01 - RF and Wireless Fundamentals - 12 Jun 2011

Some Important Wireless Terminology
Module # 2
36
Saturday, June 11, 2011
Some Wireless Terminology
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Non-Line-of-Sight
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Non-Line-of-Sight
Fading
Flat Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
Narrowband Frequency Fade
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Non-Line-of-Sight
Fading
Flat Fading
Narrowband Frequency Fade
Multipath Interference
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Visual LOS must be achieved
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Must be observed from the antenna
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Must be observed from the antenna
Fresnel Zone must be considered
Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS)
Transmitter & receiver antennas having reflectors &/
or absorbers between them
Results in degradation of the received signal power
or fading
Results in degradation of the received signal power
or fading
Types of fading:
Flat Fading
Flat Fading
Flat Fading
Caused by absorbers between 2 antennas
Flat Fading
Frequency dependent
Flat Fading
Frequency dependent
Countered by antenna placement & transmit power
level
Flat Fading
Frequency dependent
Countered by antenna placement & transmit power
level
Caused by reflectors between transmitter & receiver
Results in multipath
Results in multipath
More Frequency Selective Fading
Spectral response dips or fades
Reflections can lead to multipath signals & deep
nulls
Reflections can lead to multipath signals & deep
nulls
Narrowband in Frequency Fade
Null in the frequency response at the transmission
frequency can lose signal
Null in the frequency response at the transmission
frequency can lose signal
Multipath interference can cause
inter-symbol interference
Distortion of the received signal
Signal arrives at receiver at different times
Distortion of the received signal
Signal arrives at receiver at different times
Receiver cannot reliably distinguish between
individual signal elements
Delay Spread
Delay Spread
Delayed multipath signal overlapping with following
symbols
Delay Spread
Delayed multipath signal overlapping with following
symbols
Antenna Basics
Module # 3
46
47
Antennas & Cables
Antenna Basics
Cables & Connectors
Peripheral Equipment
48
Antenna Basics
Antenna function
Radiation patterns
Types of antennas
Antenna parameters
Implementation considerations
Selecting antennas
49
Antenna Function
Focus & absorb radio energy in specific directions,
depending on design (radiation patterns)
Can be tuned to certain frequency ranges
50
Radiation Patterns
The variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an
angular function with respect to the axis
Usually represented graphically in either the
horizontal or vertical plane
May be interpreted as interference by another
receiving antenna
E-Plane Pattern H-Plane Pattern
51
Radiation Pattern Examples
52
Types of Antennas
Currently there are five types of antennas available
from EION Wireless:
Omnis
Yagis
Planars
Parabolic Grids
Parabolic Dishs
Sectorals
8 dBi Omni
@ 915 MHz
12 dBi Omni
@ 2.4 GHz
8 dBi Yagi
@ 915 MHz
53
Omnis & Yagis
21 dBi Dish
@ 2.4 GHz
16 dBi Planar
@ 2.4 GHz
18 dBi Grid
@ 2.4 GHz
54
Planars, Grids & Dishes
TA2305H-2 Horizontal Sector TA2304-2 Vertical Sector
Til-Tek Sectoral Antennas www.Til-Tek.com
55
Sectorals
56
Antenna Parameters
Gain
Beamwidth
Downtilt or Uptilt
Front-to-Back Ratio
Polarity & Cross-Polarization Discrimination
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
57
Gain
Measure of their ability to focus signals in their tuned
band
Achieved by focusing the signal
A higher gain antenna has focused of compressed
the RF energy more in a given direction
58
The Decibel
The unit that measures loudness or strength of a
signal. dBs are a relative measurement derived from
an initial reference level and a final observed level. A
whisper is about 20 dB, a normal conversation about
60 dB, and loud thunder 110 dB. 120 dB is the
threshold of pain.
dBm is referenced to 1 milli-watt. 30 dBm = 1 Watt
(+ 3) dB = 2 times the power.
i.e. 30 dBm = 1 watt, 33 dBm = 2 watts, 36 dBm = 4 watts
(- 3) dB = times the power.
i.e. 30 dBm = 1 watt, 27 dBm = .5 watts, 24 dBm = .25 watts
59
dBd
Antenna Gain must be measured over a known
reference
Expressed in either dBd or dBi
dBd
Antenna Gain with respect to a half-wave dipole
60
dBi
dBi
Antenna Gain referenced over an isotropic radiator
A theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all directions, e.g. the Sun
EION Wireless uses dBi
Conversion factor is: 0 dBd = 2.14 dBi
A 10 dBd antenna will have a dbi gain of 12.14 dBi
61
Beamwidth
How a signal spreads out from an antenna
The range of the reception area
Measured between the points on the beam pattern
at which the power density is half of the maximum
power (often referred to as the -3 dB points)
-3 dB
points
61
Beamwidth
How a signal spreads out from an antenna
The range of the reception area
Measured between the points on the beam pattern
at which the power density is half of the maximum
power (often referred to as the -3 dB points)
62
More Beamwidth
High gain antenna has a very narrow beamwidth &
may be more difficult to align
Focussed beam
Less focussed beam
62
More Beamwidth
High gain antenna has a very narrow beamwidth &
may be more difficult to align
E-Plane
H-Plane
-3dB points
63
TIL-TEK TA-2304-45 Sector
64
Downtilt or Uptilt
Further focuses the signal downward or upward with
respect to the horizon
Tilt may be:
Electrically built into the antenna
Achieved mechanically with mounting gear
Necessary if there is a significant elevation deviation
between the
Remote site(s) & Base site
65
Front-to-Back Ratio (F/B)
Directional antennas focus the signal in a forward
path
Achieved by directing the signal in one direction
Reduces the signal in the opposite direction
Higher gain antenna typically has a greater F/B ratio
Minimal signal here Signal is stronger here
66
Front-to-Back Ratio Example
67
Polarity
Antennas have a polarity associated with them
Antennas are usually vertically or horizontally
polarized
The polarity of all antennas used in a segment must
be the same
68
Cross-Polarization Discrimination
Cross-Polarization Discrimination (XPD) specifies the
amount of signal isolation achieved when the
receiving element is perpendicular to the radiating
element
May be advantageous when
co-locating radio systems
69
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is the voltage
ratio of minimum to maximum across a transmission
line
2.0:1 or less is good in an antenna
Most antennas are 1.5:1
Source of signal loss
70
Implementation Considerations
Absorption
Diffraction
Shadowing
71
Absorption
Antennas mounted too close to soft objects produce
a reduction in signal strength
If a system is installed in Winter, absorption may be a
problem when the trees grow their leaves back
72
Absorption Example
72
Absorption Example
73
Diffraction
When a radio signal reflects or bounces off a solid
object
The amount of diffraction could lead to connectivity
problems if the remaining signal level is too low
These are two types:
Shadowing
Multipath
74
Shadowing
When an antenna is mounted too close to a solid
surface
Or the receive antenna is in a shadowed area
Solution:
Ensure adequate height above structures when mounting
antenna
Mounted too low and too far
from the edge
Mounted high enough & close
enough to the edge
75
Correcting Shadowing
76
Same signal arrives at different times & confuses the
receiver
May be interpreted as interference by the receiver
Can result in bit errors & processing delays
77
TIL-TEK TA-2304-45 Spec.
78
Antenna Specification Sheets
Please visit www.til-tek.com and locate the TA-2408 antenna. It can be found und
er
products by frequency band. It is a 2.4 GHz Planar antenna. Bookmark this specif
ication sheet for use
later.
Frequency Band
Gain
Beamwidth
Cross Polarization discrimination and Front to back ratios.
Impedance
Termination Type
Wind rating and thrust
Weight
Radiation Patterns
79
Cables & Connectors
Cables & connectors introduce some losses into the
system
Greater loss with higher frequency
Longer cable length means a greater dB loss
Connectors introduce 1 dB of loss for the whole run
80
Antenna Cable
EION Wireless recommends LMR 400
For Base station installations or long cable runs, use
cable with very little loss
LMR 600 & 7/8 Heliax cable types are also available
through EION Wireless
Use LMR 400 Ultra-flex cable only for very short
lengths
Cable Type 915 MHz 2.4 GHz 5.7 GHz
LMR 400 0.13 0.22 0.355
LMR 600 0.082 0.144 0.238
1/2 Heliax
(LDF4-50A)
0.073 0.13 0.217
7/8 Heliax
(LDF5-50A)
0.043 0.065 N/A
5/4 Heliax
(LDF 6-50A)
0.032 0.048 N/A
EION
recommends
81
Cable Loss Calculations
The following chart gives the cable loss in dB per
meter
82
Peripheral Equipment
Use lightning suppressors
External bandpass filters (optional)
Peripherals are placed in line using a short patch
cable
2.4 GHz
RF filter
Patch cables Lightning
suppressor
900 MHz
RF filter
83
Peripheral Equipment Examples
Planning an RF Network
Module # 4
84
85
Planning a RF Network
General Network Planning
Planning Considerations
Site Planning
86
General Network Planning
Antenna requirements
Point to Multipoint vs. Point to Point
Appearance, proper gain
Weather conditions
Snow, wind, rain
Grounding requirements
Power requirements
UPS, Battery
Generators
Distance between sites
GPS or topographical maps
Data network requirements
Required Data rates
87
Planning Considerations
Base station site & cabinet location
Antenna orientation & polarization
Antenna mast height requirements
Fade Margin
Cable requirements
88
More Planning Considerations
Security
Passwords
Weather requirements
Power availability
IP information
Weatherproofing
89
Site Planning
General site requirements
Site qualification
Spectrum analysis sweeps
Site plan layout & considerations
90
General Site Requirements
Isolation between all antennas
Physical obstructions are beneficial
Racks provide unit isolation
EMC enclosures
Proper antenna grounding
Ethernet switch/router & cables
UPS backup
91
Site Qualification
Know desired coverage areas
Determine maximum coverage capability for each
sector
Determine isolation available
Determine site room/outdoor installation
92
More Site Qualification
Promote isolation from neighboring Base station
sectors
Anticipate antenna & Ethernet cable runs maximum
lengths
Be mindful of co-located site equipment & antenna
issues
Determine power availability
Require 24 hour access
93
Spectrum Analysis Sweeps
Spectrum sweeps should be performed:
From potential antenna mast placements
At different times of the day
With vertical & horizontal antenna polarization
Document all signal levels & sweep locations
94
Site Plan Considerations
Determine shadowed areas
Avoid interference from adjacent cells
Keep antenna cable losses below 6 dB
Ensure all permissions acquired
Planning an RF Path - Link Budget
Module # 5
95
96
Link Budget Variables
System Gain
EIRP
Antenna Gain
Propagation Loss
Fresnel Zone
Cable Loss
Path Loss
97
System Gain
Bit Error Rate (BER)
Number of bits in error vs. bits actually sent
Target is zero
Generally used to establish Receiver Sensitivity
For example 80 at a BER of 0 x 10-6 1means that the receiver has a 80 dBm receiver
sensitivity
at a 1 bit / million error rate.
System Gain = Transmit Power (dBm) - Receive
Sensitivity (dBm)
Example - Ultima3 RD
System Gain = 21 dBm (TX power) (- 80) (Receiver sensitivity)
System gain = 101 dB
98
Calculating EIRP
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
The power radiating from an antenna
EIRP
= Transmit Power (dBm) - Cable Loss (dB) -
Connector Loss (dB) + Antenna Gain (dBi)
Example
AWE 120-24 has Tx power of 20 dBm
10 Meters of LMR 400 cable has a loss of 2.2 dB @ 2.4 GHz
Assume 1 dB for connector loss including Surge Arrestor
I have selected an dish antenna with a gain of 19 dBi (TA-
2318)
EIRP = 20 dBm - 2.2 dB 1 dB + 19 dBi
EIRP = 35.8 dBm
99
Working with Antenna Gain
dBi or dBd
y dBi = x dBd + 2.14 dB
Directional antennas are best for point-to-point
applications
Example
10 dBd antenna has a gain of 12.14 dBi.
100
Calculating Propagation Loss
Losses through space
Propagation Loss or Attenuation (dB)
.. = Path Loss Constant + 20 log (dKm)
where:
dKm = Distance in Kilometers
92 dB = Path Loss Constant for 900 MHz
100 dB = Path Loss Constant for 2.4 GHz
108 dB = Path Loss Constant for 5.7 GHz
Example
A 10 Km link at 2.4 GHz has a loss of
= 100 dB + 20 Log (10km)
= 100 dB + 20 (1)
= 120 dB
Cable Type 915 MHz 2.4 GHz 5.7 GHz
LMR 400 0.13 0.22 0.355
LMR 600 0.082 0.144 0.238
1/2 Heliax 0.073 0.13 0.217
7/8 Heliax 0.043 0.065 N/A
5/4 Heliax 0.032 0.048 N/A
101
Calculating Cable Loss
Cable loss is pre-determined
Remember connector loss (Generally 1 dB / side)
Professional installer required
dB loss per meter of some common cables
Example:
10 Meters of LMR 600 at 2.4 GHz has a loss of
.. = 10 * .144 dB/Meter = 1.44 dB
102
Calculating Total Loss
Total RF Loss or attenuation throughout system
Total Loss
.. = Tx & Rx Cable Loss + Tx & Rx Connector Loss
+ Propagation Loss
Example.
Base has 10 Meters of LMR 600, remote has 15 Meters of
LMR 400
The link is 20 Km and operates at 2.4 GHz
Total Loss = (10 * .144) + (15 * .22) + (1) + (1) + (100 + 20 Log (20 Km))
.. .. .. = 1.44 dB + 3.3 dB + 2 + (100 + 26)
.. .. .. = 132.74 dB
103
Calculating Fade Margin
Fade Margin
Measure of Signal to Noise.
calculated to compensate for fading in the RF path due to
weather conditions or increased noise.
EION Wireless generally recommends a 15 dB
minimum in environments with no external
interference
Fade Margin
..
.. .. = System Gain + Antenna Gain Total Loss
104
Calculating Fade Margin Scenario
A 2.4 GHz link is required to complete a link of 7 Km (4.2 Miles).
The product being used is the AWE 120-24 which has a Tx
power of 20 dBm and a Rx sensitivity of 81 dB.
The cable required at the Base site will be 15 Meters of LMR
600 (49.2 Feet), and the remote antenna requires 28 Meters
( 91.84 feet) of LMR 600 because it must be placed on a tower
25 Meters high to get proper Line of Site.
Select the proper antennas required to make a non licensed
link in Canada
Loss
Cable Loss = 15 * .144 + 28 * .144 = 2.16 + 4.032 2 (Connector) =
8.2 dB
Path Loss = 100 + 20 (Log 7km) = 100 + 16.9 = 116.9
Total Loss = 116.9 + 8.2 = 125.1 dB
System Gain
System Gain = 20 dBm (-81) = 101 dB
105
Calculating Fade Margin Scenario (Cont)
Select the proper antennas required to make a non
licensed link in Canada
Total Loss (From Previous) = 125.1 dB
System Gain (From Previous) = 101 dB
As the fade margin must be greater at least equal to
15 dB, this means that the antenna gains must be
greater than the 15 dB fade margin.
15 dB </= System Gain + Antenna Gain Total Loss
15 dB </= 101 + Antenna Gain 125.1
15 dB </= Antenna Gain 24.1
15 dB + 24.1 >/= Antenna Gain
39.1 dB </= Antenna Gain, a Til-Tek TA-2418 has 19 dBi of Gain, and a
TA-2424 has 21 dBi of gain = 40 dB of gain, Therefore:
37.1 dB </= 40 dB of gain as provided by the TA-2418 + the TA-2424
106
Calculating Fade Margin Scenario (Cont)
Calculate the fade Margin.
Total Loss (From Previous) = 125.1 dB
System Gain (From Previous) = 101 dB
Antenna Gain From Previous = 40 dB
Fade Margin .. = 101 dBm + 19 dBi + 21 dBi - 125.1 dB
.. .. .. = 15.9 dB This Link will be robust !
EIRP For legal Link
Base EIRP
= 20 (Tx Power) (15 * .144) (Cable Loss) - 1 (Connector) + 19
Antenna Gain
= 20 - 2.16 - 1 + 19 = 35.84 = Lower than 36 dBm OK No license Required
Remote EIRP
20 (Tx Power) (28 * .144) (cable Loss) 1 (Connector Loss) + 21
(Antenna Gain)
= 20 4.032 1 +21 = 35.97 = Lower than 36 dBm OK No license Required
Rx Sensitivity
Frequency (Hz)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
107
Fade Margin with Interference
Rx Sensitivity
Frequency (Hz)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
Noise Floor
107
RF Signal
Rx Sensitivity
Frequency (Hz)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
Noise Floor
107
Line-of-Sight
Fresnel Radius
First Fresnel Zone
108
Fresnel Zone
Radio line-of-sight
No obstructions
109
Calculating Fresnel Zone
Fresnel Radius
= Frequency Specific Constant x (dKm)0.5 + (dKm/8.12)2
where:
dKm = Distance in Kilometers
5.4 = Frequency Specific Constant for 900 MHz
3.4 = Frequency Specific Constant for 2.4 GHz
2.16 = Frequency Specific Constant for 5.7 GHz
Example
The fresnel or area that must be clear of obstructions for a
10 Km link at 5.8 GHz is:
= 2.16 x (10)0.5 + (10/8.12)2
= 2.16 x 3.162 + (1.51)
= 8.34 Meters or 27.35 feet

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Some Important Wireless Terminology

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