LCOM Papers 1 (2008), 37 51

A discussion on using English as medium of instruction in

Hong Kong and the sociolinguistic impacts


Bosco Li and Anna On Na Shum

The University of Hong Kong
boscoli@graduate.hku.hk
h0775009@hkusua.hku.hk



This paper studies the attitudes of students and teachers from a secondary school in
Hong Kong towards English as medium of instruction (EMI) in Hong Kong. In the
light of the collected data and other scholarly works, two sociolinguistic issues that
are raised in the context of the adoption of EMI will be investigated: First, whether
EMI fosters Anglocentrism and US imperialism and second, whether EMI preserves
social inequality through the learning process. Although some scholars claim that
these socio-cultural impacts are quite apparent in post-colonial areas, the results
collected in this study call for a more nuanced assessment of the situation.



1. Introduction

In the past few decades, English has come to be regarded as the global language. This
international language has linguistically dominated the world in many of the
significant sectors. Education is no exception. A medium of instruction is the most
direct agent of maintaining and revitalising a culture as well as power (re)distribution
and social reconstruction (Tsui, 2004). Whether to adopt this worldwide language as
a medium of instruction (MOI) has long been a burning issue for leaders and
Bosco Li and Anna On Na Shum 38
government officials in post-colonial countries (not only) in Asia , an issue which
further creates a storm of controversy concerning cultural imperialism as well as
social inequality.

In this essay, the focus is on the impacts of using English as an MOI on Asian
societies, particularly Hong Kong. In the first part, we will briefly outline the data
collection process and the relevant data collected in a Hong Kong secondary school.
The second part will shift the focus to the controversy over the impacts of EMI as
discussed in previous works. We will first outline the relevant debates regarding two
supposed negative consequences including (i) promotion of Anglocentrism and US
cultural imperialism, and (ii) the perpetuation of social inequality. After that, these
arguments will be evaluated with reference to the situation of Hong Kong and the data
collected. Examples will also be drawn from other Asian societies including Malaysia
and the Philippines.



2. Methodology and presentation of results

The data for this article was collected from a local Chinese-medium (CMI) secondary
school on Lantau Island between March and April 2004. The school was established
in 2003 and there were only 12 teachers and four F.1 classes during the research
period. The majority of the students were of local background while some of them
were newly immigrated children from Mainland China. During the period, it is
observed that the English proficiencies of students were not very high. According to a
teacher working in the school, in some extreme cases, some students knew less than
50 English words. During the research period, the school was unbanded
1
.


2.1 Questionnaires for students

55 questionnaires
2
were distributed to students from three different classes. All
informants were required to complete the questionnaires in class. The results of
Question 1-5 are shown with the number of informants while the results for Question
6-7 are presented with the mean scores. The results are shown as below.


1
Schools in Hong Kong are banded according to their students academic performance. Among the
three bands, Band I is the highest while Band III is the lowest.
2
A sample questionnaire for students is attached as Appendix 1.
A discussion on using English as medium of instruction 39
1. What is your mother tongue?

CANTONESE ENGLISH MANDARIN OTHERS
1A 18 0 4 2
1C 8 0 2 6
1D 17 0 0 2
OVERALL 43 0 6 10

2. Do your parents know English?

YES, BOTH OF THEM DO. YES, ONE OF THEM DOES. NO, NEITHER OF THEM.
1A 1 8 11
1C 1 2 13
1D 0 6 13
OVERALL 2 16 37

3. How long have you studied English?

0 LESS THAN 3 YEARS 3 YEARS LESS THAN 6 YEARS 6 YEARS OR ABOVE
1A 0 4 16
1C 1 4 11
1D 0 1 18
OVERALL 1 9 45

4. As a medium of instruction, which language do you prefer in your school?

CANTONESE ENGLISH MANDARIN OTHERS
1A 17 2 1 0
1C 14 1 1 0
1D 14 4 1 0
OVERALL 45 7 3 0




Bosco Li and Anna On Na Shum 40
5. Why do you prefer the language you chose in Q.4? (You may choose more than
one.)

1A 1C 1D Overall
It is my mother tongue. 13 12 7 32
I want to learn that language very much. 8 4 7 19
It is easier to understand. 13 13 12 38
It is superior to use that language. 5 3 5 13
It is the national language. 6 3 11 20
Other reasons 4 0 0 4

6. Please arrange the following three languages in order according to their
importance. (1 Most important, 3 Least important)

1A 1C 1D Overall
Cantonese 2.26 2.56 2.26 2.35
English 1.47 1.25 1.32 1.35
Mandarin 2.16 2.19 2.42 2.26

7. Please look at the following statements and evaluate them by using the scale. (1
strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 neutral, 4 disagree, 5 strongly disagree)

1A 1C 1D Overall
a. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with
English teachers.
2.75 3.19 3 3.02
b. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with
non-English teachers.
3.25 3.69 3.32 3.40
c. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with my
friends.
3.65 4.63 3.68 3.95
d. There is enough opportunity for me to use English in
the school.
2 2.75 2.42 2.36
e. It is easier for me to understand the lessons conducted
in my mother tongue.
1.35 2 1.79 1.69
f. Using English in non-English subjects helps me learn
English.
2.85 3.44 3 3.07
A discussion on using English as medium of instruction 41
g. Learning English can help me get a better job. 1.3 1.13 1.74 1.40
h. Learning English can help me attain a higher social
status.
1.55 1.69 1.79 1.67
i. It is better to study in an EMI school. 3.05 2.75 2.63 2.82
j. Students from EMI schools are better than those from
CMI schools.
3.25 1.94 2.47 2.60
k. English culture is superior to Chinese culture. 3.4 1.69 4 3.11


2.2 Questionnaires for teachers

12 questionnaires
3
were distributed to all teachers in the school and 11 were returned
from 6 language teachers and 5 non-language teachers. All informants were given one
week of time to complete the questionnaire. The results of Question 1-3 are shown
with the number of informants while the results for Question 4-5 are presented with
the mean scores. Please note that, in Question 2, the data from two informants were
discarded as they inappropriately chose more than one answer in that question. The
results are shown below.

1. What is your mother tongue?

CANTONESE ENGLISH MANDARIN OTHERS
Language Teachers 4 2 0 0
Non-language Teachers 4 0 1 0
OVERALL 8 2 1 0

2. As a medium of instruction, which language do you prefer in your school?

CANTONESE ENGLISH MANDARIN OTHERS
Language Teachers 3 2 0 0
Non-language Teachers 4 0 0 0
OVERALL 7 2 0 0



3
A sample questionnaire for teachers is attached as Appendix 2.
Bosco Li and Anna On Na Shum 42

3. Why do you prefer the language you chose in Q.2? (You may choose more than
one.)

Language
Teachers
Non-language
Teachers
Overall
It is my mother tongue. 1 2 3
It is the mother tongue of most students. 3 4 7
It helps my students learn that language. 2 1 3
It is easier for my students to understand. 2 5 7
It is superior to use that language. 1 1 2
It is the national language. 1 1 2
Other reasons 2 0 2

4. Please arrange the following three languages in order according to their
importance. (1 Most important, 3 Least important)

Language Teachers Non-Language Teachers Overall
Cantonese 2.8 2.4 2.6
English 1 1.2 1.1
Mandarin 2.2 2.4 2.3

5. Please look at the following statements and evaluate them by using the scale. (1
strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 neutral, 4 disagree, 5 strongly disagree)


Language
Teachers
Non-Language
Teachers
Overall
a. It is easier for me to teach the lessons in my
mother tongue.
1.67 1.8 1.73
b. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with
my colleagues.
2.50 3.2 2.82
c. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with
my students.
2.17 2.8 2.46
d. It is better to teach in an EMI school. 3 2.6 2.82
A discussion on using English as medium of instruction 43
e. Using English in non-English subjects helps
students learn English.
2.5 2.6 2.55
f. It is difficult for students to use English to learn
non- English subjects.
2.67 2.2 2.46
g. Learning English can help students get a better
job.
1.5 2.4 1.91
h. Learning English can help students attain a
higher social status.
1.83 2.6 2.18
i. Students from EMI schools are better than those
from CMI schools.
3 3 3
j. There are enough teaching materials in Chinese
for the teaching of non-English subjects.
2.83 2.6 2.73
k. Using foreign teaching materials makes students
think that western cultures are superior to
Chinese culture.
4 2.8 3.45
l. The difference between CMI and EMI schools in
Hong Kong conveys the message to students that
English is superior to Chinese.
2.16 2.4 2.27



3. Relevant debates impacts and potential risks

3.1 Promotion of Anglocentrism & US cultural imperialism

One concern regarding the use of English as MOI is that Anglocentrism and US
cultural imperialism would unnecessarily be encouraged. Academics like Todd (1999:
31) worry that such cultural imperialism will cause the slow death of other cultures.
David Crystal even termed the English language a cultural nerve gas (Crystal, 2000:
78) invading non-English cultures. For example, the globalisation of English has been
promoting the adoption of English as an MOI in many post-colonial societies, such as
Malaysia. It is claimed that the promotion of particular teaching approaches is closely
linked to the promotion of English and to the promotion of particular forms of culture
and knowledge (Pennycock, 1994: 152). Regarding the use of teaching materials that
do not take cultural differences into account, Singh, Kell, & Pandion wrote that:

Bosco Li and Anna On Na Shum 44
The danger of these products is that they present a distorted and nostalgic view
of the world organised around redundant views of the English empire and
US/American neo-colonialism, perpetuating a global, racialised hierarchy
radiating from Anglo-American interests. In this context, Anglo-American
things are seen as culturally superior, characterised as being of great social
worth, held to be an indicator of significant economic advancement, and
celebrated as the product of superior evolution (Singh, Kell, & Pandion, 2002:
86-87).

These arguments suggest that the English language is of great importance and could
be highly influential. The results of a survey done in Hong Kong showed that most
participants recognized the significance of English but believed that when they used
English they no longer felt Chinese (Pierson, Herbert et al., 1980). This finding
reveals that those who engage in the English language run the risk of falling into an
identity crisis. All in all, the Anglo-American culture(s) may be deemed as superior
while non-English or non-American cultures may be in turn be regarded as inferior
and not worthy of being preserved.

However, adopting English as an MOI may have no necessary connection with
Anglo-American cultural imperialism. According to the findings of the present study,
students remained neutral (mean score = 3.11) regarding the question of whether
English culture is superior to Chinese culture. Contrary to Pennycocks belief,
teachers in this school did not agree (mean score = 3.45) that using foreign language
materials conveyed this message to students. Moreover, only 13 students (23.6%) and
2 teachers (18.2%) consider the superiority of the language as a reason for choosing
an MOI. Furthermore, in both groups, superiority is also the reason of least concern.
Thus, the two issues may not have an intrinsic relation.

Another piece of evidence against the claim of cultural imperialism is Malaysia. In
Malaysia, English does not just fail to promote Anglocentrism, but on the contrary
creates new opportunities for locals to have a better understanding of their indigenous
cultures and history as well as their position and relation with the world. The English
language has been an important site for negotiating the colonial past and configuring a
political community [] Compelling artwork and ideas are advanced in this language
that articulates a common local identity in creative ways and serve as a means by
which Malaysians negotiate and resist the hegemony of cultural globalisation
(Mandal, 2001:109). Salleh Ben Joned, a contemporary writer in Malaysia who has
published a book of poems in Malay and English, believes that
A discussion on using English as medium of instruction 45

A language belongs to those who speak it. Its as simple as that. Given this fact,
and that language communicates experience and is capable of transcending the
boundaries of the culture of its origin given all this, then the English we
speak in Malaysia today belongs to us. Its our English; along with Malay it
expresses our soul, with all its contradictions and confusions, as much as our
social and material needs (Salleh, cited in Mandal, 2001: 115).

Although the widespread use of English has given the language a favourable global
image, adopting it as an MOI does not imply the superiority of the Anglo-American
culture(s) over other cultural forms. Like Malaysians, Hong Kong people may also
successfully create a lively hybrid culture by means of the English language. On the
other hand, it is advisable for publishers to develop English learning materials that
reflect the local context. Teachers should also be careful when they select their
teaching materials from foreign resources and adaptations should be made to suit the
local context if necessary.


3.2 Perpetuation of social inequalities

In post-colonial contexts, the globalisation of English has been claimed to be the
fundamental force responsible for widening intra-national gaps and generating a
gate-keeping effect with respect to the attainment of status and prestige in society. As
to Hong Kong, parents prefer EMI to CMI, as they believe good English proficiency
equates a better future for students (Chan, Hoare & Johnson, 1997). This belief is
echoed by Pennycook (2001: 81): With English taking up such an important position
in many educational systems around the world, it has become one of the most
powerful means of inclusion into or exclusion from further education, employment, or
social positions. It maybe true that students in EMI schools may get more exposure to
English than those in CMI ones. Children in EMI schools will have a better chance to
receive tertiary education and to find prestigious jobs. For Malaysia, this situation of
inequality is described by Mahathir:

The English regime did not merely divide the Malays from the Chinese, but
went on to divide the rural Malays from the town Malays. It is true that the
division was already there, but it was the [English] who severed the tenuous
links that town Malays had with the rural Malays. [] Having encouraged
white-collar jobs among town Malays, they made these people feel that their
Bosco Li and Anna On Na Shum 46
status was above that of manual workers and peasants. The few Malays who
remained in the towns were then provided with an elementary English
education which was at the same time denied the rural Malays (Mahathir, cited
in Singh, Kell, & Pandion, 2002: 88).

According to Asuncion-Lande (1998: 77), the situation is similar in the Philippines.
The emphasising of English in the education system tends to be the crucial factor for
social class division in this country. In private elite institutions, English is used as the
medium of instruction at all levels and this attracts mainly elites and children from
wealthy families. In turn, poor children with little schooling and exposure to English
turn out to be left behind in their community.

According to the findings in the present research, teachers and students were very
conscious about the importance and functional value of this global language. In the
questionnaires, informants were required to arrange the 3 languages, Cantonese,
English, and Mandarin according to their importance (1 most important, 3 least
important). The mean scores of English for students and teachers are 1.35 and 1.1
respectively, while those of Cantonese and Mandarin are all more than 2. Students
who prefer English as an MOI think that English is an international language while
some teachers particularly pointed out that it is the medium of instruction in many
tertiary institutions. Most importantly, to a large extent, students and teachers agree
that English helps students to get better jobs and higher social status.

Students Teachers
Learning English can help students to get a better job. 1.40 1.91
Learning English can help students to get a better social status. 1.67 2.18

Mean scores for the two statements. (1 strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 neutral, 4
disagree, 5 strongly disagree)

English is undoubtedly one of the most important languages in Hong Kong because of
its functional value. However, it is important to note that using English as an MOI is
not equivalent to learning English. According to the findings, students remained rather
neutral (mean score=3.07) as regards the question of whether using English in
non-English subjects would help them learn English. Moreover, it is clear that
students without adequate English proficiency are greatly hindered in learning
non-English subjects, become reluctant to ask questions and express ideas, and may
even lose interest in the subjects altogether. There may be other methods to provide
A discussion on using English as medium of instruction 47
students with opportunities to use English. In the school under investigation, for
example, students are encouraged to speak English outside the classrooms and all
teachers are asked to talk to students in English during recess. This can be an effective
way to learn English without hindering the learning of other subjects. It is important
for schools in Hong Kong, not just CMI ones, to provide students with adequate
opportunities to learn the English language outside the class, as using English as MOI
will only be useful for students with adequate English proficiency.



4. Conclusion

With the dominance of colonial powers and the technological advancement of
Western societies like the USA, in the last century, the English language has not
merely become an icon of modernity and prosperity of the Western powers, but also
plays a significant role in various contexts including education.

Political leaders in post-colonial governments in Southeast Asia are engaging in
numerous discussions on whether to adopt this global language as MOI in order to
create economic opportunities and future prosperity. But at the same time, the
tremendous number of writings regarding cultural imperialism and social inequality in
academic journals and even newspaper editorials are increasingly drawing attention.
However, the apparently unstoppable and inevitable global spread of the English
language does not mean the unavoidability of these negative consequences. Instead,
while enjoying the materialistic advantage and economic success brought by the
globalization of English, government officials in post-colonial societies like Hong
Kong and Malaysia should make every endeavor to conserve their cultural resources.
In this way, the domination of English may also generate resistance against []
cultural domination so that there will be a healthy balance between gaining access to
English and [] a balance between being open to foreign cultures and values and
retaining ones own (Tsui, 2003: 29). Education practitioners should carefully select
their teaching materials and make adaptations to suit the local context and at the same
time, create more opportunities for students to learn English outside the classroom.





Bosco Li and Anna On Na Shum 48
Appendices

1. Questionnaire on medium of instruction for students

Name of School: __________________________________
Age: __________ Class: __________

1. What is your mother tongue?
Cantonese English Mandarin Others: ___________ (Please Specify)

2. Do your parents know English?
Yes, both of them do. Yes, one of them does. No, neither of them.

3. How long have you studied English?
0 Less than 3 years 3 years Less than 6 years 6 years or above

4. As a medium of instruction, which language do you prefer in your school?
Cantonese English Mandarin Others: ___________ (Please Specify)

5. Why do you prefer the language you chose in Q.4? (You may choose more than
one.)
It is my mother tongue.
I want to learn that language very much.
It is easier to understand.
It is superior to use that language.
It is the national language.
Other reasons: ______________________________________ (Please Specify)

6. Please arrange the following three languages in order according to their
importance. (1 Most important, 3 Least important)
__ Cantonese __ English __ Mandarin

7. Please look at the following statements and evaluate them by using the scale
below. (1 strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 neutral, 4 disagree, 5 strongly
disagree)

a. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with English teachers. 1 2 3 4 5
b. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with non-English teachers. 1 2 3 4 5
A discussion on using English as medium of instruction 49
c. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with my friends. 1 2 3 4 5
d. There is enough opportunity for me to use English in the school. 1 2 3 4 5
e. It is easier for me to understand the lessons in my mother tongue. 1 2 3 4 5
f. Using English in non-English subjects helps me learn English. 1 2 3 4 5
g. Learning English can help me get a better job. 1 2 3 4 5
h. Learning English can help me attain a better social status. 1 2 3 4 5
i. It is better to study in an EMI school. 1 2 3 4 5
j. Students from EMI schools are better than those from CMI schools 1 2 3 4 5
k. English culture is superior to Chinese culture. 1 2 3 4 5


2. Questionnaire on medium of instruction for teachers

Name of School: _____________________________________
Teaching subject(s): _____________________________________

1. What is your mother tongue?
Cantonese English Mandarin Others: ___________ (Please Specify)

2. As a medium of instruction, which language do you prefer in your school?
Cantonese English Mandarin Others: ___________ (Please Specify)

3. Why do you prefer the language you chose in Q.2? (You may choose more than
one.)
It is my mother tongue.
It is the mother tongue of most students.
It helps my students learn that language.
It is easier for my students to understand.
It is superior to use that language.
It is the national language.
Other reasons: ______________________________________ (Please Specify)

4. Please arrange the following three languages in order according to their
importance. (1 Most important, 3 Least important)
__ Cantonese __ English __ Mandarin


Bosco Li and Anna On Na Shum 50
5. Please look at the following statements and evaluate them by using the scale
below. (1 strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 neutral, 4 disagree, 5 strongly
disagree)

a. It is easier for me to teach the lessons in my mother tongue. 1 2 3 4 5
b. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with my colleagues. 1 2 3 4 5
c. Outside the classroom, I use English to talk with my students. 1 2 3 4 5
d. It is better to teach in an EMI school. 1 2 3 4 5
e. Using English in non-English subjects helps students learn English. 1 2 3 4 5
f. It is difficult for students to use English to learn non- English subjects. 1 2 3 4 5
g. Learning English can help students get a better job. 1 2 3 4 5
h. Learning English can help students attain a better social status. 1 2 3 4 5
i. Students from EMI schools are better than those from CMI schools. 1 2 3 4 5
j. There are enough teaching materials in Chinese for the teaching of
non-English subjects.
1 2 3 4 5
k. Using foreign teaching materials makes students think that western
cultures are superior to Chinese culture
1 2 3 4 5
l. The difference between CMI and EMI schools in Hong Kong conveys
the message to students that English is superior to Chinese.
1 2 3 4 5



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