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Aristotle Prep

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1) Number Properties


i) Integers

Numbers, such as -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3, that have no fractional part. Integers include
the counting numbers (1, 2, 3, ), their negative counterparts (-1, -2, -3, ), and
0.


ii) Whole & Natural Numbers

The terms from 0,1,2,3,.. are known as Whole numbers. Natural numbers do not
include 0.


iii) Factors

Positive integers that divide evenly into an integer. Factors are equal to or
smaller than the integer in question. 12 is a factor of 12, as are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6.


iv) Factor Foundation Rule

If a is a factor of b, and b is a factor of c, then a is also a factor of c. For
example, 3 is a factor of 9 and 9 is a factor of 81. Therefore, 3 is also a factor of
81.


v) Multiples

Multiples are integers formed by multiplying some integer by any other integer.
For example, 6 is a multiple of 3 (2 * 3), as are 12 (4 * 3), 18 (6 * 3), etc. In
addition 3 is also a multiple of itself i.e. 3 (1*3). Think of multiples as equal to
or larger than the integer in question


vi) Prime Numbers

A positive integer with exactly two factors: 1 and itself. The number 1 does not
qualify as prime because it has only one factor, not two. The number 2 is the
smallest prime number; it is also the only even prime number. The numbers 2, 3,
5, 7, 11, 13 etc. are prime.


vii) Prime Factorization

Prime factorization is a way to express any number as a product of prime
numbers. For example, the prime factorization of 30 is 2 * 3 * 5. Prime
factorization is useful in answering questions about divisibility.


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viii) Greatest Common Factor

Greatest Common FACTOR refers to the largest factor of two (or more)
integers. Factors will be equal to or smaller than the starting integers. The GCF
of 12 and 30 is 6 because 6 is the largest number that goes into both 12 and 30.


viii) Least Common Multiple (LCM)

Least Common Multiple refers to the smallest multiple of two (or more)
integers. Multiples will be equal to or larger than the starting integers. The
LCM of 6 and 15 is 30 because 30 is the smallest number that both 6 and 15 go
into.


ix) Odd & Even Numbers

Any number divisible by 2 is even and not divisible by 2 is odd.

Odd & Even number Rules

Function Result
even + even even
even + odd odd
odd + odd even
even - even even
even - odd odd
odd - odd even
even * even even
even * odd even
odd * odd odd
even even anything (even, odd, or not an integer)
even odd even or not an integer
odd even not an integer
odd odd odd or not an integer

Note:
Division rules are more complicated because an integer answer is not always
guaranteed. If the result of the division is not an integer, then that result cannot be
classified as either even or odd.

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x) Absolute Value

The distance from zero on the number line. A positive number is already in the
same form as that numbers absolute value. Remove the negative sign from a
negative number in order to get that numbers absolute value. For example the
absolute value of - 2 is 2.


xi) Positive-Negative Number Rules


Function Result
positive * positive positive
positive * negative negative
negative * negative positive
positive positive positive
positive negative negative
negative negative positive



xii) Product of n consecutive integers and divisibility

The product of n consecutive integers is always divisible by n! Given 5*6*7*8, we
have n = 4 consecutive integers. The product of 5*6*7*8 (=1680), therefore, is
divisible by 4! = 4*3*2*1 = 24.


xiii) Sum of n consecutive integers and divisibility

There are two cases, depending upon whether n is odd or even:

If n is odd, the sum of the integers is always divisible by n. Given 5+6+7,
we have n = 3 consecutive integers. The sum of 5+6+7 (=18), therefore, is
divisible by 3.

If n is even, the sum of the integers is never divisible by n. Given 5+6+7+8,
we have n = 4 consecutive integers. The sum of 5+6+7+8 (=26), therefore,
is not divisible by 4.


xiv) PEMDAS

First, perform all operations that are inside parentheses. Absolute value signs also fall
into this category. In addition, for any expression with fractions, add parentheses
around each distinct fraction.
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Second, simplify any exponents that appear in the expression.

Third, perform any multiplication and division in the expression; if there are more
than one of these, perform the operations from left to right in the expression.

Fourth, perform any addition and subtraction in the expression; if there are more than
one of these, perform the operations from left to right in the expression.




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2) Base & Exponent

In the expression b
n
, the variable b represents the base and n represents the exponent.
The base is the number that we multiply by itself n times. The exponent indicates how
many times to multiple the base, b, by itself. For example, 2
3
= 2 * 2 * 2, or 2
multiplied by itself three times.

Equations that include an exponent are called as exponential equations. When solving
equations with even exponents, we must consider both positive and negative
possibilities for the solutions. For example, for x
2
= 25, the two possible solutions are 5
and -5.


i) Base of Zero

An exponential expression with base 0 yields 0, regardless of the exponent. 0
12
= 0.


ii) Base of One

An exponential expression with base 1 yields 1, regardless of the exponent. 1
12
= 1.


iii) Base of Negative One

An exponential expression with base -1 yields 1 when the exponent is even and -1
when the exponent is odd. (-1)
15
= -1 and (-1)
16
= 1.


iv) Fractional Base

When the base is a fraction between zero and one, the value decreases as the
exponent increases. (1/3)
3
= 1/3 * 1/3 * 1/3 = 1/27, which is smaller than the
starting fraction, 1/3.


v) Compound Base

When the base represents a product (multiplication) or quotient (division), we can
choose to multiply or divide the base first and then raise the base to the exponent,
or we can distribute the exponent to each number in the base. For example (3 * 4)
2

= 12
2
= 144 OR (3*4)
2
= 3
2
* 4
2
= 9 * 16 = 144.


vi) Exponent of Zero

Any non-zero base raised to the 0 yields 1. Eg. 15
0
= 1.





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vii) Exponent of One

Any based raised to the exponent of 1 yields the original base. Eg. 15
1
= 15.


viii) Negative Exponents

Put the term containing the exponent in the denominator of a fraction and make the
exponent positive. For example 4
-2
= (1/4)
2



ix) Fractional Exponents

If the exponent is a fraction, the numerator reflects what power to raise the base to,
and the denominator reflects which root to take. For example 4
2/3
= CUBE ROOT
(4
2
).


x) Simplification Rules for Exponents


Rule Result
3
4
* 3
3
= Add the exponents 3
7

3
4
/ 3
2
= Subtract the exponents 3
2

(3
4
)
3
= Multiply the exponents 3
12




xi) Root/Radical

The opposite of an exponent (in a sense). For example, 25 means what number (or
numbers), when multiplied by itself twice, will yield 25?

Perfect square roots will yield an integer. Eg. 25 = 5. Imperfect square roots do
not yield an integer. 30 is not an integer, but it is between 25 and 36, or
between 5 and 6.


xii) Simplifying Roots

Roots can be combined or split apart if the operation between the terms is
multiplication or division. (4 * 9) = 4 * 9.

Note: If the operation between the terms is addition or subtraction, you cannot
separate or combine the roots! (4 + 9) DOES NOT EQUAL 4 + 9.


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3) Equations & Inequalities


i) Equation

A combination of mathematical expressions and symbols that contains an equals
sign. Eg. 2 + 5 = 7 is an equation, as is x + y = 5


ii) Linear Equation

An equation that does not contain exponents or multiple variables multiplied
together. x + y = 5 is a linear equation whereas x*y = 5 and y = x
2
are not. When
plotted on a coordinate plane, linear equations will give you straight lines.


iii) Simultaneous Equation

These are two or more distinct equations containing two or more variables.


iv) Quadratic Equation

An expression including a variable raised to the second power (and no higher
powers). Commonly of the form ax
2
+ bx + c, where a, b, and c are constants.


v) Special Simplification cases

a
2
b
2
= (a +b) * (a - b)

(a + b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2


(a - b)
2
= a
2
2ab + b
2



vi) Sequence

A sequence is a collection of numbers in a set order. {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, } is an
example of a sequence for which the first five terms are specified (but the sequence
continues beyond these five terms, as indicated by the )


vii) Linear/Arithmetic Sequence

A sequence in which the difference between successive terms is always the same.
A constant number (which could be negative!) is added each time. Also called
Arithmetic Sequence. Eg. {1,3,5,7,....}




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viii) Exponential Sequence

A sequence in which the ratio between successive terms is always the same; a
constant number (which could be positive or negative) is multiplied each time.
Also called Geometric sequence. Eg. {2,4,8,16,.....}


ix) Functions

A rule or formula which takes an input (or given starting value) and produces an
output (or resulting value). For example, f(x) = x + 5 represents a function, where x
is the input, f(x) is read as "f as a function of x" or "f of x" and refers to the output
(also known as the "y" value), and x + 5 is the rule for what to do to the x input. Eg.
f(4) = x + 5 = 4 + 5 = 9.


x) Domain

All of the possible inputs, or numbers that can be used for the independent variable,
for a given function. In the function f(x) = x
3
, the domain is all numbers.


xi) Range

All of the possible outputs, or numbers that can be used for the dependent variable,
for a given function. In the function f(x) = x
3
, the range is f(x) >= 0.


xii) Compound/Composite Functions

Two nested functions which are to be solved starting from the inner parentheses.
For example, f(g(x)) is an example of a compound function and is read as "f of g of
x." Given f(x) = x + 5 and g(x) = 3x, g(x) is substituted first followed by f(x). Eg.
f(g(2)), g(2) = 3*2 = 6 and now f(6) = 6+5 = 11.


xiii) Direct Proportion

Two given quantities are said to be "directly proportional" if the two quantities
always change by the same factor and in the same direction. For example, doubling
the input causes the output to double as well. The standard formula is y = kx, where
x is the input, y is the output, and k is the proportionality constant (or the factor by
which the numbers change).


xiv) Inverse Proportion

Two given quantities are said to be "indirectly proportional" if the two quantities
change by reciprocal factors. For example, doubling the input causes the output to
halve. Tripling the input cuts the output to one-third of its original value. The
standard formula is y = (k/x), where x is the input, y is the output and k is the
proportionality constant