This document discusses transportation engineering and transportation modes in India. It provides summaries of past exam questions and answers related to topics like the role of transportation, comparing transportation modes, recommendations of the Jayakar Committee for road development, characteristics of road transport, the scope and functions of transportation systems, and the contributions of the Indian Roads Congress and Central Road Fund to road development in India.
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Civil v Transportation Engineering i 10cv56 Solution
This document discusses transportation engineering and transportation modes in India. It provides summaries of past exam questions and answers related to topics like the role of transportation, comparing transportation modes, recommendations of the Jayakar Committee for road development, characteristics of road transport, the scope and functions of transportation systems, and the contributions of the Indian Roads Congress and Central Road Fund to road development in India.
This document discusses transportation engineering and transportation modes in India. It provides summaries of past exam questions and answers related to topics like the role of transportation, comparing transportation modes, recommendations of the Jayakar Committee for road development, characteristics of road transport, the scope and functions of transportation systems, and the contributions of the Indian Roads Congress and Central Road Fund to road development in India.
1. Discuss the role of transportation in National development. June July 09, Dec 12 Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since every Commodity produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicine needs transport at all stages from production to distribution. In the production stage transportation is required for carrying raw materials like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc. In the distribution stage Transportation is required from the production centres viz; farms and factories to the marketing centres and later to the retailers and the consumers for distribution These above are some of the necessities which make us to use transportation. The importance and adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its economic and social development.
Economic Activity: Two important factors well known in economic activity are: Production or supply and Consumption for human wants or demand.
Social Effects: The various social effects of transportation may be further classified into: Sectionalism and transportation Concentration of population into urban area Aspect of safety, law and order.
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2. Compare road transportation with other modes of transportation. June July 09, June July 11, Dec 12
Three basic modes of transport are by land, water and air. Land has given development of road and rail transport. Water and air have developed waterways and airways respectively. Apart from these major modes of transportation, other modes include pipelines, elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and monorails. Pipe lines are used for the transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles The four major modes of transportation are: Roadways or highways Railways Airways Waterways.
Airways: The transportation by air is the fastest among the four modes. Air also provides more comfort apart from saving in transportation time for the Passengers and the goods between the airports.
Waterways: Transportation by water is the slowest among the four modes. This mode needs minimum energy to haul load through unit distance
Railways: The transportation along the railway track could be advantageous by railways between the stations both for the passengers and goods, particularly for longer distances. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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The energy requirement to haul unit load through unit distance by the railway is only a fraction (one fourth to one sixth) of the required by road. Hence, full advantage of this mode of transportation should be taken for the transportation of bulk goods along land where the railway facilities are available.
Roadways: The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service tone and all. The road or highways not only include the modern highway system but also the city streets, feeder roads and village roads, catering for a wide- range of road vehicles and the pedestrians. This mode has also maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction, time and speed of travel etc. through any mode of road vehicle.
3. What is Jayakar committee and what are its recommendations How is in implemented (June July 09, June July 11, Dec2010 May June 2010, Dec 12)
RECOMMENDATIONS: Over a period after the First World War, motor vehicles using the roads increased and this demanded a better road network which can carry mixed traffic conditions. The existing roads when not capable to withstand the mixed traffic conditions. For the improvement of roads in India government of India appointed Mr. Jayakar Committee to study the situations and to recommend suitable measures for road improvement in 1927 and a report was submitted in 1928 with following recommendations:
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Road development in the country should be considered as a national interest. As the provincial and local government do not have the financial and technical capacity for road development. Extra tax to be levied from the road users as fund to develop road. A Semi-official technical body has to be formed to collect and pool technical knowhow from various parts of the country and to act as an advisory body on various aspects of the roads. A research organization should be instituted at National level to carry out research and development work and should be available for consultation
IMPLEMENTATIONS:
Majority of the recommendations were accepted by the government implemented by Jayakar Committee. Some of the technical bodies were formed such as,
Central Road Fund (CRF) in 1929 Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934 Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in 1950.
4. List the characteristics of road transport ( June July 11, Dec 12)
It is accepted that the fact road transport is the nearest to the people. The passengers and goods have to be first transported by road before reaching a railway station or an airport. It is seen that road network alone could serve the remotest villages of the vast country like occurs. The various characteristics (advantages) and disadvantages of different mode of transport are briefly listed here:
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Roadways:
Advantages:
Flexibility: It offers complete freedom to the road users. It requires relatively smaller investments and cheaper in construction with respect to other modes.
Disadvantages: Speed is related to accidents and more accidents results due to higher speed. Not suitable for long distance travel
Railways
Advantages:
Can transport heavy loads of goods at higher speed Power required per tone is less compared to roadways
Disadvantages Entry and exist points are fixed Requires controlling system and no freedom of movement
Waterways:
Advantages:
Cheapest: Cost per tonne is lowest Possess highest load carrying capacity
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Disadvantages:
Slow in operation and consumes more time Depends on weather condition
5. Describe the scope and functions of transportation Dec 2010
The purpose of a transportation system is to coordinate the movement of people, goods and vehicles in order to utilize routes most efficiently. When implemented, Transportation systems seek to reduce transport costs and improve delivery times through effective timetabling and route management. Periodic re- evaluations and the development of alternative routes allow for timely changes to the transportation system in order to maintain efficiency. standard transportation system will usually feature multiple timetables designed to inform the user of where each vehicle in the fleet is expected to be at any given point in time. These timetables are developed alongside an array of route plans designed to coordinate vehicle movements in a way that prevents bottlenecks in any one location
6. Explain briefly the contribution of the following in road development in India. Indian roads congress, Central road fund. Dec 09, Dec 12
Central Research Fund (CRF):
Central Research Fund (CRF) was formed on 1st March 1929 The consumers of petrol were charged an extra levy of 2.64 paisa/liter of petrol to buildup this road development fund. From the fund collected 20 percent of the annual revenue is to be retained as meeting expenses on the administration of the road fund, road TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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experiments and research on road and bridge projects of special importance. The balance 80 percent of the fund to be allotted by the Central Government to the various states based on actual petrol consumption or revenue collected The accounts of the CRF are maintained by the Accountant General of Central Revenues.
Indian Road Congress (IRC):
It is a semi-official technical body formed in 1934. It was formed to recommend standard specifications. It was constituted to provide a forum of regular technical pooling of experience and ideas on all matters affecting the planning, construction and maintenance of roads in India.
IRC has played an important role in the formulation of the 20-year road development plans in India.
Now, it has become an active body of national importance controlling specifications, guidelines and other special publications on various aspect of Highway Engineering.
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UNIT 2 1. With neat sketches, explain different road patterns June july 09, Dec 10
The various road patterns may be classified as follows:
Rectangular or block pattern: In this, entire area is divided into rectangular segments having a common central business and marketing area. This area has all the services located in the central place. This pattern is not convenient or safe from traffic operation point of view and it results into more number of accidents at intersections. Eg: Chandigarh city.
Radial or star and block pattern: In this, roads radially emerge from the central business area in all directions and between two built-up area will be there. The main advantage in this, central place is easy accessible from all the directions. Eg: Nagpur
Radial or star and circular pattern: In this roads radiate in all the directions and also circular ring roads are provided. Advantages: Traffic will not touch the heart of the city and it flows radially and reaches the other radial road and thereby reducing the congestion in the centre of the city. This ring road system is well suited for big cities where traffic problems are more in the heart of the city. Eg: Connaught place in New Delhi.
Radial or star and grid pattern: It is very much similar to star and the circular pattern expects the radial roads are connected by grids. In this pattern a grid is formed around the central point which is a business centre. Eg: Nagpur road plan. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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Hexagonal pattern: In this entire zone of planning is divided into hexagonal zones having separate marketing zone and central services surrounded by hexagonal pattern of roads. Each hexagonal element is independent. At each corner of hexagon three roads meet
2. What is saturation system of road planning? How is it used to decide the best proposed among several alternative proposals? June July 09
In this system optimum road length is calculated for an area based on the concept of attaining maximum utility per unit length of the road. This is also called as maximum utility system.
Factors to attain maximum utility per unit length are:
Population served by the road network Productivity (industrial and agricultural) served by the road network.
The various steps to be taken to obtain maximum utility per unit length are:
Population factors or units: Since, the area under consideration consists of villages and towns with different population these are grouped into some convenient population range and some reasoning values of utility units to each range of population serve are assigned. Population less than 500, utility unit = 0.25 501 to 1001, utility unit = 0.50
Productivity Factors or units: The total agricultural and industrial products served by each road system are worked out and the productivity served may be assigned appropriate values of utility units per unit weight.
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Optimum Road length: Based on the master plan the targeted road length is fixed for the country on the basis of area or population and production or both. And the same may be taken as a guide to decide the total length of the road system in each proposal.
3 The area of certain backward district in India is 1 8400 KM2 and there are 12 towns as per 1981 census. Determine the length of different categories of roads by third road development plan June July 09, June July 11 Soln:
1. NH in km = 18400/50 = 368km 2. SH in km
a. By area 18400/25 = 736km b. By area and no of towns = 62.5*12 18400/50 = 382km Adopt 736km 3. MDR in km
a. By area 18400/12.5 = 1472km b. By area and no of towns = 90*12 = 382km Adopt 1472km
4. Total length of road network as per 2001 per 100sqm is (NH+SH+MDR+ODR+VR)= 18400*(82/100) = 15088km Length of NH+SH+MDR = 638+736+1472 = 2846km Length of ODR & VR = 15088- 2846 = 12242km
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4. What are the objectives? How do you determine road lengths by 3rd road development plan formulae? June July 11
The third twenty year road plan was prepared by the Road Wing of the Ministry of Shipping and Transport with the active co-operation from a number of organizations and the experts in the field of Highway Engineering and Transportation. This document was released during the 45th Annual Session and the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the Indian Road Congress in February 1985 at Lucknow. Therefore, this plan for 1981-2001 is also called as Lucknow Road Plan.
Salient Features:
Road development is based on the primary, secondary and tertiary road system All the villages with the population above 500 is to be connected with the metalled road Aim is 82km/100 sq km NH will form the main guideline The length of SH and MDR are calculated based on the area of population Town >1500 MDR 1000-1500 ODR Roads should also be built in less industrialized area Long term master plans should be prepared at taluk, district and state levels Existing roads should be improved There should be improved environmental quality and road safety
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5. Explain briefly various types of classification of roads June July 11
Roads are classified based on various aspects namely,
1) Based on the carriage way,
Paved Roads: These roads are provided with a hard pavement course which should be at least a water bound macadam (WBM) layer. Unpaved Roads: These roads are not provided with a hard pavement course of at least a WBM layer. Thus earth roads and gravel roads may be called as unpaved roads.
2) Based on Surface pavement provided
Surface Roads: These roads are provided with a bituminous or cement concrete surfacing. Unsurfaced Roads: These are not provided with bituminous or cement concrete surfacing. Roads which are provided with bituminous surfacing are called as black toped roads and that of concrete are referred to as concrete roads respectively.
3) Based on Traffic Volume:
Heavy Medium Light traffic roads.
4) Based on Load transported or tonnage:
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Class-I or Class-A Class-II or Class-B.
5) Based on location and Function: National Highways (NH) State Highways (SH) Major District Roads (MDR): Other District Roads (ODR): Village Roads (VR)
6. There are three alternate proposals for a backward district shown below. Suggest the order of priority for phasing based on the utility units of 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 for the five population ranges and 1 and 5 per 1000 t of agricultural and industrial products. Dec12
Proposal Total road length km Number of villages served with population range Productivity in (1000 t)
Road R = 270*.5+350*1+82*2+36*4+4*8+300*1+35*5 = 2515/700= 3.59 1 st
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7. Define Master plan and Saturation system. Dec09, Dec 12
Master plan is referred to as road development plan of a city; district or a street or for whole country. It is an ideal plan showing full development of the area at some future date. It serves as the guide for the plan to improve some of the existing roads and to plan the network of new roads. It helps in controlling the industrial, commercial and agricultural and habitat growth in a systematic way of that area. It gives a perceptive picture of a fully developed area in a plan and scientific way.
UNIT 3
1.. Explain briefly any two important surface characteristics influencing highway geometric design. June July 09
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also affects the acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles.
Various factors that affect friction are: Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel), Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc), Condition of the tire (new or old), and Speed and load of the vehicle
Unevenness It affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel consumption and wear and tear of tires. Unevenness index is a measure of TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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unevenness which is the cumulative measure of vertical undulation of the pavement surface recorded per unit Horizontal length of the road.
2. Define right of way. List the factors affecting right of way with dimensions draw a typical cross section of divided highway in urban area June July 09, June July 11, Dec 10,
Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon
The right of way width is governed by:
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Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and road margins. Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the vertical alignment. Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc. Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc. Sight distance considerations : On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the inner side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc. Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance
3. Explain briefly the various factors governing the highway alignment June July 11
The factors governing the highway alignment are as follows
Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should be drawn keeping in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight distance etc. also governs the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve minimum, it may be required to change the alignment of the highway. The alignments should be finalized such that the obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum requirements of sight TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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distance. The design standards vary with the class of road and the terrain and accordingly the highway should be aligned.
Economy: The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three costs i.e. construction, maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The construction cost can be decreased much if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting and filling. Also try to avoid very high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction cost will be very higher in these cases.
Other considerations: various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage considerations, political factors and monotony.
4. Explain atleast two objectives of providing: i) Camber, ii) Shoulders
Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
The objectives of providing camber are:
Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads Sub-grade protection by proper drainage Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface.
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Shoulders
A shoulder are provided along the road edge and is intended for accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck even in wet conditions
5. What is an ideal alignment? Explain with neat sketches, how you will align through a Hill pass, a bridge site and Marshy land Dec 10, Dec 09, Dec 12
The requirements of an ideal alignment are
The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed. The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be provided. It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features. The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.
Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and Permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should be avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be changed.
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Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are to either construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends on factors like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.
Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate town or village nearby. These were some of the obligatory points through which the alignment should pass. Coming to the second category, that is the points through which the alignment should not pass are:
6. In a region with light rainfall, a two lane bituminous road is to be designed. Determine the height of the crown of parabolic camber. Draw the sketch of the chamber board Dec 12
Soln Provide a camber rate of 1 in 33 as the rainfall is heavy rise of the crown w.r.t edges
7.0/2 * 1/33 = 1.06m
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UNIT 4
1 List the factors affecting SSD and OSD. June July 09, June July 11, Dec 12
The factors affecting are as follows Reaction time of the driver Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be split up into four components based on PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are usually combined into a total perception- reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as for easy measurement.
Speed of the vehicle The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed increases, sight distance also increases.
Efficiency of brakes The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency
Frictional resistance between the tire and the road The frictional resistance between the tire and road plays an important role to bring the vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately. Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight distance
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Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less.
2. The design speed of overtaking vehicle is 60 Kmph. The rate of accelerate of the observed vehicle is 3.6 Kmph/sec. The difference in speed between overtaking and overtaken vehicle is 20Kmph. Calculate OSD as per IRC guidelines for a lane with two way traffic. June July 09
3. Calculate the length of transition curve for a plan, the Design speed - 80 kmph Radius of curve 250m. Road width = 7.5 m Maxim allowable rate of super elevation I in 150, Super elevation max introduced to 0.07 Assume pavement is rotated with respect to center line. June July 09
Soln:
1.The length of the transition curve Ls1 in m is
Ls1 = 0.0215v3/ CR = 84.67m C= 80/(75+V) = 0.52
2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation
Ls2 = Ne (W +We) = 150*.07*7.616 = 79.9m
3. By empirical formula
IRC suggest the length of the transition curve is minimum for a plain and rolling terrain
4. List the objects of providing: i) Super elevation ii) Extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves. June July 11, Dec10
Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided at horizontal curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve. Forces acting on a vehicle on horizontal curve of radius R m at a speed of v m=sec2are:
Extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves
Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are: When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels as shown in figure. This phenomenon is called off tracking, and has the effect of increasing the effective width of a road space required by the vehicle.
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Psychological widening
Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is a tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on curves Widening = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening
5. Determine the SSD on a : i) Level road, ii) Down grade of 1 in 120. Take t = 2.5 secs, f = 0.35, V = 50 kmph. June July 11
Soln
a. Level ground
SSD = v*t + v 2 = 13.88*2.5 + 13.88 2 /2*9.81*.37 2gf = 61.23m b. Down grade of 1 in 120.
6. A valley curve is formed when a descending gradient of 1 in 40 meets an ascending gradient of 1 in 30. Design the length of valley curve to fulfill both comfort and headlight sight distance conditions. Take design speed as 100 kmph. Also find the position of the lowest point of valley curve to locate a culvert June July 11, Dec 10
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Soln Sight distance SSD = v*t + v 2 = 27.77*2.5 + 27.77 2 /2*9.81*.35 2gf = 181.73m N= -.058 Comfort condition Ls = NV 3 * 2 =91.28m C
Case 1: Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance (L > S)
= 323.44m Assumption is correct Length of valley curve is 323.44m
Lowest pt of culvert lies at a distance X0 = L sqrt (n1*2N) X0 = 149.7m
7. A NH passing through a flat terrain has a horizontal curve of radius equal to the ruling minimum radius. If the design speed is 100 kmph, calculate the: i) Design super elevation, ii) Extra widening and iii) Length of transition. Make suitable assumptions Dec 10
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Soln:
= 357.9m
Super elevation: e = v2/ 225R = 0.12 take e value of 0.07
Extra widening: = 0.65m Transition curve 1. The length of the transition curve Ls1 in m is
Ls1 = 0.0215v3/ CR = 130.6m C= 80/(75+V) = 0.46
2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation
Ls2 = Ne (W +We) = 150*.07*7.66 = 80.43m
3. By empirical formula
IRC suggest the length of the transition curve is minimum for a plain and rolling terrain
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= 75.44m Adopt 130.6 m as transition curve length
8. Explain, with the help of a sketch, the effect of centrifugal force on a vehicle negotiating horizontal curve Dec 12
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9. Explain briefly the attainment of designed super elevation in practice Dec12, May June 2010 Attainment of super-elevation
Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slope is rotated about the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same plane as the inner half.
Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation There are two methods of attaining super elevation by rotating the pavement Rotation about the center line: The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is depressed and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of super elevation, i.e., by E=2 with respect to the centre
Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as well as the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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Super elevation with respect to the inner edge.
10 A summit curve is formed when an ascending gradient of 1 in 25 meets another ascending gradient of 1 in 100. Find the length or summit curve to provide the required SSD for design speed of 80 kmph May June 2010
UNIT 5 1. Distinguish between bitumen end tar June July 09, June July 11
Bitumen
It has black to dark brown color
It is natural petroleum product
It is soluble in carbon disulphide & in carbon tetrachloride
It has better weather resisting property
Tar
It also has black to dark brown in color
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Tar is soluble only in toluene
It has inferior weather resisting proper
2. Explain the desirable properties of good subgrade soil. June July 09, Dec 10, Dec 12, May June 2010
The desirable properties of soil as a highway material are
Stability Incompressibility Permanency of strength Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground water Good drainage, and Ease of compaction.
The soil should possess adequate stability or resistance to permanent deformation under loads, and should possess resistance to weathering, thus retaining the desired subgrade support. Minimum variation in volume will ensure minimum variation in differential.
3. A plate load-test was conducted on a soaked subgrade using a. Plate diameter of 30 cm. The load values corresponding to the mean settlement dial readings are given below. Determine the modulus of subgrade reaction for the standard plate. June July 11, June July 09, Dec 10
Modulus of subgrade reaction of soil is found as follows
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Plate bearing test
The plate bearing test has been devised to evaluate the supporting power of subgrade or any other pavement layer by using plates of larger diameter. Plate bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of subgrade reaction in the westergardss analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete pavement. In the plate bearing test a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer through rigid plates of relatively large size & the deflection are measurement for various stress values. The deflection level is generally limited to a low value of 1.25mm to 5mm.
Modulus subgrade reaction (k)
K may be defined as the pressure sustained per unit deformation of subgrade at specified pressure level using specified plate size. The standard plate size for finding K value is 75cm dia in same test a smaller plate of 30cm dia is also used (75, 60, 45, 30 & 22.5 cm dia).
4. List the soil classification systems and explain briefly the HRB soil classification system June July 11
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Highway Research Board (HRB) classification of soils This is also called American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) Classification of Revised Public Roads Administration (PRA) soil classification system. Soils are divided into seven groups A-I to A-7. A-I, A-2 and A-3 soils are granular soils, percentage fines passing 0.074 mm sieve being less than 35. A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7, soils are fine grained or silt-clay soils, passing 0.074 mm sieve being greater than 35 percent.
A-1 soils are well graded mixture of stone fragments, gravel coarse sand, fine sand and non-plastic or slightly plastic soil binder. The soils of this group are subdivided into two subgroups, A- 1-a, consisting predominantly of stone fragments or gravel and A-I-b consisting predominantly of coarse sand.
A-2 group of soils include a wide range of granular soils ranging from A- 1 to A- 3 groups, consisting of granular soils and upto 35% fines of A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7 groups. Based on the fines content, the soils of A-2 groups are subdivided into subgroups A-2-4, A-2- 5, A-2-6 and A-2-7.
A-3 soils consist mainly, uniformly graded medium or fine sand similar to beach sand or desert blown sand. Stream-deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand with some coarse sand and gravel are also included in this group.
A-4 soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in nature with liquid limit and plasticity index values less than 40 and 10 respectively A-5 soils are also silty soils with plasticity index less than 10%, but with liquid limit values exceeding 40%. These include highly elastic or compressible, soils, usually of diatomaceous of micaceous character.
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A-6 group of soils are plastic clays, having high values of plasticity index exceeding 10% and low values of liquid limit below 40%; they have high volume change properties with variation in moisture content.
A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils, but with high values of both liquid limit and plasticity index, (LL greater than 40% and P1 greater than 10%). These soils have low permeability and high volume change properties with changes in moisture content
5. Describe how the quality of toughness and hardness of aggregates is evaluated in the lab Dec 10
Abrasion test
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS:2386 part-IV). The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge. Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Figure 2). An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340- 445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates. After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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is called Los Angeles abrasion value. A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions. For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.
Impact test
The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates. Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows. Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows. The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1). Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn't exceed 30 percent. For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent
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6. Explain briefly, how CBR value of given soil is determined May June 2010
This is a penetration test developed by the California division of highway. Forevaluating the stability of soil subgrade and other pavement materials. The test results have been correlated with flexible pavement thickness requirement for highway and airfield. CBR test may be conducted in the laboratory on a prepared specimen in a mould or in situ in the field.
Procedure
CBR test may be performed on undisturbed soil specimens. About 5kgs of soil is taken passing though 20mm IS sieve and retained on 4.75mm IS sieve The soil is mixed with water up to OMC. The spacer disc is placed at the bottom of the mould over the base plate & a coarse filter paper is placed over the spacer disc. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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Then the moist soil sample is to be compacted over this in the mould by adopting either IS light compaction or IS heavy compaction. For IS heavy compaction 3 equal layers of compacted thickness about 44mm by applying 56 evenly distributed blows from 2.6kgs rammer. For IS heavy compaction 5 equal layers of compacted thickness about 26.5mm by applying 56 evenly distributed blows from 4.89 kg rammer. After compacting the last layer, The collar is removed and the excess soil above the top of the mould is evenly trimmed off by means of straight edge (of 5mm thickness). Clamps are removed ant the mould with compacted soil is lifted leaving below the perforated base plate & the spacer disc which is removed. Then the mould with compacted soil is weighed Filter paper is placed on the perforated base plate &* the mould with compacted soil is inverted & placed in position over the base plate. Now the clamps of the base is tightened Another filter paper is placed on the placed on the top surface of the sample & the perforated plate with adjustable stem is placed over it. Now surcharge weights of 2.5 or 5kgs are placed over the perforated plate & the whole mould with the weights is placed in a water tank for soaking such that water can enter the specimen both from the top & bottom. The initial dial gauge readings is recorded & the test set up is kept undisturbed in the water tank to allow soaking of the soil specimen for full 4 days or 96 hrs. The final dial gauge reading is noted to measure the expansion & swelling of the specimen due to soaking.
Then the specimen is clamped over base plate surcharge wts are placed on specimens centrally such that the penetration test could be conducted. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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The mould with base plate is placed under the penetration plunger of loading machine. The penetration plunger is seated +at the centre of the specimen & is brought in contact with the top surface of the soil sample by applying a seating load of 4kgs. The dial gauge for measuring the penetration values of the plunger is fitted in position The dial gauge of proving ring & the penetration dial gauge are set to 0. The load is applied though the penetration plunger at a uniform rate of 1.5mm/min The load reading are recorded at penetration reading 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 7.5, 10 & 12.5mm. In case the load reading starts decreasing before 12.5mm penetration, the max load & the corresponding penetration values are recorded. After the final reading the load is released & the mould from loading machine. The proving ring calibration factor is noted so that load dial gauge value can be converted into the load in kg
CBR at 2.5mm = P1 (kg) x 100% 1370
CBR at 5mm = P2 (kg) x 100% 1370
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7. Explain briefly the desirable properties of road aggregates. Mention the laboratory tests conducted on aggregates May June 2010
Desirable Properties of aggregates are as follows
Strength
The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load. The aggregates which are to be used in top layers of the pavements, particularly in the wearing course have to be capable of with4jnhighs1cssesinaddItion to - wear and tear; hence they should possess sufficient strength resistance to crushing.
Toughness
Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads. Sever impact like hammering is quite move on water bound macadam roads where stones protrude out especially after the monsoons. Durability
Durability The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist disintegration due to the action of weather. The property of the stones to withstand the adverse action of weather may called soundness
Shape of Aggregates
The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve opening through which an aggregate may pass, and not by the shape. Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded cubical, angular flaky or elongated shape of particles. It is e and donated particles will have less strength and durability when compared TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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with cubical angular or rounded articles of the same Stone. Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible. Tests for Road Aggregate
In order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in construction, the Following tests are carried out: (a) Crushing test (b) Abrasion test (c) Impact test (d) Soundness (e) Shape test (f) Specific gravity and water absorption test
8. Enumerate the steps for the determination of modulus of subgrade reaction and for making corrections for plate size and subsequent soaking Dec10
Procedure
At the test site, about 20 cm top soils is removed & the site is leveled & the plate is properly seated on the prepared surface. The stiffening plates of decreasing dia are placed & the jack & proving ring assembly are fitted to provide reaction against the frame. 3 or 4 dial gauges are fixed on the periphery of the palte from the independent datum frame foe measuring settlement. A seating load of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320kgs for 75 dia) is applied & released after a few sec. The settlement dial gauges reading are now noted corresponding to zero load. A load is applied by means of jack sufficient to cause an average settlement of about 0.25mm. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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When there is no perception increase in settlement or when the rate of settlement is less than 0.025mm/min (case of clayey soil or wet soil), the reading of the settlement dial gauge are noted & the avg settlement is found & the load is noted from the proving ring dial reading. The load is then increased till settlement increases to a further amount of about 0.25mm & the avg settlement & load are found. The procedure is repeated till the settlement reaches 0.175cm. A graph is plotted with mean settlement versus mean bearing pressure (load/unit area) as shown in fig.
Bearing pressure settlement curve.
The pressure p (kg/cm2) corresponding to a settlement delta = 0.125cm (obtaines from the graph shown above)
The modulus of subgrade reaction k is calculated from the relation.
K = P kg/cm2 0.125
Correction for smaller plate size
In some cases the load capacity may not be adequate to cause 75cm dia plate to settle 0.175cm. n such a case a plate of smaller dia (say 30cm) may be used. Then K value should be found by applying a suitable correction for plate size. Assuming the subgrade to be an elastic medium with modulus of elasticity E (kg/cm2), the theoretical relationship of deformation (cm) under a rigid plate of radius a (cm) is
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given by
Delta = 1.18Pa E
But, K = P D
Substitute the value of D in K Therefore K = P x E 2.18 Pa K 1.18a
If the value of E is taken as constant for a soil, Then k x a = constant i.e. Ka = ka or K = ka
9. The properties of a subgrade soil are given below: Passing 0.074 mm sieve = 55% Liquid limit = 50% plastic limit = 41% Find group index and classify the soil by HRB classification and discuss the suitability of soil as subgrade material. Dec10
Soln:
LL = 50% PI = LL- PL = 50-41 = 9
GI = 0.2a+0.005ac+.01bd = 0.2*20+0.005*20*10+.01*40*0 = 5.0 Sincle value is 5 soil classification is A- 5(5)
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UNIT 6 1. Explain the following: Modulus of subgrade reaction, Radius of resisting section Radius of relative stiffness June July 11, Dec 12
Modulus of subgrade reaction The modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is used as a primary input for rigid pavement design. It estimates the support of the layers below a rigid pavement surface course (the PCC slab). The k-value can be determined by field tests or by correlation with other tests. There is no direct laboratory procedure for determining k-value. The modulus of subgrade reaction came about because work done by Westergaard during the 1920s developed the k-value as a spring constant to model the support beneath the slab Radius of resisting section Radius of relative stiffness
When load is applied on the pavement surafce certain portion of pavement section resits or regains its original shape after removal load and this portion of slab which resists the deformatiom is called as Radius of resisting section Radius of relative stiffness
2. Explain the significance of ESWL in pavement design June July 11
Equivalent single wheel load
To carry maximum load within the specified limit and to carry greater load, dual wheel or dual tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel load having the same contact pressure, which TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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produces same value of maximum stress, deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at the desired depth. The procedure of finding the ESWL for equal stress criteria is provided below. This is a semi-rational method, known as Boyd and Foster method, based on the following assumptions: equalancy concept is based on equal stress; contact area is circular; influence angle is 45o; and The main significance of ESWL is used to determine the pavement thickness and to analysis the stress distribution behavior of wheel under load. It also provided the intensity of stress with respect to depth of the pavement
3. Design the flexible pavement for construction of new highway for the following data, as per IRC: 37-2001: Number of commercial vehicles as per last count = 1000 commercial vehicles, Period of construction = 3 years, Annual growth rate - 8.0%, Design CBR of soil = 4%, Category of road = national highway, two lane single carriageway, Design life = 10 years, VDF = 2.5, LDF = 0.75 (75%). Calculate the overall thickness and individual layer thickness using pavement design chart. June July 11, Dec10, Dec 12
Soln:
1. Distribution factor = 0.75
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Total pavement thickness for CBR 4% and traffic 7.2 msa from IRC:37 2001 chart1 = 660 mm
Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from Pavement Design Catalogue (IRC:37 2001).
1. Bituminous surfacing = 25 mm SDBC + 70 mm DBM
2. Road-base = 250 mm WBM
3. sub-base = 315 mm granular material of CBR not less than 30 %
4.Distinguish between flexible pavement and rigid pavement. Dec10, Dec 09
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
1. Deformation in the sub grade is transferred to the upper layers 2. Design is based on load distributing characteristics of the component layers 3. Have low flexural strength 4. Load is transferred by grain to grain contact 5. Have low completion cost but repairing cost is high
1. Deformation in the sub grade is not transferred to subsequent layers 2. Design is based on flexural strength or slab action 3. Have high flexural strength 4. No such phenomenon of grain to grain load transfer exists 5. Have low repairing cost but completion cost is high 6. Life span is more as compare to flexible
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5. Determine the warping stresses at the interior, edge and corner in a 20 cm thick C.C. pavement with transverse joints at 8.5 m interval and longitudinal joints at 3.6 m intervals. The modulus of sub-grade reaction k = 6.9 kg/cm3. The temperature differential is 0.6C/cm of the slab thickness. Take a = 15 cm, e = 10 x 10"6/C, E = 3 x I05 kg/cm2, i = 0.15. Dec10, June July 09, May June 2010
Soln
Radius of relative stiffness = 73.79cm Length of the slab = 8.5m = 850cm
6. Briefly explain the design factors to be considered in pavement design May June 2010
Factors affecting pavement design are as follows
Traffic and loading
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.
Contact pressure
The tire pressure is an important factor, as it determines the contact area and the contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered.
Wheel load
The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the Pavement required to ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affects the stress distribution and deflection within a pavement. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice is to convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made simpler.
Repetition of Loads
The influence of traffic on pavement not only depends on the magnitude of the wheel load, but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes some deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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Environmental factors Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause various damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types, temperature and precipitation.
7. Explain the design steps for the design of flexible pavement using CSA method May June 2010
Design procedure Based on the performance of existing designs and using analytical approach, simple design charts and a catalogue of pavement designs are added in the code. The pavement designs are given for subgrade CBR values ranging from 2% to 10% and design traffic ranging from 1 msa to 150 msa for an average annual pavement temperature of 35 C. The
later thicknesses obtained from the analysis have been slightly modified to adapt the designs to stage construction. Using the following simple input parameters, appropriate designs could be chosen for the given traffic and soil strength: Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles; and CBR value of subgrade.
Design traffic
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg) to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information: 1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD 2. Traffic growth rate during the design life 3. Design life in number of years TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF) 5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way.
8. Explain the meaning of ESWL. How is it determined for a dual wheel assembly and what are its applications? Dec 09
To carry maximum load within the specified limit and to carry greater load, dualwheel or dual tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel load having the same contact pressure, which produces same value of maximum stress, deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at the desired depth. The procedure of finding the ESWL for equal stress criteria is provided below. This is a semi-rational method, known as Boyd and Foster method, based on the following assumptions: equalancy concept is based on equal stress; contact area is circular; influence angle is 45o; and
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The main application of ESWL is used to determine the pavement thickness and to analysis the stress distribution behavior of wheel under load. It also provided the intensity of stress with respect to depth of the pavement
9. Calculate the load and temperature stresses at edge regions of a cement concrete pavement using 1RC:58 - 2002 stress equations Dec 09
Wheel load : 51 kN Modulus of elasticity of concrete : 3x10 5 N/mm2 Modulus of subgrade reaction -: 0.06 N/mm2 Radius of contact area : 150 mm C: 0.820 Poisson's ratio of concrete : 0.15 L/l: 5.5 Thickness of pavement: 200 mm Temperature differential of the given location : 18C
Soln:
Edge load stress from the chart is given for h=20cm, k= 6kg/cm2
Se= 27.5kg/cm2
Radius of relative stiffness = 60.8cm Length of the slab = 4.5 m = 850cm
UNIT 7 1. Explain the construction steps of 1) Water bound Macadam; ii) Cement, concrete pavement June July 09, May June 2010, Dec12
Preparation of Foundation for Receiving the WBM course
The foundation for receiving the new layer of WBM may be either the subgrade orsub-base or base course. This foundation layer is prepared to the required grade and camberand the dust and either loose materials are cleaned. On existing road surface, the depressionsand pot-holes are filled and the corrugations are removed by scarifying and reshaping thesurface to the required grade and camber as necessary. If the existing surface is a bituminous surfacing, ftirrows of depth 50 mm and width 50 mm cut at 1.0 m intervals and at 45 degreesto the centre line of the carriageway before laying the Coarse aggregate.
Provision of Lateral confinement
Lateral confinement is to be provided before starting WBM construction. This may be done by constructing the shoulders to advance, to a thickness equal to that of the compactedWBM layer and by trimming the inner sides vertically
Spreading of Coarse Aggregates
The coarse aggregates are spread uniformly to proper profile to even thickness upon the prepared foundation and checked by templates. The WBM course is TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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normally constructed to compacted thickness of 7.5 cm except in the case of WBM sub-base course using coarse aggregate grading no.1 which is of 10.0 cm compacted thickness.
Rolling
After spreading the coarse aggregates properly, compaction is done by a three wheeled power roller of capacity 6 to 10 tons or alternatively by an equivalent vibratoryroI1q the weight of the roller depends on the type of coarse aggregates.
Application of Screenings.
After the coarse aggregates are rolled adequately, the dry screenings are gradually over the surface to fill the interstices in three or more applications. Dry rolling is continued as the screenings are being spread and brooming carried out.
Sprinkling and Grouting
After the application of screenings, the surface is sprinkled with water, swept rolled. Wet screenings are swept into the voids using hand brooms. Ad screenings are applied and rolled till the coarse aggregates are well bonded and firmly set.
Application of Binding Material
After the application of screening and rolling, binding material is applied at a uniform and slow rate at two or more successive thin layers. After each application of binding material, the surface is copiously sprinkled with water and wet slurry swept with brooms to fill the voids.
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Setting and Drying
After final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set over-night. On the next day the hungry spots are located and are filled with screenings or binding material, lightly sprinkled with water if necessary and rolled. No traffic is allowed till the WBM layer sets and dries out.
Cement concrete pavement construction procedure
(i) Preparation of Subgrade and Sub-base
The subgrade or sub-base for laying of the concrete slabs should comply with the wing requirement; that no soft spots are present in the subgrade or sub-base; that the uniformly compacted subgrade or sub-base extends atleast 30 cm on either side of the width to be concreted; that the subgrade is properly drained; that the minimum modulus subgrade reaction obtained with a plate bearing test is 5.54 kg/cm2. over the soil subgrade. In such a case, the moistening of the subgrade prior to placing of the concrete is not required.
ii) Placing of Forms
The steel or wooden forms are used for the purpose. The steel forms are of M.S. channel sections and their depth is equal to the thickness the pavements. The sections have a length of at least 3 m except on curves of less than 45.0 m radius, where shorter sections are used.
(ii) Batching of Material and Mixing
After determining the proportion of ingredients for the field mix, the fine aggregates and coarse aggregates are proportioned by weight in a weight- batching plant and placed into the hopper along with the necessary quantity of TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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cement. Cement is measured by the bag. All batching of material is done on the basis of one or more whole bags of cement.
(iii) Transporting and Placing of Concrete
The cement concrete is mixed in quantities required for immediate use and is deposited on the soil subgrade or sub-base to the required depth and width of the pavement section within the form work in continuous operation.
(iv) Compaction and Finishing
The surface of pavement is compacted either by means of a power-driven finishing machine or by a vibrating hand screed. For areas where the width of the slab is very small as at the corner of road junctions, etc., hand consolidation and finishing may be adopted:
2. Explain the important design step- for longitudinal drains of a road to drain off surface water. June July 11, Dec12, June July 09
Simplified steps for the design of longitudinal drains of a road to drain off the surface water given below: The frequency of return period such as 10 years, 25 years etc. is decided based on finances available and desired margin of safety, for the design of the drainage system. The values of coefficients of run-off C1, C2, C3 etc. from drainage areas A1, A2, A3 etc. are found and the weighted value of C is computed. Inlet time for the flow of storm water from the farthest point in the drainage area to the drain inlet along the steepest path of flow is estimated from the distance, slope of the ground and type of the cover. Figure 11.3 may be used for this purpose. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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Time of flow along the longitudinal drain T2 is. determined for the estimated length of longitudinal drain L upto the nearest cross drainage or a water course and for the allowable velocity of flow V in the drain i.e., T2 = L. The total time T for inlet flow and flow along the drain is taken as the time of concentration or the design value of rain fall duration, T = T1 + T2. The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a convenient bottom width and side slop of the drain. The actual depth of the open channel drain may be increased slightly to give a free board. The hydraulic mean radius of flow R is determined. The required longitudinal slope S of the drain is calculated using Mannings formula adopting suitable value of roughness coefficient n.
3. Explain the construction steps for Bituminous concrete. June July 11
Constructions Steps
Preparation of existing layer: The existing layer is prepared to a proper profile. Pot holes are patched and irregularities are made even. The surface is properly cleaned.
Tack coat or prime coat application: A track coat is applied of thin layer of bitumen binder on the existing layer either using the sprayer or a pouring can. the quantity of application is 40 to 7.5 kg per 10 m2 for black top layer and 7.5 to 10kg per 10 m2 for untreated WBM layer.
Premix preparation: The bitumen binder and aggregates as per recommended gradings are separately heated to the specified temperatures and are then placed in the mixer chosen for the job. The mixing TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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temperature for each grading and the bitumen binder is also specified based on. the laboratory results. A tolerance of 10C is allowed. The mixing is done till a homogeneous mixture is obtained. The mixture is then carried to the site for its placement through a transporter or a wheel barrow.
Placement. The bituminous paving mixture is then immediately placed on the desired location and is spread with rakes to a pre-determined thickness. The camber profile is checked with a template. It may be stated here that a compacting temperature also influences the strength characteristic of the resulting pavement structure. It is therefore required that the minimum time is spent between the placement of the mix and the rolling operations.
Rolling and finishing The paving mix. The rolling is done with 8 to 10 tones tandem roller. The rolling is commenced from the edges of the pavement construction towards the centre, and uniform overlapping is provided. The finished surface should not show separate lines of markings due to defective or improper rolling. The roller wheels are kept damp, otherwise the paving mix may partly stick to the wheels and the finishing may not be good. A variation of 6 mm over 3 m length is allowed in the cross profile. The number of undulations exceeding 10 nun should be less than 30 in 300 m length of pavement
5 Differentiate between seal coat and prime coat June July 11, Dec10
Prime coat:
Bituminous prime coat is the first application of a low viscosity liquid bituminous material over an existing porous or absorbent pavement surface like the WBM base course. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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Tack coat.
Bituminous tack coat is the application of bituminous material over existing Pavement surface which is relatively impervious like an existing bituminous surface or a cement concrete pavement or a pervious surface like the WBM which has already been treated by a prime coat.
6. What is penetration macadam? Describe the method of constructing penetration macadam road, stepwise. Dec10
Penetration Macadam
Bituminous Penetration Macadam or Grouted Macadam is used as a base or binder course. The coarse aggregates are first spread and compacted well in dry state and after that hot bituminous binder of relatively high viscosity is sprayed in fairly large quantity at the top. Construction steps is as follows
Preparation of Foundation for Receiving the WBM course Spreading of Coarse Aggregates Rolling Bitumen application Application of key aggregates Seal coat Finishing Setting and Drying Open to traffi TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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7. Explain the methods of sub-surface drainage to control the seepage flow, capillary rise and water table Dec10, May June 2010, Dec09
Lowering of Water Table
The Highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of subgrade, in order that the subgrade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture. From practical considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept atleast 1.0 to 1.2 m the subgrade. In places where water table is high (almost at ground level at times) the best remedy is to take the road formation on embankment of height not less than 1.0 to 1.2 meter. When the formation is to be at or below the general ground level, it would be necessary to lower the water table.
Control of capillary rise
A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the construction of embankment between the subgrade and the highest level of subsurface water table. another method of providing capillary cutoff is by inserting an impermeable bituminous layer in place of granular blanket
Control of seapage flow
The Highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of subgrade, in order that the subgrade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture. From practical considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept atleast 0.6 to 0.9 m the subgrade TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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UNIT 8 1. Explain the terms : i) BOOT and BOT, Mud pumping, Alligator cracking Bump integrator June July 09, Dec09, Dec10, June July 11
Alligator cracking: This is the most common type of failure that occurs due the the relative movement of pavement materials. this is caused due to the repeated application moving loads resulting in fatigue failure or due to the moisture variation resulting in swelling shrinkage of subgrade and other pavement materials
Buildoperatetransfer (BOT) or buildownoperatetransfer (BOOT) is a form of project financing, wherein a private entity receives a concession from the private or public sector to finance, design, construct, and operate a facility stated in the concession contract. This enables the project proponent to recover its investment, operating and maintenance expenses in the project. Due to the long-term nature of the arrangement, the fees are usually raised during the concession period. The rate of increase is often tied to a combination of internal and external variables, allowing the proponent to reach a satisfactory internal rate of return for its investment. Bump integrator
An Indigenous device developed by CRRI It comprises of a standard pneumatic wheel mounted within a rectangular frame with single leaf spring on either side. Spring dashpots mounted on the leaf spring provide damping for the suspension Integrating unit, mounted on one side of the frame integrates the unevenness in cm. For the measurement It is towed by a jeep at a constant speed of 32 kmph under standard tyre pressure of 2.1 kg/cm2 along the designated TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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wheel path Bumps in cm and corresponding road length in terms of wheel revolution pulses are displayed / recorded on a panel board
2. Explain briefly various highway user benefits. June July 11
The various benefits due to highway improvement may be classified into two categories: (i) quantifiable or tangible benefits in terms of market values and (ii) nonquantifiable or intangible benefits.
Quantifilab1e Benefits
Various benefits which can be quantified include benefits to road user such as reduction in vehicle operation cost, time cost and accident cost. The other benefits include enhancement in land value. These are briefly explained below: Saving in vehicle operation cost is due to reduction in fuel and oil consumption and reduction in wear and tear of tyres and other maintenance costs. A road withsharp curves and steep grades require frequent speed changes; presence of intersections require stopping idling and accelerating; vehicle operation on road stretches with high traffic volume or congestion necessitates speed changes and stopping and increased travel time.
Non-quantable Benefits
The non-quantifiable benefits due to improvements in highway facilities include reduction in fatigue and discomfort during travel, increase in comfort and conveniences and improvement in general amenities, social and educational aspects, development of recreational and medical services, improved mobility of essential services and defence forces, aesthetic values, etc..
3. It is proposed to widen a stretch of a single lane road of length 40km to two lanes at a total cost of Rs.7.5 lakhs per km and the rate of interest is 7.0% TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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per year. The annual cost of maintenance of the existing single lane road is Rs. 10000 per km and that of the improved two lane road is Rs. 14000 per km. The average vehicle operation cost on the existing road is Rs.150 per vehicle-km and that on the improved road is estimated to be Rs.1.20 per vehicle-km. If the present traffic is 2000 motor vehicles per day and by the end of 15 years design period, the traffic is estimated tc be doubles, determine whether the investment on the "improvement of the road is economically viable during the 15 years period June July 11, 09 Soln:
Average traffic during the design period = ( 2000+4000)/2 3000mv/day Average road user cost on existing road per year = 365*40*3000*1.5 = 657laks Average road user cost on improved road per year = 365*40*3000*1.2 = 525.6Laks
Total benefit = 657-525.6 = 131.4Lakhs CRF for n=15 and i=7% 0.10 Improved cost Cr= 7.5*40 = 300Lakhs Present annual cost Cr = 300*.010 = 30Lakhs
4. Explain the various benefits that a road user gets by the improvement of a road May June 2010, Dec 12
The benefits for road user is as follows
Quantifilab1e Benefits
Various benefits which can be quantified include benefits to road user such as TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 62
reduction in vehicle operation cost, time cost and accident cost. The other benefits include enhancement in land value. These are briefly explained below: Saving in vehicle operation cost is due to reduction in fuel and oil consumption and reduction in wear and tear of tyres and other maintenance costs. A road withsharp curves and steep grades require frequent speed changes; presence of intersections require stopping idling and accelerating; vehicle operation on road stretches with high traffic volume or congestion necessitates speed changes and stopping and increased travel time.
Non-quantable Benefits
The non-quantifiable benefits due to improvements in highway facilities include reduction in fatigue and discomfort during travel, increase in comfort and conveniences and improvement in general amenities, social and educational aspects, development of recreational and medical services, improved mobility of essential services and defence forces, aesthetic values, etc..
5. Mention the types and causes of failures in flexible pavement May June 2010
The various types of failures and causes of flexible pavement are as follows
Alligator cracking: This is the most common type of failure that occurs due the the relative movement of pavement materials. this is caused due to the repeated application moving loads resulting in fatigue failure or due to the moisture variation resulting in swelling shrinkage of subgrade and other pavement materials
Consolidation of pavement layers: this type of failure occurs due to the repeated application of load on the wheel path TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 10CV56
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Shear failure and cracking: This failure causes upheaval of pavement materials by forming a fracture or cracking Longitudinal cracking: this is due to frost action and volume changes in subgrade Reflection cracking: this type of failure is seen during overlays when the bottom layer cracks reflects to the top surface
6. Compare the annual costs of two types of pavement structures) WBM with thin bituminous surface at total cost of Rs. 2.2 lakhs per km, life of 5 years, interest at 10%, salvage value of Rs. 0.9 lakhs after 5 years, annual average maintenance cost of Rs. 0.35 lakhs per km and Bituminous macadam base and bituminous concrete surface, total cost of Rs. 4.2 lakhs per km, life of 15 years, interest at 8%, salvage value of Rs. 2.0 lakhs at the end of 15 years ; annual average maintenance cost of Rs. 0.25 lakhs per Ion. May June 2010, Dec 12
Soln: Annual cost of pavement with WBM base and thin bituminous surface
= (2.2 -0.9 CRF) ( i= 0.08, n= 5) + 0.1*0.9+0.35
= 1.3*0.2638+.09+0.35 0.78Lakhs
Annual cost of bituminous pavement
= (4.2 -2.0) CRF ( i= 0.08, n= 5) + 0.08*2+0.25
= 2.2*0.1168+0.16+0.25 0.66 Lakhs Annual cost of bituminous is lower compared to the WBM pavement
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7. Write short notes on: Annual cost method, Benefit - cost ratio method Dec09 Annual cost method
The annual cost of each element of capital improvement is found by multiplying by the appropriate CRF value calculated for the assume life span. The annual cost Cr may be found using the relation
C1 = P. i(1+i)n = P(CRF)
(1+i)n-1
Benefit Cost ratio Method
Principle of this method is to assess the merit of a particular scheme by comparing the annual benefits with the increase in annual cost Benefit cost ration = Annual benefits from improvement Annual cost of the improvement = R R1 H1 - H Where R = total annual road user cost for axisting highway The benefit-cost ratios are determined between alternate proposals and those plans dub are not attractive are discarded. Then the benefit cost ratios for various increments of added investment are computed to arrive at the best proposal. hi order to justify the proposed improvement, the ratio should be greater than 1.0. However, the choice of interest rate would affect the results of the benefit-cost solutions.