A

Paper Presentation

On

Mobile Communications

Submitted by :

Renuka. V.T.
Reg. No: 3PG01EC044
PDIT College, Hospet,
Bellary (Dist), Karnataka.

e-mail : sweetrashmi_4@yahoo.ca
INTRODUCTION
What will computers look like in ten years in the next Century? Most computers will
certainly be portable. How will users access networks with the help of computers or other
communication devices? Definitely by wireless. How will people spend much of their time at
work, during vacation? Many people will be ‘Mobile’ – One of the key characteristics of
today’s society.
Modern aircraft already offers limited network access to passengers and aircraft of the
next generation will offer easy Internet access. Furthermore, think of cars with Internet access
and billions of embedded processors that have to communicate with for instance cameras,
mobile phones, CD-players, headsets, keyboards, intelligent traffic signs and sensors.
The trends mentioned above create an ever-lasting demand for well – educated
communication engineers who understand the developments & possibilities of mobile
communication.
The future will see more and more mobile devices, merging of classical voice and data
transmission technologies and extension of today’s internet application on the mobile and
wireless devices.
New application and new mobile network will bring ubiquitous computing to the mass
market.
A Short History of Wireless Communication:
For a better understanding of today’s wireless systems and development, a short
history of it is essential. This cannot cover all inventions but highlights that have contributed
fundamentally to today’s systems.
The use of Smoke and light signals for communication is mentioned by Polybius,
Greece, as early as 150 BC. Wired communication started with the I commercial telegraph
line between Washington & Baltimore in 1843 and invention and marketing of the telephone
in 1876. The success of wireless communication is certainly with Marconi who gave the first
demonstration of wireless telegraphy in 1895 . The first radio broadcast took place in 1906. In
1915 the first wireless voice was set up between New York and San Francisco just
commercial Radio Station Started in 1920.
One of the I mobile transmitters was on board a Zeppelin in 1911. As early as 1926 the
first TP in a train was available on Berlin – Hamburg line. The first radio for cars was
commercially available in 1927 indeed in 1922 .
1928 was the year of many field trials for TV broadcasting. In 1983 the us STD
advanced mobile phone S/m (AMPS) at 850 mHz. Telephones (TP) at home went wireless
with the std wireless TP in 1984.
The early 1990’s marked the beginning of fully digital systems. In 1991 ESTI adopted
the std digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) for digital cordless telephony (ETSI,
1998) GSM was standardized in a document of more than 5,000 pages in 1991 although
coming later than HIPERLAN in 1997 the IEEE std 802.11 looks like a winner for LAN. 1998
finally marked the beginning of mobile communication using Satellite with Iridium S/m.
Iridium marks the beginning of small and truly portable mobile satellite TP including data
service.
Basically there are two different kinds of mobility user mobility and device
portability. User mobility Ex call forwarding solution known from the telephone or
computer desktops supporting roaming.
Device portability, Ex is mobile phone system.
A Communication device can thus exhibit one of the following characteristics.
• Fixed & Wired : Desktop Computer in an office
• Mobile & Wired : Loptops users carry the laptop from one hotel to the next,
reconnecting to the company’s network via the TP network and a modem.
• Fixed & wireless : In historical buildings, installing network to avoid damage by
installing wires
• Mobile & wireless : No cable restricts the user, who can roam between different
wireless network.

Mobile Communication Basics.

(Signals, Antennas and signal propagation)
Radio transmission starts at several KHz, the very low freq range (VLF). There are
very long waves. Waves in low freq range are used by submarines. The medium freq (MF)
& high freq (HP) ranges are typical for transmission of hundreds of radio stations either as
AM or FM. Short wave are used for radio transmission around the world enabled by
rejection at the ionosphere conventional TV is transmitted in the range of VHF and UHF
bands. VHF & UHF allow for small antennas and relatively reliable connections for
mobile telephony.

Super high frequency (SHF) are used for directed µ wave links and fixed satellite
services in C-band, Ka band, extremely high frequency (EHF) are used by some other
systems.
The next step into higher frequencies involves optical transmission which is not
used only for fibre optic links but also for wireless communication. The most widespread
IR technology infrared data associations (IDA) uses wavelengths of 850 – 900nm to
connect laptops PDAS etc.
Signals:
Signals are the physical representation of data. If users of a communication system
want to exchange data, this is only possible through the transmission of signals. Signals
are functions of time and location. Signal parameters represent the data values. The most
interesting types of sgs for radio transmission are periodic signals, sine waves as carriers.
A typical way to represent signals is in the time domain here amplitude of a signal is
shown verses time. Representations in time domain are problematic if a signal consists of
many different frequencies. Better representation of a signal is the frequency domain, here
the amplitude of a certain frequency part of the signal is shown verses the frequency. A
third way to represent signals is the phase domain. This representation also called phase
state diagram shows the amplitude M of a sign and its phase in polar co-ordinates.

Antennas:
Coupling the energy from the transmitter to the outside world and in reverse, from
the outside world to the receiver. This is exactly what antenna’s do. Antennas couple
Electromagnetic energy to and from space to from a wire or co-axial cable. Real antennas
all exhibit directive effects i.e., intensity of radiation is not same in all directions from the
antenna. The simplest real antenna is a thin centre fed dipole, also called Hertzian dipole.
If an antenna is positioned eg in a valley or between buildings, an omnidirectional
radiation pattern is not very useful. directional atennas with certain fixed preferential
transmission and reception directions can be used. Directed antenas are typically applied
in cellular systems. A more advanced solution is provided by smart antenna’s which
combine multiple antenna elements with signal processing to optimize the rad / reception
pattern in response to the slg environment.

Signal Propagation:-
Wireless communication networks also have senders and receivers of signals. In
wireless network the signal has no wire to determine the direction of propagation. For
wireless transmission the predictable behaviour is only valid is a vacuum having certain
parameters like Transmission range, Detection range, interference range etc. This simple
and ideal scheme led to the notion of cells around a transmitter. Radio transmission has to
contend with out atmosphere, mountains, buildings, moving senders and receivers etc.
Multiplexing:-
Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum or no
interference. For wireless communication, multiplexing can be carried out in four
dimensions: Space, time, frequency and code. The task of multiplexing is to allign space,
time, frequency and code to each communication channel with a minimum of interference
and a max of medium utilization. The term communication channel here only refers to an
association of senders and receivers that went to exchange data.

The code division multiplexing is well suited for present wireless transmission at it
is good protection against interference and tapping. Different codes have to be alligned,
but code space is huge compared to the frequency space and thus assigning individual
codes to each sender typically does not cause any problems.

Modulation:
Digital modulation is required if digital data has to be transmitted over a medium
that only allows for analog transmission. In wireless network the binary bit stream has to
be translated into an analog signal first. The three basic translation methods are amplitude
shift keying, frequency shift keying and phase shift keying. Apart from the translation of
digital data into analog signals wireless transmission requires an additional modulation, an
analog modulation, that shifts the centre frequency of the base band signal generated by
the digital modulation up to the radio carries.

Spread Spectrum:-
These techniques involve spreading the bandwidth needed to transmit data.
Spreading of a narrow band signal is achieved using a special code. Each channel is
allotted its own code, which the receivers have to apply to recover the signal without
knowing the code the signal cannot be recovered and behaves like background noise.
Apart from military uses, the combination of spread spectrum and CDM is becoming more
and more attractive for everyday applications. Direct sequence and frequency hopping are
the two methods of spread spectrum commonly used. Spread spectrum make a
transmission more robust against narrowband interference as the signal is spread over a
larger bandwidth and thus narrowband interference only influences a small fraction of
signal.

Cellular Systems:
Cellular systems for mobile communications implement space division
multiplexing. Each transmitter, typically called a base station, covers a certain area, a cell.
Cell radio can very from tens of metres in buildings and hundreds of metres in cities, up to
tens of kilometers in the country side. The shape of cells are never perfect circles or
hexagons but depend on the environment, on weather conditions and sometimes even on
system load. Typical systems using this approach are mobile communications systems.
Where a mobile stations within a cell around a base station communicates with this base
station and vice versa.

Advantages of cellular systems:

• Higher capacity: Implementing SDM allows frequency reuse. If one transmitter is far
away from another, outside the interference range, it can reuse the same frequencies.
As most mobile phone systems assign frequencies to certain users, this frequency is
blocked for other users. But frequencies are a scarce resource and thus, the no of
concurrent users per cell is very limited. Huge cells do not allow for more users.

• Less transmission Power: While power aspects are not a big problem for base
stations, they are indeed problematic for mobile stations. A receiver far way from a
base station would need much more transmit power than the current few watts.

• Local Interference Only: With small cells, Mobiles stations and base stations only
have the deal with local interference.

• Robustness : Cellular systems are decentralized and thus more robust against failures
of single components. If one antenna fails, this defect only influences communication
within a small area.
Two possible models to create cell patterns with minimal interference, cells are
combined in clusters- one the left three cells form a cluster, on the right side seven cells
form a cluster. All cells within a cluster uses set F1 another cell F2 and the third cell F3.
To reduce interference even further sectorized antennas can be used cells with more traffic
are dynamically allotted more frequencies. This scheme is known as borrowing channel
allocated (BCA)

Medium Access Control:- Medium access control comprises all mechanisms that
regulates user access to a medium using SDM, TDM, FDM or CDM. MAC is thus similar
to traffic regulations in the highway. MAC belongs to layer 2, the data link control layer
(DLC). Layer 2 is subdivided into the logical link control (LLC) layer 2b, and the MAC
layer 2a. the task of DLC is to establish a reliable pt to pt or pt or multi pt connection
between different devices over a wired or wireless medium. Following are the basic MAC
mechanisms.
1. Motivation for a specialized MAC
a. Hidden and exposed terminals.
b. Near and far terminals.
2. SDMA
3. FDMA
4. TDMA- Fined TDM
Classical Aloha
Slotted Aloha
CSMA
Demand assigned multiple access
PRMA
Reservation TDMA
Multiple access with collision avoidance
Polling.
Inhibit Sense Multiple access
5. CDMA- Spread Aloha Multiple access.
1. Motivation for a specialized aloha: The strength of a signal decreases proportionally
to the square of the distance to the sender. The CSMA / CD Mac scheme from wired
network fails in Wireless network. This can be shown by considering Hidden and
exposed terminals and Near and far terminals.
.
a) Hidden and exposed terminals.
Consider a scenario with 3 mobile phones. The transmission range of A reaches B, but not
C. The transmission range of C reaches B but not A. The transmission range of B reaches
A and C i.e., A cannot detect C and vice versa.

A B C
 A starts sending to B, C does not receive this transmission. C also wants to send
something to B and senses the medium. The medium appears to be free, the carrier sense
fails. Thus A is hidden for C and vice-versa. While hidden terminals cause collision, the
next effect only causes unnecessary delay. Now consider the situation that B sends
something to A and C wants to transmit data to some other mobile phone outside the
interference ranges of A and B. C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy.
Thus, C postpones its transmission. But as A is outside the interference range of C waiting
is not necessary causing a ‘collision’ at B does not matter because the collision is too weak
to propagate to A. In this situation C is exposed to B .
b) Near and Far Terminals:
Consider the situation as shown above A and B are both sending with same
transmission power. As the signal strength decreases proportionally to the square of the
distance B’s signal draws the A’s signal. As a result, C cannot receive A’s transmission.

A B C
The near / far effect is a severe problem of wireless network using CDM. All
signals should arrive at the receiver with more or less some strength. Precise power
control is needed to receive all senders with the same strength at the Rx.

2. SDMA : Space Division Multiple Access:-

SDMA is used for allocating a seperate space to users in wireless Networks. A
typical application involves assigning an optimal base station to a mobile phone user. The
mobile phone may receive several base stations with different quality SDMA is never used
in isolation but always in combination with one or more or other schemes. The basis for
the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and sectorized antennas which constitute the
infrastructure space division multiplexing.
3. FDMA: Frequency division Multiple Access:-
FDMA comprises all algorithms allocating frequencies to transmission channels according
to the frequency division multiplexing scheme channels can be assigned to the same
frequency at all time i.e., pure FDM or FDMA combined with TDMA. The latter example
is the common practice for many wireless systems to circumvent narrow band interference
at certain frequencies, known as frequency hopping sender and receiver have to agree on a
hopping pattern, otherwise the receiver could not tune to the right frequency.

9 6 0 M

9 3 5 . 2 M 2 0 0 K h z

2 0 M h z

9 1 5 M

8 9 0 . 2 M

4. TDMA: Time division Multiple access:-

TDMA offers much more flexible scheme, which comprises all technologies that allocates
certain time slots for communication i.e controlling TDMA.
Demand Assigned Multiple Access with explicit reservation

4 1 7 S e c
}

D o w n l i n k U p l i n k

A) Fixed TDM:
The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating time slots for channels in the fixed
pattern. This results in a fixed bandwidth and is the typical solution for wireless phone
systems. MAC is quite simple, as the only crucial factor concerns accessing the reserved
time slot at the right moment. If this is assured, each mobile station knows its turn and no
interference will happen. The fixed pattern can be assigned to the base station, where
competition between different mobile stations that want to access the medium is solved.

B) Classical Aloha:
What happens if TDM is applied without controlling access? This is exactly what
the classical Aloha scheme does, a scheme which was invented at the university of Hawai
and was used in the ALOHANET for wireless connection of several stations. Each station
can access the medium at one time. This is random access scheme, without a central
arbiter controlling access the medium and without co-ordination among the stations. If two
or more stations access the medium at the same time, a collision occurs and the
transmitted data is destroyed.
C) Slotted ALOHA:
In this case, all senders have to be synchronized, transmission can only start at the begin of
a time slot. still access is not co-ordinated. Under the assumption stated above the introduction
of slots raises throughput from 18% to 36% i.e slotted doubles the through put.
D) Carrier Sense Multiple Access:
This is improvement on basic Aloha i.e CSMA. Sensing the carrier and accessing
the medium only if the carrier is idle decreases the probability of a collision. If a hidden
terminals transmit at the same time as another sender a collision might occur at the
receiver. Several versions of CSMA exist. They are non persistent,1-persistent and P-
persistent CSMA. In non-persistent CSMA, stations sense the carrier and start sending
immediately if the medium is idle. If the medium is busy the station pauses a random
amount of time before sensing the medium again and repeating this pattern.
In P-persistent CSMA system nodes also sense the medium, but only transmit with
a probability of P. with the station deferring to the next slot with the probability 1-P, i.e
access is slotted in addition.
In 1 persistent CSMA system, all stations wishing to transmit access the medium
at the same time, as soon as it becomes idle. To create some fairness for stations waiting
for a longer time, back off algorithms can be introduced, which are sensitive to waiting
time as this is done for standard Ethernet.
E) Demand Assigned Multiple Access:
These schemes typically have a reservation period followed by a transmission
period. During the reservation period, stations can reserve further slots in the transmission
period. While, depending on the scheme, collisions may occur during the reservation
period, the transmission period can be accessed without collision. These schemes cause
higher delay under a light load, but allow higher throughput.
Demand Assigned Multiple Access with explicit reservation
C o l l i s i o n

A l o h a R e s e r v e d R e s e r v e d R e s e r v e d A l o h a
A l o h a A l o h a

F) PRMA: Packet reservation multiple access:

An implicit reservation scheme is packet reservation multiple access here slots can
be reserved implicitly. A certain member of slots forms a frame. The frame is repeated in
time is a fixed TDM pattern is applied.
T i m e
R e s e r v a t i o n S l o t
A C D A B A - F
F r a m e - 1

A C D A B A - F
F r a m e - 1

G) Reservation TDMA
Multiple access with collision avoidance (MACA) presents a simple scheme that
solves the hidden problem. Does not need a base station and is still a random access Aloha
scheme but with dynamic reservation. Remember A and C both want to send to B A has
already started the transmission, but is hidden for C, C starts with its transmission, thereby
causing a collision at B. with MACA, A does not start its transmission at once, but sends a
request to send (RTS) first. B receives the RTS that contains the name of sender and
receiver, as well as the length of the future transmission. This RTS is not heard by C and
N m i n i - s l o t sN * K d a t a - s l o t s

R e s e r v a t i o n s f o r
d a t a s l o t s O t h e r s t a t i o n s c a n u s e f r e e d a t a - s l o t s b a s e
a r o u n d - r o b i n s c h e m e
triggers an acknowledgment from B called clear the send (CTS). The CTS again contains
the names of sender and receiver and the length of the future transmission. The CTS is
now heard by C and the medium for future use by A is now reserved for the duration of
the transmission. After receiving a CTS, C is not allowed to send anything for the duration
indicated in the CTS towards B. Thus a collision cannot occur at B during data
transmission and hidden terminal problem is solved provided that the transmission
conditions remain same.
 Similarly exposed terminal problem can also be solved by using MACA.

R T S R T S

C T S

H) Polling:
A scheme withB one master station
Polling is a strictly centralized C and several slave stations. The
master can poll the slaves according to many schemes: round robin, randomly, according to
reservations etc. The master could also establish a list of stations wishing to transmit during a
contention phase. After this pahse, the station polls each station on the list.
I) Inhibit sense multiple access:
A scheme which is used for packet data transmission service cellular digital packet data
(CDPD) in the AMPS mobile phone system also known as digital sense multiple
access(DSMA). Here, the base station only signals a busy a medium via a busy tone on the
downlink. After the busy tone stops, accessing the uplink is not co-ordinated any further.
The base station acknowledges successful transmissions, a mobile station detects a
collision only via the missing +ve acknowledgement. In the case of collisions, additional
back-off and retransmission mechanisms are implemented.

5. DMA: Code Division Multiple Access:

CDMA System use exactly these codes to separate different users in code space and to
enable access to a shared medium without interference.
 A sender “A” want to send data CDMA assigns the following key sequences: Key Ak
= 010011, Sender A Wants to send the bit Ad = 1. Let us assume that we code a binary 0
as – 1, a binary 1 as +1. We can then apply the standard addition and multiplication rules.
 Sender spreads the signal using its key as chipping sequence. Sender then sends the
signal as = Ad * Ak = +1 * (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1) = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1).
 Signal is then transmitted. The signal C is received at a receiver
 The receiver now wants to receive data from sender A and, therefore tunes in to the
code A, i.e As applies code for despreading : C*Ak = (-2,0,0,-2,+2,0)*(-1,+1,-1,-1, +1,+1)
= (2+0+0+2+2+0)=6. As the result is larger than 0. the receiver detects a binary 1.
a) Spread Aloha Multiple Access:
This Scheme is a Combination of CDMA and Medium access of Aloha and also TDMA
SAMA works as follows.
 Each sender uses the same spreading code. The std case for Aloha access is shown
in the upper part of the figure.
C o l l i s i o n

S e n d e r A
N a r r o w

S e n d e r B

APPLICATIONS
Particular application are listed below:
1. Vehicles: Cars can build a local ad hoc network for fast information exchange and
maintain safe distance and speed and avoid accidents. In case of accidents occurring
emergency procedures may be speeded up

2. Emergencies: Emergencies like accidents, heart attacks fires can be better dealt by
advance exchange of information.

3. Business: Today’s typical travelling salesman can access databases at distance places
also.

4. Replacement of wired Networks: wireless networks can also be used to replace

wired networks.

5. Infotainment and more: Wireless networks can provide up-to-date information eg.,
travel guide, concert and games.

6. Location dependent Services:

 Follow on Services
 Location Aware Services:
 Privacy:
 Information Services:
 Support Services:

7. Mobile and Wireless devices: Currently, laptops are considered to be the upper end
of the mobile device range. Some of the mobile and wireless devices graded by
increasing performance are as below:
 Sensor
Embedded Controllers
keyboards, mice, headsets, washing machines, coffee machines, hair dryers.
 Pager
 Mobile Phones
 Personal Digital Assistent
 Palmtop / Pocket Computer
 Note Book / Laptop