Annual Progress Report 2008-09

THEME - III
EXPERIMENT 1
STUDY OF EFFECT OF ASPECTS (N-E-S-W) AND ALTITUDE ON THE
PERFORMANCE OF NATURAL SPRINGS

The ground water resources of India play a major role in the irrigated agriculture;
therefore, expansion of these resources to increase agricultural production received high priority
in the development programs of the country. The area under irrigation by ground water through
wells is continuously increasing and on the contrary, contribution of canals and other sources is
decreasing. However, it is also true that the ground water abstraction by artificial means in
Himalayan and Shiwalik-foothill regions is negligible. Installing deep tube-wells in such regions
is a very difficult and expensive task. Hence, in the mountainous regions, survival of biodiversity
during the lean period of the year entirely depends upon the existence of self draining ground
water aquifers named springs. A spring is a concentrated discharge of groundwater appearing at
the ground surface as a current of flowing water. As mentioned in the previous report of the
project, density of population in the Kumaon Himalaya is very high as compared to Uttar Pradesh,
while the productivity of the land is very less. Water as a natural resource is unevenly distributed
both in space and time.

Due to the sloppy feature of the terrain, all the rainfall water immediately leaves the
Himalaya as runoff. Only those Himalayan Mountains which have enough porosity and water
holding capacity provide water in the form of springs even after the completion of monsoon
season. Moreover, the discharge rate decreases drastically with time. Rainfall showers due to
western disturbances provide certain relief to these life supporting springs. In case, dry span
stretches for a long time, situation becomes worse as happened this year. People can’t think to
irrigate crops as making water available for drinking only is like winning battle. They are
compelled to reduce water consumption, consume unhygienic water, purchase water, and face
social conflicts. Prolonged dry spell adversely affects the grass covered mountain slopes. Due to
grass drying, soil binding action reduces and subsequently huge loss of soil even with the little
rain.

Life span of a spring depends upon the availability of water which further depends upon
the catchment area. Factors which affect the entry of water in the spring catchment area are of
importance to us. As reported in the previous report, recharging depends upon vegetation cover
and the geological and geo-morphological controls in the recharge zones. Lineaments produced
by joints, fractures, and faults play a very significant role on the hydro-geological regime of a
catchment. Type of vegetation and parent rocks play a significant role in changing the quality of
water. But still, the actual role of all factors is unknown to us. In the previous year’s report, study
of seven springs from Kumaon Himalaya located at different altitudes having different aspects
was reported. Their discharge rates were measured fortnightly. Change in trends of the discharge
rate of springs with respect to altitude and aspect were presented from the little data collected. In
the current year, study was further extended and conclusions are drawn. Results obtained in the
study are discussed in the subsequent sections.

STUDY AREA

All the springs taken for study are located in the Kumaon Himalaya. When the study was
started, seven springs named viz. Patwadangar, Barsimi, Kalimath-A, Kalimath-B, Kosi, Kosi
Katarmal and Chaubatia were chosen. But in due course, monitoring of Barsimi and Kalimath-B
springs was stopped. Barsimi spring stopped discharging water after February 8, 2008 and
Kalimath-B after March 15, 2008. In the mean time, we selected one spring having Eastern
aspect. Geographical locations along with the altitudes of all the springs except Barsimi and
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Kalimath-B are mentioned in the Table 5.1. Table also includes the slope steepness of the face
from spring is oozing. Photographs of springs named viz. Patwadangar, Kalimath-A, Kosi, Kosi
Katarmal, and Chaubatia showing water discharging along with their respective catchment areas
are shown in Plates 1-8. Details of the catchments of the respective spring are presented in Table
5.2.

Table 5.1 Altitudes and geographical locations of the springs taken for study.

Sl. No. Name of Spring Latitude Longitude Altitude (m) Slope

1. Kosi N 29° 38.373′ E 79° 37.128′ 1295 Steep
2. Kosi Katarmal N 29° 38.323′ E 79° 36.861′ 1327 Gentle
3. Ranibagh N 29° 17.547′ E 79° 33.075′ 591 Gentle
4. Patwadangar N 29° 20.359′ E 79° 26.810′ 1525 Gentle
5. Kalimath-A N 29° 38.827′ E 79° 40.115′ 1715 Steep
6. Chaubatia N 29° 37.284′ E 79° 27.437′ 2039 Gentle

Table 5.2 Type of vegetation and land use in catchment areas of the springs

Sl. Name of Spring Type of Forest Trees/ bushes Under cultivation/

No. structure
1. Kosi Thin density of Pine trees with thorny Govt. Institute covering
bushes and local grasses. certain area
2. Kosi Katarmal Pine and Oak trees forest Govt. Institute covering
certain area
3. Ranibagh Teak plants at upper catchment with Upper catchment is free
bushes and local grasses at lower from any habitat
elevation
4. Patwadangar Forest trees like Pine and Oak. Approximately 50 % of the
Kalabansa, Bichchu ghas, Lantana Catchment area is under
Cammara, Solanum Spplings, and building structures
Parthenium Sapplings are the local
grasses growing there.
5. Kalimath-A Pine trees at the top of the catchment. No
Grasses are growing at the steep slopes
6. Chaubatia Dense forest having Oak and Deodar Military Cantonment
trees. covering majority of area.
No interference with forest
trees
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EFFECT OF ASPECT

Springs having different aspects were chosen for the study for analyzing its affect. Aspect
wise classification of the springs is shown in Fig. 5.1. From the figure, it is clear that all the
directions are covered for selecting the springs for study. Only those springs are chosen for study,
whose outlet is properly covered to avoid local intervention.

Fig. 5.1 Aspect wise position of the springs

Figure 5.1 clearly shows that most of the springs are having N-W aspect, except Kosi with
N-E, Kalimath-A with S-W and Ranibagh with S-E. In the following discussion, possible reasons
for the typical behavior of the springs are explained.
From the initial investigations, it seems that majority of springs are oozing with N-W
aspect as compared to other directions. But in actuality, non-availability of opportunity is the
answer to the above query and is justified through the Fig. 5.2. It revealed that the major ridges of
the Kumaun Himalaya are mainly along the E-W direction. In other words, springs oozing from
these ridges will have aspect either South or North. Presence of Ranibagh spring with S-E aspect
is another good answer above query. From the figure, it is clear that the Ranibagh spring is oozing
out almost in the East direction and has dense vegetation in its catchment.
It is a well known fact that the Sun facing hill slopes can not retain moisture for longer
time. Presence of moisture is the key to the development of vegetation which will further retain
the moisture and gradually there is an increase in vegetative area. Vegetation on the hill slopes
helps in three ways. First, it reduces the soil erosion; secondly it increases the infiltration capacity
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of the sloppy surface and lastly it reduces the evaporation by shading the soil surface. Vegetation
plays another important role by helping the infiltrated water to ooze out. Few vegetation varieties
penetrate horizontally to greater distances (Fig. 5.4). These roots help the Rocky Mountains to
disintegrate and becoming porous. Increase in porosity with disintegration and decomposition of
these roots makes a track for the stored water to ooze out. On the contrary, bare sloppy or dry
grass covered surfaces are more vulnerable to erosion. While moving in Himalayan regions, I
have seen a number of South aspect regions where there is dense vegetation. Vegetation and
moisture are responsible for each other. Once the cycle starts, aspect effect nullifies.

Plate 1 Patwadangar spring and type of vegetation covering its catchment

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Plate 2 View of vegetation covering Kalimath spring catchment

Plate 3 Kalimath spring

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Plate 4 View of Kosi spring and type of vegetation covering its catchment

Plate 5 View of Kosi Katarmal spring and its catchment

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Plate 6 Chaubatia spring along with the view of its catchment

Fig. 5.2 Major ridges of Kumaun Himalaya

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Plate 7 Ranibagh spring

Plate 8 Vegetation in the upper catchment of the Ranibagh spring

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Fig. 5.3 Location of Ranibagh spring having S-E aspect

Fig. 5.4 Horizontally penetrated root in the sloppy surface of hilly catchment

DISCHARGE RATE VARIATION ANALYSIS

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The selection of the springs for the study purpose was started in the last week of the
September 2007 and actual measurement was started from October 5, 2007 and terminated on
December 19, 2008. Discharge rate of all the springs, taken for study, was recorded fortnightly.
Discharge rate comparison of all the springs is shown in Fig. 5.5.

There is a remarkable difference in the discharge rate and flowing pattern of the Kosi
spring which is oozing very near to Kosi Katarmal. Such a variation can only be possible if both
the springs have different sources. Secondly high discharge rate with smooth pattern of the Kosi
Katarmal spring clearly shows that this spring is artesian. Other than Kosi Katarmal spring,
Ranibagh spring has heavy discharge, but its feeding source is still unknown as discharge
measurements are started only after June 21, 2008. Except these two springs, all other have very
erratic flow throughout the observation period. Kosi spring has not discharged for at least a
month. Discharge variation from maximum to minimum is highest for Patwadangar spring. From
this fact, one conclusion may be drawn that these two springs’ catchments have high hydraulic
conductivity, or in other terms, catchment is having very less retention capacity.

All the springs have shown the discharge variation during the observation period of the
study except Kalimath, which was discharging with exactly same rate. No variation in the
discharge rate of the spring, with time and change in season, is a very strange event. Geology of
the catchment area of the spring is shown in Plate 2. It is evident from the Plate 2 that the
catchment is made from rocks having very low hydraulic conductivity but high retention capacity
(check the dried grasses on the sloppy surface of the hill). On the basis of visual interpretation,
low hydraulic conductivity along with high retention capacity can be attributed to the unchanged
discharge rate of the spring.

Fig. 5.5 Variation in discharge rate of different springs of Kumaon Himalaya

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EFFECT OF ALTITUDE

Springs selected for the study were situated at elevations ranging from 591 m (Ranibagh
spring) to more than 2000 m (Chaubatia spring). Altitude values of all the springs have been
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 5.6.

After critically analyzing, it is found that altitude of the spring did not affect the spring
discharge rate or its perennial behavior.

Fig. 5.6 Diagrammatic representation of altitudes of various springs