Public Health and Fuels

(An assessment and compilation from the NGV point of view)

By Gregorio Kopyto P.E.
!anager of the Argentine "ham#er for Nat$ral Gas Vehicles
%il & Gas !ar'eting %perations and Engineering e(pert
info)gnc.org.ar
1. INTRODUCTION
*he +orld ,ealth %rgani-ation reported in the year ./// that three million people die
each year from the effects of air poll$tion and a comparison was done with a million
that die from a$tomo#ile accidents.
Poll$tion 'illing more than 0//1/// Asians each year is the latest data from the +,%.
2o1 Asian governments are starting actions. "hina1 p$shed in part #y its commitment
to clean $p Bei3ing for the .//4 %lympics1 has la$nched a nationwide campaign to
improve air and water1 replacing dirty f$els with cleaner#$rning nat$ral gas. 5n 2o$th
Korea1 the government has replaced a fifth of the co$ntry6s dieself$eled #$ses with
vehicles that r$n on compressed nat$ral gas. 5n New 7elhi1 5ndia1 a law mandates "NG
propelled #$ses and other vehicles in order to c$r# poll$tion.
"ities li'e +ashington1 New 8or'1 !adrid1 Bei3ing1 9os Angeles1 etc have introd$ced
"NG #$ses in their p$#lic transportation system to c$r# poll$tion and to comply with
alternative f$el policies.
A st$dy p$#lished #y *he 9ancet in year ./// concl$ded that air poll$tion in :rance1
A$stria and 2wit-erland is responsi#le for more than ;/1/// deaths ann$ally in these
co$ntries. *he p$#lication says half of these deaths are d$e to vehicle emissions.
*he <eg$latory Agencies from developed and developing co$ntries in general do not
reg$late *o(ic Air "ontaminants (*A"s) coming from the vehicle emissions and
therefore their statistics do not give a specific idea of the pro#lem and only estimations
are 'nown.
B$t witho$t do$#t air poll$tion and *o(ic Air "ontaminants in a ma3or degree are a
significant factor shaping p$#lic health.
%ver the past =/ years many epidemiological st$dies worldwide have meas$red
increases in mortality and mor#idity associated with air poll$tion.
,ealth impact assessment of f$els and clean air legislation are very delicate s$#3ects
d$e to the fact ind$stry gro$ps do not always accept easily to accept facts or comply
with their o#ligations.
*he head of one of the environmental gro$ps in the >.2.A. iss$ed a s$ita#le statement
?*he c$rrent system of environmental reg$lation considers new chemicals and new
technologies @innocent $ntil proven g$ilty.@ As a res$lt1 the p$#lic m$st @prove harmA
#efore alternatives will #e considered. 2$ch a system reB$ires largescale harm to
occ$r (to h$mans and ecosystems) #efore anyone is as'ed to change their destr$ctive
#ehavior. Peter !ontag$eA

1
:altering of attac' in Novem#er ./// on "lean Air Act in the high "o$rt of C$stice was
a milestone that paved the way for environment trends not only in the >2A1 #$t in
many co$ntries
E(amples of the diffic$lties to enforce the $se of ?cleaner f$elsA and delays are well
'nown1 while liB$id f$els propelled vehicles are emitting #en-ene and other aromatics1
diesel e(ha$st and other *A"s.
Big engine and #ig oil ind$stry prefer adopting changes in engine design and distillation
processes and additives rather than to change towards a massive $se of cleaner f$els
in order to maintain the ?stat$ B$oA. B$t it is worldwide recogni-ed Dand in the #ig oil
ind$stry too that the f$t$re relies on gaseo$s f$els for reasons of sec$rity strategy1
availa#ility and price and only in some increasing degree d$e to the environmental
iss$e.
<ecently the assessment of environmental poisoning related to the platin$m emissions
of catalytic converters of the e(ha$st gases opened a new B$estioning.
5ndependent st$dies a#o$t p$#lic health and f$els are seldom iss$ed. 2o1 it #ecame of
great interest news iss$ed on A$g$st =E1 .//;1 a#o$t an epidemiological st$dy
involving children with le$'emia in the neigh#orhood of gasoline dispensing stations in
:rance. *he research was carried o$t in .//F #y one of the most famo$s E$ropean
research centers and this is adding f$el to the p$#lic health concern.
Vehicles powered #y nat$ral gas emit virt$ally no air to(ics and this is an important
property to ta'e into acco$nt in the assessment of liB$id f$el replacement for cleaner
alternative f$els.
After a ./ year start $p of the s$ccessf$l Argentine e(perience of gasoline replacement
in light d$ty vehicles1 "NG conversion or transformation of e(isting heavy d$ty vehicles
with diesel engines is one of the practical ways to improve air B$ality in Argentina
ta'ing advantage of the well developed pipeline networ'1 plentif$l reso$rce and
advanced "NG 'nowhow.
,aving less Volatile %rganic "omponents (V%"s)1 minim$m partic$late matter
emissions and no *A"s sho$ld ma'e "NG an environmental tool aimed at efforts for
p$#lic health improvement.
2. A GLANCE AT PULIC HEALTH RELATED TO FUEL!
2.1. "hat l##$ed t# be the %#ad &#% cleane% 'as#line and (hat is '#in' n#()
=44G :irst a$to #$ilt1 gasoline is the f$el
=E/E :ord #egins mass prod$ction of cars
=E.. Ethyl "orp introd$ces ?ethylA gasoline (leaded gasoline)
=E0/ ,igh octane premi$m gasoline prod$ction e(pands to satisfy new high
compression engines
=E0G 2tandard %il of New Cersey introd$ces first s$per premi$m gasoline
=EH. EPA anno$nces plan to phase o$t lead
=E40
=E4G
9ead content red$ced to a trace. 5n premi$m1 lead replaced with compo$nds
that contri#$te to o-one
2
=E4E A<"% in the >.2.A.(Atlantic <ichfield) introd$ced cleaner gasoline to replace
leaded with !B*E
2nce
=E4E
%ther oil companies in the >2A and the rest of the world followed s$it with
reform$lated gasoline and !B*E #lending.
.//; !B*E has #een #anned in "alifornia as of Can$ary .//;. *he gasoline
additive !*BE or methyl tertiary #$tyl ether has contaminated gro$ndwater
and s$rface water so$rces in many regions and is considered a possi#le
h$man carcinogen. 5t is highly sol$#le in water1 does not readily degrade in
the environment1 and most p$#lic water systems are not eB$ipped to
completely remove it from drin'ing water.
Gasoline propelled motor vehicles are a so$rce of contaminants li'e car#on mono(ide
("%)1 volatile organic compo$nds (V%"s) and o(ides of Nitrogen (N%(). *hese ones
and other contaminants B$alified as to(ic air contaminants (*A"s) emitted when
gasoline evaporates and when it is #$rned in the engine1 were the o#3ectives of
emission red$cing techniB$es res$lting in engine modifications1 after treatment and
f$el reform$lation...
Gro$nd level o-one concentration red$ction was the goal for s$mmer gasoline and to
avoid to(ic air poll$tants d$ring the whole year1 wor'ing most co$ntries in this direction
in the last two decades.
2$#stit$tion of leaded gasoline in the IH/s for $nleaded $sing high percentage of
aromatics1 #en-ene incl$ded and many recogni-ed st$dies eval$ating gasoline B$ality
related to p$#lic health reflect tro$#lesome effects..
2.2. A POINT OF *IE" FRO+ THE FRENCH IN!TITUTE OF HEALTH AND
+EDICAL RE!EARCH
Before reading the news some facts to remem#erJ
"atalytic converters do not wor' $ntil a temperat$re of ;// K"1 and this ta'es a
time. 2o1 always will #e #en-ene and other cr$de emissions at a gasoline service
station.
L After 0/1/// Km ""s m$st #e replaced #$t in few cases people do this.
Evaporation of gasoline ta'es place when dispensing f$el at the p$mp and d$e to
#e heavier than air it will #e #reathed or a#sor#ed #y neigh#oring people.
+hen $nloading gasoline from a tan' tr$c' into the $ndergro$nd tan's with the
older systems1 the vapor displaced in the vapor -one of the tan' is discharged and
vented $s$ally to the atmosphere and not always they disperse B$ic'ly affecting
the neigh#orhood.
5n Argentina and many other co$ntries #en-ene is more than F M of the content of
gasoline.
L *here is no healthy #en-ene threshold for h$mans.
*a'ing these facts into consideration1 the following news is of great concernJ
News was iss$ed a#o$t a st$dy coming from *he :rench 5nstit$te of ,ealth and !edical
<esearch1 a respected instit$tion which 'ey fig$res areJ
;;0 millions N #$dget in .//.
FGG research $nits1 .= clinical research centers and =F1/// research professionals1
3
A$g$st =E1 .//;
?G%een Gas#line,
en-ene Leu$e.ia Ris$ In Child%en C#n&i%.ed /&%#. A.e%ican .edia0

A recent :rench st$dy reports that children living within reach of either a gas station or
a car repair shop have a fo$rfold ris' of developing le$'emia.
*he st$dy confirms the warnings given #y German heart specialist ,ans Nieper who
investigated the health effects of two s$#stances employed in the a$tomotive ind$stry
since the =E4/s. 5n fact when lead was shown to #e to(ic1 it was eliminated from
gasoline and was replaced #y #en-ene1 to 'eep the liB$id within correct #$rning
parameters for e(isting motors. At aro$nd the same time1 catalytic converters were
introd$ced as a sol$tion to red$ce to(ic e(ha$st gases.
Nieper had warned that the platin$m in catalytic converters gets air#orne in small #$t
significant B$antities and that these aerosol platin$m compo$nds may ca$se l$ng
cancer and manifestations of chronic fatig$e. Ben-ene1 which was introd$ced at the
time lead was removed from f$el1 is another to(ic s$#stance that may1 according to
Nieper1 ca$se cancer.
Now the warning on #en-ene has #een confirmed as acc$rate #y the :rench st$dy.
After decades it th$s t$rns o$t that o$r @sol$tion@ to to(ic lead in gasoline which
introd$ced socalled @green@ f$el and catalytic converters may #e no less to(ic than the
pro#lem it was meant to eliminate.
Leu$ae.ia lin$ t# 1et%#l stati#ns /&%#. Eu%#1ean .edia0
A$g =E .//;
9iving near a petrol station or commercial garage may B$adr$ple the ris' of childhood
le$'aemia.
*he st$dy in :rance fo$nd a lin' #etween cases of ac$te le$'aemia among yo$ngsters
and how close they lived to a petrol station or a garage carrying o$t car repairs.
Past research has shown an association #etween occ$pational e(pos$re to #en-ene a
cancerca$sing hydrocar#on derived from petrol and le$'aemia in ad$lts.
*he latest st$dy1 p$#lished in the 3o$rnal %cc$pational and Environmental !edicine1
s$ggests a similar lin' among yo$ngsters living near #en-eneemitting so$rces li'e
garage and petrol stations.
*he researchers1 from the :rench National 5nstit$te of ,ealth and !edical <esearch1
#ased their findings on .4/ cases of childhood le$'aemia and a comparison gro$p of
.40 children.
*he children were drawn from fo$r hospitals in Nancy1 9ille1 9yon and Paris in :rance1
with almost twothirds (G/M) of the children with le$'aemia aged #etween two and si(
years old.
*he team fo$nd no clear lin' #etween the mother6s occ$pation d$ring pregnancy or
levels of traffic aro$nd where they lived and the ris' of the child developing le$'aemia.
*hey also saw no lin' #etween le$'aemia and living near #$sinesses s$ch as those
dealing with al$mini$m1 plastic1 wood1 metalwor'1 printing wor's and ceramics.
B$t a child whose home was near a petrol station or garage was fo$r times more li'ely
to develop le$'aemia as a child whose home was not close to s$ch a #$siness.
*he researchers said the ris' appeared to #e even greater for ac$te nonlympho#lastic
le$'aemia1 which was seven times more common among children living close to a
petrol station or garage. *hey also said that the longer a child had lived close to a
petrol station or garage1 the higher their ris' of le$'aemia appeared to #e. >nleaded
petrolJ have we #een told the f$ll storyO 2tory #y <ichard Giles in we# site A
4
2.2. A POINT OF *IE" FRO+ AU!TRALIA CO+PILED 2 AND FIR!T I!!UED
IN 13340
?%ne of the great shifts in attit$de in this decade has come a#o$t in the promotion of
$nleaded f$el (>9P) to replace the dreaded leaded f$el. *he iss$e of petrol and what to
do a#o$t it has #een the #ane of environmentally minded people for half a cent$ry.
"oncern a#o$t smog in the 6G/s and 6H/s led to the introd$ction of legislation in the
>2A and later other co$ntries to control the emission of poll$tants from vehicles.
%il companies1 confronted with the pro#lem of city smog (mostly s$lph$r and nitrogen
o(ides) #y p$#lic opinion and fr$strated politicians1 #lamed the whole thing on too
many cars. *he act$al fig$res on car ownership at the time show that while ownership
in the >2A was increasing steadily1 the act$al rate of smog particle emission was rising
at almost fo$r times the rate of car ownership.
*here were two sol$tions. %ne was to limit the n$m#er of cars and driving ho$rs on
the road (which was political s$icide at the time) or p$t something into cars to change
emission levels. *he second was the sol$tion that the oil companies offered. Enter the
catalytic converter the environmental sol$tion to all o$r woesP
*he catalytic converter1 oil companies said1 wo$ld rid $s of the $nwanted compo$nds of
s$lph$r and nitrogen from e(ha$st f$mes. And lo and #ehold1 the smog pro#lem was
solved. 5t wor'ed. *he monitoring of emission levels from motor vehicles over the last
two decades has shown smog levels down in all ma3or +estern cities1 despite the fact
that car ownership has contin$ed to rise.
"atalytic converters (""s) play an important role in the introd$ction of $nleaded petrol.
*he B$ality of oil s$pplies in the 6G/s was one iss$e. ,igh grade1 low s$lph$r1 low
nitrate oil was #ecoming scarce. 5t was a #etter oil for petrole$m prod$cers as less cost
was involved in prod$cing it. Prod$cers1 however1 'ept on t$rning o$t petrol from low
grade oils with the res$lting contaminants. *his meant the levels of air poll$tion had
slowly #ecome worse $ntil the re#ellion against smog #y legislators and cons$mers.
*he chemical theory of catalytic conversion was 'nown for years. "atalytic crac'ing is
$sed at the higher temperat$re process of refining to ma'e #ranchchained
hydrocar#ons to form l$#ricants. "rac'ing and conversion are #oth catalyst processes.
*he process does not $se $p any of the chemical triggers. *he initial set$p costs are
e(tremely high1 #$t once yo$ have the refinery r$nning1 it6s not e(pensive.
:$el co$ld #e f$rther p$rified1 #$t oil companies wo$ld have to e(pend millions to set
$p new processes. A simpler way to do it wo$ld #e to get car owners to pay for
p$rifying and #$ild a catalytic converter that fits into the car. *hat6s what happened.
2hort lifetime
*he small scale "" was designed to $se similar principles to those $sed in refining. 5t
was fo$nd that passing e(ha$st gases thro$gh a filter containing platin$m and rhodi$m
ca$sed a catalytic conversion of o(ides to other prod$cts. *his wor's well $ntil the
platin$m is coated. *here were also #yprod$cts1 some of which are very harmf$l1
incl$ding hydrogen s$lphide (rottenegg gas).
2ome cons$mer rights gro$ps told >2 legislators at the time that the pro#lem was not
in the cars #$t in the $se of low grade petrole$m for refining. *he refineries o$ght to
clean $p their act1 they said. *hat never went any f$rther. *he age of catalytic
converters was #orn. 5t #ecame necessary to legislate a#o$t them into all new model
cars.
Now we have f$el with the poll$tionca$sing o(ides #eing removed #y catalytic
conversion. ,owever1 there was lead in all petrol to stop motor vehicle engines
?pingingA. 9ead ca$ses the ""s to lose wor'ing efficiency. After some time1 the ""
stops wor'ing #eca$se lead gla-es the platin$m in the device and #$ngs $p the whole
chemical process.
5
As well1 converters wor' for only aro$nd 0/1/// 'm and their efficiency declines. *he
N2+ Poll$tion "ontrol "ommission (A$stralia) reported in A$g$st =EE; that ""s are
li'ely to deteriorate m$ch faster than was first tho$ght1 which may lead to increased
car#on mono(ide and nitrogen dio(ide levels in cities rather than decreases.
*hey6re also e(pensive1 QF//./// depending on which model car yo$ drive. A lot of
people will not vol$ntarily replace their converters. 5n fact1 some will not even 'now it
has to #e done.
*he ne(t step is to introd$ce emission testing for cars and force the owner to replace
their converter at great cost to themselves. 5n the >2A a device has #een developed
and fitted to some cars that stops the vehicle from r$nning after emission levels reach
a certain level. *hey may #ecome comp$lsory in the f$t$re.
Additives
*he history of petrol throws light on why leaded petrol came to #e. As the motor
vehicle grew in pop$larity1 it was costing oil companies more and more to refine petrol.
*hey loo'ed for ways to c$t costs.
2econd1 as there was a demand for more and more powerf$l engines1 compression
ratios were raised to get more power from the same engine si-e.
Event$ally it came to the point where the new high compression engines wo$ld not r$n
well on the lesser B$ality f$els #eing t$rned o$t. An engine $nder load wo$ld develop a
condition called ?pingingA. *his was ca$sed #y the f$el mi(t$re in the engine firing
#efore the right moment or #$rning too fast. *his led to $neven r$nning1 stalling on
hills and engine wear.
5n the early =E./s a man named *homas !idgie was among those loo'ing to stop
engine ?'noc'ingA or ?pingingA. ,e came $p with o(ides of platin$m1 silver and lead.
9ead was the most s$ccessf$l. !idgie was a#le to get a compo$nd called lead tetra
ethyl which slowed down the reaction to ma'e f$el #$rn evenly. 5t was sol$#le in
petrol1 it #ro'e down to lead at the high engine temperat$re1 and it vapori-ed li'e
petrol. 2o1 leaded petrol was #orn. 5t was widely $sed in +orld +ar 55 aviation f$el for
B$ic' ta'eoffs.
"ars #ecame #igger and #igger. Engines #ecame more powerf$l $ntil in the =EG/s
along came the environment as an iss$e. "ars #ecame a n$m#er one target1 and
rightly so.
By the mid=EH/s1 lead in petrol was #eing identified as a c$lprit in environmental
pro#lems. 9ead is a poison. 5t contri#$ted to the collapse of <oman civili-ation #eca$se
lead in piping $sed to carry water thro$gh <oman cities and lead in drin'ing vessels
was a#sor#ed into the #ody.
7$ring the =E4/s1 governments aro$nd the world #egan to test for lead in the
environment and the h$man #ody. 5n Germany1 the federal government decided to
drop the lead content in f$el /.0 grams per liter to /.=0 gm.
,owever1 a report from German federal a$thorities stated after five years of testing
more than =/// people1 ?2ince the changes o#served are only of the order of
statistical scatter1 this indicates that lead from petrol did not contri#$te to $pta'e #y
ingestion thro$gh significant deposition on food and $tensils as has #een s$ggested. 5f
it had #een1 greater and contin$ing decrease in #lood levels in the comm$nity sho$ld
have #een o#served.A
Another interesting thing a#o$t lead that has not #een given m$ch p$#licity is that lead
is #a'ed at the operating temperat$re inside a com#$stion engine. *he internal engine
temperat$re reaches $p to F/// degrees " and1 according to Professor 9owth$r of
9ondon >niversity1 #ecomes li'e tiny #ric's.
*he lead falls from the tail pipe and settles on the road. 5t can #e meas$red. %ver
three meters from the roadside1 the lead meas$re drops off rapidly. 7$e to particle si-e
its does not stay air#orne and is less li'ely to #e a#sor#ed into the l$ngs. 5n the #a'ed
form1 it is not sol$#le in the stomach6s hydrochloric acid either.
6
2o1 why the concern a#o$t lead in the environment and lead threats to childrenO
5t6s tr$e that lead levels in #lood are an indication of a ris' to h$man #rain f$nction.
*he A!A has p$#lished articles showing at least =0 st$dies pointing to an association
#etween lead e(pos$re and intellect$al performance.

Ben-ene effects
*he nonlead ingredients added to petrol to stop pinging and maintain octane ratings
are 'nown as aromatics. *hey are from a category of organic s$#stance 'nown as
V%"s volatile organic compo$nds. *hese incl$de #en-ene1 tol$ene (methyl
#en-ene)1 dimethyl#en-ene1 (ylene and mesitylene (=1F10 triethyl#en-ene). All are
petrole$m derivatives. 2ome are to(ic1 others are e(tremely to(ic.
Rylene has recently #een ordered removed from all mar'er pens d$e to its e(treme
to(icity. Ben-ene is rated as a carcinogen. *ol$ene in pregnant women has recently
#een shown to ca$se #irth defects. A standard te(t1 2. Ba$m6s 5ntrod$ction to %rganic
"hemistry1 says1 ?<epeated e(pos$re to #en-ene leads to a progressive disease in
which the a#ility of the #one marrow to ma'e new #lood is event$ally destroyedA.
Ben-ene has #een lin'ed to cancer and le$'aemia in n$m#ers of st$dies. As long ago
as =EHH1 the 5talian <ama--ini :o$ndation for %ncology and Environmental 2cience
esta#lished that #en-ene was a powerf$l carcinogen. 5t also fo$nd s$#seB$ently that
all aromatic hydrocar#ons in f$el ca$se increases in malignant t$mo$rs in animals.
Professor "esare !altoni and !orando 2offritti have cond$cted tests on e(pos$re to all
f$el additives. 5n A$g$st =EE; !altoni addressed the "lean Air "onference r$n #y the
"25<% in 2ydney. ,e presented evidence that #en-ene is one of the most dangero$s
ind$strial carcinogens 'nown. ,e stated that the ris's from #en-ene and other
aromatics have #een serio$sly $nderstated in view of the scale of motor vehicle
poll$tion. !ore than ;// million cars worldwide #$rn G// million tonnes of f$el a year.
!altoni said he and other scientists were ?alarmedA at the way the slogan ?No lead1 no
worriesA had generated a ?warpedA sit$ation in which additives in petrol are favored1
not #eca$se they are safe1 #$t #eca$se no real research has #een done on them.
At the same conference1 7r 2imon +olff of the >niversity "ollege1 9ondon 2chool of
!edicine1 e(pressed his concerns on #en-ene. ,e had set o$t to find an e(planation for
tenfold increases in childhood le$'aemia in some pop$lation gro$ps in the >K. ,e
fo$nd that areas most at ris' were newer1 middleclass s$#$r#s and townships with
high levels of car ownership. ,e fo$nd epidemiological evidence that #en-ene1 petrol
vapors and e(ha$st gases can ca$se lymphatic cancer and le$'aemia of the types
common in children. ,e spec$lated that children reB$ire far less e(pos$re to develop
cancer than do ad$lts. *hose in areas of high traffic density and who $sed the car more
were at #igger ris'. +olff also fo$nd that the other >9P aromatic additives also prod$ce
#en-ene $nder com#$stion.
,e concl$ded that Britain6s present plan to c$t #en-ene concentration in air from 0
parts per #illion to = pp# were not eno$gh for children. ,e s$ggested that #en-ene
levels had to #e c$t 0/ or =// times1 not 3$st #y one fifth. *he +orld ,ealth
%rgani-ation and the >2A EPA estimate that for every = pp# #en-ene we can e(pect 4S
cases of myeloid le$'aemia in a pop$lation of one million.

5n a speech to mem#ers of the a$tomo#ile cl$# of Victoria in :e#r$ary =EEF1 7r +arren

said1 ?5n fact this st$ff Taromatic additivesU appears to #e so dangero$s1 potentially
lethal1 that 5 $rge yo$ not to $se it in any car not fitted with a catalytic converter. 7on6t
$se it in yo$r mower1 chainsaw1 whipper snipper or o$t#oard1 and don6t wash parts in
it1 and if any gets on yo$r s'in wash it off immediately. Avoid the f$mes when
ref$elling and don6t allow anyone near the e(ha$st1 partic$larly when the e(ha$st is
cold. <emem#er that catalytic converters don6t wor' $ntil they reach some ;//
degrees.A
7
*he $se of a whole mi(t$re of aromatic additives in petrol may leave $s with a heritage
of increased cancer and le$'aemia amongst ad$lts and children. Beca$se of its a#ility
to #e a#sor#ed even thro$gh s'in contact1 #en-ene is a high ris' s$#stance. And the
other aromatics convert to #en-ene in com#$stion.
2ervice stations then #ecome high ris' areas. >9P and s$per >9P are dangero$s in the
air. 2$per >9P (which has over F/M aromatics) is so ris'y an allparty committee in
Britain recommended its #anning in =EE;. 5t stated1 ?*he potential health ha-ards
res$lting from the e(cessive aromatics $sed ... o$tweigh any possi#le #enefits from the
red$ced leadA. 5n April =EE0 the British government anno$nced that s$per >9P is to #e
progressively withdrawn over the ne(t two years.
+hat to concl$deO
*here seem to #e flaws in the scientific information demonstrating that lead in petrol is
a threat to people. *he aromatics added to petrol to ma'e $p for the loss of lead
constit$te a threat in themselves. 5t seems that the aromatic additives #en-ene1
tol$ene1 (ylene1 mesitlylene and dimethyl#en-ene may #e as ris'y to health or even
more dangero$s than lead additives. 5n partic$lar1 #en-ene is rated as one of the most
to(ic and carcinogenic chemicals in atmospheric poll$tants.
L *he !B*E living (or deadly) case is an e(ample of the co$nterpart of "NG clean
properties. *he gasoline additive !*BE or methyl tertiary #$tyl ether has contaminated
gro$ndwater and s$rface water so$rces in many regions and is considered a possi#le
h$man carcinogen. 5t is highly sol$#le in water1 does not readily degrade in the
environment1 and most p$#lic water systems are not eB$ipped to completely remove it
from drin'ing water.
L 9egislation of most co$ntries introd$ced in the VE/s the $se of ?o(ygenatesA to
red$ce emissions in congested cities1 and refiners chose !B*E d$e to its availa#ility
and favora#le #lending characteristics.
L As of Can$ary .//;1 !B*E was #anned in all "alifornia gasoline and to prevent
health impacts1 a primary standard of =F parts per million has #een adopted.
L News were iss$ed in .//F and .//; descri#ing efforts #y "ongress of the >2A
to protect !B*E man$fact$rers from lia#ility for >2A gro$ndwater contamination
estimated in F/ #illion >27 so far1 with scandal characteristics
..F !*BE Bailo$t
Nader Page1 %cto#er =H1 .//F

5n the aftermath of the crippling northeastern #lac'o$t in A$g$st1 "ongress has #een
wor'ing feverishly to pass an energy #ill f$ll of s$pposedly #eneficial energy sol$tions
for American citi-ens. B$t #ehind closed doors1 corporations1 lo##yists1 and leadership
in #oth ho$ses have #een wrangling over 3$st how far they can p$sh the envelope of
this #ill to #enefit their oily1 dereg$lationhappy friends.
*hey have pac'ed the #ill with giveaways for the vario$s #ig energy corporations.
*here are s$#sidies for atomic power1 for Big %il1 and the repeal of a cr$cial historic law
that has provided the reg$latory framewor' for electricity companies.
%ne partic$larly egregio$s provision in the #ill wo$ld shield prod$cers of !*BE (methyl
tertiary #$tyl ether) from any legal claims that the chemical is @defective in design or
man$fact$re.@ !*BE is a little'nown to(ic component of gasoline sold in many parts of
the co$ntry.
!*BE is added to gasoline as part of the "lean Air ActWs efforts to reB$ire the $se of
@o(ygenates@ to ma'e gasoline #$rn more cleanly and efficiently. B$t !*BE is only one
8
'ind of o(ygenate and despite man$fact$rersW claims to the contrary1 !*BE has never
#een specifically mandated as a f$el additive. <eleased into the environment from tens
of tho$sands of lea'ing storage tan's and spills1 it is one of the most $#iB$ito$s
poll$tants in the nation.
*here is only one reason that some legislators and their oil and chemical tas'masters
have p$shed so hard for this imm$nity #ailo$t provisionJ !*BE is a defective prod$ct.
7oc$ments prod$ced at a recent trial in "alifornia proved that gasoline man$fact$rers
have long 'nown the cold hard tr$th a#o$t !*BEJ #eca$se of its e(treme water
sol$#ility1 this to(ic chemical spreads in the environment farther and faster than other
components of gasoline1 and it is e(tremely costly to clean $p.
Now companies that ma'e and $se !B*E are see'ing a#sol$tion from cleaning $p the
mess they made. 9aws$its from coast to coast see' to hold them acco$nta#le. *hese
companies sho$ld not #e shielded from foreseea#le negative effects of the prod$cts
they create or employ.
"iti-ens concerned a#o$t the safety of their drin'ing water are o$traged that "ongress
is see'ing to shift tens of #illions of dollars in to(ic clean$p costs from the #iggest oil
companies in the nation to ta(payers and drin'ing water ratepayers. *he !B*E
provision is tantamo$nt to a nationwide1 QF/ #illion ta( hi'e. 5f s$ccessf$l1 this craven
effort wo$ld #e one of the #igger corporate #ailo$ts in American history and a
staggering roll#ac' of the @poll$ters pays@ laws that have cleaned $p contamination
ha-ards in every state in the Nation. 5t wo$ld open a PandoraWs #o( for man$fact$rers
to see' lia#ility imm$nity for a vast array of prod$cts with serio$s environmental or
p$#lic health ris's.
:or over twenty years1 >nited 2tates decisionma'ers and co$rts have agreed that
ind$stries m$st #ear the cost of cleaning $p the environmental pro#lems that they
create. *his is an appropriate remedy for damage ca$sed #y companies that poll$te1
and it deters f$t$re poll$tion ha-ards.
*here is a lot of tal' these days a#o$t @ta'ing responsi#ility@ X which corporatists
masB$erading as conservatives $se to refer only to reg$lar people. ,ere the hypocrisy
of the responsi#ility rhetoric is laid #areJ
*he chemical and oil companies that ma'e and $se !*BE are specifically loo'ing to
escape their responsi#ility. B$t the $s$al conservative responsi#ility chor$s is silent.
!ore than a few mem#ers of "ongress have ta'en a t$rn singing from the
responsi#ility hymnal. 5t6s time for these mem#ers of "ongress to f$lfill their
responsi#ilities #y ref$sing to relieve corporations of theirs.
:ort$nately1 there are some in "ongress willing to ta'e a stand. ,aving seen first hand
the val$e of the poll$ter pays framewor' in helping to clean the fec$lent to(ic mess
made #y General Electric in the ,$dson <iver1 2enator "h$c' 2ch$mer has promised to
fili#$ster if the !*BE provision remains in the #ill. And last wee'1 ;. 2enators signed a
@dear colleag$e@ letter initiated #y 2enator Bar#ara Bo(er as'ing that the energy #ill
conferees remove the !*BE escape from lia#ility protection.
..;. "oncl$sions
L +hat loo'ed to #e the road for cleaner gasoline res$lted in p$#lic health
$pdated considerations showing some concl$sions when the !B*E scandal e(ploded in
the >.2.A. in order to give a F/ #illion dollar imm$nity for poll$ters.
L *he !B*E tro$#lesome p$#lic health effects is a good e(ample of what is going
in the world.
L !ore complicated is the pro#lem of #en-ene and aromatics in general1 posing a
dangero$s health pro#lem for present and f$t$re generations and many governments
9
are ignoring what is happening1 with the e(ception of some of them s$pporting cleaner
f$els li'e "NG.
L Nat$ral gas ("NG) for internal com#$stion engines is not to(ic and does not
reB$ire any aggregates.
555. +,A* 9%%KE7 *% BE *,E <%A7 *% !%<E E::5"5EN* ENG5NE2 +5*, *,E
75E2E9 "8"9E AN7 +,A* 52 G%5NG N%+O
*he answer was given in one of the milestones in the history of f$els #y the :indings of
the "alifornian 2cientific <eview Panel on *,E <EP%<* %N 75E2E9 ER,A>2* as
adopted at the PanelVs April ..1 =EE41 !eeting
E(pos$re related concl$sions
=. 7iesel e(ha$st is a comple( mi(t$re of gases and fine particles emitted #y a diesel
f$eled internal com#$stion engine.
.. *he gaseo$s fraction is composed of typical com#$stion gases s$ch as nitrogen1
o(ygen1 car#on dio(ide1 and water vapor. ,owever1 as a res$lt of incomplete
com#$stion1 the gaseo$s fraction also contains air poll$tants s$ch as car#on mono(ide1
s$lf$r o(ides1 nitrogen o(ides1 volatile organics1 al'enes1 aromatic hydrocar#ons1 and
aldehydes1 s$ch as formaldehyde and =1F#$tadiene and lowmolec$lar weight
polycyclic aromatic hydrocar#ons (PA,) and PA,derivatives.
F. %ne of the main characteristics of diesel e(ha$st is the release of particles at a
mar'edly greater rate than from gasolinef$eled vehicles1 on an eB$ivalent f$el energy
#asis. *he particles are mainly aggregates of spherical car#on particles coated with
inorganic and organic s$#stances. *he inorganic fraction primarily consists of small
solid car#on (or elemental car#on) particles ranging from /./= to /./4 microns in
diameter. *he organic fraction consists of sol$#le organic compo$nds s$ch as
aldehydes1 al'anes and al'enes1 and highmolec$lar weight PA, and PA,derivatives1
s$ch as nitroPA,s. !any of these PA,s and PA,derivatives1 especially nitroPA,s1
have #een fo$nd to #e potent m$tagens and carcinogens.
NitroPA, compo$nds can also #e formed d$ring transport thro$gh the atmosphere #y
reactions of adsor#ed PA, with nitric acid and #y gasphase radicalinitiated reactions
in the presence of o(ides of nitrogen.
;. 7iesel e(ha$st incl$des over ;/ s$#stances that are listed #y the >nited 2tates
Environmental Protection Agency (>.2. EPA) as ha-ardo$s air poll$tants and #y the
A<B as to(ic air contaminants. :ifteen of these s$#stances are listed #y the
5nternational Agency for <esearch on "ancer (5A<") as carcinogenic to h$mans1 or as
a pro#a#le or possi#le h$man carcinogen. 2ome of these s$#stances areJacetaldehydeY
antimony compo$ndsY arsenicY #en-eneY #erylli$m compo$ndsY #is(.ethylhe(yl)
phthalateY dio(ins and di#en-of$ransY formaldehydeY inorganic leadY merc$ry
compo$ndsY nic'elY P%! (incl$ding PA,s)Y and styrene.
0. Almost all of the diesel particle mass is in the fine particle range of =/ microns or
less
in diameter (P! ). Appro(imately E; percent of the mass of these particles are less
than ..0 microns in diameter. Beca$se of their small si-e1 these particles can #e
inhaled and a portion will event$ally #ecome trapped within the small airways and
alveolar regions of the l$ng.
G. *he estimated pop$lationweighted average o$tdoor diesel e(ha$st P!
concentration
10
in "alifornia for =EE0 is ... microgram per c$#ic meter ( gZm ). 2everal independent
st$dies have reported similar o$tdoor air diesel e(ha$st P! concentrations. *he
=EE0 estimated average indoor e(pos$re concentration is appro(imately =.0 gZm .
H. *he pop$lation timeweighted average total air e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st particle
concentrations across all environments (incl$ding o$tdoors) is estimated to #e =.0
gZm in =EE0. *his total e(pos$re estimate may $nderestimate many "alifornians6
act$al total e(pos$re #eca$se it e(cl$des elevated e(pos$res near roadways1 railroad
trac's1 and inside vehicles. Nearso$rce e(pos$res to diesel e(ha$st may #e as m$ch
as five times higher than the =EE0 pop$lation timeweighted average total air
e(pos$re. 5t also e(cl$des other ro$tes of e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st1 s$ch as
ingestion and dermal a#sorption.
4. 7iesel engine e(ha$st contains small car#onaceo$s particles and a large n$m#er of
chemicals that are adsor#ed onto these particles or present as vapors. *hese particles
have #een the s$#3ect of many st$dies #eca$se of their adverse effects on h$man
health and the environment. A recent st$dy cond$cted for the ,ealth Effects 5nstit$te
showed that1 despite a s$#stantial red$ction in the weight of the total partic$late
matter1 the total n$m#er of particles from a =EE=model engine was =0 to F0 times
greater than the n$m#er of particles from a =E44 engine when #oth engines were
operated witho$t emission control devices. *his s$ggests that more fine particles1 a
potential health concern1 co$ld #e formed as a res$lt of new technologies. :$rther
st$dy is needed since the e(tent of these findings only meas$red e(ha$st from two
engines and engine technologies.
E. *he ma3or so$rces of diesel e(ha$st in am#ient o$tdoor air are estimated to emit
appro(imately .H1/// tons per year in =EE0. %nroad mo#ile so$rces (heavyd$ty
tr$c's1 #$ses1 lightd$ty cars and tr$c's) contri#$te the ma3ority of total diesel
e(ha$st P! emissions in "alifornia. %ther mo#ile so$rces (mo#ile eB$ipment1 ships1
trains1 and #oats) and stationary so$rces contri#$te the remaining emissions.
=/. 2ignificant progress has #een made as a res$lt of federal and state reg$lations that
have addressed partic$late matter levels from diesel engines. Emissions of onroad
mo#ile so$rce diesel e(ha$st P! in "alifornia are e(pected to decline #y appro(imately
40 percent from =EE/ to ./=/ as a res$lt of mo#ile so$rce reg$lations already adopted
#y the A<B.
==. *he res$lts of a st$dy f$nded #y the A<B at the >niversity of "alifornia1 <iverside1
indicate that the diesel e(ha$st from the new f$el tested contained the same to(ic air
contaminants as the old f$el1 altho$gh their concentrations and other components may
differ. :$rther research wo$ld #e helpf$l to B$antify the amo$nts of specific compo$nds
emitted from a variety of engine technologies1 operating cycles1 and f$el to
characteri-e #etter any differences #etween old and new f$els and technologies.
5. +hat was the well 'nown health effects associated with diesel e(ha$st $ntil
=EE4O
=.. A n$m#er of adverse shortterm health effects have #een associated with
e(pos$res to diesel e(ha$st. %cc$pational e(pos$res to diesel e(ha$st particles have
#een associated with significant crossshift decreases in l$ng f$nction. 5ncreased
co$gh1 la#ored #reathing1 chest tightness1 and whee-ing have #een associated with
e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st in #$s garage wor'ers. A significant increase in airway
resistance and increases in eye and nasal irritation were o#served in h$man vol$nteers
following oneho$r cham#er e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st. 5n ac$te or s$#chronic animal
st$dies1 e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st particles ind$ced inflammatory airway changes1
l$ng f$nction changes1 and increased the animals6 s$scepti#ility to infection.
=F. A n$m#er of adverse longterm non cancer effects have #een associated with
e(pos$re
11
to diesel e(ha$st. %cc$pational st$dies have shown that there may #e a greater
incidence of co$gh1 phlegm and chronic #ronchitis among those e(posed to diesel
e(ha$st than among those not e(posed. <ed$ctions in p$lmonary f$nction have also
#een reported following occ$pational e(pos$res in chronic st$dies. <ed$ced p$lmonary
f$nction was noted in mon'eys d$ring longterm e(pos$re. ,istopathological changes
in the l$ng of diesele(posed test animals reflect inflammation of the l$ng tiss$e.
*hese changes incl$de dosedependent proliferations of type 55 epithelial cells1 mar'ed
infiltration of macrophages1 plasma cells and fi#ro#lasts into the alveolar septa1
thic'ening of the alveolar walls1 alveolar proteinosis1 and focal fi#rosis.
=;. 2t$dies have shown that diesel e(ha$st particles can ind$ce imm$nological
reactions
and locali-ed inflammatory responses in h$mans1 as well as acting as an ad3$vant for
pollen allergy. 5ntranasal challenge with diesel e(ha$sts particles in h$man vol$nteers
res$lted in increased nasal 5gE anti#ody prod$ction and a significant increase in m<NA
for proinflammatory cyto'ines. "oe(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st particles and ragweed
pollen res$lted in a nasal 5gE response greater than that following pollen or diesel
e(ha$st particles alone. Effects of intratracheal1 intranasal1 and inhalation e(pos$res of
la#oratory animals are s$pportive of the findings in h$mans. *hese effects incl$de
eosinophilic infiltration into #ronchi and #ronchioles1 elevated 5gE response1 increased
m$c$s secretion and respiratory resistance1 and airway constriction.
=0. Based on the animal st$dies1 the >.2. EPA determined a chronic inhalation
<eference
"oncentration val$e of 0 gZm for noncancer effects of diesel e(ha$st. *his estimate
ta'es into consideration persons who may #e more sensitive than others to the effects
of diesel e(ha$st. *he report s$pports the recommendation of 0 gZm as the F
"alifornia <eference E(pos$re 9evel (<E9) (*a#le =). 5t sho$ld #e noted that this <E9
may need to #e lowered f$rther as more data emerge on potential adverse non cancer
effects from diesel e(ha$st.
=G. 7iesel e(ha$st contains genoto(ic compo$nds in #oth the vapor phase and the
particle phase. 7iesel e(ha$st particles or e(tracts of diesel e(ha$st particles are
m$tagenic in #acteria and in mammalian cell systems1 and can ind$ce chromosomal
a#errations1
ane$ploidy1 and sister chromatid e(change in rodents and in h$man cells in vitro.
7iesel e(ha$st particles ind$ced $nsched$led 7NA synthesis in vitro in mammalian
cells. 7NA add$cts have #een isolated from calf thym$s 7NA in vitro following
treatment with diesel e(ha$st particle e(tracts. 7NA add$cts have #een shown to
increase following inhalation e(pos$re of rodents and mon'eys to whole diesel
e(ha$st. Elevated levels of 7NA add$cts have #een associated with occ$pational
e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st. <es$lts of inhalation #ioassays in the rat1 and with lesser
certainty in mice1 have demonstrated the carcinogenicity of diesel e(ha$st in test
animals1 altho$gh the mechanisms #y which diesel e(ha$st ind$ces l$ng t$mors in
animals remains $ncertain.
=H. %ver F/ h$man epidemiological st$dies have investigated the potential
carcinogenicity
of diesel e(ha$st. *hese st$dies1 on average1 fo$nd that longterm occ$pational
e(pos$res to diesel e(ha$st were associated with a ;/ percent increase in the relative
ris' of l$ng cancer. *he l$ng cancer findings are consistent and the association is
$nli'ely to #e d$e to chance. *hese epidemiological st$dies strongly s$ggest a ca$sal
relationship #etween occ$pational diesel e(ha$st e(pos$re and l$ng cancer.
=4. %ther agencies or scientific #odies have eval$ated the health effects of diesel
e(ha$st.
*he National 5nstit$te of %cc$pational 2afety and ,ealth first recommended in =E44
that whole diesel e(ha$st #e regarded as a potential occ$pational carcinogen #ased
12
$pon animal and h$man evidence. *he 5nternational Agency for <esearch on "ancer
(5A<") concl$ded that diesel engine e(ha$st is pro#a#ly carcinogenic to h$mans and
classified diesel e(ha$st in Gro$p .A. Based $pon the 5A<" findings1 in =EE/1 the 2tate
of "alifornia $nder the 2afe 7rin'ing +ater and *o(ic Enforcement Act of =E4G
(Proposition G0) identified diesel e(ha$st as a chemical @'nown to the 2tate to ca$se
cancer.@ *he >.2. EPA has proposed a concl$sion similar to 5A<" in their draft
doc$ments. *he =EE4 draft >.2. EPA doc$ment concl$ded similarly that there was
s$fficient animal evidence of carcinogenicity and that the h$man evidence was limited.
=E. *here are data from h$man epidemiological st$dies of occ$pationally e(posed
pop$lations which are $sef$l for B$antitative ris' assessment. *he estimated range of
l$ng cancer ris' ($pper E0M confidence interval) #ased on h$man epidemiological data
is =.F ( =/ to ..; ( =/ ( gZm ) (*a#le .). After considering the res$lts of the ; F F
= metaanalysis of h$man st$dies1 as well as the detailed analysis of railroad wor'ers1
the 2<P concl$des that F ( =/ ( gZm ) is a reasona#le estimate of $nit ris' e(pressed
; F = in terms of diesel partic$late. *h$s this $nit ris' val$e was derived from two
separate approaches which yield similar res$lts. A comparison of estimates of ris' can
#e fo$nd in *a#le F.
./. Based on availa#le scientific information1 a level of diesel e(ha$st e(pos$re #elow
which no carcinogenic effects are anticipated has not #een identified.
.=. Based on availa#le scientific evidence1 as well as the res$lts of the ris' assessment1
we concl$de that diesel e(ha$st #e identified as a *o(ic Air "ontaminant.
... As with other s$#stances eval$ated #y this Panel and after reviewing the field of
p$#lished peer reviewed research st$dies on diesel e(ha$st1 additional research is
appropriate to clarify f$rther the health effects of diesel e(ha$st. *his research may
have significance for estimating the $nit ris' val$e.
.F. *he Panel1 after caref$l review of the :e#r$ary =EE4 draft 2<P version of the A<B
report1 Proposed 5dentification of 7iesel E(ha$st as a *o(ic Air "ontaminant1 as well as
the scientific proced$res and methods $sed to s$pport the data1 the data itself1 and the
concl$sions and assessments on which the <eport is #ased1 finds this report with the
changes specified d$ring o$r %cto#er =G1 =EEH1 meeting and as a res$lt of comments
made at the !arch ==1 =EE41 meeting1 is #ased $pon so$nd scientific 'nowledge1
methods1 and practices and represents a complete and #alanced assessment of o$r
c$rrent scientific $nderstandingA.

"oncl$sion
2ince =EE4 new worldwide r$ling is trying to solve this intricate matter1 #$t millions of
diesel engines are spitting their partic$late matter in the way the findings of the
"alifornian 2cientific Panel <eview made p$#lic.
55. +hatVs new a#o$t $ltrafine particles health effect $ntil .//;O
An e(planation a#o$t its potential incidence in p$#lic health1 are given in a paper
iss$ed #y the <achel organi-ation ([.H;)1 which main concepts followJ
%ne of the most important characteristics of $ltrafine particles (particles with an
average diameter of =// nanometers (/.= micrometers) or less)1 is their h$ge s$rface
tovol$me ratio. *he smaller something is1 the larger its s$rface area is1 in comparison
to its vol$me. Beca$se $ltrafine particles are so small1 they have an enormo$s s$rface
area1 relative to their vol$me.
>nfort$nately1 the large s$rface area of tiny particles also ma'es them dangero$s for
at least two reasonsJ first1 the large s$rfaces alone promote the reaction of o(ygen
with h$man (or animal) tiss$e1 creating free radicals.
13
@:ree radicals are atoms or gro$ps of atoms with an odd ($npaired) n$m#er of
electrons and can #e formed when o(ygen interacts with certain molec$les. %nce
formed these highly reactive radicals can start a chain reaction1 li'e dominoes. *heir
chief danger comes from the damage they can do when they react with important
cell$lar components s$ch as 7NA1 or the cell mem#rane Tthe cell6s o$ter casingU. "ells
may f$nction poorly or die if this occ$rs1@ e(plains 7r. !ar' Cen'ins at <ice >niversity.
5n s$m1 the large s$rface of $ltrafine particles offers an ideal place which o(ygen
reactions can occ$r in the airways and l$ngs1 res$lting in the formation of free radicals
with s$#seB$ent cell damage or cell death1 followed #y inflammation.
*he second danger from $ltrafine particles arises when they float freely in the air1
where their large s$rface area provides a stic'y place where metals and hydrocar#ons
attach themselves. *he smaller the si-e of the particle1 the larger the load of metals
and hydrocar#ons it can carry (larger1 relative to the particle6s vol$me).
+hat do we 'now a#o$t health effects of $ltrafine particlesO
2cientists have 'nown for more than a decade that fine and $ltrafine particles in the air
create ha-e and 'ill large n$m#ers of h$mans. :ines and $ltrafines are prod$ced #y
fossilf$el power plants1 incinerators1 cement 'ilns1 and diesel engines1 among other
so$rces. As early as =EE=1 7r. Coel 2chwart- of >.2. Environmental Protection Agency
(now at ,arvard) estimated that fine particles were 'illing G/1/// people each year in
the >.2. *hat shoc'ing estimate has since #een confirmed and reconfirmed and is now
widely ccepted. :ine particles are defined as those with a diameter of =/1///
nanometers (=/ micrometers) or less. >ltrafines are =// times smaller than fines.TGU
*oday1 researchers are e(amining the properties of $ltrafines and there seems to #e
little do$#t that they are the ma3or 'illers in ha-e. 2t$dies in 9os Angeles1 "alifornia
reveal that $ltrafines are =/ to 0/ times as damaging to l$ng tiss$e1 compared to
larger fine particles.
2ince =EE=1 scientists have #een wondering whether fine and $ltrafine particles ca$se
harm #eca$se of their si-e alone1 or #eca$se they carry metals and hydrocar#ons deep
into the l$ng. <esearchers today #elieve that1 in the case of $ltrafines1 the answer is
#oth.
>.2. Environmental Protection Agency refers to fines as P! =/ (short for @partic$late
matter =/ micrometers or less in diameter@). By =EEG1 EPA #ecame convinced that P!
..0 (particles with diameters of ..0 micrometers T.0// nanometersU or less) were far
more dangero$s than P! =/1 and the agency proposed r$les to control P! ..0 air
poll$tion. "orporations immediately s$ed in co$rt to @get government off o$r #ac's@
and to f$lfill their fid$ciary d$ty to shareholders #y every legal means1 even tho$gh
that d$ty in this instance entails 'illing tens of tho$sands of anonymo$s citi-ens each
year. 5n .//=1 after a 0year co$rt #attle1 EPA won in the >.2. 2$preme "o$rt1 #$t the
agency1 chastened #y corporate enco$nters1 has shelved its plan for controlling P! ..0
air poll$tion. !eanwhile1 new st$dies are piling $p showing that nano particles
($ltrafines1 which in EPA terminology wo$ld #e P! /.=) are #y far the most dangero$s
of all.
*he pict$re contin$es to develop1 #$t c$rrent research shows that nano particles in the
l$ng ca$se the formation of free radicals1 which in t$rn1 ca$se l$ng disease1 and
cardiovasc$lar disease. :$rthermore1 nano particles carry metals and carcinogenic
hydrocar#ons deep into the l$ng1 where they e(acer#ate asthma and other serio$s
#reathing pro#lems. 5n addition1 nano particles com#ined with metals can pass directly
into the #rain where they promote the formation of wa(y amyloid plaB$es1 which are
the signat$re feat$re of Al-heimer6s disease. 5n :resno1 "alif.1 Kent E. Pin'erton at
>niv. of "alif. 7avis fo$nd from a$topsies that @o$twardly ro#$st people ro$tinely
har#or damage in their l$ngs6 small airways1 setting the stage for respiratory and
cardiovasc$lar disease.@ *he #ronchioles were scarred with fi#rosis and an a#normal
thic'ening1 apparently ca$sed #y @the ravages of free radicals.@ 2$#seB$ent e(pos$re
14
of rats to $ltrafine particles at levels fo$nd in :resno on a #ad day revealed many dead
cells in the rats6 l$ngs1 large n$m#ers of inflammatory cells (ne$trophils)1 and
destr$ction of macrophages which are cells that promote health #y actively
removing foreign material from the l$ngs. 5n other words1 $ltrafines 'ill off the l$ng6s
nat$ral defenses1 and then create their own $niB$e form of damage1 promoting free
radicals1 cell death1 inflammation and event$ally cardiovasc$lar disease.
Pin'erton6s findings were confirmed #y a st$dy of the l$ngs of nonsmo'ing women in
!e(ico "ity and in Vanco$ver1 British "ol$m#ia1 which revealed e(tensive l$ng damage
from e(pos$re to dirty !e(ico "ity air1 #$t not clean Vanco$ver air. *he small airways
of the !e(ican women @were very a#normal1@ with fi#rosis and thic'ening.
<esearcher Ken 7onaldson at the >niversity of Edin#oro$gh in 2cotland has st$died
particles of p$re titani$m dio(ide and p$re car#on. At =/ micrometers diameter1 they
ca$se no damage to rat l$ngs. B$t when they are cr$shed into $ltrafines @they #ecome
highly inflammogenic to the l$ngs1@ he told 2cience News. 5n other words1 car#on nano
particles1 witho$t any poll$tants attached (no metals1 no hydrocar#ons)1 ca$se l$ng
damage #y themselves. *heir si-e alone is harmf$l.
5t is now 'nown that the deadly effects of fine and $ltrafine particles aren6t restricted
to the l$ng1 #$t occ$r in the cardiovasc$lar system and #rain. <ena$d Vincent and
colleag$es at ,ealth "anada (the "anadian eB$ivalent of the >.2. National 5nstit$tes of
,ealth) clarified the mechanism of cardiovasc$lar damage #y e(posing healthy
vol$nteers to high levels of fine particles the levels yo$ might find in a city with dirty
air.
Vincent fo$nd that e(pos$re to $ltrafine particles do$#les the concentration of a small
protein (called endothelin) in the #lood stream. Endothelin increases #lood press$re.
*he spi'e in endothelin levels can #e tolerated #y a healthy s$#3ect1 #$t may 'ill a
person who is already s$ffering from atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).TGU
5mportantly1 the spi'e in endothelin concentration only occ$rs when s$#3ects are
e(posed to fine and $ltrafine particles that have metals or hydrocar#ons attached to
them. 5f the particles are p$rified #efore the h$mans are e(posed to them1 they have
no effect on endothelin levels. *h$s it seems to #e the com#ination of $ltrafine
particles and metals andZor hydrocar#ons that increases endothelin.
%ther researchers have also #een e(amining the effects of fine and $ltrafine particles
on cardiovasc$lar health. 2cientists at the ,arvard 2chool of P$#lic ,ealth e(posed
dogs to fine and $ltrafine particles1 then sim$lated heart attac's in the dogs #y $sing a
s$rgicallyimplanted #alloon to temporarily sh$t off a coronary artery. 7ogs that had
#een #reathing $ltrafines co$ld not compensate for the #loc'ed artery which may
help e(plain why h$mans who have heart attac's on a #adair day are more li'ely to
die than people having heart attac's where the air is cleaner.
"ardiovasc$lar disease and heart attac's are not the only concern arising from
e(pos$re to fine and $ltrafine particles in the air. A >niversity of North "arolina
research team wor'ing with dogs living in !e(ico "ity has shown that e(pos$re to
$ltrafine air poll$tion ca$ses #rain damage. 9ilian "alderonGarcide$nas fo$nd that
$ltrafine particles carry metals s$ch as vanadi$m and nic'el into the dogs6 #rains
thro$gh their noses. *he fine particles #rea' down the #arriers that normally prevent
contaminants passing into the #rain.
7ogs are often $sed as models for the st$dy of cognitive impairments that accompany
old age in h$mans. 2ome dogs aged =/ and over develop the wa(y plaB$es that are
characteristic of Al-heimer6s disease. "alderonGarcide$nas6s st$dy of .// dogs in
!e(ico "ity reveals that the animals #reathing $ltrafine particles develop wa(y #eta
amyloid plaB$es in the #rain #efore they are a year old.
"alderonGarcide$nas told science writer Canet <aloff that her findings are @definitely
worrisome@ #eca$se she has e(amined the noses of h$mans in !e(ico "ity and fo$nd
evidence of a #rea'down of nasal tiss$e1 similar to that fo$nd in dogs.TGU
15
>.2. EPA researchers and colleag$es in Germany have fo$nd that metals attached to
fine and $ltrafine particles greatly e(acer#ate asthma. :irst they e(amined children in
a German city where the air is contaminated with fine and $ltrafine particles mi(ed
with metals. "ompared to children living in a r$ral German town where the air is
relatively clean1 the $r#an children showed strongly allergic reactions. *he researchers
then e(posed mice to the two 'inds of air that the children were #reathing. *hey
reported that mice e(posed to metalcontaminated $ltrafine particles developed strong
allergic and asthmatic reactions in their airways.
>sing isolated l$ng cells1 researchers fo$nd that $ltrafine particles from 9os Angeles air
(a) carry far more to(ic com#$stion #yprod$cts per $nit weight than do larger particles
(no s$rprise #eca$se of s$rfacetovol$me ratio)Y and (#) enter cells and settle in the
mitochondria1 which are the cells6 so$rce of power. >ltrafine particles t$rn the
mitochondria into @f$nctionless #ags1@ researcher Andre Nel told 2cience News1 'illing
the cells they were powering.
16