
1/8 of metal
pipe.
Does not burst
in below
freezind
weather.
resistance, is resistant to sulfur-bearing com-
pounds, lightweight, good tensile strength
and salt-water resistance. Stronger and more
rigid than PE with a higher functioning tem-
perature (190F). PP is popular as a material
for tubular products, such as P-traps, because
of its high chemical resistance.
Plastic Pipe for
Drainage Systems
PVCSame as for pressure systems, but
functions up to 180F in non-pressure DWV
applications.
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) has
good chemical resistance, excellent impact
strength, especially at low temperatures, and
maintains rigidity at higher temperatures.
Maximum functional temperature is 180for
non-pressure systems. ABS is used in mobile
home and residential drainage systems and as
underground electrical conduits.
Rubber Modified Styrene (SR) has good
crush resistance, fair impact strength and
moderate chemical resistance. SR is light-
weight but brittle at low temperatures.
Functions at a maximum of 160F. SR is used
for drainage and sewage systems, under-
ground downspout drains, underground elec-
trical conduits, septic tank absorption fields
and foundation drains.
Steel Pipe
Steel pipe is used primarily for carrying
water, steam or gas. Available in both black
and galvanized finish, it is made of wrought
steel and sold in sizes from 1/8" to 6".
Galvanized pipe is commonly used for
water systems black pipe for manufactured
and natural gas. Galvanized pipe should
never be used for gas installations.
Plumbing codes in many areas require that
black pipe, especially that used under-
ground, be coated and wrapped.
I OTHER PIPE
Soil pipe is made of vitreous clay, bitumi-
nous fiber, plastic, drainage-type copper or
cast iron. Each has certain advantages depend-
ing upon location, soil types and price.
Copper and cast iron are more expensive, but
serve better where rigidity is a must or where
tree roots are massive enough to crush fiber or
enter clay joints.
Copper and plastic (where permitted) have
advantages of pre-fabrication and long
lengths. Cast iron pipe also comes in longer
lengths. Black iron pipe used for steam and
gas is similar to galvanized, but not treated for
rust resistance. Solid brass pipe is used where
corrosion is the main concern. It is not com-
monly used in homes and is more expensive
than other types of pipe.
Copper Tube
Copper tube, used primarily for pressure-
rated systems, is manufactured in five general
grades and thicknesses.
Type Kheaviest, used in municipal,
commercial, residential and underground
installation.
Type Lmedium weight; used most often
in residential water lines. K and L are manu-
factured in hard (rigid 20' lengths) and soft
(60', 100' and 200' lengths, the latter in small-
er sizes).
Type Mhard and thin (20' lengths and
under). Recommended for light domestic
water lines and is not permitted in some city
codes or for underground use.
Refrigerationcomes in 50' coils and
rigid 20' lengths. Most refrigeration copper
has moisture removed and ends sealed for
better performance of refrigerants. It is often
used in heater connectors but has a tenden-
cy to build a crust of corrosion on the
inside if gas has any trace of sulfur. Flexible
brass or soft aluminum pipe seems to be
more efficient for gas transmission to
household heating and appliances.
Type DWVdrainage, waste and vent; rigid
only and comes in 20' lengths.
Most frequently stocked tube includes Type
L soft in 3/8", 1/2" and 3/4" sizes and refrigera-
tion in 1/4", 5/16", 3/8", 1/2" and 5/8". Smaller
and larger sizes are available and may be
obtained on special orders.
If you stock sewer pipe, you may want to
add DWV copper and fittings, if local condi-
tions permit their use.
Type K, L, M and DWV copper sizes are list-
ed in nominal dimensions (actual outside
diameter is 1/8" larger); refrigeration copper
sizes are listed in outside dimensions. All cop-
per is normally corrosion resistant and easily
assembled with proper tools. for more informa-
tion, click (Working with Copper Pipe).
Water Supply Tubes
Types of water supply tubes include braided
(stainless steel, nylon or vinyl); chrome-plated
copper or brass; plastic and ribbed chrome.
The most common size is 3/8", which repre-
sents the outside diameter of the tube.
Plastic is flexible and inexpensive but not
designed for exposed connections. Ribbed
chrome bends easily without kinking.
Braided tubes feature pre-attached connec-
tor nuts at both ends and can be flexed to
fit. Chrome-plated tubes are more rigid than
other types.
Replacement connectors are available that
come with different-size fittings to ensure
they connect to most any valve or fixture.
They can be used to replace old copper, corru-
gated and vinyl supply lines. Faucet connec-
tors are available in lengths from 9" to 72"; toi-
let connectors in lengths from 6" to 20" and
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
5
These Hubs For WATER and VENT PIPE ONLY
Tee 90Ell 45Ell Street Ell
Reducer Tee Reducer Coupling Bushing
Cap Plug Hose Adapter Valve
STANDARD STEEL PIPE FITTINGS
SIZES OF TYPE K, L, M
COPPER TUBE
INSIDE DIAMETER OUTSIDE DIAMETER
IN INCHES IN INCHES
3/8 1/2
1/2 5/8
3/4 7/8
1 1-1/8
1-1/4 1-3/8
1-1/2 1-5/8
dishwasher connectors in lengths from 48" to
72".
Pipe Insulation
Heat is lost from non-insulated water pipes.
That means lost energy and increased heating
costs, frozen pipes in winter and condensation
dripping from water pipes.
Pipe insulation corrects these problems by
maintaining the water temperature in the
pipelines to avoid letting water run to reach
desired hot or cold temperature.
Insulation lubricants may cause severe stress
cracking of certain plastic materials. Only
non-lubricated insulation products (rubber or
polyolefin) should be used for plastic piping
systems unless otherwise specified by the insu-
lation manufacturer.
Wrap-on insulation includes fiberglass pipe
wrap with a separate vapor-sealing tape that
must be wrapped around the fiberglass.
Plastic cork wrapping needs no separate
vapor seal since it will not absorb moisture
and is waterproof. Other wrap-on insulation
includes vinyl foam, aluminum foil and poly-
ethylene-coated duct tape.
Foamed plastic tubing for covering pipes
costs more than wrap-on types. However, the
finished job is generally more neat looking
and the material is somewhat quicker to
install. It is available in sizes to fit either galva-
nized pipe or copper tubing.
Mastic compound can be used to insulate
large-diameter pipes, cold water tanks and sim-
ilar surfaces that may be subject to condensa-
tion. Available in one-gallon cans that will
cover approximately 6 square feet, this thick
coating is applied in layers at least 1/4" thick.
Heating Cables
Heating cables are designed to keep
pipes warm and water flowing. Two types
of heating cables are series and self-regu-
lating. While both types of cables have a
similar appearanceplugging into electri-
cal outlets and wrapping around pipes
the actual functioning and installation
techniques are very different.
The heat of series cables is generated by a
current-carrying wire and is maintained at a
temperature that does not vary with the envi-
ronment. Series heaters are available in pre-
assembled lengths from 2' to 100'.
Because of the heating element, customers
cannot cut it to length themselves. It cannot
be overlapped onto itself without burning out,
so customers must be sure that they purchase
the right length.
Most series heaters cannot be used on plas-
tic pipes. Moreover, while some series heaters
can be used with insulation, others cannot.
Self-regulating heating cables generate heat
through the plastic material between the cur-
rent-carrying wires. These heating cables regu-
late themselves automatically, providing more
heat as outside temperatures drop and less as
temperatures rise. Self-regulation allows the
cable to be overlapped. The heating cable is
typically on a reel in the store, and the cus-
tomers cut off only what they need.
Installation involves wrapping the heating
cable around the pipe and valves and securing
with a high-temperature tape.
Separate connection kits are purchased and
put together by the customer at home. Some
self-regulating brands also come in pre-assem-
bled, shorter individual lengths. Self-regulating
heaters can be used on plastic pipes and
should be used with thermal insulation.
Both types of heating cables must be pro-
tected from mechanical damage and from
water. In addition, both should be used with a
ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI).
PIPE FITTINGS
Fittings allow the d-i-yer to install pipe in
the proper place and end it at the right spot.
In both pressure and drainage systems, each
kind of pipe requires its own type of fitting.
However, there are similarities among all fit-
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
6
Solder
Copper
Tubing
Inside Thread
Outside Thread
Adapter
Typical For All
Copper Sweat Joints
COPPER COUPLING
Flexible
Valve
Rigid
Cap Tee 90Ell 45Ell Coupling
Reducing Tee Copper to Steel Union
SWEAT TYPE FITTINGS
Taper
Seat
Ell
Coupling
Flare Tool Outside
Inside
Tee
FLARE TYPE COPPER FITTINGS
Crossover
Bushing
3/4 Reducing Tee
SPECIAL FITTINGS
Union 3/4
Adapting Ells
(Threads to Copper)
tings and by understanding the proper appli-
cation for each, you can save your customer
time, material and labor.
The two basic designations for pipe fittings
are male and female. These refer to the thread-
ing. Male threading is on the outside and
threads into the female threading, which is on
the inside of the fitting.
Fittings for copper pipe must be soldered,
compressed or flared. Plastic fittings for plastic
pipe, metal fittings for plastic pipe and fittings
for connecting plastic to metal pipe are avail-
able in insert, threaded, compression and sol-
vent weldable types.
Pressure Fittings
Transition Adapters ( nipples) extend a
line or provide proper threading at the
right location. Nipples come in diameters
ranging from 1/8" to 4" to match standard
pipe diameters and in lengths from close
(nipples that are threaded on both ends to
a point where threads almost join in the
center) through 24". Normal size incre-
ments are even inches. Long nipples or
cut lengths of pipe, which are threaded
on both ends are available in about 24"
lengths, usually increasing in length by 6"
increments (30", 36", 42", etc.).
Couplings ( unions) connect all stan-
dard sizes of pipe. Tight seal with a pipe
wrench and pipe joint compound will
waterproof connection.
Elbowschange direction of pipe. Most
common are 90and 45elbows, which have
inside threads on both ends. A street elbow
has inside thread on one end and outside
thread on the other.
Bushingsinserted inside a coupling to
reduce the size of the pipe. With a coupling, a
run of pipe can be reduced a size or two; with
a series of bushings, any number of reductions
can be made.
Reducersreduce pipe size. Bushings screw
into a coupling while reducers screw directly
onto pipe threads. Some reduce pipe only one
size; others can reduce several sizes.
Side Outlet Elbowhave three-way outlets.
Can be used as corner pieces for railings or
fences. Also used for pipe connections on cor-
ner construction.
Crosses and Teesavailable in all sizes and
shapes. Most common is straight tee, which
has three inside threads of the same size that
can be used to run three pipes in a T shape.
Reducing tee has same shape, but two straight
ends of the T are reduced one size or more.
Four-Way Tee (Side Outlet)similar to the
side outlet elbow except side outlet runs
through the elbow with an opening of the
same size on each end. Straight cross has four
outlets for pipe of the same size. Side outlet
cross has an opening on the side for a fifth
pipe of the same size.
Drainage Fittings
Return Bends and Y Bendsreturn bends
are made in close, medium and open patterns.
The close is a sharper bend than the medium
and the medium is a sharper bend than the
open. The Y bend is a straight or reduced out-
let, which permits connecting pipe of the
same or reduced size to a 45angle.
Cleanoutsremove clogs and clean access
to internal pipes.
Closet flangesconnect toilets to drain and
vent systems.
Flexible fittingsare used in repair or to tie
into existing drainage systems.
I OTHER FITTINGS
Ground Joint Unionthree-part fitting that
connects any standard size pipe where it may
be necessary to disconnect later. Because of
the bronze-to-bronze or bronze-to-iron ground
joint seat, it can be taken apart and reassem-
bled at the nut with a pipe wrench and no
joint compound.
Floor Flangesconnect pipe to a wall, floor
or any flat surface. Flanges are threaded onto
pipe and tightened. This provides a flange rim
with four screw holes, making it easy to fasten
pipe to a flat surface.
I JOINING CONNECTIONS
Plastic Pipe Fittings
Plastic fittings for plastic pipe, metal fittings
for plastic pipe and fittings for connecting
(transitioning) plastic to metal pipe are avail-
able in threaded, insert (compression) and sol-
vent-weldable types.
Threaded plastic fittings thread exactly like
metal fittings; however, special transition fit-
tings should be used to connect plastic to
metal pipe in hot and cold water systems to
prevent leaks caused by the different expan-
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
7
Prepare project diagram before shopping for
materials ... include lengths of pipe required,
and all fittings (nipples, couplings, tees,
elbows, unions, etc.).
PROCEDURE:
1. Take center-to-center distance for pipe
to be installed (Dimension A).
2. Deduct dimension shown at (B) and
add amount of pipe that enters fitting,
using chart below. (Note: you will double
this distance if pipe goes into fitting at
two ends.)
DISTANCE PIPE IS SCREWED
INTO STANDARD FITTINGS
PIPE SIZE DISTANCE
1/2" 1/2"
3/4" 1/2"
1" 5/8"
1-1/4" 5/8"
1-1/2" 5/8"
2" 3/4"
MEASURING PIPE RUNS
sion rates of plastic and metals.
Insert (compression) fittings are sometimes
used with flexible plastic pipe such as polyeth-
ylene or polybutylene. Insert fittings are
inserted into the pipe and compressed and
sealed with an adjustable clamp.
Solvent-weld fittings have specially formed
sockets into which plastic pipe is inserted.
Fitting and pipe are bonded by a chemical
weld using the solvent or cement compatible
with the type of plastic being con-
nected.
Manufacturers recommendations
should be followed in making such
joints. When done properly, these
joints form a permanent weld
stronger than the pipe itself. For
more information, click (Working
with Plastic Pipe).
Instant-Connect Fittings
Instant-connect fittings make it
easy for d-i-yers to join tubing or
pipe. The homeowner inserts the
tubing or pipe into the fitting until
it seats, then pulls back to ensure a
tight fit. These fittings are tested up
to 600 psi and come in a full range
of types to connect copper, polybutylene,
CPVC and galvanized pipe in 3/8", 1/2" and
5/8" outside diameter. The fittings are easy to
use, but some designs do not allow the fitting
to be removed for realignment once in posi-
tion and seated.
Copper Tube Fittings
Fittings for copper tube can be soldered on
at least one end, leaving one or both ends
unthreaded. After flux has been applied spar-
ingly (apply lightlytoo much flux can cause
a corrosive reaction), solder is introduced at
the edge of the fitting. It is then drawn, by
capillary action, the full depth of the fitting to
surround the tube.
The result is a strong, leakproof, bonded
joint. The solder is usually applied with a
propane torcha process known as sweat-
ing fittings.
Flare and compression fittings (particularly
heavy-duty flare fittings for liquid petroleum
gases) are necessary stock items for any store
that stocks copper and aluminum tubing.
Wholesaler catalogs list the most common
sizes of fittings. Appliances that use a small
amount of water, such as evaporative coolers
and humidifiers, use a small-size slip joint tee
and saddle tee.
A slip joint tee is installed by cutting the
line and spreading it slightly. The saddle tee
clamps onto the line and a hole is drilled in
the pipe through the side opening.
A commonly used fitting in installing dish-
washers is the three-way compression stop.
This fitting, installed on the hot or cold sink
supply line, will cut the flow of water to both
appliances at the same time. For more informa-
tion, click (Working with Copper Pipe).
Solder and Flux
Solder is used to sweat copper fittings; it
forms a bonded joint between fitting and
pipe. Solders used in the soldering of potable
(drinking) water piping must be lead-free.
Flux (liquid or paste) helps keep copper
clean during heating and helps solder wet
the copper surface. Flux is a necessary add-
on sale for anyone buying sweat fittings; so
is a small flux brush to apply the flux as
well as sandcloth to clean pipe and fittings.
Some fluxes are corrosive and can be irritat-
ing, so advise customers to use adequate ven-
tilation and avoid contact with skin and eyes.
Used along with solder, flux prevents oxida-
tion of metals as they are heated. It also
chemically cleans the surface of items to be
soldered after they have been rubbed clean
with sanding cloth. Allowing certain fluxes to
puddle inside the tube or fittings may cause
flux corrosion. By preventing oxidation, flux
allows solder to flow freely, forming a good
watertight seal.
Recommend 95-5 tin-antimony solder
where frequent, extreme temperature changes
and vibration occur. The first number denotes
the percentage of tin. The higher the tin con-
tent, the more workable the solder. Silver lead-
free solder is an alloy of tin, silver,
copper and bismuth that is specifi-
cally formulated for making joints
on copper water lines carrying
drinking water. No. 95 tinning flux
works well with large-diameter cop-
per pipe; it eliminates pre-tinning of
the metal. Instant solder is a one-
step solder and flux combination
for copper pipe as well as sheet
metal and hobby work.
MAPP Gas
To get a good sweat fitting, there
should be no water in the pipeline.
However, some homeowners find it
difficult to drain the line thorough-
ly.
Problems may arise if the homeowner is
using a propane torch that does not gen-
erate enough heat to dry out the line.
MAPP gas, however, reaches a much high-
er heat that can dry out small amounts of
water. Because of this intense heat, MAPP
gas must be used carefullyit can melt
the copper if held too long in one spot.
I TRAPS & TUBULAR GOODS
Traps
Plumbing fixtures are equipped with a P, J
or S trap that is frequently fitted with a
clean-out plug on the bottom. The trap
bend holds water, which prevents odors
from backing up into the home. (Check
local codes for use of S traps.)
Drum and bottle-type traps for bathtubs or
kitchen sinks consist of a cylindrical metal
box or settling basin attached to the waste
pipe. They are generally provided with a
screw-cap cover that can be removed when
cleaning is necessary.
In addition to commonly used 1-1/4" and
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
8
SUGGESTING THE RIGHT CONNECTION
PRESSURE FITTING CONNECTIONS
PIPE CONNECTIONS
PVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Solvent welded
Black Poly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Clamped and compression fitted
Gray Poly/PEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Clamped and compression fitted
CPVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mostly solvent and primer
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Soldered, compressed and flared
Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Threaded
DRAINAGE FITTING CONNECTIONS
PIPE CONNECTIONS
PVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Solvent with cleaner and primer
ABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Solvent and cleaner
Styrene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Snapped together (not glued)
Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .No-hub fitting
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Soldered
Galvanized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Threaded
1-1/2" P, J and S traps, a retailer who has mul-
tiple-unit and commercial accounts may get
calls for grease traps, laundry tray and slop-
sink traps. These are usually cast iron with
clean-out plugs, 2", 2-1/2" and 3" diameters. A
grease trap is fitted with baffle plates and
placed in horizontal lines.
In most areas, 1-1/4" chrome-plated brass
traps are used in lavatory drains; and satin-
finished or nickel-plated brass 1-1/2" traps
are standard equipment on residential
kitchen sinks. (Satin finish is unpolished
chrome-plated tubular.)
Because these traps are usually manufac-
tured in gauges ranging from light 22-gauge to
heavier 17-gauge in extruded tubing and cast
brass, you should check local building codes
for approved gauges.
Plastic P and J traps can be used in retrofit
as well as new plumbing work with adapters
and transitional couplings to connect plastic
with other materials.
Corrugated flexible plastic drain is useful
when installing new sinks or vanities with
older drain systems. Many times the drain
from a new installation will not line up with
the old drainpipe. Corrugated, plastic drain-
pipe allows the d-i-yer to connect misalign-
ments by as much as several inches.
Tubular Goods
Garbage disposals, dishwashers and spe-
cial kitchen sinks require tubular brass
goods. These include P traps, S traps, J
bends, repair traps (with slip joint nuts on
both ends), continuous wastes for sinks
with double compartments, tailpieces that
connect sink strainers to continuous
wastes, branch tailpieces that connect
dishwasher drains to sink wastes, exten-
sions to slip (straight tube lengths with
slip joint nut), and extensions to solder
(straight tube with bell end for a sweat
extension). These are primarily used in
adding disposals to existing sinks. There is
demand for 1-1/4" threaded tailpieces that
extend lavatory wastes to the correct dis-
tance for trap connection.
Fittings for tubular brass consist almost
entirely of 45 ells, 90 ells, couplings and
tees in 1-1/4" and 1-1/2" sizesall with
slip joint nuts and washers. Strap wrench-
es are recommended for most work with
chrome-plated brass, and extra slip joint
washers and nuts are a must in the
plumbing department because corrosion
brings on occasional breakage.
VALVES
Metal Valves
Valves, sill cocks and faucets control the
water supply. Valves and sill cocks are used on
pipelines; faucets are installed on fixtures.
Valves in home plumbing lines usually are
cast bronze and have portions machined and
threaded for trimmings.
Gate valves have a sliding wedge that is
moved across the waterway, usually by a
threaded spindle or stem. It is either rising or
non-rising, the latter having a shorter bonnet.
A gate valve is used to completely shut off
or open a waterwa, but not control the vol-
ume of flow. Either opening of a gate valve
may face the pressure side of the line.
Gate valves allow complete passage of water
and should be used on supply lines that are in
constant use.
Globe and angle valves are used when a
valve must be opened and closed frequently
under high water pressure. Globe valves are
used to control volume of flow. They have
two chambers with a partition between them
for passage of water that must change course
several times from port to port. Globe valves
should not be used in water supply lines for
occasional shut-off purposes.
An angle valve is similar to a globe valve,
but has its ports at right angles. Water passage
is greater than through a globe valve. Since
there is only one change in direction of flow,
less resistance occurs. An angle valve installed
at a turn in piping eliminates the necessity of
an elbow and is often preferred to using a
globe valve and elbow.
Plug and key valves are better known in
the plumbing industry as straight stops.
These have tapered ground plugs that seat
into matched tapered ground bodies. Plugs
have flat heads, square heads or socket
heads; the other end is threaded to hold a
hex nut and friction ring combination. This
is mounted over a tension spring inside the
body that keeps the plug tight. They are
manufactured in brass, bronze, galvanized
iron-bodied and black iron-bodied and are
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
9
Globe Stop and Drain
Globe
Valve
Swing Check
TYPES OF VALVES
Check
Lavatory Straight
Angle
Gate
LEAD WARNING
Many older homes have lead pipe water
systems. Many newer homes have copper
pipe water systems which have been sol-
dered together with solder containing lead.
This means that drinking water may con-
tain lead. Exposure to lead may cause brain
and nervous disorders, anemia, high blood
pressure, kidney and reproductive prob-
lems, decreased red blood cells, slower
reflexes and even death.
The lead collects in the kidneys, liver and
brain. Unlike many other chemicals, once
lead enters a persons system, it cannot be
removed. Exposure to even small amounts
over a period of years can cause irreversible
damage.
Sell only lead-free solder to your cus-
tomers when they are working on
plumbing projects.
Also recommend that if it has been six
hours since the water system was last used,
your customers should turn on the water
and let it run for a few minutes before
drawing water for drinking or cooking.
However, recommend they not waste this
water. It may be used for such things as
watering plants.
Recommend that customers have water
tested for lead content by an EPA-certi-
fied laboratory.
Additional information about lead in drink-
ing water is available from the Environ-
mental Protection Agencys Safe Drinking
Water hotline, 1-800-426-4791. It will pro-
vide information about EPA-certified labora-
tories that test for lead in drinking water.
used mostly as gas stops.
Drainable valves or stop and waste valves
have a small opening on the non-pressure
side to allow drainage when they are in the
cut-off position. It is sometimes called a
bleeder valve and may be obtained in
threaded, sweat, flare and slip joint ends.
The latter two are municipal and emergency
valves. Most are flat head or socket head;
common residential types have a socket
head that takes a 3/8" key rod.
Check valves operate automatically, permit-
ting flow in one direction only. They are
sometimes combined with a throttling or
shut-off valve. Some communities require a
check valve in cold water lines between the
water heater and meter.
Check valves are used to prevent water
pumped to an overhead tank from flow-
ing back when the pump stops. Some
check valves are designed for use with ver-
tical pipes only. Therefore, correct instal-
lation is essential. The closing device-a
disk, ball or clapperfalls shut by gravity
when installed vertically.
Swing-type check valves serve the same
purpose as check valves. A small, smooth
swing-type gate is located in the center of the
valve. As water is pumped through the flow
side of the valve, a gate swings open to allow
water to pass. If water attempts to back up
through the valve, the gate is forced shut
against the pressure side of the valve.
Plastic Valves
Plastic valves are made of CPVC, PVC and
ACETAL. The plastic valves available are gate
valves, universal line valves, straight supply
valves, angle supply valves, washer hose
valves, angle valves, sill cocks and ball valves.
Ball valves have taken over the bulk of usage
for natural and LP gas, replacing the older plug
valves that were traditionally used as gas
valves. Ball valves are available in both metal
and plastic. Ball valves can be purchased both
threaded and non-threaded. Ball valves with
double-stem seals provide greater durability.
One type of plastic valve is molded of
ACETAL. It has threaded connections for use
in metal piping systems. The other type,
molded of CPVC or PVC, is either threaded or
non-threaded with solvent-weld connections.
These are used in plastic piping systems.
Like plastic pipe fittings, solvent-weld
valves (connections made by cement) must be
used with compatible plastic piping systems;
i.e., PVC valves used in a PVC piping system.
Threaded-connection ACETAL valves, which
can be used in most applications in which
metal valves are used, are available in globe
(stop), stop-and-waste, boiler drain, sill cock
and sink faucet. Plastic valves should not be
used in steam, gas or compressed air lines.
However, valves can be used with hot and
cold fluid systems.
The ACETAL valves perform at temperatures
of -20F to 180F. They can withstand pressure
up to 150 lbs. and are excellent for hard-water
areas because they resist mineral build-up.
Since handles are made of plastic, heat
is never absorbed from the water line. No
brute force is required to install them.
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
10
HOW TO SOLVE HOUSEHOLD PLUMBING PROBLEMS
Has a worn washer. Shut off water, dismantle faucet and replace
worn washer. Spot leak needs new faucet washer; under stem cap,
bibb washer; handle stem, cone bonnet packing or "O" ring. For
washerless faucets replace entire cartridge.
Plumbing joints may be parted. Copper plumbing joints are
not threaded and can be permanently soldered or brazed if
accidental bending or a hard blow causes a leak. Threaded
joints or other metals may have to be reconnected adding
waterproof compound to threads.
Warm, moist air condenses when it strikes cold pipe. Wrap with
pipe insulation.
If water in tank flows off through overflow tube, replace supply
cork. If water leaks past rubber ball stopper through outlet valve,
replace valve.
Outlet pipe is corroded or covered with grit and makes irregu-
lar seat for stopper ball. Smooth with emery cloth or replace
outlet pipe.
Increase flow of water into tank by adjusting float valve.
Generally a simple do-it-yourself job to install air chambers,
shock absorbers or pressure-reducing valves. If system already
has air chambers, unclog by shutting off water supply and
opening all faucets.
Means non-existent, improper or clogged vent. Depending on
local plumbing codes, can be cured with anti-siphon trap.
Almost always caused by underestimating the overall size of the
plumbing system; pipes for tubing are too small. Accumulation of
rust or deposits in old lines can reduce the operating size of pipes.
Installation of larger pipes, a pressure reducing valve, expansion
loops or water-hammer arrester will correct most noises. A "creak-
ing" noise is caused by expansion of and contraction of piping
which was incorrectly installed in direct contact with walls and
floors instead of against sound-deadening devices. Urge customers
in initial installation, to allow for their own maximum use of plumb-
ing, rather than always go by the minimum permitted by some
plumbing codes. It will be less expensive in the long run.
Water may be too hot. Re-adjust thermostat to 140 to 160
Drain piping must be of correct size and sloped uniformly; one
quarter of an inch to the foot is best. Local codes prevail, but it is
possible to oversize as well as undersize drain pipe. Piping that is
too big may not allow water to completely remove materials cling-
ing to its walls. The result clogging.
Undersize plumbing or clogged pipes or both. A major plumbing
job, by contractor, may be the only solution.
Leaking Faucet
Leaking Pipes
Dripping Pipes
Too Much Water In
Toilet Tank
Toilet Tank Ball Does
Not Fit (HUMMING SOUND)
Whistling When Toilet
Tank Fills
Hammering Noise
When Faucet Is Turned
Off Rapidly
Water Rushes Down
Drain With Sucking
Noise
General Noises In Pipe
Rumbling Noise Near
Water Heater
Sluggish Drains
Low Water Pressure
Because the threads are more precise than
machined threads on a metal part, the
installer can mate the parts one to two
threads beyond normal make-up on a
metal joint for a better connection.
A double seal feature allows the washer to
be removed, leaving the plastic seat to main-
tain the integrity of the valve. If there is dan-
ger of the washer or metal parts deteriorating,
it is recommended that installation be made
without the washer.
Solvent-weld CPVC and PVC valves offer
similar benefits to the ACETAL valves. These
are available in globe (stop) and boiler drains.
Gate valves and ball valves are available in
PVC and CPVC.
When using a plastic valve as a retrofit
with another piping material, use a transi-
tional connector to prevent leaks caused
by the differing contraction/expansion
characteristics of the two materials. Newer
CPVC valves make a mechanical connec-
tion to plastic or metal material. The
mechanical valves are easily installed and
result in a leak-free connection. There is
no solvent welding, sweat soldering or
pipe threading; the mechanical coupling
on the CPVC valve is loosened, pushed on
and hand tightened.
I WATER SAFETY SYSTEMS
Leaks in plumbing systems can cause major
damage to a house if left unchecked for long.
Now available is an automatic water-shutoff
valve that is designed to limit the damage
caused when washing machine hoses rupture,
icemaker supply lines crack and water supply
lines freeze. This whole-house system is
installed in the main water line after it enters
the home. It consists of a water flow sensor
and motor-driven ball valve installed in the
water supply, which is monitored by an LCD
controller mounted elsewhere in the home.
The sensor inside the flow path tells the con-
troller when water is flowing into the house at
any given moment.
In the home mode, the system is pro-
grammed to allow up to 30 minutes of con-
tinuous water flow before the valve shuts
off the water to the entire house. In the
away mode, the system is programmed to
allow up to 30 seconds of continuous water
flow before it shuts off the water to the
home. These modes can be easily repro-
grammed to fit water use patterns. The U.L.-
listed system plugs into a standard 120V
outlet and features battery backup and an
audible alarm that sounds when the unit
shuts off the water. It is compatible with
copper, CPVC and PEX pipes and fits both
3/4" and 1" water supply pipes.
A similar automatic water-shutoff valve is a
wireless system that also is installed into the
main water line. It consists of a shutoff valve,
receiver, transmitter and battery-powered sen-
sors. The sensors are placed where leaks are
likely to occur. When the sensors detect water,
they automatically send a signal to the receiv-
er to shut off the water.
Another type of safety valve system is
designed specifically to prevent damage from
ruptured washing machine hoses. The wash-
ing machine is plugged into the safety valve
kits control box, which is plugged into a stan-
dard outlet. The low-voltage valve system
shuts off cold and hot water at the shutoff
valves. The valves automatically open when
the washing machine is turned on and close
as soon as the machine shuts off. When valves
are closed, the hoses are not under pressure
and retain little water.
PLUMBING TOOLS
Plumbing tools are specializedthey gener-
ally are designed to carry out a specific job. For
example, if a customer buys a handle puller to
pull a tub or shower faucet, they will also need
a box end or hollow-core socket wrench to
remove packing nuts. Packing nuts are soft
brass, easily distorted and hard to replace.
Customers needing tubing cutters may also
need flaring tools. If the job does not require
flare fittings, they may need solder, paste or a
torch kit. Always keep in mind that most
plumbing sales are project-related sales with
plenty of add-on sales opportunities.
Wrenches
Wrenches are of two general types: fixed
and adjustable. Fixed wrenches have one size
jaw opening; adjustable wrenches open or
close to fit nuts and bolts of several sizes.
Although adjustable wrenches range from 4"
to 2' long, 10" and 12" models handle most
household plumbing repair jobs.
Pipe wrenches or Stillson wrenches are
usually used to grasp pipes and other
curved surfaces. Pipe wrenches in particu-
lar have solid housings and hardened steel
jaws that provide excellent bite and grip.
The primary difference between a pipe
wrench and a Stillson wrench is that a
Stillson wrench, with a separate housing
containing an adjusting nut, is subject to
distortion and warping. Twelve-inch and
18" Stillson wrenches are the most fre-
quently used sizes.
Although a chain pipe wrench may cost
more than an equivalent-sized Stillson
wrench, it offers easy handling in close quar-
ters. This wrench consists of a forged-steel
handle attached to a length of heavy sprocket
chain. The tool is used by wrapping the chain
around a length of pipe and engaging the
sprockets in notches on the back of the han-
dle. Sharp teeth on the face of the handle bite
into pipe while the chain holds the pipe
against the teeth to prevent slipping. This
wrench turns pipe in either direction and can
be used like a ratchet wrench. The handle can
be loosened, shifted and turned again without
taking the chain from around pipe. It can be
used on round, square or irregular shapes
without crushing the object.
Locking pliers are built like pliers, but serve
as a wrench. They have compound lever
action that enables them to be adjusted to size
and then locked shut with a powerful grip.
These tools are available with either straight or
curved jaws.
Other common plumbing tools used by the
average homeowner include:
Hex wrenchdesigned for smooth surfaces
such as chrome or highly finished fittings.
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
11
Pipe Wrench
Strap Wrench
TYPES OF WRENCHES
Spud Wrench
Stillson Wrench
Provides multi-sided, non-slip grip on hex or
square nut connections.
End wrench used where pipes are close
together, close to walls or against flat surfaces.
It has a solid housing that keeps it from break-
ing or warping under normal use.
Strap wrenchrecommended for working
with brass, aluminum, lead, soft metal or
plastic pipe because it grips pipe without
teeth and does not damage the surface. A
fabric strap, attached to a loop ring that is
fastened in the curved head of a straight
forged bar or handle, is pulled around the
pipe, back through the loop and over the
head. When the wrench is pulled tight, the
strap grips the pipe.
Basin wrenchthere are two types. One has
fixed jaws opening at right angles to the shaft
handle and is used to remove supply nuts and
hose coupling nuts on faucet spray attach-
ments under work tables, sinks and lavatories.
The other type has spring tension pipe-grip-
ping jaws that are reversible by flip-over on
the end of drive shaft handle; will grip nip-
ples, the odd-sized supply nuts and jam nuts
in hard-to-reach spots.
Spud wrenchfeatures large, flat-sided
jaws; good for general-purpose use. Adjustable
model is ideal for various sizes of nuts, while
the fixed model works with large spud nuts
under kitchen sinks.
Nipple wrenches or extractorsextrac-
tors expand inside nipples where pipe
wrenches cannot reach and are hex shaft-
ed for easy gripping.
Expanding jawed pliersmore commonly
called water pump pliers. Larger sizes can be
used as a quick-opening pipe wrench, to
loosen sink strainer jam nuts or grip flush
valve jam nuts. All sizes are excellent for
bench work, with or without vises.
Seat wrenchis a basic tool for plumbing
jobs. It has several sizes of square and hex
ends to remove faucet seats.
Seat dressersinexpensive ones often have
1/2" and 5/8" cutters. Better reseating tools
have tapping attachments for reseating faucets
with faulty and battered seat threads.
Handle pullerswill remove corroded
handles without scarring the chrome.
Application of penetrating oil to the part
is recommended.
Packing nut socket wrenchesare available
in sets and fit nearly all tub and shower
valves. They are hex-shaped on both ends and
hollow core to fit over faucet stem handles.
Pipe Vises
When wanting to cut, thread or ream pipe,
customers will probably need a pipe vise.
There are two types available: yoke and chain.
Both have specially designed jaws or chains for
gripping pipe. A yoke vise will hold pipe 1/8"
to 6"; a chain vise will hold pipe 1/8" to 8".
A yoke vise has V-shaped jaws that grip
pipe from above and below. The lower jaw is
fixed, while the upper jaw is raised or lowered
by a screw. Pipe is held in the inverted V-
shaped yoke that unlatches on one side and
tilts to accommodate the pipe.
A chain vise is smaller, with a fixed lower V-
shaped jaw with teeth on which the pipe is
laid and a bicycle-type chain fastened to one
end. When the pipe is inserted, the chain is
placed over it and locked in a slot on the
opposite side.
Reamers
Whenever pipe is cut, both the inside and
outside edges retain burrs. To remove burrs
from the outside of the pipe, use a flat file.
Reamers remove burrs on the inside.
Straight-fluted reamers have straight cutting
edges while spiral-fluted reamers have spiral-
shaped cutting edges.
Spiral reamers cut more easily, save
time and are often used by sheet metal
workers to enlarge holes in sheet metal
and conduit box outlets, as well as
smoothing inside edges of pipe.
Reamers are cone-shaped, with ratchet han-
dles. Cutting edges can be sharpened, but this
is difficult and time consuming and the small
replacement cost usually makes it impractical.
Spiral-fluted reamers are for hand use only.
Straight-fluted reamers can be used by hand or
in a pipe rotating on a power drive unit.
Pipe and Tubing Cutters
Do-it-yourselfers often use an ordinary
hacksaw to cut pipe, although it is almost
impossible to make a clean, straight cut. Pipe
cutters make a faster, cleaner cut.
Most cutters have a single cutting wheel
and two rollers that make smooth right-angle
cuts. Such cutters are used to cut pipe 1/8" to
6" in diameter.
Cutters are sized for pipe 1/8" to 2", 1" to 3",
2" to 4" or 4" to 6" in diameter.
Major points of wear are rollers, wheels and
pins on which they are mounted. When cut-
ter wheels are worn out, they should be
replaced; sharpening them is not advisable.
If a customer plans to cut brass, copper,
aluminum or thin-wall conduit tubing,
recommend tubing cutters. Tubing cutters
are similar to pipe cutters in that they
have cutter wheels and rollers. Some have
a triangular blade-type reamer that folds
out of the way when not in use. Tubing
cutters and separate cutting wheels for
plastic are available. Tubing cutters are
sized to cut material with outside diame-
ters ranging from 1/8" through 4-1/2".
Pipe Threaders
Pipe to be threaded is held either in a pipe
vise for hand threading or in the jaws of a
chuck for threading on power equipment.
When threading up to 2" pipe with power
equipment, the die head or threader is station-
ary and the pipe revolves into the dies. With
hand tools, the pipe is placed in a vise and the
threader revolves around it. Thread-cutting oil
must be used for best results.
TOILET PLUMBING
Flush tank mechanisms consist of two con-
trol valves. Levers and other parts open or
close these valves at the proper time.
One of these valves is the flush valve seat,
which is located at the bottom of the tank.
This is kept closed by a rubber flush ball or
flapper. When the outside handle on the toi-
let tank is pressed down, it raises a trip lever
that pulls the flushing device off its seat.
Water inside the tank pours through the
opening to flush the toilet bowl.
The flushing device is held in place by
water pressure. However, once the trip lever
lifts the device, it remains off the seat by float-
ing on top of the water until the tank is
empty. As the water level drops, the flush ball
or flapper gradually settles back into the open-
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
12
ing, sealing it so the tank can refill for the
next flush.
Refilling is controlled by the second valve
mechanism, the inlet valve or ballcock. As the
water level inside the tank drops, the hollow
metal or plastic float ball drops, pulling the
float arm down with it. This arm opens the
inlet valve inside the ballcock and permits
water from the supply line to pour into the
tank through the ballcock. As rising water
forces the float ball upward, it gradually shuts
off the inlet valve until the flow of water is
stopped entirely when the tank is full.
If this valve fails to operate properly, water
does not shut off at the right time. Excess
water then flows out through an overflow
pipe standing vertically inside the tank.
A refill tube that replaces water in the toilet
bowl after it has been flushed also squirts a
small stream of water through the overflow
tube while the bowl is flushing. This refills a
trap built into the toilet bowl to keep sewer
gases from escaping into the house.
A waxless bowl gasket is now available
that offers a cleaner, easier way to install
a toilet. It eliminates the need for stacking
multiple wax rings on new, raised flooring
and seals on uneven floors or over
recessed tile floors. It fits 3" and 4" drain
pipes and adapts to all types of flooring
and drain pipes.
Flushing Devices
Rubber flush valve balls or tank balls are
designed to control the flow of water from the
bottom of the tank. They fit into the flush
valve seat and are connected to the trip lever
by a lift rod or chain. When the flush ball lifts
up, it allows water to escape the tank to begin
the flushing process.
In many cases, malfunctioning flush balls
can be replaced by flappers or flapper balls,
which carry out the same function and are less
troublesome. A single size fits all toilets. For
more information, click (Repairing Toilets).
Ballcocks
Ballcocks or inlet valves control the water
supply to the toilet bowl and tank. They are
sold in pre-assembled units; replacement parts
are available from the manufacturer, also in
pre-packaged units.
Replacement parts include upper lever, float
rod, lower lever, plunger, valve seat, refill tube,
nylon seat, eye screw, body, hush tube, regular
shank, shank gasket, lock nut, coupling nut
washer, riser pipe and repair shank.
There are various codes around the country
relating to ballcocks. Some local inspectors
check to make sure ballcocks have anti-siphon
backflow prevention. To achieve this, a por-
tion of the ballcock must be above the water
level to provide an air gap.
In addition to ballcocks, several other
devices have been developed that perform the
same functions. One is a toilet fill valve that
can be installed underwater. It measures the
water level from the bottom of a toilet tank.
As the toilet is flushed and water level falls, its
internal diaphragm senses the weight of the
water above it. As the water level drops, the
reduced pressure opens the fill valve and sup-
ply water enters. When incoming water rises
to a pre-determined point (usually 8" deep),
increased pressure on the diaphragm closes
the valve. This system is simpler than ballcock
valves because it does not need a ball float or
float rod. It has fewer internal parts that can
malfunction or wear out. These hydraulic sys-
tems, since they work with the water pressure,
generally provide faster, more positive water
shut-offs, eliminating many of the noises asso-
ciated with old-style filling valves.
Another type of fill valve incorporates a
self-contained design and comes with a uni-
versal-fit vinyl flapper. It has a precision shut-
off that saves water and accommodates a wide
range of water level adjustments.
I TYPES OF TOILETS
Toilets are decorative as well as functional.
They are typically made of vitreous china fin-
ished with a high-gloss glaze and are designed
to be durable and sanitary.
Toilets can be two-piece models (con-
sisting of bowl and tank) or one piece.
One-piece units are streamlined to sit
lower to the ground and are more expen-
sive than two-piece units. Traditional fix-
tures feature a round-front bowl, but more
models today feature a bowl thats elon-
gated or oval in shape. Although white
and almond dominate the color selection,
gold and platinum accents and other col-
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
13
TOILET PLUMBING
Toilet Tank
Trip Lever
Refill Tube
Overflow Tube
Stainless Steel Chain
Vinyl Flapper
Flush Valve Seat
Toilet Bowl
Flush Passage
Non-Corroding
Toilet Tank Water
Inlet Valve
Water Level
Adjustment Cap
Adjustable Height
To Fit Any Tank
Coupling Nut
and Washer
Flexible, Braided
Stainless Steel
Water Supply
Connector
Shutoff
Valve
Closet
Flange
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
14
ors can add a designer touch.
Federal law mandates that all new toi-
lets use no more than 1.6 gallons per
flush, compared to old models that used
3.5 gallons or more. Low-flush toilets
come in two basic types: gravity-fed and
pressure-assisted models.
Gravity-fed toilets operate with a conven-
tional flushwater draining from the tank is
released into the bowl and its weight and
gravity pull waste down the drain. Pressure-
assisted units use pressure built up within the
water supply to increase the force of the flush.
Pressure-assisted toilets tend to be noisier
than gravity-fed models, but the bowl empties
quickly (within 4 seconds). The larger water
seal surface results in fewer stains. Since the
trapway with pressure-assisted models has
fewer bends, it is less likely to clog than a
gravity-fed system.
A third type of toilet uses a pump to
assist the flushing operation with increased
pressure. Some models are even designed to
flush automatically when the seat lid is
closed. Dual flushers feature a lever that
uses 1.6 gallons for solid waste removal and
1.1 gallons for liquid waste.
Toilet rough-ins are typically 10", 12" or 14",
which is the distance from the finished wall to
the center of the sewer outlet. for more infor-
mation, click (Replacing Toilets) .
I TOILET SEATS
Toilet seats are highly promoted products in
many plumbing departments. The prime rea-
son is style. On the average, toilet seats are
changed every three to five years.
Better products have high-quality plastic
or kiln-dried hardwood seats and lids with
tongue and groove fitting. Nylon hardware
is sturdy and non-rusting; metal hardware
should be solid brass with chrome-plated
nickel finish.
Some toilet seats have easy-on, easy-off
hinge posts that facilitate installation by the
homeowner. These hinge posts also make it
practical to remove the seat for thorough
cleaning.
Many toilet seats are made entirely of a
hard plastic that can be colored or pat-
terned. Better-quality plastic seats are manu-
factured so that color or design is part of
the plastic rather than a coating that can
chip or wear off. Many toilet seats are also
padded for extra comfort.
FAUCETS
Consumers want the nicest-looking faucets
they can afford, but they still want to know
they can fix them if they need to.
Manufacturers have responded with new fea-
tures, longer-lasting finishes and ergonomic
designs that make it easier for people to use,
particularly children and the disabled.
Faucets for the kitchen, lavatory and
tub/shower can be one or two handl, and
come in a variety of styles. Spouts can be
gooseneck, pullout or standard in brass,
chrome, nickel, gold or mixed finishes. Better
faucets feature ceramic disc cartridges or stain-
less-steel ball valves.
Washerless Faucets
Washerless faucets reduce leakage problems
that result from worn washers. They are rela-
tively easy to repair because most new models
have the water-control mechanism housed in
a replaceable cartridge. Replacing a cartridge is
an easy do-it-yourself project, compared to
working on conventional faucets. Most faucets
that offer this convenience are labeled self-
contained cartridge.
Usually a washerless faucet uses a rubber
diaphragm or two metal, plastic or ceramic
discs with holes that align to let the water
flow or close to shut off the water flow.
Ceramic plates are more difficult to damage
than rubber seats, but hard water can some-
times cause problems with the ceramic car-
tridges, such as squeaking or sticking. Single-
handle faucets that use stainless-steel ball
design have just one moving part and are a
durable alternative. For more informaion, click
(Repairing Faucets & Valves).
Compression Faucets
Turning a lever, T or four-ball handle
attached to a threaded spindle regulates water
flow in a compression faucet (a common resi-
dential faucet). When the spindle is turned
down, the washer or disc attached to its lower
end is pressed tightly against a smoothly fin-
ished ring or ground-seat which surrounds the
flow opening to shut off the water flow. If the
washer and seat do not make a firm contact at
all points, water will leak. This usually hap-
pens when the washer becomes worn.
Most bath, lavatory and kitchen sink faucets
are made with renewable seats that are replace-
able when they become worn. Seats in faucets
that are not removable may be reground with
reseating tools. For more informaion, click
(Repairing Faucets & Valves).
Fuller Ball Faucets
A small nut or screw fastens a hard rubber
or composition ball stopper (the Fuller ball)
to a shaft with an eccentric end. To replace
a Fuller ball, the faucet must be unscrewed
and separated from the supply source. The
nut or screw should be removed with pliers
or a screwdriver, the ball removed and
replaced. For more informaion, click
(Repairing Faucets & Valves).
Ground-Key Faucets
A ground-key faucet has a tapered cylin-
drical brass plunger or plug that fits snugly
into a sleeve bored vertically through the
body of the faucet. The plunger, which is
rotated by a handle, has a hole or slot
bored horizontally through the body of the
faucet. If the slot enlarges and a leak devel-
ops, the horizontal opening in the body of
the faucet needs to be polished.
The plunger or its sleeve may become
grooved or worn by sand or grit particles rub-
bing against the metal, allowing water to leak.
This requires polishing the rubbing surfaces.
The nut or screw at the bottom can come
loose, permitting the plunger to move out of
its proper position.
Combination Faucets
Combination faucets mix hot and cold
water in a single arm.
Tub and shower faucets can be built into
the wall or flush mounted on the wall above
the bathtub. They come in different patterns.
In three-valve bath and shower faucets,
two valves control water and a third diverts
water either through the spout or to the
showerhead.
Two-valve tub and shower faucets have an
automatic device on the spout that, when
activated, diverts water to the showerhead.
Two-valve tub fillers and shower fittings
fill either the tub or control water in the
shower, as do the tub and shower faucets.
Lavatory faucets are also available in several
different patterns. A ledge-mounted faucet is
mounted on the lavatory or countertop in a
horizontal position. Standard faucets are made
with 4" centers; other faucets, called wide-
spreads, are made with adjustable center
measurements up to 12".
The shelfback faucet is mounted verti-
cally on the lavatory. Center measure-
ments on these faucets vary with the
manufacturer.
Kitchen sink faucets come in a great
variety of patterns. Concealed faucets are
mounted underneath the sink, with only
handle flanges and spout visible. Exposed
faucets are mounted on top of the sink,
with or without sprays.
A mixing faucet, known generally as
single lever, is produced by a number of
manufacturers as swing spout kitchen
faucets, lavatory faucets and bath faucets.
They ordinarily operate by pushing the
upright lever straight backward for a 50-
50 opening of hot and cold water, back
and to the right for cold, and back and to
the left for hot water. They have the
advantage of being quick-opening and
closing, and nearly all have complete
repair kits. Automatic mixing valves main-
tain water temperature, automatically correct-
ing changes caused by turning on other
faucets.
An over-the-counter faucet is easier to
install because there is no need to crawl under
the sink and reach behind the basin to secure
the faucet. It comes with factory-installed flex-
ible supply lines and a spring-loaded toggle,
with the screwhead concealed by the
escutcheon. Another kitchen sink faucet is a
wall-mounted unit that is connected to pipes
coming through the wall above the sink. The
most common size in kitchen sink faucets is
8" center, but 6" and 4" are also available.
Laundry faucets mount either on laun-
dry tubs or on the wall above the tub.
Most fiberglass tubs require a ledge faucet
with 4" centers. Laundry faucets are some-
times furnished with a standard 3-3/4"
hose thread outlet on the spout. Most
codes require the use of a vacuum breaker
attachment if the outlet contains threads
to prevent water contamination.
Sill Cock
Located on the outside wall of the house,
frostproof sill cocks are made of heavy red
brass and look and work like any ordinary
faucet. However, water flow valves are located
inside the building where it is warm.
When properly installed, frostproof faucets
automatically eliminate the need for one or
more inside shut-off valves.
The anti-siphon frostproof sill cock employs
integral back-siphon and back-flow devices.
These serve to prevent potential back-
siphonage, which, if unchecked, could com-
promise the safe potable water supply to the
home. Hose-attached garden sprays and other
pressurized canisters can potentially link a
cross-connection if a pressure charge occurs
when the frostproof is in the open position.
The anti-siphon frostproof sillcock allows
for outside spigot usage in freezing climates.
The closing member (seat washer) is located
inside the heated building.
Faucet Sprays
The heart of a faucet spray is a mechanism
called a diverter or butterfly valve located
inside the faucet in a chamber just below the
base of the swing spout.
This valve normally permits water to flow
freely through the spout when the spray
attachment is not in use. When the thumb-
controlled valve on the spray is open, an
imbalance of water pressure is created to oper-
ate the valve.
A piston-like piece snaps down, shutting off
most of the water supply through the spout
and diverting it through a hose that leads to
the spray head. This valve cannot be put into
any faucet that was not originally made with
a chamber for the valve.
I AERATORS
Aerators are attached directly to the faucet
to prevent water from splashing in the sink.
Stationary aerators create a steady flow of
water in one direction; movable aerators aid
in directing water flow into the sink and
supply either fine spray or a steady flow.
Twisting or up-and-down motion on the
movable aerator determines the type and
direction of the water flow. Aerators adapt
to both inside and outside threads.
A snap fitting is used in place of an aerator
as a snap action hose fitting for quick connec-
tion to portable washers and dishwashers.
Self-cleaning aerators are available. They
automatically clean themselves whenever
the faucet is turned on and off.
I WASHERS
Washers are the most basic plumbing acces-
sory retailers stockand the heart of many
home plumbing problems.
Nylon or polypropylene washers are not
recommended because they will not seal
under cold water conditions. Urethane wash-
ers will seal under hot or cold and are said to
outlast rubber.
Washers that have been damaged by rough
faucet seats that allow foreign particles to
embed themselves in the washers usually
cause leaking faucets.
Washers in most faucets include top bibb,
faucet and cone or O ring washers. The
faucet washer is located in the spout bibb
washer under the stem and O ring or cone
washers in the handle stem.
SINKS
I KITCHEN SINKS
Kitchen sinks come in single, double and
triple models. Double sinks are the most com-
mon in new construction, with one bowl
available for washing and one for rinsing dish-
es. Single bowls are necessary in small
kitchens with little counter space or can func-
tion as a second sink for meal preparation. In
triple sinks, the middle bowl is designed for
the garbage disposal.
Although most sinks are rectangular or
square, custom sinks can be round, oval or
other shapes. Standard size is 8" deep; low-end
sinks are only 5-7" deep and top-quality sinks
can go 10" deep.
Sinks are constructed of many different
materials, including enameled steel, stainless
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
15
steel, cast iron, brass, stone and composites
such as quartz or granite combined with resin.
Enameled steel has a tendency to chip and is
less durable than cast iron or stainless steel.
Stainless steel comes in different gauges
the lower the number, the thicker the steel.
Thicker steel is less noisy, and undercoating
can help dampen the noise. Satin finish is the
easiest to clean.
Decorative patterns can be fired into the
porcelain surface. Other accessories for kitchen
sinks include sliding cutting boards, clip-on
colanders and custom dish drainers.
Sink mounts can be fully integrated into
the countertop, undermounted below the
countertop or self-rimming, which features a
rolled edge that mounts directly over the
countertop. Self-rimming is the most common
and easiest to install. For more information,
click (Planning Your Kitchen).
Lavatories
Bath sinks or lavatories can be countertop
(drop-in) units or pedestal models, where the
bowl rests on a vitreous china pedestal with
no vanity. Countertop models offer the
advantage of storage space under and next to
the sink.
Similar to kitchen sinks, the mounting for
vanity sinks can be self-rimming, flush-
mounted, undermounted or integral. Integral
sink basins are typically made of solid surfac-
ing or cultured stone, and any damage to the
sink will mean replacing the entire unit.
In addition to cultured stone and solid sur-
facing, bath sinks are made of enameled steel,
vitreous china, glass, cast iron and stainless
steel. Vitreous china is the most common
material since it provides a high-gloss finish
and is durable and sanitary.
For bath vanities, 34"-36" is a more comfort-
able height for adults than the typical height of
30"-32". For more information, click (Planning
& Designing Your Bathroom).
TUB & SHOWER
FIXTURES
The most common tub is a white rectangle
with a finished front that is designed to fit
within three walls of the bathroom. However,
many other shapes and styles are available in
a wide range of prices. Standard size for tubs is
60" wide, 30" deep and 14" high.
Drop-in tubs are designed to be installed
within a tile or solid-surface surround. Old-
fashioned clawfoot tubs are freestanding.
Whirlpool and deep tubs are designed for
soaking and relaxation. The tubs can be sepa-
rate or incorporate a shower combination.
Tubs are typically made of cast iron, acrylic
or fiberglass. Cast iron tubs are the most
durable and do not stain or scratch easily.
Acrylic is a better insulating material so the
water takes longer to cool, and its light weight
and flexibility make it a better choice for larg-
er tubs. Fiberglass tubs are easy to install but
are more apt to fade and scratch. Tub and
shower combinations are typically made of
reinforced fiberglass with a polyester finish.
Bathtub liners are an easy way to remodel a
bathroom without tearing out the original tub
and replacing the floor or wall tiles. The liner
should feature a nonporous surface for easy
cleaning and be made of high-impact material
to guard against dents and cracks. Tub liners,
which come in a wide variety of colors and
styles, are attached with adhesive. For more
information, click (Replacing Sink, Bath &
Shower Fixtures).
Massaging Showerheads
Massaging showerheads use water pressure
forced through a diverting valve to create one
or more pulsating water actions. In most
cases, users can vary the amount of pulsing
pressure or force to their liking. Massaging
showerheads can be hand-held or permanent-
ly mounted. While all offer massaging action
of one or more kinds, they can be converted
to conventional shower action.
Standard Showerheads
Most standard showerheads have full-
range, adjustable sprays and feature self-
cleaning rims and swivel ball joints. They
are typically made of chrome-plated brass
or plastic. Plastic models are less expen-
sive but also less durable. All new models
must meet the federal standard of 2.5 gal-
lons per minute, although some deliver a
more satisfying shower than others.
Continental Showers
A continental shower is a versatile wall
and hand shower combined. Quality brands
feature on-off flow control built into the
handle, a brass push-button diverter valve
that permits instant switch from shower
head to hand shower and a 6' flexible hose
and hang-up bracket. It can be attached to
existing shower arms.
Safety Considerations
While low-flow showerheads help conserve
water, they are also more susceptible to sud-
den changes in shower temperature since
there is less water pressure being exerted.
There are two types of anti-scald valves.
Pressure-balanced valves have a high-temper-
ature limiter that provides consistent water
temperatures despite pressure fluctuations in
the supply line.
Thermostatic valves respond to outlet tem-
perature rather than inlet pressure, then adjust
the hot-water pressure accordingly.
Tub/shower models are available that auto-
matically provide consistent water tempera-
ture regardless of changes in water pressure.
Advise contractors to check local plumbing
codes for compliance requirements. Home-
owners can also lower the temperature of their
water heater for further protection.
Scald sensors are also available that
shut off the water supply when the tem-
perature reaches a certain level.
To prevent accidental scalding, faucets
can have adjustable settings to restrict how
far the handle can move toward hot. One
knob controls both water temperature and
flow in single control units. This allows
water temperature to be set permanently.
Water can be turned off, then on again,
without changing the temperature setting.
Other bath safety considerations include
grab bars for next to the tub or toilet, slip-
resistant tub bottoms, shower seats or transfer
seats, toilet guardrails, night lights and round-
ed edges on vanities and doors.
WATER SYSTEMS
I WATER-SAVING DEVICES
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
16
Consumer awareness and interest in water-
saving devices rise in direct proportion to the
availability of water and its cost.
Manufacturers have been producing water-
saving models for some time, but some con-
sumers still have older models.
The basic idea behind water-saving devices
is to restrict water consumption rates where
heaviest use occurs. Indoor water usage runs
at about 40 percent for toilets, 30 percent for
baths and showers (more for baths), 15 per-
cent for clothes washers and 15 percent for
cooking and kitchen use.
The first target for water conservation is the
toilet. Manufacturers must now produce toi-
lets that consume no more than 1.6 gallons of
water per flush. However, many homes still
have older toilets that will require replace-
ment products for years to come.
A number of devices are designed to reduce
the amount of water used to flush a conven-
tional toilet. One such device is a dual flush
mechanism that allows about one-half tank
flush for liquid waste by depressing the tank
lever handle in the normal manner.
Depressing the lever and holding it down
allows a full tank flush for solid waste.
Another option includes an early closure
flapper, which seals off the valve between the
toilet and tank before all the water has
drained away, saving some for the next flush.
The final option is a toilet dam, which sec-
tions off part of the tank. These devices can
save from 40 to 50 percent of normal water
consumption. However, they may affect the
ability of the toilet to remove solid waste.
Leaks in the toilet tank can also be a
source of excess water usage. These are usu-
ally due to worn-out parts. Leaks can be
detected by adding dark food coloring to
the tank. Check the tank about 20 minutes
later. If the toilet bowl water has changed
color, you have a leak.
Showers and baths are the next target for
water saving. The current standards are for flow
rates of about 2.5 gallons per minute at moder-
ate to high pressures. The most common
devices are flow-control valves, flow restrictors
and aerators, which manufacturers have been
including as standard components for years.
The flow-control valve restricts the flow of
water, automatically making adjustments for
water-pressure changes. A flow restrictor does
not make an automatic adjustment if the pres-
sure changes. Therefore, more water is used as
the pressure increases. Some of these devices
may have been removed after the faucet was
installed, and consumers may want to replace
them. Newer designs have valves that automat-
ically expand when water pressure increases
and contract when pressure decreases to ensure
water flow will remain consistent.
Manufacturers offer a variety of spray pat-
terns so consumers can still find an accept-
able flow of water with low-flow shower-
heads. Some showerheads also have manual
controls to adjust the amount of water flow
so less water can be used for soaping and
more for rinsing.
The third target for water saving around the
home is the bathroom and kitchen faucets.
Like the shower or bathtub, water is con-
sumed at the rate of about 7 gallons per
minute. There are many faucet models that
automatically adjust the flow to 2 to 3 gallons
per minute. There are models that automati-
cally adjust the flow rate according to water
pressure changes. Other models do not make
automatic compensations. Some have manual
controls for the consumer to pre-set the
amount of restriction. However, since a leaky
faucet is likely to be the consumers biggest
source of water waste, stress the benefits of
proper maintenance.
Several states, such as New York and
California, have code requirements on faucets
and showerheads. Since these water-saving
devices also control the proportion of hot
water used, they have the additional selling
point of being a fuel saver.
I WATER HEATERS
There are two types of water heaters: tank
and tankless systems, which can operate on
either gas or electricity. Gas water heaters can
either be power vented or direct vented.
Tank Heaters
For tank models, copper-, stone- and
glass-lined water heaters perform better
than unlined aluminum or galvanized steel
heaters. However, a stainless steel alloy
called HWT is designed to resist corrosion as
well as the lined models.
Unlined galvanized steel tanks perform
the poorest, but they are the least expensive
and may prove satisfactory in localities
where the water supply does not have
adverse effects on equipment.
An anti-corrosion device that is not
required for copper-lined tanks can apprecia-
bly stop internal tank corrosion. A magne-
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
17
HOW TO SELECT THE RIGHT SIZE WATER HEATER
GAS
NUMBER OF PEOPLE NUMBER OF BATHROOMS
IN FAMILY 1 1-1/ 2 2 3
No Home Laundering 2 30-gal. 30-gal. 30-gal. 40-gal.
3 30-gal. 30-gal. 40-gal. 40-gal.
4 30-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal.
5 40-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal.
6 or more 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal.
With Automatic Washer 2 40-gal. 40-gal. 40-gal. 50-gal.
3 40-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal.
4 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal.
5 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal.
6 or more 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal. 50-gal.
ELECTRIC
NUMBER OF PEOPLE WITH WITHOUT
USING HOT WATER* WASHER WASHER
3 66-gal. 52-gal.
5 82-gal. 66-gal.
7 82-gal. 82-gal.
* Count each child under 7 as two persons.
Note: In homes with more than one bathroom, order high speed model or one size larger.
sium-coated metal rod is hung inside the tank
3" or 4" away from the bottom. Because the
magnesium paper eventually will be eaten
away, the rod should be inspected from time
to time and replaced when necessary.
Better-grade, non-metallic gas water heaters
are also popular. The tanks, although more
expensive than metal models, are light, easy
to install and corrosion-proof.
Advise homeowners to partially drain their
water heater once or twice a year to remove
the accumulation of sediment, which can
affect operation.
Recommending the proper size water heater
to the customer is also important. The num-
ber of people living in the household and
number of bathrooms will determine what
size water heater to purchase. For a house with
4 people and 1-1/2 baths, a minimum 50-gal-
lon capacity is recommended. Be sure to offer
good service on water heatersa 10-year guar-
antee is usual. For more information, click
(Replacing Water Heaters).
Tankless Heaters
Tankless water heaters are small heating
units that are hooked into plumbing lines and
heat water only as needed. They do not store
water but heat it as it moves through the unit.
Larger tankless heaters are installed at the
point where water enters the house; smaller
units are installed at the point where water is
used, thus requiring more than one in a
house. Some operate on house current, others
on gas.
Some of the larger units require different
size plumbing lines and different size flue
vents than do tank-type heaters. If gas-fueled,
the heater must be properly vented; if electric,
it may need to be wired with two units in
series which may not be practical for existing
home wiring. Larger units require a 220V or
240V line. Smaller units will operate on stan-
dard 110V lines.
Tankless heaters are more expensive than
tank types. However, they do produce savings
in annual energy consumption and cost.
Although tankless heaters will deliver con-
tinuous hot water, they are limited in quanti-
ty. The central units cannot support hot water
demands from several points at the same
time; obviously, the smaller units will heat
water delivered only at the points where they
are installed.
Because of the high initial cost and the fact
that American consumers are not used to the
limitations these heaters place on the avail-
ability of hot water, their recommended use is
to supplement existing tank-type heaters or in
summer homes or locations where demand
for hot water is light.
Insulation Blankets
Hot water insulation kits contain enough
insulation to cover up an 80-gallon hot water
tank, a lid and the tape needed to install the
blanket of insulation. No special knowledge
is required to install the hot water tank insula-
tion. There are simple how-to instructions
on the package.
I WATER SOFTENERS
Water softeners help remove minerals
(magnesium, calcium, iron) that cause
hard water.
Quality water softeners have either fiber-
glass linings or steel tanks that have double
coatings of epoxy for guaranteed rustproofing.
Fiberglass tanks prevent electrolytic action
that causes excessive rust and corrosion
because there is no metal-to-metal contact.
Operation of the typical home water soften-
er is simple. Water enters the home and is
directed into the water softener. Water passes
over a mineral bed, with minerals holding the
lime and magnesium present in the water.
Depending on hardness of the water, the
rate of consumption and the units capacity,
there comes a time when the chemical must
be regenerated, cleaned or replaced.
Regeneration is accomplished by reversing the
flow of water through the softener tank and
adding sodium chloride or potassium chlo-
ride, which is instrumental in the process. The
reversed water flow quickly flushes accumulat-
ed minerals from the chemical.
Quality water softeners have solid brass and
copper valves and bearings. Iron or steel parts
are seldom used in a quality softener because
salt can cause rust.
Another quality feature of a water softener
is an automatic bypass. With this feature, the
water is never shut off, even during the regen-
eration period. This prevents the possibility of
the customer drawing brine water into the
house line or water heater during the regener-
ation period.
Better-grade water softeners have a flow rate
of about 11 gallons per minute, while the
backwash rate is approximately 1.8 gallons per
minute. The brine tank usually holds about
250 lbs. of salt.
One of the best ways to sell water softeners
is to offer free tests to homeowners to deter-
mine the hardness of their water. If the water
shows 8 to 10 grains hardness, a water soften-
er is recommended to assure the home of suf-
ficiently soft water. If tests show 15 grains of
hardness, a water softener is necessary.
A simple test any retailer can conduct right
in the store uses specially treated paper. Have
the customer bring a sample of home water to
the store; dip the specially treated paper into
the water. Paper color will change depending
on water hardness. Testing kits will contain
hardness charts.
I WATER FILTERS
Water filters are used to remove bacteria
and/or chemicals suspended in water to
improve its taste and smell. Most filters install
under the sink or at the point where the water
supply enters the building; also available are
faucet-mounted and countertop filters. The
basic types of water filtration devices are acti-
vated-carbon filters, reverse osmosis, distilla-
tion and aeration.
Activated-carbon filters are the least expen-
sive water filtration devices. They can remove
impurities and improve water taste and odor
but do not eliminate dissolved minerals or
bacteria. One solution is to combine a carbon
filter with a chlorination system.
Reverse-osmosis systems take out dissolved
lead, mercury, cadmium and other heavy met-
als that are present in the water but will not
eliminate microorganisms. They are also rela-
tively expensive.
Distillation removes most impurities in the
water system. Distillers work slowly and must
be cleaned regularly.
Aeration reduces, but does not necessarily
eliminate, the levels of iron, chlorine and
other gases in the water. It works best when
combined with other treatment forms.
Before installing any water filtration system,
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
18
ask about exact problems or concerns of the
water user. Review the manufacturers specifi-
cations on specific products to determine
what each filtering system will remove. Check
the listing under the National Sanitation
Foundations specifications for Aesthetics
and/or Health Effects to see if the manufactur-
ers claims are verified by independent testing.
How bacteria/ sediment/ taste/ odor filters
work: water flows through a silver-impregnat-
ed ceramic wall, which traps particles down to
one micron, then through a granular-activated
charcoal liner that absorbs chemicals, unpleas-
ant tastes and odors. Water that is free of bac-
teria then passes through the center hole and
out of the filter.
How chemical/ taste/ odor filters work:
water enters the filter and surrounds a car-
tridge inside. Water then passes through the
hole at the bottom of the cartridge and flows
up through a bed of granular activated car-
bon, which absorbs chemicals, tastes and
odors, and then out of the filter.
How sediment filters work: these are
installed at the source of the supply. Water
containing sand, silt, algae and rust enters the
filter and surrounds the cartridge, which is
tightly sealed at both ends. Water passes
through the cartridge well, which traps sedi-
ment particles. Relatively free of solid matter
(depending on micron rating of the filter), the
water flows up through the center hole and
out of the filter.
Some filters, based on ceramic technology,
will remove up to 100 percent of bacteria as
well as chemicals, tastes and odors. Some have
proven effective in removing such contami-
nants as algae, chlorine and detergents found
in many urban water supplies.
One undersink model even reduces levels of
MTBE, a gasoline additive that contaminates
some wells and municipal water systems.
Testing has proven some filters to be 100 per-
cent effective in removing bad tastes, odors
and color. You will have to study information
about the specific filters that you are selling.
Some filters feature cartridges that can be
cleaned and reused several times before
replacement. Even if they cannot be
cleaned, cartridges are replaceable; some fil-
ters are disposable.
It is important to instruct the customer that
cartridges should be changed regularly. Once
they have reached their filtering capacity, they
can begin to release previously filtered sub-
stances or block water passage altogether.
With the increase of humidifiers on central
heating units and instant hot water dis-
pensers, small filters that remove or reduce
scale build-up are also in demand. Magnetic
water conditioners and chemicals are also
used to combat scale build-up.
I HOME WATER SYSTEMS
The primary market for water systems is in
suburban and rural areas for home water sup-
ply. A secondary market exists for auxiliary
water systems used by homeowners already
served by city water systems. They want to
supplement their water supply during hot
summer months, when water usage may be
restricted by city authorities, and for home
lawn sprinkling systems.
Water systems consist of a pump, a pressure
tank and switch. The tank will supply water
between the cut-on and cut-off pressure set-
ting on the pump, usually 20-40 psi. While
20-40 lbs. pressure is adequate, 30-50 lbs. or
40-60 lbs. is best for home supplies. Since the
tank supplies small amounts of water, the
pump does not have to turn on each time a
faucet is used.
Pumps are usually classified as shallow-well
or deep-well. Shallow-well pumps are installed
at well depths of 25' or less, where deep-well
pumps can be used in water depths of up to
450' depending on altitude.
Horsepower rating determines pump size.
Pumps used in the average home are 1/3, 1/2,
3/4 or 1 hp. When helping customers choose
a pump, find the required capacity by count-
ing the number of faucets in the home (count
tub faucets as two) and multiplying by 60.
This is the number of gallons per hour the
pump should supply from the well. Remind
customers to allow for additional appliances
that use water.
Home water-system pumps are generally of
centrifugal type. In some older installations a
piston pump may still be used. A piston pump
builds pressure that pulls water up through
the casing. The centrifugal or jet pump builds
a centrifugal force, which lifts the water.
You should be familiar with the follow-
ing terms to suggest the right pump to
your customers:
Well-sizedinside diameter of well
indicates proper size pump, ejector, cylin-
der or drop pipe (pipe that is lowered into
well casing to transport the water) and
foot valve (located at the bottom of the
drop pipe to keep water from flowing
backward into the well).
Pumping levelvertical distance in feet
from pump to water level while pump is oper-
ating. If pump is installed away from the well
and is on higher ground, this elevation must
also be included. Most wells draw down
(water level goes down inside the well as water
is pumped into the home) so this must not be
confused with standing water level.
Average discharge pressureusual average
discharge pressure is 30 lbs., halfway between
the 20-40 lb. switch setting of most water sys-
tems. When the tank is installed away from
the pump at a higher level or when house or
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
19
PUMP SIZE
Well Depth in feet 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 360 400 450
PUMP MODEL GALLONS DELIVERED PER HOUR
1/2 hp 735 690 645 595 545 ...
3/4 hp 830 790 765 725 685 655 620 570 525
1 hp 865 840 825 790 775 745 730 705 665 650 610 580 560 515 475
1-1/2 hp 890 870 860 835 820 805 790 775 760 735 725 715 695 675 655 635 580 535 440
yard fixtures are above the pump and tank, a
greater pressure is needed and a larger pump
must be used.
Capacity requireddischarge capacity of
the pump in gallons per hour necessary for
satisfactory service. The pump should have
enough capacity so that it does not need to
work more than the equivalent of two hours a
day in intermittent service.
Well pointsare used to drive wells in soil
that is soft and primarily free of rock and
where water is known to be close to the sur-
face. Points are screwed onto the end of pipe
to be lowered into the ground; then the point
and pipe are driven into the ground with a
sledgehammer or mallet. Well points have
strainer baskets on the ends that sift out dirt
and small stones.
Pump Size
To find the required capacity, count the
number of faucets in the home (count tub
faucets as two) and multiply by 60. This is the
number of gallons per hour the pump should
supply from the well. Remind customers to
allow for additional appliances that use water.
Recommend shallow-well pumps for
wells up to 22' and deep-well pumps for
deeper wells. While 20-40 lbs. pressure is
adequate, 30-50 lbs. or 40-60 lbs. is best
for home supplies.
Size of pumps is determined by their horse-
power ratings. Pumps used in the average
home are 1/3, 1/2, 3/4 or 1 hp. The accompa-
nying table on page 19 illustrates gallons per
hour pumped at 40 lbs. pressure.
Sump Pumps
The purpose of a sump pump is to dis-
charge ground water that accumulates around
a basement that is below the water line. The
basement should have a drain tile around it to
collect ground water and convey it to the
sump in the basement.
The pump can be a submersible type, in
which the motor and pump are sealed in one
unit that rests in the sump. Alternatively, the
pump can be a pedestal pump where the
pump is in the water but the motor is mount-
ed on a column above the water. They are
available in automatic or manual models,
either gravity-fed or self-priming operation.
Capacity is rated by gallons per hour
pumped as well as lift pressure generated-
how high the liquid is to be pumped.
Submersible sewage and effluent pumps are
for continuous use in moving large volumes
of water containing solids.
Some pumps have battery back-up in case
of a loss of power. Now available is a combina-
tion electric and battery-powered sump pump.
The system automatically switches from AC to
battery when the power goes out and can shift
into turbo mode if the incoming water flow is
greater than the unit is pumping out.
All-Purpose Pumps
In addition to pumps for household water
systems, there is a market for small, portable
utility pumps. These lightweight pumps are
used to clear flooded basements, drain low
spots after a heavy rain, etc. Farmers, boaters
and campers all find uses for them.
There are two types. One operates off a 12V
battery and can be attached to a car, truck,
tractor or boat battery. The other type uses a
standard 115V house current.
The units pump from 250-500 gallons per
hour and are self-priming and easy to operate.
Utility Pumps
Larger than all-purpose pumps, gasoline
utility pumps are used to pump manholes, for
irrigation and lawn sprinkling, for fire protec-
tion and as an emergency water supply during
power failure. Capacities range up to 85 gal-
lons per minute. Suction lifts to 25'.
High-pressure, hand-held utility pumps add
as much as 80 lbs. to intake pressure. They
operate on 115V current, and when connect-
ed to a standard garden hose, can be used to
hose down hard-surface driveways and win-
dow screens, to wash cars and boats and to
clean animal-housing areas. They will also
draw water from shallow wells, tanks, etc.
I SEPTIC TANKS
A septic tank is a large watertight settling
tank that holds sewage while it decomposes
by bacterial action. It can be made of asphalt-
coated steel, redwood, concrete, concrete
block, clay tile or brick.
Septic tanks must be sized to suit the house.
Two-bedroom homes need minimum 750-gal-
lon tanks, according to the U.S. Public Health
Service. Three-bedroom homes need 900-gal-
lon tanks and four-bedroom homes require
1,000-gallon tanks. Garbage disposers, wash-
ing machines and dishwashers are figured in
this estimate.
Household sewage flows into the septic
tank and decomposes. Sludge collects on the
bottom of the tank and liquid effluent flows
out to a distribution system.
The distribution system is a series of under-
ground disposal lines that radiate outward
from a central distribution point; the effluent
seeps into the earth.
Sludge remaining in the tank must be
cleaned out periodically to prevent this layer
from building up enough to cause clogging of
disposal lines or household sewer lines.
Under ordinary use, the tank may need
cleaning at two- to four-year intervals, but
most experts recommend that the sludge level
be inspected every 12 to 18 months. This is
done by opening a special manhole cover or
trapdoor located at or near ground level.
Septic tank cleaners dissolve sludge through
enzyme activators that regenerate the natural
bacterial activity of decomposition for which
the tanks were designed. These natural bacteri-
al activators continue from the tank into the
drain and tile field.
MISCELLANEOUS
PLUMBING
I PIPE JOINT COMPOUND
Pipe joint compound is applied to pipe
threads before assembly. An advantage of
commercially prepared pipe joint compound
is its ability to seal all joints, (yet make disas-
sembly easy) to prevent seizure of parts by rust
and corrosion.
When recommending pipe joint com-
pound, you need to know what the pipe will
carry after installationnatural gas, oil, gaso-
line, water or other fluids or gases.
Pipe joint compounds come in 1-oz. tubes
up to brush-on cans or 50-gal. drums.
A product with a similar use is Teflon
pipe tape, which comes in rolls; standard
widths are 1/4", 1/2" and 3/4" and lengths
range from 30' to more than 100'.
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
20
Special compounds are also available that
are fast-drying and hard-setting.
Pipe compounds attack certain plastics, so
be sure the compound is specifically recom-
mended for the plastic material used.
I GARBAGE DISPOSALS
Garbage disposals fit standard 3-1/2" to 4"
sink drain openings and are installed under
the sink drain. Garbage is deposited in the
sink opening; it drops into the disposal hop-
per onto a high-speed rotating table powered
by a sealed motor. Impellers fling the waste
against a stationary shredder, cutter or grinder.
This action, together with a full flow of cold
running water that must be used while the
disposal is operating, reduces the garbage to
fine particles and flushes them down the
drain to the sewage system.
Cold water congeals grease and pre-
vents it from coating the drain line. Hard
particles, such as bone and eggshell, actu-
ally scour the drain line as they whirl
down and help keep it clean.
Continuous-feed disposals are just what the
name impliesgarbage can be fed while the
machine is in operation. These disposals are
controlled by a wall switch and operated with
a continuous flow of cold water. A flexible
splash guard at the disposal opening stops
back-splash and helps to catch non-food items
that may accidentally fall into the opening.
Batch-feed disposals grind or pulverize food
waste one load at a time. The hopper is filled
and cold water added. When the cover is put
in place, the unit begins operating. Some
models have a magnetic switch control in the
cover; others require a locking turn of the
cover to activate the unit. No other switch is
necessary. The safer design of batch-feed dis-
posals makes them more attractive to home-
owners with children.
A sealed motor requiring an electrical hook-
up powers most garbage disposals. The typical
disposal has an overload switch that shuts off
the motor if something is jammed.
Disposals will grind most garbagefrom
the sink and the dishwasherbut they are not
intended for glass, crockery, leather, metal,
newspaper, paper cartons, rubber or plastic.
Persons with spetic tanks should not
grind cigar and cigarette stubs or lobster,
crab and shrimp shells. Tobacco will
impede the bacterial action in the tank;
seafood shells cannot be decomposed by
bacterial action and will sink to the bot-
tom of the tank, adding to the sludge.
I DRAINS & ACCESSORIES
Shower drains can be for pre-formed show-
er bases or tile shower bases. Some require
caulking or solvent welding.
Tub or lavatory drains can be trip lever or
pop-up stopper.
General-purpose drains do not require
clamping of a waterproof membrane.
They are typically made of plastic with a
chrome, stainless steel or brass strainer
and are adjustable in height.
Cleanout assemblies allow easy access to
the drain line for cleaning. They fit over 2"
pipe or inside of 3" pipe.
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
21
RESIDENTIAL PLUMBING SYSTEM
Vent
Vent
Lavatory
Tub/Shower
Valve
Bathtub
Vent
Sink
Faucet
Sink
Tubular
Trap
Dishwasher Stop Valve
Water Closet
Lavatory
Faucet
Cold Water
System
Water Heater
Relief Valve
Hot Water
System
Main Shutoff
Valve
Main Shutoff
Valve From
Water Supply
To Sewer or
Septic System
Building
Drain
Drain
Cleanout
Laundry Tub Washing
Machine
Main Stack
Water Meter
Pop-up drain assembly is a metal stopper
that plugs or unplugs the water in a bath sink
or lavatory. The top insert part of the assem-
bly can take on many different sizes and
styles. It must be replaced with the specific
part from the manufacturer.
Plastic snap-in drains are used primarily in
residential construction. They can be solvent
welded or inserted into the pipe, so the pipe
can be cut flush with the finished floor.
Kitchen sink strainers are cup-shaped
metal baskets with holes or perforations
that fit into the drain opening of a kitchen
sink to strain food particles from the water.
They also act as a stopper in the drain. For
more information, click (Unstopping
Clogged Drains, Toilets & Sewers).
I DRAIN CLEANERS
Clearing a clogged sink or toilet drain is
usually a simple job and normally calls for no
more than a force cup or plunger, often
referred to as a plumbers friend. A spring
steel plumbers snake or auger, a large wrench
and some drain pipe cleaner are needed on
tougher jobs.
Force Cups/ Plungers
For a force cup to work properly there
must be water in the bottom of the sink,
tub or toilet bowl. With the rubber cup
placed over the drain opening, the handle is
pressed down suddenly to create pressure in
the line, then jerked upward to create suc-
tion to dislodge the obstruction.
Considerable force is required.
Live, firm rubber is essential for maximum
suction. If the rubber is too soft, too little pres-
sure is generated.
Combination plungers feature two cups.
The extended smaller cup inside the larger
cup is designed to fit snugly in the bowl.
Chemical Cleaners
Several chemicals do an effective job of
cleaning stopped-up drains. Some are a
combination of potassium hydroxide,
which turns grease to soft soap, and a
depilatory agent, thioglycolic acid, that
dissolves hair. This combination does not
injure plumbing or septic tanks.
Several cleaners use sodium hydroxide and
some use sulfuric acid or lye.
Any toxic liquid drain cleaner must carry
the skull and crossbones warning label in red.
Many cleaners can be harmful to sensitive
skin and should be used with caution.
Most liquid drain cleaners are heavier
than water and will seek out the stoppage,
even if the sink, tub or bowl is full of water.
Caution consumers that if a certain drain
chemical does not do the job, they should
never pour in a different brand or type of
chemical; toxic fumes can result from the
mixture. Also keep in mind that some chemi-
cals may cause damage to plastic pipes.
Drain Augers
Drain augers or snakes are commonly
used to free clogged toilet bowls. Since these
fixtures have a built-in reverse action or U-
shaped trap, considerable pressure may have to
be applied to the end of the snake to force it
up and over the drainpipe opening. However,
it should be fed into the pipe slowly to prevent
it from kinking or scratching the surface.
For most stoppages, an auger at least 6 to
8' long will usually be required. The wire
must be worked vigorously back and forth
as soon as an obstruction is felt to break up
the blockage so that it can be easily flushed
away with water.
A long-handled closet auger is best for
unstopping a built-in closet trap. The spring
wire is usually 3' to 6' longer than the han-
dle. The handle shaft has a 90 to 120 turn
on the end. It is usually covered with a rub-
ber or neoprene sleeve to protect the china
finish of the bowl.
Heavy-duty power augers work well to
clear the toughest blockages since they
are generally longer and better designed
to turn corners in piping. For more infor-
mation, click (Unstopping Clogged
Drains, Toilets & Sewers).
Pressure Cleaners
Another type of drain cleaner uses air or
water pressure to force a clog loose.
Compressed air drain cleaners are a power ver-
sion of the force cup and are generally useful
only on sinks.
Hydraulic pressure drain cleaners allow a
garden hose to be snaked down the drain pipe
closer to the clog. This type of unit features a
blocking device that fills with water to prevent
water from backing out of the drain and to
maintain pressure on the clog. It can be used
on sinks, tubs, main drains and showers.
I PLUMBING RELIEF VENTS
For consumers interested in adding a
bathroom, there is a plumbing relief vent
valve that can be installed without cutting a
hole in the roof to vent the new plumbing
system. The vent is solvent welded any
place that is above the flood level of the
attached fixtures (usually the attic).
Manufacturer literature should be studied
carefully for proper installation.
I BATHROOM CABINETS
The usual height for cabinets over a lavatory
is 62" from floor to the center of the cabinet.
Ready-made cabinets are either wall-hung
or recessed. A 14" recessed cabinet is frequent-
ly installed because it will fit between 16" cen-
ter-wall studs. Installation of wider recessed
cabinets require that the studs be cut and box
framing installed.
Lower-priced economy cabinets are general-
ly 11" wide, 16-1/4" high and 4" deep. Most
have two welded shelves and cabinets and are
finished in white baked-on enamel.
More expensive cabinets come with light-
ing fixtures above or at the side of the cabinet
and offer a selection of color finishes. They
range from 16" to 19" high. For more informa-
tion, click (Designing & Planning Your
Bathroom).
Bath Vanities
A complete vanity consists of a cabinet
with a top, bowl, faucet assembly and all nec-
essary plumbing. All the homeowner does is
set it in the bathroom and couple it to the
existing pipes. All these components are avail-
able individually so that the customer can cre-
ate a custom vanity.
Most vanities come in 24", 30", 36", 48"
and up to 60 widths, although 20
widths are available.
One of the major reasons for their pop-
ularity is ease of installation. With a few
tools, any homeowner can install his or
her own vanity.
P L UMBI NG SUP P L I ES
22
CHAPTER FIFTEEN:
ALL ABOUT POWER TOOLS
CORDLESS TOOLS
PORTABLE DRILLS
PORTABLE SAWS
STATIONARY AND BENCH TOOLS
PROFESSIONAL POWER TOOLS
OTHER POWER TOOLS
ROTARY TOOLS
POWER EQUIPMENT
POWER TOOL ACCESSORIES
POWER TOOLS&
Accessories
15
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
2
I Power tools and accessories are among
the most popular home improvement
products sold over the Internet, with
numerous sites springing up just to sell
tools. That has led to a more informed
buying public, placing greater importance
on product knowledge among salesfloor
employees.
When it comes to cordless tools, consumers want more power and more fea-
tures. D-i-yers are seeking out tools that were once used only by professionals.
Manufacturers have responded to such demand, and cordless drill/drivers are
now available in 24-volt models, and even tools such as reciprocating saws are
available in cordless models.
Cordless tools have traditionally been powered by nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
rechargeable batteries. Although these power systems worked effectively, users
often found themselves changing batteries halfway through a job. Although
NiCd batteries are still around, more manufacturers are turning to longer-lasting
nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.
Ergonomics remains an important element in tool development, especially
since more females are purchasing and using power tools. From both the d-i-y
and professional channels, customers have been demanding tools that are not as
cumbersome, require less effort to use and are naturally contoured to fit com-
fortably in the hand. Manufacturers have responded by incorporating plastic
polymers and lighter, stronger metals to develop tools that weigh less but are just
as durable. Several manufacturers have begun to include lighting systems on their
tools to increase visibility and accuracy by directing light onto the work surface.
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are replacing regular bulbs for this purpose. LEDs are
more energy efficient, last longer and are virtually indestructible.
Quality is important when buying a power tool and features such as charging
time, voltage, amperage, cycle life, weight, size and type of insulation are all
important details to be familiar with since those are the selling points that will
enable you to sell up the customer to a higher-end product.
POWER TOOLS&
Accessories
ALL ABOUT
POWER TOOLS
Physical construction and motor capacity
determine quality in power tools. A light-
duty unit might be satisfactory for a casual
user, but it would have an extremely limited
life in heavy-duty applications. As con-
sumers become more experienced d-i-yers,
they tend to move to higher-quality tools.
For more information on the safe use of
power tools, contact the Power Tool Institute
at (216) 241-7333.
Housing
Quality housings are usually die-cast alu-
minum, high-impact plastic or a combina-
tion. Die-cast aluminum is especially popu-
lar in gear cases for cool running and for
holding the gear train in a precise location.
A glass-filled nylon housing offers better
impact resistance than aluminum.
Double-insulated plastic is a non-conduc-
tor and has lower heat retention. Some
power units, while not double insulated, fea-
ture plastic-coated handles for this reason.
Housings should have adequate ventila-
tion and exhaust ports.
Insulation
In the event of an electrical short, by avoid-
ing contact with metallic surfaces the operator
is protected from shock by a double-insulated
housing. As a result, double-insulated tools do
not require three-wire grounding cords.
In a grounded tool, the motor windings are
insulated from the housing, and a three-wire
cord is used to ground the housing in the
event a short does occur. The tool must be
plugged into a socket with a ground. If an
extension cord is used, it also must be a three-
wire grounded cord. Most high-amp power
tools work best on 12-gauge wire, especially
where a long cord (50 feet or more) is used.
The gauge of the wire is imprinted on the
cord cover or can be read on the cord label.
Motor
There are more than 150 variations of
motors that drive power tools. Among the
quality features are welded connections,
built-in fans, replaceable armatures and
commutators welded to motor windings.
Bearings can be oil-impregnated brass or
steel ball, needle or roller bearings, with ball
and needle bearings in higher-quality
motors. Some manufacturers are now using
dual-sealed ball bearings for less friction and
greater efficiency.
A higher horsepower usually means more
power or torque at a given speed, as well as
less wear on the motor under prolonged use.
Power tools such as drills and saws will have a
range of horsepower ratings with minimal
horsepower for the occasional d-i-yers
through maximum power for commercial
uses. However, horsepower rating vary among
manufacturers and products. Amperes can
also be an important factor in determining a
tools efficiency.
Similar to a tools horsepower, the higher
the amp rating on a tool, the higher its power
output. A tools type of gears and bearings are
other measures of power and quality.
Transmission
The transmission in a tool is almost as
important as the motor itself. Very few
power tools are engineered so the motor
does all of the work. Most power tools use a
series of gears called the transmission that
will speed up or slow down the revolutions
per minute (RPM) or increase or decrease the
amount of torque or power the tool can gen-
erate. Less expensive tools feature plastic
gearing, which is fine for light work. For
heavier demand, metal gearing is preferred.
Switches
Switches used on power tools are on/off,
multi-speed and variable-speed. On drills, a
reversing switch is frequently used. A toggle
switch merely turns the unit on or off, provid-
ing only one operating speed. Trigger switches
are usually designed to spring to the off posi-
tion when finger pressure is released.
Multi-speed switches allow the user to
select two or more speeds. The switch usual-
ly must be manually moved to the off posi-
tion to stop the motor.
Variable-speed switches allow speed set-
tings at any level from minimum to maxi-
mum by varying the pressure on the power
trigger. This allows slow starting for situa-
tions such as starting a hole in metal with a
drill. Some units are provided with a switch
lock to set speed for continuous operation at
a specific level.
Some premium-grade tools, both corded
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
3
SAFETY TIPS FOR POWER TOOLS
BE FAMILIAR WITH THE FOLLOWING
SAFETY PROCEDURES WHEN
HANDLING POWER TOOLS.
1. Know your power tool. Read the manu-
al carefully; learn the tools applications,
limitations and potential hazards.
2. Ground all tools unless double insulat-
ed. If tool is equipped with three-prong
plug, it should be plugged into a three-
hole receptacle. If adapter is used to
accommodate two-prong receptacle, the
adapter wire must be attached to a
known ground.
3. Keep guards in place and in working
order.
4. Keep workplace clean.
5. Avoid dangerous environment. Dont
use power tool in damp or wet locations;
keep work area well lighted.
6. Keep children a safe distance away.
7. Store idle tools. When not in use, tools
should be stored in a dry, high or locked
place out of reach of children.
8. Dont force the tool. Do not exceed the
capacity for which it was designed.
9. Use the right tool for the job. Dont
force a small tool to do the job of a heavy-
duty tool.
10. Wear the proper apparel. Avoid loose
clothing or jewelry that can get caught in
moving parts. Use rubber gloves and
footwear when working outside.
11. Wear safety glasses, gloves and a dust
mask with most tools.
12. Dont abuse the cord. Never carry tool
by cord or yank it to disconnect.
13. Secure work. Use clamps or vise to
hold work; this frees both hands to oper-
ate tool.
14. Dont overreach. Keep a safe, stable
footing.
15. Unplug or turn off tools when not in
use, before servicing, when talking to
someone or looking for something and
when changing attachments.
16. Remove adjusting keys and wrenches
before turning tool on.
17. Avoid accidental starting. Dont carry
plugged-in tool with finger on switch.
and cordless, are using variable-speed switches
with electronic feedback that will keep the
tool working at the speed desired under load.
Most higher-quality drills, saws and other
tools feature an electric brake that immedi-
ately stops the chuck, blade or bit from turn-
ing when the trigger is released to avoid
over-tightening or cutting.
In some high-quality tools, encased trig-
gers protect the switches by sealing out dust
that might collect while cutting or drilling
into materials.
Rockwell Test
Customers may ask what the Rockwell
hardness test figure means; manufacturers
may quote it in their literature.
Rockwell testing is one of the best-known
ways of determining how hard a tools metal
is. The Rockwell system has several scales,
designated by a letter. Each scale designates
a test carried out with different static loads
and penetrating devices.
The one encountered most frequently in
this industry is the C scale, and ratings can
run from C20 to C70; the higher the num-
ber, the harder the metal. For soft steels of
medium or low carbon, the B scale is used.
For extremely hard metals such as tungsten
carbide, the A scale is used.
Most hardware and tool ratings will range
from the middle or high C30s (semi-hard)
up to the C60s (very hard).
CORDLESS TOOLS
Convenient and easy to operate, cordless
power tools provide substantial power for
home fix-it jobs and professional applications.
The popularity of cordless tools among both
d-i-yers and professionals continues to grow,
as does their power and features.
Today, virtually every type of tool, from
drills and screwdrivers to reciprocating saws,
circular saws and framing nailers, is available
in cordless models. The majority of cordless
tools are powered by battery packs that can
be charged by plugging them into a recharg-
ing unit, which plugs into any 110V-120V
outlet. Some chargers fit into cigarette
lighter sockets. Disposable fuel cartridges
that insert into the tools handle and power
a piston that drives the tool can also be used
to power other portable tools.
The lightweight, easy operation and lower
prices of cordless tools have resulted in
increasing demand. Versatility and savings
have been further increased with the power
package, a single rechargeable battery that
adapts to various product heads, offering
substantial savings.
Batteries And Charging Units
Tool manufacturers have been working
to develop more advanced chargers that help
batteries last longer, speed up the charging
process and reduce heat buildup to improve
the efficiency of cordless tools.. The key has
been to incorporate smarter technology that
knows exactly how much charge is needed,
since overcharging reduces battery life.
The most common power source for
todays cordless power tools is a rechargeable
battery. The rechargeable batteries used for
most power tools are actually a number of
small batteries, or cells, linked together into
a battery pack. The batteries that make up
the pack are each 1.2 volts. So, eight batter-
ies linked together constitute a 9.6-volt bat-
tery pack.
Most power tools, such as drill/drivers and
saws, are powered by battery packs that range
in power from 6 volts to 24 volts; 1.2- or 3.4-
volt batteries may even power some cordless
screwdrivers. Generally, the higher the voltage
rating, the more powerful the tool and the
longer the battery can last without recharging.
For years, cordless tools were powered by nick-
el-cadmium (NiCd) rechargeable batteries.
These power systems worked effectively, but
users often found themselves changing batter-
ies halfway through a job. Some manufactur-
ers are turning to an alternative power source
that is longer-lasting: nickel-metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries, which have the added
advantage of easy disposability. Another alter-
native has emerged in the form of power con-
trol units that utilize an existing battery sys-
tems energy and adjust the power to maxi-
mize a tools performance.
Salesfloor employees should remind con-
sumers that the more strenuous the job, the
greater effect it will have on the operating
time and efficiency of the tool. Also, horse-
power and battery strength are not the only
measures of a cordless tools performance;
the efficiency of the motor must be taken
into account as well. Another concern some
customers may have with buying a higher-
voltage cordless tool is the added weight of a
larger battery pack.
Charging units work by coursing electrici-
ty through the battery pack. Although
charging units do restore power to a battery
pack, in general, batteries lose a little bit of
their charge daily, whether or not the tool is
being used. They should be recharged before
they discharge completely since the new
nickel-cadmium batteries can be partially
discharged and recharged without harm.
Other advances have also resulted in
shortened recharging times. Some tools are
available with quick-charge power packs that
cut this time down to less than an hour.
Quick chargers do reduce the life of the bat-
tery and are more expensive than standard
chargers. So-called smart chargers can also
tell the user when a battery is fully charged
and can stop charging hot batteries to pre-
vent damage.
Better-quality cordless drills are now being
designed with a fan for continuous use.
Some batteries feature a built-in LED readout
that lets the user know how much charge
remains in the battery.
Most manufacturers will sell battery packs
and charging units with their cordless tools
and also make replacement packs and charg-
ers available separately.
Environmental concerns have made the
recycling of cordless batteries an increasingly
important issue. Since some states and
municipalities require batteries to be recy-
cled, many suppliers have developed recy-
cling programs. For more information on
battery recycling, contact the Portable
Rechargeable Battery Association at (770)
612-8826 or the Rechargeable Battery
Recycling Corp. at (800) 8-BATTERY or on-
line at www.rbrc.org.
PORTABLE DRILLS
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
4
The term portable drill generally refers
to both corded and cordless models. There
are many different types of drills that fit into
this category including drill/drivers and
hammer drills. A drill/driver is designed with
added features to handle screwdriving jobs.
Drill Ratings
Drill ratings are based on chuck capacity
and motor load limit. Chuck capacity is the
most obvious, but it does not tell the whole
story. Speed and torque, or twisting power,
must be considered.
For example, a drill rated at 1/4" not only
means that this is the largest diameter shank
that will fit the chuck, but indicates the
largest size hole recommended to be drilled
with a 1/4" bit in 1/4" thick mild steel. The
peripheral speed of the drill bit increases
with the size; therefore the bit determines
the rated drill capacity.
Motor load limit is classified light, medi-
um or heavy duty. Amp ratings and bearing
construction are a better method than chuck
size for determining how to classify a drill.
Horsepower ratings are determined indi-
vidually for each tool according to its use,
amperage, torque and type of bearing.
Ratings vary by manufacturer. General
ranges include 1/7 hp to 1/4 hp for 1/4"
and 3/8" drills; 1/3 hp to 7/8 hp for 1/2"
units. The rating listed on a drill name-
plate usually includes amperage. The
higher the amp rating the more powerful
the drill. Drills rated at 2 amps are gener-
ally considered light-duty units, while 5-
amp units are for heavy-duty work.
Drill Features
While it does not play a role in determin-
ing a drills power, another factor to consider
when recommending a drill to a customer is
the composition of the drills gears. Less
expensive drills will traditionally have plas-
tic gears. More expensive models will feature
metal gears, designed for longer life. Even on
some high-end models, however, high-
impact plastic gears are used to make the
drill lighter, and with some plastics can be
just as durable as metal.
The chuck holds the bit or screwdriver tip
in place. Chucks come in a variety of sizes
and are rated by the diameter of the largest
bit shank they can accommodate (from 1/4"
to 1/2"). There are two types available: keyed
or keyless.
A keyed chuck is operated by using a
rotary key to tighten and loosen the chuck,
which holds the drill bit or driver. Keyed
chucks are more common on heavy-duty
drills. The biggest drawback to a keyed
chuck is that it is easy to lose the key.
Because of this problem, many drills come
with a special compartment built into the
drill to hold the key.
Keyless chucks require no keys to tighten
or loosen but are operated by hand. The
only drawback to keyless chucks is that they
occasionally stick and become difficult to
tighten or loosen. Some chuck models can
be tightened with one hand.
Variable speeds offer many advantages in
drill design, the most important of which is
the ease with which a hole can be started in
masonry, ceramics and steels, particularly
where curved or compound surfaces (such as
drilling a piece of pipe) are encountered.
Customers should be advised, however, that
an electronic speed reduction does not
increase drilling torque or power.
Variable-speed drills offer speed or torque
control from zero to maximum revolutions
per minute. Usually, variance is achieved by
varying pressure on the trigger switch. There
are some tools, however, where speed is set
by dial control. Drill/drivers feature a high-
torque setting for driving screws and high-
speed setting for drilling holes. Most 1/4"
drills operate between 1,600 rpm and 2,800
rpm; speeds for 3/8" units range from 650
rpm to 1,350 rpm; and those of the 1/2"
model are around 500 rpm. Depending on
such factors as load, drill size and material,
speed drops from 30 percent to 50 percent
in use. Low-end units typically feature one
speed of about 600-800 rpm.
Many portable drills feature reversing
action, greatly increasing their versatility.
This flexibility allows the operator to drive
and remove screws, nuts and bolts, drill and
tap threads in metal and do other jobs not
possible with conventional drills. The chuck
is locked in place so it will not spin off when
using the reverse action. Reversing action
can improve the drills balance and allow it
to reach tight spots easier.
Some drills also allow the operator to
select desired speed or rpm by turning a
small adjusting knob built into the trigger or
switch. This makes it possible to maintain a
pre-selected speed as required for specific
applications, such as slow speed for drilling
in stainless steel or glass.
Portable drills also come with a variety of
handles. The most common handle design is
the T-handle in the center of the motor
housing. Another type is a pistol grip
mounted at the back of the housing. As the
name implies, pistol-grip handles are shaped
like a pistol and are good for most common
drilling/driving needs. D-handle drills have
the trigger grip enclosed. Other drill handles
are straight or right-angled for drilling in dif-
ficult, tight locations. Some heavy-duty drills
or hammer drills feature a pivoting handle
located at the front of the drill so the user
can apply extra force.
Another feature is a built-in level that
allows the user to drill a straight, accurate
hole. Other drills come with lighted rings
around the chuck that illuminate a dimly lit
work area.
An electric brake feature stops the drill as
soon as the trigger is released and lets the
user resume drilling without waiting.
1/ 4" Drills
A good quality 1/4" drill has sufficient
power to drill holes in concrete, metal, plastic
and other materials. Accessories and attach-
ments make it a fine tool for shop and home,
however, 1/4" drills have turned into a high-
speed specialty tool for sheet metal trades.
Quality features include geared key chuck,
aluminum or heavy-duty plastic housing
and heavy-duty reinforced cord. Helical
gears are not needed on 1/4" drills since they
are not high-torque tools like 1/2" drills or
circular saws.
Heavy-duty 1/4" drills have heavier bear-
ings to handle tougher jobs.
3/ 8" Drills
These drills have more speed but less
power than 1/2" drills. In addition to extra
chuck capacity, 3/8" drills are normally built
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
5
with double-reduction gear systems to pro-
vide more torque and to operate at lower
speeds, generally about one-half the rpm of
a 1/4" drill. The slower speed eases starting
holes in slick surfaces and reduces drill bit
burnout when drilling with larger diameter
bits in steel. They are usually priced between
regular and heavy-duty 1/4" drills.
Three-eighths-inch drills usually handle
more attachments than 1/4" models and can
perform most of the jobs a 1/4" does; sand-
ing and buffing are about the only jobs
needing a 1/4" drills higher speed. Heavy-
duty 3/8" drills with reversing action and
screwdriver attachments are also available.
Keyless chucks are becoming more common
on 3/8" and 1/2" drills. Some models feature
a magnetic tray on the top of the battery
housing to store screws, nuts and drill bits.
Also available is a 12V model that uses
interchangeable heads to combine three
tools in one: 3/8" drill/driver, sabre saw and
orbital detail sander.
1/ 2" Drills
Generally used by tradesmen, the
high"torque and slow speeds of 1/2 drills
make large holes in wood or metal. These
drills, because of their slow speed, provide
good power units for hole saws.
In drilling large holes in wood beams, self-
feeding bits are frequently used to reduce force
required by the operator. Reversing action per-
mits jammed drill bits to be backed out easily
from wood or masonry.
Hammer
Drills
Hammer drills
cut quickly and
easily into con-
crete, stone, block
and brick. They
are called ham-
mer drills because
while turning, the drill vibrates the chuck
back and forth or side to side to help the bit
chip while it is drilling. Hammers with the
dual function of slow drilling are especially
useful to the handyman since they will drill
and ream wood and steel.
Hammer drills have a conventionally
geared chuck. The vibrating action speeds
the drilling in most concrete or masonry
products when equipped with a carbide-
tipped drill bit. Most models have a mode
selector allowing the operator to choose
rotation only, as in a conventional drill, or
hammer drill to couple the vibrating
action with the rotary motion. Some models
offer a third choice of hammer only, which
in some cases can accommodate chisel and
scraper attachments.
A hammer drill should not be confused
with the rotary hammer professional tool,
which has drilling capacities of 1/4" up to
core bits of 6" diameters. These larger
hammers have unique bit drive and reten-
tion methods rather than the convention-
al geared chuck. When drilling in poured
concrete, for example, a rotary hammer
can drill faster with less vibration than a
hammer drill.
Depending on the manufacturer, hammer
drills range from very low speeds for con-
trolled, fine drilling and impacting to high-
speed drilling and hammering for fast, pro-
ductive work. The speed of hammer drills
and rotary hammers is measured in rpm for
drill action and bpm (blows per minute) for
impact action.
Some hammer drills have variable speed
controls. Chuck sizes range from 1/4" to
1/2". Make sure you remind customers to
use safety glasses, earplugs and antivibration
gloves when working with these tools.
Angle Drills
Angle drills are designed for tight fits and
close-quarter drilling. Some models feature
an angle attachment that rotates to drill in
any position, while a side handle allows
one-hand operation and easy control. They
come in 1/2" or 3/8" drills. The 3/8" comes
in both cordless and corded models.
Impact Wrenches
Impact wrenches, long used in commer-
cial applications, have applications in the
home and on the farm. These tools are nor-
mally used only occasionally by d-i-yers and
offer potential as rental items.
Corded wrenches deliver 2,000 impacts
per minute, utilizing a socket attached to
the drive shaft. Drive shafts come in 1/4",
1/2", 3/4" and 1". Quality is critical since
the wrench must have enough power to
loosen tight bolts, and the motor must be
protected against burnout. 1/4" and 1/2"
cordless models are also available.
Screwdrivers
Although some drills function with screw-
driver attachments, heavy-duty corded
screwdrivers are also available. Most com-
mon are variable-speed, reversible drywall
screwdrivers, designed for driving drywall,
decking and other self-drilling screws. They
feature no-load speed up to 4,000 rpms.
Cordless in-line screwdrivers are handy for
tackling a variety of light-duty household
applications such as driving screws. They are
lighter and offer less power and speed than a
power drill but are easier to handle. More
powerful models (up to 7.2V) are now avail-
able with features such as a 15-position slip
clutch, quick-release chuck that accepts 1/4"
shank bits and a hinged middle so it can be
used as an inline or pistol-grip screwdriver.
PORTABLE SAWS
Circular Saws
Circular saws are designed to make
straight cuts on materials that are difficult to
cut by hand. The saws size denotes the
largest size blade
that can be used
with it.
Most circular
saws come with
or can be
equipped with
a rip fence to
maintain a uniform width of cut on long
passes. Quality saws have an ejector chute
that routes sawdust to the rear or to the
side, away from the work, instead of leav-
ing it to obscure the cutting line. Several
manufacturers also offer portable circular
saws that, like drills, are powered by a
rechargeable battery pack.
Saws are classified by blade size and
duty ratings. Generally, blade sizes range
from 5-1/2" to 10" diameter, with 5-1/2"
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
6
4
0
T
and 7-1/4" the most popular. The greater
the blade diameter, the thicker the mate-
rial it will cut. Better models have higher
amperage and rpm ratings. Also like
drills, saws are rated by their amperage,
which can go all the way up to 15.0
amps for some heavy-duty models. High-
end models also feature an electric brake
that stops the blade from rotating as
soon as the trigger is released.
Worm-drive saws feature the motor at
the rear of the blade and are for heavy-
duty applications.
Some circular saw models are also engi-
neered to give the user the best, clearest
line of sight. Some have features such as
windows or open areas so the user can see
the blade as it cuts the wood and rear-exit
cords to keep the cord away from the line
of sight and work surface. Another popu-
lar feature is a tilting base for more flexi-
bility in cutting.
Cordless circular saws range in power from
14.4V to 24V and generally offer less speed
and power than similar corded models.
Circular Blades
Circular blades are available for almost
any cutting requirement. Blades are made
of tempered, tensioned steel, and are flat,
hollow or taper ground. Many circular
blades can be resharpened to prolong
their life.
Most blades have a knockout center so
they fit saws with diamond or round arbor.
The blades diameter and arbor (center
hole) must be the proper size for the saw.
The arbor is typically 5/8" or 1/2". As a
general rule, the more teeth per inch, the
smoother the cut.
Taper- or hollow-ground blades are
machined, so that the body of the blade
passes through the cut made by the teeth
without binding. They are designed to
provide a satin smooth finish and are also
known as a planer ground blade.
Teeth on flat-ground b lades are alter-
nately set (right and left) to prevent
binding by making the cut wider than
the blade. These blades are designed to
be used with plywood, fiberboard and
hard materials.
Carbide-tipped blades are available in
many styles. They last up to 20 times
longer than ordinary blades and are useful
if a great deal of work is to be done on
plywood or hardwood. Technological
developments in recent years have made
the carbide coating even harder, giving
extended working life to circular blades.
These blades are not to be used on mason-
ry or where nails may be encountered.
There are also thin-kerf carbide blades
available now that give smoother cuts and
work well on low-powered tools.
Comb ination or general-purpose
b lades are the most commonly used
blade, particularly since they often come
with the saw. Applications include cross-
cutting, ripping and mitering hardwood,
softwood, veneer and plywood. These
blades do not offer as smooth a cut as a
specialized blade.
Plywood blades are for minimal splin-
tering when cutting plywood and thin
materials.
Vinyl siding blades are for cutting vinyl
and aluminum siding, thin plastics and PVC.
Crosscut (cutoff) blades are for smoother
results when cutting across the grain.
Rip b lades work well for fast, rough
cutting.
Different types of abrasive blades or
abrasive cutoff wheels are used for cutting
ferrous metals, masonry, glazed materials
and ceramic tile. These wheels are
attached directly to the saw in the same
manner as a blade. The saw must have an
aluminum or magnesium guard to use an
abrasive cutoff wheel.
A two-in-one cutoff wheel is unlike the
conventional rigid type and acts as an all-
purpose cutting and sanding disc. This
wheel, consisting of resilient nylon mesh
impregnated with silicone carbide grit, is
flexible, shatterproof and can be used for
smoothing, shaping and cutting most
materials. It also may be used as a power
drill attachment.
Diamond blades are circular steel discs
with a diamond-bearing edge. The dia-
mond-bearing edge cuts or removes
material by grinding or knocking out
large particles of loosely bonded abrasive
materials. Diamond blades offer smooth
cutting of tile, marble, slate, quarry tile,
granite, stone, limestone and porcelain
tile. Diamond blades can be selected
based on type and quantity of material
to be cut, quality level and cut desired,
equipment, working conditions and
blade quality/price. The edge of a dia-
mond blade can have one of three con-
figurations: segmented, continuous rim
or turbo rim.
Sabre Saws or Jig Saws
The sabre saw, also known as a jig saw,
has a small, thin blade that cuts with an
up-and-down
motion, mak-
ing it ideal for
irregularities
and scroll work,
as well as for
ripping and
cross-cutting.
Units can usu-
ally cut through 1" hardwood and 1-1/2"
softwood with no trouble.
Quality saws include variable-speed
controls to accommodate plastics and
metals, keyless blade releases and tilting
bases. In addition, top units have larger
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
7
SAW BLADES
Plywood Blade Abrasive Blade
Rip Blade Carbide-Tipped Blade
Crosscut Blade
Flooring Blade
Combination Blade
Metal Cutting Blade
strokes, often up to 1" in stroke length,
and provisions to narrow the slot in the
shoe where the blade works to prevent
splintering of the wood. A roller support
behind the blade, counter balancing and
orbited actions are other features found
on heavy-duty versions. Some models also
feature a dust blower to clear the work
area of debris as the user cuts.
Good sabre saws will usually operate at
up to 3,000 strokes per minute. The sabre
saw does not have the cutting speed of
the circular saw and is more difficult to
keep in a straight line.
Orbital actions are now found on sabre
saws as well as reciprocating saws. They
cut much faster in orbital mode but leave
a rougher cut. Orbital mode should only
be used when cutting wood.
Sabre Saw Blades
Carbon steel blades are used for cutting
most woods and some plastics. High
Speed Steel ( HSS) blades are used for cut-
ting metal, fiberglass and abrasive and
thin plastics. The heat-treated, hardened
quality of the steel in HSS blades makes
them less resistant to dulling.
Fleam-ground blades have set teeth
that alternate left to right and provide
extra speed in cutting. Hollow-ground
blades have teeth that are lined straight
with side clearance for extra grinding abil-
ity, which produces a good finish.
Special blades are available and may be
provided with an adjustable platform to
allow cutting variations to 45.
Reciprocating Saws
Reciprocating saws cut wood, masonry
and metal, depending on the blade used.
They are commonly used for demolition,
framing and rough-in work. A reciprocat-
ing saws blade extends horizontally from
the front of the saw, cutting with a back-
and-forth
motion. Newer
models feature
the traditional
back-and-forth
action used for cutting hard materials
such as masonry or metal as well as an
orbital action used on softer materials
such as wood.
Reciprocating saws are good for ripping
and crosscuttin, but lack the control
achieved from the platform design of the
sabre saw. However, the blade will reach
into close areas where a sabre or circular
saw would be unable to cut. To improve
its ability to reach into hard-to-reach
areas, some models feature adjustable gear
housings to allow almost any conceivable
angle on the blade. Blade action usually
goes to about 2,000 strokes per minute
(spm), but some professional models go as
high as 2,500 spm. Reciprocating saws are
also available with keyless or quick-release
blade clamps.
New to the market is a compact cord-
less reciprocating saw that is designed
with a six-position, pivoting handle that
allows users to reach into small areas.
Reciprocating Saw Blades
The development of carbon steel, High
Speed Steel and bimetal blades gives the
reciprocating saw blade more versatility in
the materials it can cut.
Carbon steel blades are used primarily
to cut soft woods and plastics. Carbon
steel is flexible but is not strong enough
to cut through metals, making it a poor
choice for wood filled with lots of nails.
High Speed Steel ( HSS) blades are
made from heat-treated metal and are
good for cutting through most metals,
plastics and fiberglass, but the blades are
brittle and easily broken.
Bimetal blades are a combination of
carbon steel and HSS. Bimetal blades use
the more durable carbon steel for the
majority of the blade, with a wire-thin
strip of HSS laser welded onto the edge of
the blade. The teeth are cut in the HSS,
making the blade both durable and versa-
tile. One drawback to bimetal blades is
their cost. They are more expensive than
either carbon or HSS but can last as much
as three times longer.
Carbide-tipped blades are not particu-
larly durable, so they are recommended
for cutting nail-free wood, nonferrous
metal, plastic and fiberglass.
Blade quality can also be determined
by comparing blade thickness, tooth
shape and spacing (teeth per inch). The
saw will generally cut faster with fewer
teeth per inch in the blade. Wood-cut-
ting blades are typically .050" thick,
while the standard for metal-cutting
blades is .035" thick.
STATIONARY AND
BENCH TOOLS
Stationary and bench tools perform the
same functions as portable power tools.
They are bigger, heavier, offer more preci-
sion and handle major jobs. Stationary
tools come with or are mounted on tables
or stands specifically designed for the
tool. Bench tools are slightly smaller and
more versatile than stationary tools. They
are mounted on workbenches and,
because of their compactness, can be
moved more easily than stationary tools.
Bench tools fill a void, both in price
and performance, between portable power
tools and stationary power tools. Products
include table saws, band saws, chop saws,
sanders, wood lathes, drill presses and
bench grinders.
As consumers move up the d-i-y learn-
ing curve, they want the features and per-
formance of a stationary power tool, but
at a substantially lower price. Because
bench tools can usually be moved from
workshop to job site by one person,
weight and ease of set-up are both factors
when selecting a bench tool.
I SAWS
Radial Arm Saws
A radial arm saw uses a circular saw
blade, but instead of feeding the material
into the blade, the item to be cut
remains stationary and the saw travels
through the cut, pulled across the track
on the radial arm.
The cutting portion of the blade is
rotating toward the operator. The cut is
made by pulling the saw across the mate-
rial. This puts the pressure on the material
downward against the cutting platform
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
8
and a fence at the rear of the platform. It
pushes away from the operator.
Because the radial arm saw virtually
cuts backwards it develops its own pull
through the cut so that the operator may
wind up holding the saw back rather than
pulling it through the cut.
For ripping longer pieces of wood, the
saw can be pivoted 90 and locked into
place on the radial arm. The material is
fed in on the upward moving side of the
blade to prevent the blade from pulling
the wood through and binding.
If the wood binds, the saw will kick
it back toward the operator. To prevent
this, radial arm saws are equipped with
an anti-kickback device that allows the
wood to move into the saw but locks
into it if the direction is reversed, driving
it down onto the table and preventing
operator injury.
Ripping width is limited by the length
of the arm, which is usually 24" or less.
On a 24" saw, one portion of the material
being ripped must be less than 24" to fit
between the blade and the fence at the
rear of the platform.
Cross cuts are also limited by the
length of the arm. A 24" arm would
allow for a 12-3/4" cross cut, as the cen-
ter of the saw blade will not travel from
one extreme of the arm to the other. A
radial arm saw is particularly effective for
mitering, and is usually equipped with
stop mechanisms at 30 and 45 angles,
plus a locking device that allows setting
of any angle for the arm.
Accessories can be added to the radial
arm saw to perform dadoing, sanding,
shaping, sabre sawing, surfacing, jointing,
horizontal boring and over-arm routing.
Miter Saws
Miter sawsused to make angle cuts in
door and window trimare bench ver-
sions of radial arm saws. There are three
types of miter saws available: compound
miter, regular miter and slide compound
miter. A compound miter saw performs
the same functions as a standard miter
saw but is generally more expensive
because it also pivots to saw bevels as well
as miters. Compound miter saws cut
across the wood grain while regular miter
saws cut with the wood grain. Slide or
sliding compound saws use a sliding saw
head for longer cuts with larger materials.
A typical crosscut capacity is 12" at 90
and 8-1/2" at 45.
Now available is a cordless compound
miter saw that can handle many cuts on a
single charge.
Band Saws
Band saws will cut much thicker materi-
al than table saws or radial saws and are
particularly useful for making irregular
cuts in thick material. They will cut stock
over 6" thick and have band (or loop-like)
blades in various strengths and widths for
different cutting purposes.
Skip-tooth blades are used for cutting alu-
minum, magnesium, plastics and wood.
A band saw is recommended when the
customer needs a tool that will handle
heavy-duty cutting work on a constant
basis. Cutting tables will tilt to 45, giv-
ing a variable cut for normal cutting
operations.
Sanding attachments and sanding loops
are available for sanding on irregular or
curved surfaces.
Scroll Saws
Scroll saws consist of a small, thin
blade activated by a far-reaching arm that
permits handling wide material. Power is
provided by up-and-down motion of the
small blade at
more than
1,000 cutting
strokes per
minute. It will
cut intricate
patterns in
plywood, light metal and plastic.
Features include a table that tilts in
either direction and a saw blade that
moves rapidly through material to be cut.
The scroll saw is relatively safe, inexpen-
sive and lightweight.
Table Saws
A table saw has a flat cutting surface,
with the circular saw blade extending up
through a slot. Motor and drive mecha-
nisms are located under the table surface.
The power of a saws motor determines
the thickness of material that can be cut
and how efficiently the saw will perform.
Smaller units are designed for light rip-
ping and crosscutting while large units
can accommodate 5' x 8' sheets of ply-
wood.
Rip fence capacity (maximum rip) is an
important criterion for determining saw
quality. The fence is mounted on the
table and adjusts to guide the material
being cut. The maximum distance
between the saw blade and the rip fence
determines the maximum cut that can be
made. Rip fences have levers or knobs to
adjust the fence and lock it accurately
into place. Better rip fences are more
accurate, easier to lock and made of more
durable materials.
Extension rails are also available for
some table saws. These extension rails
allow the user to cut larger materials with
better guidance. Adjustable miter gauges
or sliding tables are features that enable
table saws to be used for crosscutting.
When selling a table saw to a novice d-
i-yer, point out that the material being
cut must be fed into the side of the blade
traveling downward. This automatically
drives the work piece against the table,
especially if the blade should bind. If fed
in from the upward motion side, the
material would be forced over the top of
the blade and pulled forward by the
teeth. All models feature safety blade
guards that ensure material is fed from
the proper direction.
Saw-Jointer Combination
Combining the functions of circular
saw and jointer, a saw-jointer performs as
well as or better than either of the single
units, and its cost is lower than the com-
bined price of the two units.
I PLANERS AND JOINTERS
The planer is used to square up, size or
smooth wood in width (edge) or thickness
(surface), doing the job of a hand plane
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
9
faster and better. The jointer can also be
used to perform special operations such as
tapering, beveling and grooving. Planers
are used to finish flat surfaces while joint-
ers finish edges.
Planer-jointers (or jointer-planers) are
used for precision woodworking, carpen-
try and furniture making and can handle
softwoods, hardwoods and plastics. Some
planer-jointer combinations are detach-
able so the user can carry them separately.
For top quality, look for jointers that
feature a head with three or four knives.
Some planer-jointers have high-speed cut-
ter heads with only two knives.
A 4" to 8" wide cutting table holds
material that is pushed across the table
and over the cutter cylinder. A control
knob enables the fence to be tilted for
angle cuts. Tilts up to 45 either way are
normal. Although any jointer can cause
harm if misused, rotating knives are pro-
tected by a cutterhead guard. Removable
lockout switches are a feature with some
models that prevent unauthorized use.
I LATHES
Lathes handle a variety of wood-turning
tasks such as spindles, miniatures, bowls
and plates with ease and accuracy.
A lathe consists of a track or bed, head-
stock, tailstock and a tool support or rest.
A piece of wood is
inserted between cen-
ters, with the headstock
driving the piece and
the tailstock supporting
the other end. The tool
is then locked into posi-
tion and the carving
tool is supported at the
proper turning height. Different types of
lathe gouges are used to shape wood on
the lathe.
Lathes can be run at speeds ranging
from 300 rpm to 3,700 rpm. Skilled work-
ers soon learn to adjust the lathe to prop-
er speed. The carving tool is then held
against the tool rest at the proper position
and angle for the carving operation. As
wood spins, surplus amounts are removed,
and the desired design is accomplished.
I GRINDERS
A bench grinder is considered a station-
ary tool because it is usually bolted to a
bench in a workshop. However, there are
several types of portable hand grinders
available such as disc, angle and die.
Bench and hand grinders cut and grind
metal, concrete and masonry and are used
for sharpening all tools, cutting into cor-
ners and tight spots, polishing, buffing
and wire brushing. They are small, rela-
tively inexpensive and should be recom-
mended for use in any workshop. This
tool consists of a motor powering one or
two grinding wheels. In many tools, the
motor is located between grinding wheels.
Wheels can be abrasive grinders, buffers
or wire brushes.
I DRILL PRESSES
The drill press is designed to bore
holes for precise, repetitive cuts. It also
shapes, carves, sands, grinds, buffs and
polishes in wood or metal with appropri-
ate accessories.
A drill press consists of a base and a col-
umn rising upward to a head holding the
motor and drill. A radial arm holds a
worktable that adjusts vertically. A feed
handle enables the user to direct the drill
chuck up and down to proper location.
On radial drill presses, the head will
rotate 360 around the column and can
drill at an angle or horizontally.
PROFESSIONAL
POWER TOOLS
The differences between professional
power tools and consumer power tools
fall into two areas: function and design.
The differences do not mean that con-
sumer tools are inferior, but the profes-
sional models can withstand heavier work
loads. As a result, they have increased
power and the ability to perform under
more stress than consumer tools.
As d-i-yers become more serious about
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
10
JOINTER-PLANER SAFETY PROCEDURES
10''
Most common cause of loss of control of a jointer-planerand resultant injury to the operators
handsis kickback. Kickback is the unexpected simultaneous grabbing and throwing of the wood
at high speed toward the infeed table. This danger does exist, but a study of operating practices and
techniques associated with the jointer-planer shows that it can be as safe as it is versatile. The study
was made by the Power Tool Institute Inc. and the Department of Health, Education and Welfares
Bureau of Product Safety.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has standards that apply to use of these
and other products that might injure the user. Information on OSHA regulations is in the Electrical
Supplies chapter of this handbook.
Safety Tips for Power Tools (in this chapter) applies to all power tools. Following are additional
safety practices that will help avoid kickback while using the jointer-planer.
1. Always use adequate hold-down push blocks when jointing materials narrower than 3" or
planing materials thinner than 3".
2. Never edge joint-work pieces that are less than 1/4" thick, 3/4" wide or 12" long.
3. Never surface plane wood less than 5/8" thick, 3/4" wide or 12" long, or wider than the
length of the cutterhead knives.
4. Do not take too deep a cut: No greater than 1/32" per pass in wood with knots of 1/16" in
clear wood.
5. Always keep knives sharp.
6. Set up machine properly. Knives must be, exactly in line with the surface of the rear (out-
feed) table of a few 1,000ths of an inch higher.
7. Use the machine only for those jobs for which it was intended. Never attempt to perform
an unfamiliar operation without adequate study and safeguards.
8. Never back up the work piece.
9. Adequately support the work piece at all times.
their work, more non-professionals are
looking to purchase professional-grade
tools. The popularity of rental centers has
also helped boost sales in professional-
grade tools as rental center operators
demand longer life and durability out of
their rental assortment.
The motors in professional power tools
are designed to sustain loading for long
periods to avoid burning up the motor.
The power-to-weight ratio is also impor-
tant, and the professional tools are engi-
neered for maximum power with mini-
mum tool weight.
Copper wire minimizes the size and
weight of the motor. Though more expen-
sive, copper is more efficient than alu-
minum used in many consumer power
tool motors.
Arcing increases heat build-up in a
motor, which can shorten its life span.
Professional tools are designed to reduce
arcing. Heat in a consumer tool is not as
critical since the power and stress require-
ments are usually less.
Professional tool motors are often pro-
tected further with a resin coating on the
motor wire to bond the wire better and
protect the armature wire from grit and
dust. Many professional tools also feature
double-insulated housings.
Consumer tools use some ball bearings,
but sleeve bearings are used extensively to
reduce costs. Ball bearings are needed in
professional tool motors to reduce vibra-
tion, which can cause excessive arcing
and heat build-up.
Drill chuck spindles withstand heavy
side, fore and aft loads, so the chuck spin-
dle on professional drills rides on ball
bearings. In the area of gears, professional
models use wrought steel that is heat-
treated following machining to toughen
it. Powder-metal gears are prevalent in
consumer power tools; these are ground
metal granules compressed under pressure
and heat. They usually require no costly
machining. Some manufacturers are also
using nylon gears.
Tough plastic housings are used in pro-
fessional tools to withstand impact and to
function as a superior electrical insulator.
The drill chucks on professional tools
are repeatedly tightened and loosened, so
these are usually made of steel that is case
hardened for durability.
In addition, precision machining is
required in these components to reduce
wobble or run out. Many heavy-duty
professional tools are assembled with pilot
pins to ensure alignment and provide
solid integrated structure.
Cords on professional tools are also
usually longer than on d-i-y models and
are made with a rubber coating rather
than plastic to reduce the chance of fray-
ing or cracking.
OTHER POWER
TOOLS
I ROUTERS
Routers are effective for beading, groov-
ing, routing and fluting, and enable the
operator to accomplish inlay work, deco-
rative edges and many types of carving
and wood finish-
ing that can take
hours by hand.
Now available is
a cordless router
that uses a soft-
pulse battery
charger that
charges with short bursts of power instead
of charging continuously.
The two main types of routers are fixed-
base routers and plunge routers. For fixed-
base routers, the motor raises and lowers
with a rack and pinion or rotating motor
in its base. Its bit protrudes at depth set.
Plunge routers have a motor mounted on
posts, which can be retracted from and
lowered into the workpiece.
D-i-yers may find plunge routers easier
to use in many applications. Plunge
depth is the measurement of the deepest
cuts that can be made by a router.
Routers high-speed bit creates a smooth,
ready-to-finish cut requiring minimal
touch-up sanding.
Quality machines have all ball-bearing
construction, accurate depth adjustment
and a 1/2-hp to 3-1/2-hp motor. Models
for light- or standard-duty usually use 1/3-
hp to 1/2-hp motors; for heavy- or com-
mercial-duty 3/4-hp and up. A router will
typically run at about 25,000 rpm, and
there are a wide variety of bits available to
do decorative edging, rabbeting, dadoing,
dovetailing, laminate trimming, door
hanging, lock mortising, stair routing,
planing and shaping.
The router has a power switch enabling
the user to control power easily with min-
imal effort. It also has both straight and
circular guides for accuracy.
The router cuts and shapes. The most
commonly used router bits are one-piece,
although there are multi-piece router bits.
The routers that d-i-yers buy usually use a
1/4" shank.
Bits are available in heat-treated, high-
speed steel (HSS), solid carbide or carbide-
tipped steel. Carbide increases the cost,
but also extends the life of the blade
when used in comparable conditions.
Carbide is also useful for cutting lami-
nates and harder composite materials. It is
a brittle material and requires care in han-
dling. Black oxide-treated bits can provide
more strength and help prevent the bit
from rusting but can cost much more
than a standard bit. For general-purpose
cutting in wood and aluminum, HSS bits
should be used.
Router bits are also available in an
anti-kick-back or chip-limiting design
that is more rounded than a standard bit.
The chip-limiting bit helps protect the
piece of work on which the router is
being used by preventing the bit from
lurching forward and biting into the
material.
Although bits are available in a variety of
shapes and sizes, they fall into three general
categories: grooving bits, edging bits and
specialty bits. To select the appropriate
router bit, consider the shape of cut desired,
size and length of cut and durability.
I SANDERS
Belt Sanders
Belt sanders use a continuous belt of
man-made abrasive material. They are
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
11
1
1/2HP
used by professionals and hobbyists to
smooth wood or quickly remove finish.
Belts run over a drive pulley at one end
and an idler pulley at the other. The rear
pulley usually provides power through a
chain, cogged belt or gear drive, while the
front pulley is free riding.
A pistol-type handle enables the user to
push and pull the machine over work
with little effort. The front has a knob or
handle for easy guiding in any direction.
Belts normally travel at 1,300' per
minute or less. Belt sanders are offered in
sizes of 2-1/2"
to 4" wide
belts; 3" wide is
the most com-
mon size for
home use and
intermittent jobs and is available in stan-
dard-duty or heavy-duty ball bearing con-
struction for professional use. Four-inch
belt sanders are typically heavier and
more powerful than the 3" size.
Belt sanders are available with or with-
out dust-collecting systems, which elimi-
nate flying dust caused by fast sanding
action. Rubber belt cleaners have also
been developed to keep these tools run-
ning smoothly.
Most belt sanders have an adjustment
feature that keeps the belt tracking prop-
erly. Some sanders offer a design feature
that automatically maintains the belt in
the center of the pulleys during operation
to eliminate belts that wander off the pul-
leys and require regular readjustment.
Some belt sanders also allow the user to
sand all the way into a corner using the
full length of the belt.
Orbital And Finishing Sanders
A finishing (or straight-line) sander and
an orbital sander are similar in appear-
ance and operation and are often com-
bined as one tool with a selector switch to
activate each operation.
Both are used for finer finishing work
than the belt sander. Sandpaper is
attached to a rectangular pad on the bot-
tom of the sander. Some models allow you
to sand completely into corners.
In an orbital sander, the pad moves in a
small circular direction; in the finishing
sander it moves back and forth.
Movement in any direction is usually less
than 1/8". Since the orbital sander will go
across the grain, it is not good for some
sanding projects.
For general home use, the orbital
sander will usually provide a satisfactory
finish. The finishing sander is necessary
where it is absolutely essential that the
sandpaper move only along a given plane.
Orbiting sanders usually operate in the
range of 4,000 to 10,000 orbits per minute
(opm). Finishing sanders run at about
4,000 opm. There are also high-speed
models available that run at 14,000 opm,
giving even smoother finishes. Generally,
the higher the opm, the faster the stock is
removed.
Orbital and finishing sanders are good
suggestions for the home handyman,
unless he or she is planning to do heavy
sanding. The restricted motion of the
sanding surface does not require the
skilled handling necessary with a belt
sander, which can gouge or ripple a soft
wood surface if not used properly.
The random orbit sander has stock
removal approaching that of a belt sander
with the quality of finish similar to that
of a finishing sander. The round pad
allows sanding of contours, but restricts
sanding into corners. The two separate
motions of the sanding pad mean that the
customary swirl marks from orbital
sanders are eliminated. The 5" pad is the
most popular size.
Random orbit sanders run from 5,000
rpm to 14,000 rpm and typically have an
orbit diameter of 3/16", 3/32" or 5/32".
Most random orbit sanders come with
some kind of dust collection system.
Disc Sanders
Disc sanders are usually offered in two
styles: the angle head, where the disc runs
parallel to the motor; and the vertical
style, where the disc runs in a plane per-
pendicular to the motor. Disc sanders are
most often used for metal sanding or
grinding but are capable of removing
stock in plastics,
wood or con-
crete when used
with the proper
accessory stone,
disc or wheel.
However, it is easy to gouge material by
mistake. High-end orbital sanders feature
an electric brake that stops the pad from
rotating when the trigger is lifted.
Polishers are offered in the same styles
as disc sanders, but polishers (most often
used for automotive polishing) operate at
lower rpm than sanders. A high-speed disc
sander could easily burn the paint if used
in a polishing operation.
There are non-adhesive sanding disc
pads on the market. Some use a special
textured surface to grip the sandpaper
discs, while others use a metal device
either built into the sanding disc or a sep-
arate nut and bolt system. Other sanders
feature either a hook-and-loop method to
hold the disc in place or an adhesive
backing. Hook-and-loop connections are
good for users who think they will need
to change sanding pads often because
they work on a variety of different proj-
ects. Adhesive connections are better used
in applications where the same pad will
be used for a long period of time.
Detail Sanders
Other sanders are designed to do detail
work such as buffing, scraping, cleaning,
removing rust and polishing surfaces.
Detail sanders come with special heads for
reaching into corners, sanding along a
round surface or sanding with a very pre-
cise edge.
I PLATE JOINER
The plate joiner is designed for making
strong plate joints and hiding joints in
woodwork. Most joiners have top-mount-
ed or side-
mounted sliding
switches and
come with a
dust bag or an
adapter for
hook-up to a
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
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1
3
2
1
3 2
shop vacuum.
They typically feature 4" blades and
operate between 5 amps and 7.5 amps
and 8,000 rpm-10,000 rpm. Some smaller
models feature 2" blades and are used for
fine-detail cabinetmaking or woodwork.
Fence design varies by modethey either
fold down flat or feature a removable
sliding piece.
ROTARY TOOLS
High-speed rotary tools perform a vari-
ety of tasks at speeds up to 30,000 rpm.
A large assortment of accessories is avail-
able for attaching to the base tool, mak-
ing it a cutter, sander, drill, grinder,
engraver or polisher.
These tools are available in single-,
two- and variable-speed models. They
operate on AC, 120V current. A cordless,
two-speed model with a recharger also is
available.
The tools are designed for model mak-
ers, hobbyists and many home repair
applications where attention to detail is
important. Manufacturer literature out-
lines many of these features to help pro-
mote the tools and available accessories.
In recent years, these tools have
gained in popularity because of their
many applications. As a result, manufac-
turers are developing more accessories, as
well as kits with a variety of different
bits and buffing, cutting or sanding
devices included.
I ROTARY CUTTING
TOOLS
Rotary cutting tools are a relatively new
category of power tools that were devel-
oped to speed up the drywall cutting
process. Rotary cut-out tools use a blade
that looks like a drill bit. However, these
bits rotate 360 and slice away material
instead of the up and down ripping
motion of sabre or jigsaw blades.
The main difference between these
tools and traditional saws is that the bits
allow users to plunge directly into the
center of materials, which eliminates the
need for pilot holes. You can also easily
make freehand cuts in any direction and
cut in a tight radius.
Rotary cutting tools generally have an
adjustable depth/base guide that keeps the
tool stable during the cutting process and
allows the user to cut a variety of material
thicknesses up to 1" depth. There are cut-
ting bits available for virtually all com-
monly used building materials. Cutting
bit availability varies by manufacturer.
The majority of these tools use a
collet/nut system to hold the cutting bits,
and some have a keyless chuck.
Features vary by model, but most range
from 3.5 to 5.0 amps and vary in rpms,
with the highest featuring about 30,000
rpms. Electric and cordless models are
available, and there are attachments avail-
able such as circle cutters, flex shafts,
plunge routers and right-angle grinders.
Rotary cutting tools weigh less than 6
lbs. and are easy to control. The spinning
motion of the blade reduces the ripping,
binding and potential jumping of tools in
materials, a major benefit for female
users. Typical uses include cutting outlet
and vent openings in drywall, cutting
sink openings in countertops,
cutting/replacing ceramic wall tiles and
making cut-outs in wood, acrylics, vinyl
and aluminum siding.
Miniature Power Tools
Miniature power tools are ideal for
model making, hobby and craftwork and
a variety of applications where small tools
are needed for precision work. In addi-
tion, many of these tools are excellent for
repair work on TVs, radios, appliances and
toys. A wide selection is available. High
rpm, compact shaping tools can sand,
shape, smooth and polish.
A number of attachments are available,
including sanding discs, rotary cutters,
cut-off and buffing wheels designed espe-
cially for these units. Several other minia-
ture tools such as drills, solder guns, saber
saws and tabletop band saws round out
this line of specialized power tools. Most
of these tools run off 12V DC transform-
ers with 120V AC input. Other accessories
include cigarette-lighter adapters and bat-
tery-operated power packs, allowing maxi-
mum portability and flexibility.
POWER EQUIPMENT
Utility Vacuums
Utility vacuums consist of drum, hose
and motor and pick up dirt, sawdust,
wood chips, metal shavings and other
materials not suitable for regular vacuum
cleaners.
An industrial-type utility vacuum cleans
where ordinary ones cannot. Backpack
versions increase mobility and reach. Dirt
bypasses the motor and empties directly
into the drum to avoid clogging. Wet
models are designed to suck up water as
well as dirt.
Combination wet/ dry vacuums are pop-
ular with consumers. Designed for use
anywhere in the home or garage, these
models range in size from 1 gal. to 50
gals., with motors between 1 hp and 5 hp.
Most models include an automatic shut-
off feature to prevent water overflow.
Conveniently located tank drains make
emptying the wet/dry vacuums easier and
reduce the need to lift the water-filled
unit. Some models feature a pump for
emptying the tank. Accessories include
hoses, filters and extension nozzles.
Generators
Generators are available with engines
that run on gasoline, diesel fuel, liquified
propane (LP) gas or natural gas. Gasoline
is the most common choice. These
engines produce electricity to provide a
portable power source, particularly for
emergency use.
Generators usually include two or three
different outlets or receptacles to operate
12-volt DC and 115-volt AC current as
well as 240-volt AC current. Wattage out-
put ranges from 1,850 watts to 8,000
watts. To select the right generator for
your customers needs, have them total
the wattage of the items to be run at the
same time. This will determine the mini-
mum wattage needed in a generator.
Generators with OHV (Overhead Valve)
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
13
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
14
engines tend to start easier, run quieter,
last longer and produce lower emissions
than non-OHV engines. They also are
more costly than non-OHV engines.
Engines with a cast-iron sleeve will also
last longer. In addition, look for genera-
tors in which the alternator uses ball
bearings instead of needle bearingsit
will be more durable.
Welders
Recently manufacturers have respond-
ed to a consumer demand for d-i-y weld-
ing equipment by developing several
models of consumer welding rigs. Make
sure consumers fully understand the
welding process before taking on any sort
of welding job.
There are primarily two types of
welders: arc and wire feed. Arc welders
are used to weld iron to thin metals up
to 1/4". Wire feed welders, also known as
Mig welders, are used for hobby, work-
shop, home and farm repairs. They weld
steel and aluminum by feeding a length
of wire and argon gas to clean the
metals surface.
Air Compressors
Air compressors are used to power
pneumatic tools such as drills, paint
sprayers and pressure washers. They come
in tank and tankless models.
Compressors are rated depending on
their cubic feet per minute of air volume
output (cfm); their pounds per square
inch of air pressure input (psi); and their
horsepower (hp).
Usually, the higher the rating in any of
these categories, the more versatile the
use of the compressor.
The most important rating is cfm
because it indicates the amount of air vol-
ume needed to operate various tools.
Tools have cfm ratings, and these must be
considered when matching the tool to the
compressor. Larger jobs require higher
cfm ratings. Keep in mind that cfm varies
with temperature, humidity and atmos-
pheric pressure.
The smaller compressors, usually
termed compact or portable compressors,
generally utilize a diaphragm-type com-
pression pump powered by an electric
motor. These compact compressors are
primarily used for inflation or hobby and
light spray painting since their capacity is
more limited than piston-type compres-
sors that have a storage tank. However,
the compact compressors will also run
caulking and glue guns and inflate sports
equipment and low-pressure tires.
Piston-type compressors are designed
like the cylinder/piston mechanism of an
automobile. An electric or gasoline motor
is used to drive the pump unit, which can
have either one or two cylinders, depend-
ing upon the compressors size.
Piston compressors usually offer greater
durability and more work capacity. In the
past, piston-types required lubrication for
the piston and cylinder, but some oil-free
piston compressors with self-lubricating
parts perform as well as or better than
conventional lubricated compressors.
Oil-less compressors may require more
frequent maintenance than oil-bath com-
pressors, but they can run at any angle,
making them handy for roofing jobs.
Gasoline-powered compressors are
desirable for use on farms, where tools
might have to be used away from sources
of electricity.
Pneumatic Equipment
Once confined to commercial use, air
tools are now being used for home appli-
cations. With pneumatic tools, air is used
to power many different types of tools.
Pneumatic equipment also offers long, rel-
atively maintenance-free life.
There are a large variety of air tools
available for woodworking projects and
automotive applications including: drills,
hammers, caulking guns, sanders, sta-
plers, nailers, tackers, impact wrenches,
tire chucks, grease guns and blow guns.
Spray gun kits can also be used with
compressors.
Pneumatic nailers come in different
types according to application such as
roofing, drywall, concrete, finish and
framing. Manufacturers of pneumatic
nailers have been working to reduce the
size and weight of the tools to make
them more user friendly. Magazines are
now angled to enable the user to operate
in tight spaces. Another essential feature
is a comfort or padded grip that dampens
the tools vibration and lessens the
effects of recoil.
Some nailers allow sequential and
bump firing either with interchangeable
triggers or through use of a sensor that
automatically changes to the right mode.
Certain models also incorporate specially
marked nails to make them easy to identi-
fy by building inspectors.
Daily maintenance for most pneumatic
tools includes the addition of several
drops of oil. Some nailers now incorporate
plastic parts that eliminate the need for
piston lubrication, prolonging the life of
the tool. Even though oil-less nailers are
more wear-resistant than the soft rubber
O-rings found in conventional guns, they
still need to be cleaned periodically.
Other factors to consider when choos-
ing a nail gun include ease of loading,
ease of freeing a nail jam, nail-depth
adjustment and whether it has a magazine
with a clear view, a rafter/belt hook, an
adjustable exhaust hood (to keep exhaust
air away from you) or offset handle (for
easy top loading).
Guns designed for shop use come in
models that fire nails, staples, brads or
pins. Specific fasteners are available for
different equipment and applications. A
staples wire gauge and crown width are
related to the desired application. Make
sure the customer uses the fasteners that
are recommended by the equipment
manufacturer.
Framing nailers can use stick nails or
coil nails. Stick-nail guns fire either
clipped-head (which have the largest
capacity) or round-head nails. Nail sizes
range from 1-1/2"-3-1/2".
Roofing nailers can be used to fasten
asphalt and fiberglass shingles, siding or
insulation board.
Finish nailers can be used to install
moulding, trim, paneling, door and win-
dow casings and cabinets. They are typi-
cally 15-gauge or 16-gauge and accommo-
date nail sizes from 1-1/4"-2-1/2".
Brad nailers are designed for firing brads,
a tapered nail with a small head or a slight
side projection instead of a head. Brads
range in size from 5/8"-2". Some brad nailers
can fire brads and crown staples.
A palm nailer is designed for work in
tight spaces. It doesnt fire nail, but rather
operates like a pneumatic hammer to
drive conventional nails with a repetitive
series of blows.
When selling air tools, always recom-
mend that the user wear safety glasses, ear
protection and gloves
POWER TOOL
ACCESSORIES
With below-average margins in power
tool sales, one way to boost department
profitability is to promote high-margin
accessories. Accessories provide many
future sales as a consumers power tool
lives on but attachments are worn out or
lost. In addition, accessories make it pos-
sible for the tool to perform other tasks in
addition to its primary function.
I STATIONARY TOOL
ACCESSORIES
The most commonly sold stationary
power tool is a table saw. Accessories
include miter gauges, clamp attachments,
table extensions, belt and pulley guards,
table inserts, sanding disc attachments,
dado head sets, moulding cutterheads, table
saw stands and casters. A wide variety of
specialty saw blades are also available.
Drill press accessories include mortising
attachments, plug cutters, sanding drums,
auxiliary shafts and drill bit sets.
Band saw accessories include height-
extending kits, rip fences, miter gauges,
clamp attachments, sanding kits and
belts, in addition to a wide variety of
band saw blades.
Radial saws have much the same assort-
ment of blades and dado head sets as do
table saws. They, too, have moulding cut-
terheads, router bits, sanding drums and
sanding attachments.
Lathes come with sets of turning tools,
a series of specialty centers to hold work,
sanding discs, sanding drums, tool rests,
face plates, wood turning duplicator,
geared chucks and screw-on arbors for
mounting buffing wheels.
I PORTABLE TOOL
ACCESSORIES
Drills are by far the most popular
portable power tool, and with the list of
accessories available, the drill becomes one
of the most versatile tools on the market.
Drill Accessories
Among the accessories for power drills are:
Abrasive discs that zip through most
materials, including ceramic tile and hard-
ened steel. They also double as double-
sided sanding discs.
Inexpensive drill and countersink sets
combine both functions into one tool.
Rasps mill, groove, dowel, plane and
bevel cut. In experienced hands, these
tools (in combination with one another)
can create the cuts, chamfering and dow-
eling necessary to manufacture simple fur-
niture and toys.
Flexible shafts connect to the chuck to
accomplish intricate work and reach
seemingly inaccessible areas.
Disc and drum rasps make short work
of coarse sanding jobs.
Buffers polish metal or furniture.
Power reducers and reversers drive screws.
Two-speed right-angle drive changes
work position of the drill and doubles or
halves its speed.
Wire wheels remove rust and paint.
Attachments for paint and rust removal
use flat, non-gouging blades that are
interchangeable and replaceable.
Additional blades can clean and open
cracks in concrete, asphalt and plaster
prior to patching.
Self-priming pumps attach directly to a
drill chuck to use the drill motor as a
power source; connected to a garden hose,
it can deliver up to 250 gallons per hour.
Drill kits may offer a polishing pad, wire
wheel brush, paint mixer and wheel arbor.
Drill stands convert an electric drill to
a bench motor so that work piece can be
brought to the drill for more precise
operation.
Drill guide attachment ensures accura-
cy, automatic depth adjustment and pre-
vents slipping. Also catches dust.
As the drill has changed from simply
being a hole gun to also being a screw
gun, a variety of accessories have been
created including: power b its, speed
reducers, drywall setters and screw
extractors.
Power screwdriver sets and socket sets
are available for variable speed drills;
rotary files for filing and grinding metal;
and grinding wheels for grinding and
shaping metal.
Drill bits come in three primary types:
cobalt, titanium and HSS (high-speed steel).
Cobalt bits are used for drilling into stain-
less steel or other hard metal alloys. HSS
bits are used for a variety of general-purpose
applications including drilling wood, metal
or plastic. While titanium drill bits serve the
same purposes, the harder metal makes the
bits last significantly longer than other met-
als or alloys.
When choosing a bit, make sure the
shank fits the chuck. Hammer drills take
smaller bits with SDS or straight shanks.
Rotary hammers take spline-shank, regu-
lar SDS or large SDS bits.
A twist drill bit is used to drill small
holes in wood and metal. Some are only
used on wood, while special types allow
for masonry, tile, marble and stainless
steel drilling.
Primarily contractors and mechanics use
special bits such as step drills (some with
titanium-nitrate coating that cuts cooler at
high speeds and retains sharpness).
Wood bit extenders and wood-boring
bits drill various sized holes in wood.
Drill stop collar attaches to a drill bit
to prevent the bit from going further
than desired.
Extension bits are extra long for drilling
in hard-to-reach places.
Expansion b its can be adjusted to dif-
ferent sizes.
Auger bits are used to avoid splintering,
and forstner bits are used to prevent the
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
15
drill from following the grain, enabling
flat-bottomed holes.
Spade bits have a flat end used for
drilling up to 2" holes in wood and plastic.
Hole saw bits cut wood, plastic, plaster
and light metals.
Masonry drill b its are for rotary
drilling in block, brick and other mason-
ry materials.
Glass and tile bits are ideal for use
when fastening items to tile.
Brad point bits are ideal for doweling
projects.
A circle and wheel cutter has a cutting
blade attached to a horizontal arm, which
allows for holes up to 7" in diameter.
Chuck keys are often sold as a spare in
case one is lost.
Keyless chuck adapters allow quick
changing of hex shank drill bits. They
attach to standard chucks on electric and
cordless drills.
Keyless chucks can be installed in place
of keyed, on some tools. This can be
determined by the mounting that is used
by the manufacturer (if the mounting of
the keyed chuck is 3/8-24 or 1/2-20).
Drill Bit Sharpeners
Drill bit sharpening is an emerging cat-
egory. Sharpening drill bits extends the
life of drills and drill bits, since bits can
be sharpened many times. And the
sharper the drill bit, the faster and easier
it will be to drill, which puts less stress
on the drill.
Drill bit sharpeners provide precise,
consistent sharpenings every time. They
can sharpen most types of twist drill bits
including standard, masonry, carbide, tita-
nium nitride, cobalt and left-handed.
They do not sharpen brad point bits. By
using a different setting on the drill
sharpener, you can resurface the carbide
tip of a masonry drill bit.
The longer the drill bit, the more times
you can sharpen it. With a 3" bit, you
might get as many as 150 sharpenings.
On average, about 0.020" of drill bit mate-
rial is removed each time a standard steel
drill bit is sharpened, which takes about
one minute.
An adjustable chuck enables the user to
sharpen many different sizes of drill bits.
The 1/2" chuck sharpens bits up to 1/2";
models with a 3/4" chuck can sharpen
bits from 3/32" to 3/4" in size. Some are
factory set for a 118 sharpening angle;
others can sharpen at both 118 and 135
angles and can split the point of the drill
bit as well.
Periodic cleaning and maintenance is
required to keep the drill bit sharpener in
top condition. Each chuck should be
cleaned after 25 sharpenings to remove any
fine metal dust that may have collected
inside. This can be done with compressed
air and a small brush or rag. You generally
get about 200 sharpenings before you need
to replace the grinding wheel.
Saw Accessories
In addition to the variety of specialty
saw blades discussed earlier, accessories
for circular saws include abrasive wheels,
crosscut guides, protractor gauges, rip
guides and carrying cases.
Sabre saws and reciprocating saws can
be fitted with a host of special-purpose
blades to cut metal, plastics, fiberglass and
wood and to make tight scroll cuts.
There are blades that cut on the down-
stroke to minimize splintering in already
installed laminates or paneling and a
scroll-cutting saw blade that cuts in any
direction.
Sander Accessories
Sander accessories are limited to a vari-
ety of abrasive belts, sheets and discs,
along with paint remover, buffing and
polishing attachments.
Router Accessories
Routers will accommodate several acces-
sories; among them:
o Router bit sets that perform functions
such as grooving, slotting, straight cuts
and veining. Bits with titanium coat-
ings can help reduce friction, heat and
residual build-up.
o Plane attachment with arbor and spiral
cutter.
o Hinge butt template kit that positions
router on both door and jamb for mor-
tising.
o Veneer trimming attachment that trims
wood veneers and plastic laminates.
o Edge guides that act like a rip fence to
help guide the router.
o Dust collection systems.
o Other router accessories include moulding
makers, lettering/numbering sets, biscuit
jointer cutters, crafters and pantographs.
V-belts
V-belts sold in do-it-yourself stores fit
into three major categories:
1. Standard light-duty belts for frac-
tional horse-power applications
under 3 hp; generally, home, farm
and commercial machinery.
2. Fractional horsepower belts for 3 to
18 hp for heavy-duty lawn, garden,
snow removal equipment.
3. Special belts for recreational equip-
ment, including snow mobiles, all-
terrain vehicles, mini-bikes.
Be sure to recommend the proper belt
for the customers need by referring to
applications listed in manufacturers cata-
log. Regardless of the specific use for a V
belt, it will have five main parts:
1. Band or coverbias-cut rubberized
fabric that protects interior of belt.
2. Cord ( tensile memb er) provides
strength to carry tension of horse-
power load. Single cord in small pul-
ley diameters; multiple cords in larg-
er belts.
3. Overcordfiller above cord; gives
belt stability during manufacturing.
4. Adhesion gumforms bond between
cord and rubber components.
5. Undercordgives support to keep
cord from distorting under load.
P OWER T OOL S & A C C ESSORI ES
16
CHAPTER SIXTEEN:
HOW EFFECTIVE MERCHANDISING HELPS YOU
EFFECTIVE MERCHANDISING
SAMPLE SALESFLOOR PLAN
MAKE REMERCHANDISING EASIER
PROMOTIONAL ACTIVITIES
PREPARING THE STORE FOR A SALE
SUMMARY
MERCHANDISING
Techniques
16
Copyright 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association
MERC HA NDI SI NG T EC HNI QUES
2
HOW EFFECTIVE
MERCHANDISING
HELPS YOU
By studying this chapter on merchan-
dising and the products you sell, you can
help increase the entire stores sales.
Studying can also help you personallyif
you practice what you learn daily. Good
merchandising:
Makes your selling job easier. Signs, dis-
plays and merchandise arrangements do
much of your selling job for you.
Frees you for genuine selling activities.
Effective merchandising encourages most
shoppers to serve themselves, thus freeing
you to help the big-ticket shopper who
really needs your help.
Increases your sales per customer. Even
when you serve a customer, an attractive
merchandise arrangement will stimulate
extra sales. This boosts your sales per cus-
tomer, which makes your sales record run
well above the national averages.
Raises your total sales. You can only
wait on one customer at a time, but many
customers can serve themselves at the
same time from the displays you build.
Makes retail selling more rewarding.
Rushing around the salesfloor to make
small sales can be frustrating. Effective
merchandising frees you for activities that
challenge your selling skills.
Gives you time to develop new skills.
Self-service displays give you time to
involve yourself with other retailing activ-
ities, which increases the speed of your
raises, advancements and promotions.
These are only a few of the tangible and
personal benefits you gain when you
learn to be a good merchandiser.
I SPECIFIC MERCHANDISING
SUGGESTIONS
Merchandising is not some mysterious
art only a few possess. Merchandising is
daily display activities that almost anyone
can do if he or she works at it.
The effective hardware store or home
center merchandiser:
Puts attractive displays, provided by
manufacturers and wholesalers, to work
for him.
Uses effectively the many point-of-
sale pieces he receives.
Displays related merchandise together
for increased impulse sales.
Features all advertised and promoted
items.
Insures that all displays are neat, well-
stocked and accessible to shoppers.
Makes effective use of feature end or
end-cap displays.
Builds attractive departmental dis-
plays with creativity and imagination.
Prices all items consistently. Updates
all prices when they change. Makes sure
the store is as competitive as possible.
Allocates space to each department in
line with that departments sales.
Identifies all departments with signs
or attractive decor or both.
These are only a few basic merchandis-
ing techniques that hardware stores and
home centers everywhere find highly
effective. Read Do-It-Yourself Retailingand
other magazines for merchandising ideas
and suggestions. Shop your competitors
and other kind of storessupermarkets,
discount chains, specialty shopsto see
what they do right . . . and wrong. Shop
for display ideas you can adapt to your
own salesfloor.
I RELATING SPACE
TO SALES
For maximum sales, the amount of
space a department occupies should relate
to the sales the department generates.
Sometimes a store owner or manager will
let his personal interests color his busi-
ness judgment. Someone interested in
hunting, for example, will maintain a
large gun display although there is little
interest in the market. Keep in mind that
you should display what your customers
like.
If the store allocates too much space to
a department, total sales per square foot
drop. If the store allocates too little space,
it loses sales. The only way to know how
much space you should allocate is to rou-
tinely check the stores record of sales per
square foot for each department.
I SEASONAL EFFECT
ON SALES
The space a store allocates to a depart-
ment must, of course, change constantly.
The seasons affect all departments of a
greater or lesser degree, and in some cases
the change is drastic. For example, the typi-
cal store sells virtually all seed and fertilizer
within about an eight-week period. The
most profitable stores allocate high-traffic
areas to seasonal merchandise, regularly
changing the display with the seasons.
EFFECTIVE
MERCHANDISING
Good merchandising is not simply an
attractive display. Merchandising, to be
effective, makes the entire salesfloor invit-
ing. No store is well merchandised until
all areas of its salesfloor are appealing and
easily accessible to shoppers. Effective
merchandising demands:
A well-planned salesfloor. Assign every
department a specific display area.
Fixtures and accessories designed for
the merchandise they display. Stores waste
much space and lose sales per square foot
when you do not use the correct shelf
profile and accessories for each merchan-
dise category.
Adequate aisle space. The best display
loses selling power if merchandise blocks
the aisles and shoppers cannot reach it.
Inviting displays. A display is more than
merchandise on a fixture. The items must
be clean, the display complete (which
means you have to restock the fixture reg-
ularly) and the backup stock nearby.
Attractive signs and decor. Signs and
decor serve two basic purposes: they cre-
ate a buying and shopping mood and
encourage shopping, and they help direct
shoppers into all areas of your salesfloor.
A continuing, overall inviting shopping
atmosphere. The best display is destroyed
when it does its jobattracts shoppers.
Building an inviting shopping atmosphere
never ends. The only salesfloor that does not
require attention is one without customers.
Study hardware association material on
good display techniques. Read Do-It-
Yourself Retailingeach month; the maga-
zine runs pictures of displays from stores
around the country. And look through
manufacturer literature, a good source of
merchandising and display ideas.
I EFFECTIVE USE OF
END DISPLAY
The displays at the end of each gondola
run, called feature ends or end caps, are
highly effective. As a rule, a feature end
will sell merchandise at least twice as well
as the same display in another location.
The effectiveness, however, depends on:
o The displays attractiveness.
o The merchandises seasonal nature.
o Location in the store.
o Relationship to surrounding merchandise.
o Price.
o How well it has been advertised or pro-
moted.
o Ease of accessibility.
In actual in-store studies conducted by
NRHA, some end displays have moved
merchandise up to eight times as fast as
an identical display just around the cor-
ner. Many manufacturers make special
feature end displays and Do-It-Yourself
Retailingoffers suggestions on how to
build such units. Some basic tips: Dont
crowd . . . Change often . . . feature pro-
moted or seasonal items . . . and keep
them neat and clean.
One effective device is to surround an
audiovisual projector with the product on
an end display so shoppers can see how to
use the item.
I AISLE SPACE
Never crowd the shopper by reducing
aisle space. Remember, no display is effec-
tive unless you leave room for shoppers to
see it. There are three basic aisles in a
hardware store or home center:
Main aisles, where major customer traf-
fic is routed. Normally limited to one or
two aisles from the front to the rear of the
store. Main aisles should be five to six feet
wide. If the store used shopping carts,
main aisles should be wide enough that
carts can meet and pass easily.
Cross aisles, that feed from main aisles
to each side of the store. They are normal-
ly four to five feet wide.
Secondary aisles, run from main and
cross aisles into all parts of the store.
They are usually three to four feet wide.
Display related merchandise on both
sides of an aisle, rather than around a
gondola where the customer can see only
half the merchandise at a time. Cross-aisle
merchandising makes any departments
stock seem more complete.
I EFFECTIVE USE OF
SHELF SPACE
Hardware stores and home centers do
not waste floor space nearly as often as
they waste shelf space on sidewall fixtures
and gondolas. Shelf space is wasted when
a store:
o Overstocks one item while understock-
ing another.
o Fails to refill bins or shelves when the
basic stock is reduced.
o Stocks the same items in several places.
o Uses the wrong shelf profile.
o Does not relate shelf space to customer-
demand fluctuations.
You can increase your productivity
greatlyand your value to the storeas
you learn to use shelf space properly.
For example, it is more effective to mer-
chandise vertically. That is, display similar
goods up and down, on perfboard and
shelves, rather than stretching them out
along a gondola. The shopper can stand
in one spot and pick what he wants. The
display is more attractive and it is a lot
easier to reorder and restock.
Two exceptions to this advice: Pipe fit-
tings are best displayed horizontally by
diameter, vertically by typeLs and Ts.
Also, display bolts this way, horizontally
by diameter, vertically by length.
I WALL-FIXTURE
PROFILES
Although the shelf profile is only one ele-
ment in effective display, it is an important
one. If you use the wrong shelf profile, you
cannot build a display that will generate
maximum sales. The way the shelf is placed
on the fixture is only one element in suc-
cessful merchandising. How you arrange the
merchandise on the shelves is also impor-
tant. Three quick tips:
Show as much as possible. Most large
stores try to avoid backroom stock.
Display the most profitable items
between belt and eye level.
Never display a single item. Use the
good, better, best approach so the shop-
per has a choice of quality.
Adjust the shelves for the merchandise
they display. If they are too far apart you
waste space and the salesfloor looks
understocked. If shelves are too close
together or not set back properly, the
shopper cannot see merchandise on the
lower shelves without bending over.
I GENERAL DISPLAY
SUGGESTIONS
Here are some general tips: First, a pyra-
mid profile, widest shelves at the bottom,
lets the shopper see the most merchan-
dise. Shelves the same width, however, are
best to mass display items the same size
and shape.
Second, never place shelves so close
together that the top shelf hides binned
or boxed merchandise on the lower
shelves. Shelves are for displaynot for
storage. And no top shelf should ever be
wider than those below except on a side-
wall or gondola over six feet high where
the shelf is in fact more for storage than
for display.
I POINT-OF-SALE SIGNS
If you could stand beside a well-
planned display that was loaded with
attractively priced seasonal merchandise
and ask each shopper to buy, you would
sell many of the items every day. You can-
not do this, of course, but a good point-
of-sale sign can. It may not audibly ask
for the purchase, but if done well it will
stimulate extra purchases. An effective
point of sale will:
o Attract the shoppers attention.
o Identify the item or service offered.
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MERC HA NDI SI NG T EC HNI QUES
4
o Describe what the item will do for the
shopper.
o Give the price and any savings.
I VALUE OF DECOR
Decor is more than signs. If done well,
decor will stimulate buying. Decor creates
a favorable impression of your salesfloor,
but it need not be expensive or elaborate.
You can create a buying atmosphere with
low-cost symbols if you select and posi-
tion them correctly.
Money you spend for good decor is an
investment; it makes your store distinct,
attractive and a pleasant place to shop.
I USING DEPARTMENTAL
SIGNS
Departmental signs are different from
decor and point-of-sale signs. They should
be a regular part of your merchandise
arrangement. They help any store, but
they are essential on any salesfloor that is
5,000 square feet or larger.
I BASIC MERCHANDISING
RULES
Here is a summary to help you remem-
ber some of the basic rules this chapter
discussed:
o Display slow-moving and low-priced
items farthest from the customers
reach.
o Always use prime display space for
high-demand, seasonal, impulse, or
promotional items.
o Use point-of-sale signs to call attention
to hot items in each department.
o The best selling height on any display
is between eye and belt level.
o Action, light and color attract attention
to any display.
o No display is fully effective or complete
until the merchandise is priced. And
not only must the items be priced, but
the prices must be consistent.
o If feature displays do not blend with
other displays around them, they may
repel rather than attract.
o Keeping displays neat and well stocked
is one of the most effective tricks in
merchandising. The last thing you
should do every night or the first thing
you should do every morning is move
packages to the front of the shelf; make
your displays look full and neat.
SHOP CONCEPTS
If space on your salesfloor permits, you
can build store traffic and sales by using the
shop concept in certain sections. Both gar-
den and photo shops have proven especially
effective. A shop is a setting which shows
the way the items are used in the typical
home. Shops add color, interest and build
sales and your store image.
Shops sell more than merchandise; they
sell ideas and the desire to own. By simu-
lating a home setting, shops encourage a
buying decision that might be made later
. . . on someone elses salesfloor.
SAMPLE SALES-
FLOOR PLAN
See page 6 for an example of a sales-
floor plan. It presents a format called a
loop layout. It is not typical, but there
is no such thing as an average storenor
should there be. Every salesfloor is differ-
ent because every store carries different
merchandise, sells to different consumers
and serves a different community. This
plan illustrates many of the good mer-
chandising principles this chapter dis-
cussed and several new merchandising
concepts. Study it.
Put some of the ideas to work on your
salesfloor. Improve on these basic ideas by
adapting them to your stores needs. Note
the width of the main aisles and cross
aisles. Consider the plan from the shop-
pers point of view. Think of the way the
traffic flows around the store. You may
not sell what you should in a given
department simply because very few peo-
ple pass through it.
This plan makes it easy to move mer-
chandise onto the salesfloor, into shop-
ping carts, to the point-of-sale terminal,
and into the customers car. The plan will
help you pick up ideas to improve your
salesfloors efficiency and selling efforts.
MAKE REMERCHAN-
DISING EASIER
An effective salesfloor is not attainedit is
maintained. Since the merchandise you sell
and the market and shoppers you serve
change continuously due to changing needs
and interests, it is obvious that you must
remerchandise your salesfloor often. This is a
tremendous chore, but when you plan care-
fully and approach the job in an organized
way, you can do it with a minimum of effort.
Here are five rules:
o List all improvements to be made.
o Assign a priority for each job to be done.
o Secure the merchandising aids you need
to do the job.
o Advise everyone in the store what you
plan and how they may be involved.
o Make each remerchandising project
a merchandising training session
and practice good merchandising
techniques.
PROMOTIONAL
ACTIVITIES
Although hardware stores and home cen-
ters are not as promotional as many retailers,
there is no reason why they cannot beand
the most successful promote regularly.
Why promote at all? Because you want
to attract more people to the store than
would come without the promotion. You
are trying to do two things: maintain
your average sale per customer and
increase the number of sales. The more
shoppers who visit your store, the more
you will sell.
What can a promotion do? A well-
planned sale or promotion:
o Can gain new customers for the store
o Will encourage repeat sales.
o Can counter a competitive move.
o Will introduce new or improved products.
o Can capitalize on seasonal or geographic
advantages.
MERC HA NDI SI NG T EC HNI QUES
5
SAMPLE SALESFLOOR PLAN
o Can reduce excess inventories.
o Can create enthusiasm among the
stores salespeople.
A promotionno matter how well
plannedcannot:
o Turn overpriced merchandise into prof-
itable volume.
o Overcome the impression of a dirty, dis-
organized store.
o Compensate for inadequate advertising.
o Reverse a downward sales trend for any
length of time.
o Overcome an inadequately trained salesforce.
I PROMOTIONAL
OBJECTIVES
Retailers sometimes confuse advertising
with promotion. Advertising is calling favor-
able attention to your store and the products
you sell. The ad announces the promotion
the Anniversary Sale or the Summer-End
Saleit is not the promotion itself. Before
any promotion, there are a number of ques-
tions you should answer.
What are the promotions specific
objectives? What are we trying to accom-
plish? Build traffic? Clear out end-of-sea-
son merchandise? Establish the store as
the place to buy hard-to-find tools?
Announce a new location?
What specifically is the promotion
expected to do?
Who is the target?
What is the competition doing?
Is there a seasonal aspect?
How long ago was the last promotion?
I WHAT PROMOTIONS
CAN WE RUN ?
A hardware store or home center has a
number of promotional opportunities that
many other kind of retailers either do not
have or are not organized to exploit.
For example, you can run a do-it-yourself
consumer show. You can offer clinics on
minor electrical repairs, plumbing repairs,
redecorating, and other subjects. You can
demonstrate new products and new uses for
old products. Many peopleespecially
womenfind a hardware store intimidat-
ing, and unless a shopper knows how to use
a product, he or she will not buy it.
PREPARING THE
STORE FOR A SALE
Your salesfloor should create a sales atmos-
phere. Make it easy for shoppers to identify
the advertised specials with attractive signs
and features display. Use departmental signs
so customers can find what they want with-
out bothering you for simple directions. A
good ad can be wasted if a shopper cannot
find what he wants or if the salespeople are
unprepared or rude.
Clear all the aisles and leave them wide
enough for shoppers to browse without
bumping into each other.
Remember that customers do not really
want products. Its the old joke: No one wants
a drill, but everyone wants a hole. Your adver-
tising will attract two kinds of shoppers, both
of whom want a hole; however, the first kind
of shopper knows what he wantshe wants
fast service. He does not demand a lot of con-
versation and you can serve him best with
complete, well-marked displays.
The second kind of shopper needs help.
Your promotion attracts him to the store, but
he needs help to select the right size, type or
model to buy. You serve this customer best by
providing courtesy and product knowledge.
How else can you prepare the store?
Give shoppers a chance to review your
offers with ad reprints as they enter. Put a
copy in their bags as they check out. Not
everyone who comes into the store during
the promotion knows you are having one:
Tell them about it. Give shoppers a copy
of your ad and encourage them to return
for an item they have overlooked.
Help featured items get more attention with
a counter card that jumps out at a shopper. A
bold headlineAs Advertised or Featured
Itemshould dominate the card with the
items price, the savings involved, and if space
is available, the items picture as it appeared in
the ad. Make one for each featured item. It
gives you a professional look at little expense.
Everyone likes to save money. A sale
price draws customers into a store; howev-
er, many sales are a deception. The
items are not specially priced. Customers
have learned this and have become skepti-
cal of the bargains some stores offer. To
help protect your stores reputation:
o Put a Sale tag on every reduced item.
o Show the regular price and the sale
price so the shopper can see what he
saves by buying during the sale.
o Be sure sale price offers a genuine sav-
ings.
o Make sure that identical items carry
identical prices. When a shopper finds
three different prices on the same prod-
uct, he wonders about the stores pro-
fessionalism at the very least . . . and
the stores morality at the worst.
I SET UP WINDOW
DISPLAYS
To make shoppers and passers-by aware
of your promotion, display your ad and
the featured item in your store window,
when possible, setting up the display
before the ad runs.
I PREPARE YOURSELF
FOR THE SALE
People make the difference between a
successful sale and a flop. The store is not
ready for a promotion until every sales-
person knows what is advertised. They
have to know where the item is located
on the salesfloor, its regular price and its
sale price. And even more important, they
have to know how the value of a sale item
compares to a comparable item at a regu-
lar price.
The shopper may come to the store to
look at the 1/4 drill you advertised, but
he may really need a 3/8 reversing drill.
The salesperson does the customer and
the store a disservice if he does not point
out the more expensive drills benefits. At
the same time, he does not criticize the
drill on sale, and if the customer decides
that is the drill he wants, that is the drill
he is sold.
But to help customers find the best buy,
the salesperson has to know as much as
he can about all the products the store
sells. Read literature, study product tags,
listen to what shoppers say about prod-
ucts, and read all you can about new
products in the trade press.
MERC HA NDI SI NG T EC HNI QUES
6
I PRESALE MEETING
A week before any promotion begins
there should be a meeting with all the
employees, even those who do not work
on the salesfloor. The more everyone
knows about the event the more suc-
cessful it will be. Also, someone unex-
pected may come up with a valuable
suggestion.
At the store meeting you should:
o Find out about the promotion, its goals
and objectives.
o Get a list of advertised items, regular
and sale prices, and location in the
store.
o Find out what times you are to work
and whom you are working with.
o Find out when your area needs to be
ready and what you are expected to do
in your area.
o Get any special assignments such as
window displays, point-of-sale materials
and store decoration you might have.
The goal, as always, is to let everyone
know that the store is running a promotion,
why it is running this promotion at this
time, who is responsible for what, and what
merchandise is going to be on sale.
I BUILD DISPLAYS OF
FEATURED ITEMS
Retailers sometimes ask, Do ads really
sell merchandise?
The answer is probably, No.
Advertising creates an interest in, or a
desire for, merchandisebut this interest
only brings the customer into the store
where he can examine it. The merchan-
dise usually sells itself.
You can help it sell itself when you dis-
play it clearly and attractively. An attrac-
tive display of advertised items:
o Helps the shopper who saw it in the ad
find it quickly and easily.
o Saves you time and effort in helping
shoppers locate the item.
o Lets the shopper who did not see the ad
know that the item is an advertised special.
It is always good to display related
items together . . . even when no one
item is on sale. This tends to increase
impulse sales. The shopper who comes in
for paint may pick up a brush or the
shopper who comes in for a fuse may pick
up a dimmer switch. When you display
related items together in the same general
area you:
Let the shopper compare the sale item
with those of different types and quality.
This helps him understand that the sale
item is really a bargain.
Encourage the shopper to buy nonad-
vertised items. In many cases, a store
makes little or no money on the adver-
tised items. If the shopper buys only the
advertised product, the store probably
makes no profit on the sale. But when
you sell other items at normal margins
you make the promotion pay off.
Do the shopper a favor. In many cases, the
sale item, even though reduced in price, is not
the shoppers best buywhen you display
related items with the advertised special, you
help him make the best choice.
I REPRICE AND RESTOCK
A sale is not a sale unless the items
return to their regular price after the
event. You have deceived a shopper who
comes in to the store for a week-end spe-
cial if he can buy the item at the same
price on Monday. When you fail to
reprice at the end of a promotion:
o You cheat those who bought during the
sale.
o You reduce the stores credibility in the
eyes of the shopper.
o You hurt the stores profits and shop-
pers do not appreciate the low prices.
Repricing after a sale is a chore, but is
absolutely necessary.
As is the restocking of shelves. If your
promotion has been effective, your stocks
are low or totally exhausted. Your display
is disarranged.
If you do not bring stocks back to nor-
mal, with merchandise rearranged,
repriced, and, in some cases, moved back
to its regular location, the store can end
up losing more profits and customers
respect than the promotional effort pro-
duced. Think of it, perhaps, as cleaning
up after the party: often, the better the
party, the more you have to clean up.
I FOLLOW UP AFTER
THE PROMOTION
After every promotion there are a few
things that must be done, follow up on all
rain checks to make sure that every cus-
tomer who wanted a sale item is able to
buy it within a reasonable time. And if
you cannot obtain the same item, offer
the customer a comparable item at the
same sale price. The money you may lose
on these few sales, returns to you a hun-
dredfold in customer goodwill.
Ads and promotions are sales assists. If no
shoppers come into the store, you and every-
one else on the sales team will be out of work.
Shoppers generate sales, sales generate prof-
its, profits generate jobs. Since the store
depends on profits for its existence, and since
profits depend on sales, it follows that the
stores existence depends on shoppers.
Think of a sale or promotion as a mer-
chandising partyyour advertisements
are invitations to people in your commu-
nity to come to the party. It is rude to
invite someone to visit and then not
make him welcome when he accepts the
invitation. In social circles this make you
an outcast. In business circles it makes
you a failure.
SUMMARY
Customers have many choices when
they think of buying something. The
merchandise is seldom the primary rea-
son a shopper selects a particular store.
Many consumers, for example, do not see
any difference between a home center
and a discount store; they tend to see
home centers as a specialized discount
store. One of todays challenges is to
make hardware stores and home centers
look and feel different from discount
chain stores.
Dont be afraid to be creative. Do make
your salesfloor and your store an easy,
pleasant place to shop. In the next
decade the standard performance of the
20th century will not be acceptable . . .
and the outstanding performance will be
only average.
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