NERVOUS TISSUE 139

by conscious control. Skeletal muscle bers can vary in lent!

"rom a "e# centimeters in s!ort muscles to u$ to 3%&'% cm
(about
1)&1* in.+ in your lonest muscles. , muscle ber is rou!ly
cylin-rical in s!a$e. an- !as many nuclei locate- at t!e
$eri$!ery. /it!in a #!ole muscle. t!e in-ivi-ual muscle bers
may be $aral0 lel to one anot!er.
Cardiac muscle tissue "orms most o" t!e #all o" t!e !eart
(Table '.12+. 3ike skeletal muscle. it is striate-. 4o#ever.
unlike skeletal muscle tissue. it is involuntary; its contraction is
not consciously controlle-. 5ar-iac muscle bers are branc!e-
an- usually !ave only one centrally locate- nucleus6 an
occasional cell !as t#o nuclei. T!ey attac! en- to en- by
transverse t!ickenins o" t!e $lasma membrane calle-
intercalated discs (intercalat- to insert bet#een+. #!ic!
contain bot! -esmo0 somes an- a$ 7unctions. Intercalate-
-iscs are uni8ue to car-iac muscle tissue. T!e -esmosomes
strent!en t!e tissue an- !ol- t!e bers toet!er -urin t!eir
viorous contractions. T!e a$ 7unctions $rovi-e a route "or
8uick con-uction o" muscle action $otentials t!rou!out t!e
!eart.
Smooth muscle tissue is locate- in t!e #alls o" !ollo#
internal structures suc! as bloo- vessels. air#ays to t!e
luns. t!e stomac!. intestines. allbla--er. an- urinary bla--er
(Table '.15+. Its contraction !el$s constrict or narro# t!e lumen
o" bloo- vessels. $!ysically break -o#n an- move "oo- alon
t!e astrointestinal tract. move 9ui-s t!rou! t!e bo-y. an-
eliminate #astes. Smoot! muscle bers are usually involuntary,
an- t!ey are nonstriate- (lack striations+. !ence t!e term smooth.
, smoot! muscle ber is small. t!ickest in t!e mi--le. an-
ta$erin at eac! en-. It contains a sinle. centrally locate- nu0
cleus. :a$ 7unctions connect many in-ivi-ual bers in some
smoot! muscle tissues. "or e;am$le. in t!e #all o" t!e intestines.
Suc! muscle tissues can $ro-uce $o#er"ul contractions as many
muscle bers contract in unison. In ot!er locations. suc! as
t!e iris o" t!e eye. smoot! muscle bers contract in-ivi-ually.
like skeletal muscle bers. because a$ 7unctions are absent.
5!a$ter 1% $rovi-es a more -etaile- -iscussion o" muscular
tissue.
5 4 E 5 < = O I N T
1>. /!ic! ty$es o" muscular tissue are striate-? /!ic! are
smoot!?
1@. /!ic! ty$es o" muscular tissue !ave a$ 7unctions?
NERVOUS TISSUE
O 2 A E 5 T I V E
B Cescribe t!e structural "eatures an- "unctions o" nervous
tissue.
Ces$ite t!e a#esome com$le;ity o" t!e nervous system. it con0
sists o" only t#o $rinci$al ty$es o" cellsD neurons an- neurolia.
Neurons, or nerve cells. are sensitive to various stimuli. T!ey
convert stimuli into electrical sinals calle- action potentials
(nerve impulses) an- con-uct t!ese action $otentials to ot!er
neurons. to muscle tissue. or to lan-s. Eost neurons consist o"
t!ree basic $artsD a cell bo-y an- t#o kin-s o" cell $rocessesF
-en-rites an- a;ons (Table '.*+. T!e cell body contains t!e
nucleus an- ot!er oranelles. Dendrites (dendr- tree+ are
ta$erin. !i!ly branc!e-. an- usually s!ort cell $rocesses (e;0
tensions+. T!ey are t!e ma7or receivin or in$ut $ortion o" a neu0
ron. T!e axon (axo- a;is+ o" a neuron is a sinle. t!in. cylin0
-rical $rocess t!at may be very lon. It is t!e out$ut $ortion o" a
T,23E '. *
Nervous Tissue
Description: 5onsists o" neurons (nerve cells+ an- neurolia. Neurons consist o" a cell bo-y an- $rocesses e;ten-in "rom
t!e cell bo-y (multi$le -en-rites an- a sinle a;on+. Neurolia -o not enerate or con-uct nerve im$ulses but !ave ot!er
im$ortant su$$ortin "unctions.
Location: Nervous system.
Function: E;!ibits sensitivity to various ty$es o" stimuli. converts stimuli into nerve im$ulses (action $otentials+. an- con-ucts
nerve im$ulses to ot!er neurons. muscle bers. or lan-s.
Spinal
cord
Dendrite
Nucleus of
neuroglial
cell
Nucleus in
cell body
Axon
LM
Neuron of spinal cord
400x
1'% 54,=TER ' B T4E TISSUE 3EVE3 OG OR:,NIH,TION
neuron. con-uctin nerve im$ulses to#ar- anot!er neuron or to
some ot!er tissue.
Even t!ou! neuroglia (noo0RO
I
:0leI 0a6 -glia lue+ -o
not
enerate or con-uct nerve im$ulses. t!ese cells -o !ave many
im$ortant su$$ortive "unctions. T!e -etaile- structure an- "unc0
tion o" neurons an- neurolia are consi-ere- in 5!a$ter 1).
5 4 E 5 <= O I N T
19. /!at are t!e "unctions o" t!e -en-rites. cell bo-y. an-
a;on o" a neuron?
EJ5IT,23E 5E33S
O 2 A E 5 T I V E
B E;$lain t!e conce$t o" electrical e;citability.
Neurons an- muscle bers are consi-ere- excitable cells
because t!ey e;!ibit electrical excitability, t!e ability to
res$on- to certain stimuli by $ro-ucin electrical sinals suc! as
action potentials. ,ction $otentials can $ro$aate (travel+ alon
t!e $lasma membrane o" a neuron or muscle ber -ue to t!e
$resence o" s$ecic voltae0ate- ion c!annels. /!en an action
$otential "orms in a neuron. t!e neuron releases c!emicals calle-
neurotransmitters, #!ic! allo# neurons to communicate #it!
ot!er neurons. muscle bers. or lan-s. /!en an action $otential
occurs in a muscle ber. t!e muscle ber contracts. resultin in
activities suc! as t!e movement o" t!e limbs. t!e $ro$ulsion o"
"oo- t!rou! t!e small intestine. an- t!e movement o" bloo- out
o" t!e !eart an- into t!e bloo- vessels o" t!e bo-y. T!e muscle
action $otential an- t!e nerve action $otential are -iscusse- in
-etail in 5!a$ters 1% an- 1). res$ectively.
5 4 E 5 <= O I N T
)%. /!y is electrical e;citability im$ortant to neurons an-
muscle "ibers?
TISSUE RE=,IRD RESTORIN:
4OEEOST,SIS
O 2 A E 5 T I V E
B Cescribe t!e role o" tissue re$air in restorin !omeostasis.
Tissue re$air is t!e re$lacement o" #orn0out. -amae-. or -ea-
cells. Ne# cells oriinate by cell -ivision "rom t!e stroma,
t!e su$$ortin connective tissue. or "rom t!e parenchyma, cells
t!at constitute t!e "unctionin $art o" t!e tissue or oran. In
a-ults. eac! o" t!e "our basic tissue ty$es (e$it!elial. connective.
muscle. an- nervous+ !as a -i""erent ca$acity "or re$lenis!in
$arenc!ymal cells lost by -amae. -isease. or ot!er $rocesses.
E$it!elial cells. #!ic! en-ure consi-erable #ear an- tear (an-
even in7ury+ in some locations. !ave a continuous ca$acity "or
rene#al. In some cases. immature. un-i""erentiate- cells calle-
stem cells -ivi-e to re$lace lost or -amae- cells. Gor e;am$le.
stem cells resi-e in $rotecte- locations in t!e e$it!elia o" t!e
skin an- astrointestinal tract to re$lenis! cells slou!e- "rom
t!e a$ical layer. an- stem cells in re- bone marro# continually
$rovi-e ne# re- an- #!ite bloo- cells an- $latelets. In ot!er
cases. mature. -i""erentiate- cells can un-ero cell -ivision6
e;am$les inclu-e !e$atocytes (liver cells+ an- en-ot!elial cells
in bloo- vessels.
Some connective tissues also !ave a continuous ca$acity "or
rene#al. One e;am$le is bone. #!ic! !as an am$le bloo-
su$$ly. 5onnective tissues suc! as cartilae can re$lenis! cells
muc! less rea-ily. in $art because o" a smaller bloo- su$$ly.
Euscular tissue !as a relatively $oor ca$acity "or rene#al o"
lost cells. Even t!ou! skeletal muscle tissue contains stem cells
calle- satellite cells, t!ey -o not -ivi-e ra$i-ly enou! to re0
$lace e;tensively -amae- muscle bers. 5ar-iac muscle tissue
lacks satellite cells. an- e;istin car-iac muscle bers -o not
un-ero mitosis to "orm ne# cells. Recent evi-ence su0
ests t!at stem cells -o mirate into t!e !eart "rom t!e bloo-.
T!ere. t!ey can -i""erentiate an- re$lace a limite- number o"
car-iac muscle bers an- en-ot!elial cells in !eart bloo-
vessels. Smoot! muscle bers can $roli"erate to some e;tent. but
t!ey -o so muc! more slo#ly t!an t!e cells o" e$it!elial or
connective tissues.
Nervous tissue !as t!e $oorest ca$acity "or rene#al. ,lt!ou!
e;$eriments !ave reveale- t!e $resence o" some stem cells in t!e
brain. t!ey normally -o not un-ero mitosis to re$lace -amae-
neurons. Ciscoverin #!y t!is is so is a ma7or oal o" re0
searc!ers #!o seek #ays to re$air nervous tissue -amae- by
in7ury or -isease.
T!e restoration o" an in7ure- tissue or oran to normal
structure an- "unction -e$en-s entirely on #!et!er $arenc!y0
mal cells are active in t!e re$air $rocess. I" $arenc!ymal cells
accom$lis! t!e re$air. tissue regeneration is $ossible. an- a
near0$er"ect reconstruction o" t!e in7ure- tissue may occur.
4o#ever. i" broblasts o" t!e stroma are active in t!e
re$air. t!e re$lacement tissue #ill be a ne# connective tissue.
T!e broblasts synt!esiKe collaen an- ot!er matri; materials
t!at areate to "orm scar tissue. a $rocess kno#n as brosis.
2ecause scar tissue is not s$ecialiKe- to $er"orm t!e "unctions
o" t!e $arenc!ymal tissue. t!e oriinal "unction o" t!e tissue or
oran is im$aire-.
/!en tissue -amae is e;tensive. as in lare. o$en
#oun-s. bot! t!e connective tissue stroma an- t!e $arenc!ymal
cells are active in re$air6 broblasts -ivi-e ra$i-ly. an- ne#
collaen bers are manu"acture- to $rovi-e structural strent!.
2loo- ca$illaries also s$rout ne# bu-s to su$$ly t!e !ealin
tissue #it! t!e materials it nee-s. ,ll t!ese $rocesses create an
actively ro#in connective tissue calle- granulation tissue.
T!is ne# tissue "orms across a #oun- or surical incision to
$rovi-e a "rame#ork (stroma+ t!at su$$orts t!e e$it!elial cells
t!at mirate into t!e o$en area an- ll it. T!e ne#ly "orme-
ranulation tissue also secretes a 9ui- t!at kills bacteria.
,t times. a small but sinicant number o" $atients -evelo$ a
com$lication o" surery calle- wound dehiscence (-e
0
0
4ISS0
ens+. t!e $artial or com$lete se$aration o" t!e outer layers o" a
suture- incision. , common cause is surical error in #!ic! su0
tures or sta$les are $lace- too "ar a$art. too close to t!e incision