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2. Block diagram algebra

Further reading: Modeling, Analysis, and Control of Dynamic Systems, pages 162-170

For the sake of shorter notation, transfer functions are going to be shown in this section as
constants, rather than as functions of s .
But if they were functions of s, F, G, H etc. can simply be replaced by F(s), G(s), H(s) etc. in the
following.

Consider a very general block diagram:



Lets derive

, then from the form of it, you should be able to see what the other transfer functions
should be.
When deriving

, the other inputs (V

2
, V
3
, V
6
) are ignored.

From the block diagram:
(

By eliminating V
4
,

can be determined.

( )

Note that ABDFG is the forward gain from V
1
to V
5
.
Note that BDFHJ is the Open loop gain.

Therefore:






This is always true for single loops, but is more complicated for multiple loops, like the case where
there are outer loops and inner loops. (See my note before, regarding Masons rules.)

Therefore:

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(note the - )

(again note the - )

( - x - = + )

Note that the denominator remained the same the Open loop gain is always taken as the gain of
the loop without the minus of the negative feedback.
The Open loop gain can also be determined by the following alternative rule:
Open loop gain = (Product of all the gains in the loop from a point, all around the loop, back to the
same point)

Whatever rule (in fact they are all really the same) you decide to apply, make sure that you can
determine the Open loop gain correctly.
Also see the examples below.

But what are

and

and

because there is no feedback between V

7
and V
4
or between V
4
and V
5
.

What if the loop is seemingly without a minus, for example?



Then

This can be shown by deriving it from (

.
For this example the Open loop gain = .


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Another method is to add the following two minuses in the block diagram, without really changing
anything:

()

Drawn like this, the Open loop gain is still .
Much more manipulation is possible and often beneficial in block diagrams regarding analysis,
without changing the overall functioning.

Moving gains around:

Consider the following example.



Regarding

and

, this is the same as:

Very important: Note that the open loop gain did not change.
Whenever block diagram manipulation results in a different open loop gain, it is not a valid
manipulation.

But V
4
shown here is not the same as V
2
in the previous block diagram.

Own work: By inspection, write down

and

, and see that they are different.

Part of the answer:

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Consider the following multiple loop (outer loop with inner loop):

In similar cases like this example, it is not recommended that you try to write down the final answer
from inspection.
Rather work through a few steps, like shown here.

Another method is to manipulate the block diagram into a format that writing the required transfer
function by inspection is possible.
The following block diagrams that are equivalent to the one above demonstrate this method.







These last two are the same because

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The following diagram follows directly from the previous one.

, which is the same as the previous result as it should be.

In both these methods, the aim is to get rid of the inner loop so that one ends up with an equivalent
single loop, and from this single loop, the required transfer function can almost straightforward be
written down by applying:




Bad terminology, but tradition overrules:

Although it would have been nice if with gain a constant (not a function of s) were meant, it is
unfortunately not always the case. So gain and transfer are used interchangeably.
Later on we will look for example at the gain of a filter at a specific frequency so trying to let gain
always be a constant, is not on.


Adding gains:
Gains must often be added to control loops to represent scaling in sensors, in command inputs etc.
In the case of scaling of the command input, it means the closed loop gain, like

in the diagram
below, will change.
But it is imperative to do this without changing the loops main characteristics after its control loop
has been designed, for example the open loop gain must not change.

Consider the following example, where it is assumed that it is an already stable designed control
loop:

, if KGH >> 1 (>> means much greater than)

Provided that G and H are linear, this will be the same as:


except for

, which must, lets say due to specification be changed to have a gain of k

1
.
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Note that the open loop gain was kept the same:

is still equal to KGH.

Now

, if KGH >> 1 (which is the assumption)

And this must be equal to k
1
, as per given specification.

Therefore:


Check:

, if KGH >> 1 .
k
1
would have been determined by the overall

transfer specification.

But the very important matter is that the open loop gain was not allowed to change.


Linear and non-linear:


A transfer function, for example G or G(s), is linear when

or

() is independent of the
amplitude of the input V
1
. If not, it is non-linear.

Much of the previous block diagram manipulation is strictly speaking not valid when non-linear
functions are part of the loop, but it can often still be done because it is still approximately valid.

Control design is often initially done as if all transfers were linear, but then later on fine-tuned for
specific ranges of input amplitude.

In advanced control, automatic parameter adjustment is possible to cater for non-linearities, but this
falls outside the scope of this course.



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Two transforms:

Two transforms are very important when dealing with control systems:
The Laplace transform or s-transform; and
The z-transform.

The s-transform is used when dealing with analogue systems, including motors, gearboxes,
dynamics, analogue electronics and analogue control components.
s-transforms are used to represent:
Time wise continuous signals; and
Linear, time invariant transfer functions

The z-transform is used when dealing with digital systems, like filters, compensators and algorithms
implemented in micro-computers.
z-transforms are used to represent:
Discrete (sampled) signals; and
Discrete, time invariant transfer functions

Both transforms are powerful in doing analyses.