ChINA MINORITIES-HARMONY IN

DIVERSITY

Table of Contents
Zhonghua minzu......................................................................................................................................... 1
History ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Implications ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Controversy ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Dongxiang Ethnic Minority ................................................................................................................... 5
Dongxiang people are believers of Islamism. Dongxiang communities used to be the center
for learning and spreading Islamism in the 13th century. Nowadays, in Dongxiang
Autonomous County, there are still some graves of Islamic sages. In the beginning of the
18th century, Islamism gradually became the popular religion of Dongxiang ethnic people.
Islamism of Dongxiang is composed of two religious sects, including Qadim (the old) and
Ikhwan (the new). There are four major tariqas (Islamic religious order) in Qadim. The
Ikhwan has no tariqa, and it claims to resume the orthodoxy of Islamism, thus getting more
popular support and advocacy. In the beginning of the 10th century, it was spread to some
other provinces of China, such as Ningxia,Qinghai and Xinjiang. Man Ethnic Minority ........... 9
Mongolian Ethnic Minority ................................................................................................................. 12
Yi Ethnic Minority ................................................................................................................................ 21
Bai Ethnic Minority .............................................................................................................................. 22
Dai Ethnic Minority .............................................................................................................................. 30
A Brief History of the Dai People .............................................................................................. 33
Present-Day Dai People ............................................................................................................ 35
Costumes ..................................................................................................................................... 35
Diet ................................................................................................................................................ 36
Etiquette and Taboos ................................................................................................................. 37
Weddings, Childbirths and Funerals ........................................................................................ 37
Festivals ....................................................................................................................................... 37
Dai Cultural Identity .................................................................................................................... 38
Songs and Dances ..................................................................................................................... 39
Dai Architecture ........................................................................................................................... 42
Dai Handicrafts ............................................................................................................................ 44
Religion......................................................................................................................................... 46
Customs ....................................................................................................................................... 47
Hui Ethnic Minority .............................................................................................................................. 48
Wa Ethnic Minority .............................................................................................................................. 64
Miao Ethnic Minority ........................................................................................................................... 71
The celebration of the Miao New Year in Leishan, Guizhou Province is the grandest among
Miao festivities. During the event tourists can enjoy watching enchanting Miao customs come
alive through various kinds of ethnic activities. These include the festival parade that features
Miao girls and women in traditional Miao dress, the traditional music of the Lusheng (a kind
of musical instrument made of bamboo), bullfights, horseracing, and of course, lots of singing
and dancing ......................................................................................................................................... 75
Tibetan Ethnic Minority ...................................................................................................................... 75
Origin of Tibetan people ................................................................................................................ 75
Clothing ............................................................................................................................................ 76
Housing ............................................................................................................................................ 77
1. Castle-like houses ...................................................................................................................... 79
2. Tents ............................................................................................................................................ 80
3. Cave dwellings ............................................................................................................................ 81
Presenting Hada ............................................................................................................................. 81
Prostrating ........................................................................................................................................ 83
Making Model Pagoda ................................................................................................................... 84
Walking Around Pagodas .............................................................................................................. 84
Turning Prayer Wheels .................................................................................................................. 85
Religious Rituals in the New Year ................................................................................................ 85
Ghost Dance .................................................................................................................................... 87
Visiting Relatives............................................................................................................................. 87
Yao Ethnic Minority............................................................................................................................. 96

Zhonghua minzu
Zhonghua minzu is a Chinese term that refers to the modern notion of a Chinese nationality
transcending ethnic divisions, with a central identity to China as a whole. It includes peoples who have
historically interacted, contributed and assimilated to various extents with Chinese civilization. It is
sometimes translated into English as the Chinese nation.
The boundaries of Zhonghua minzu are fuzzy but most Chinese today use the term to include all
peoples within the territorial boundaries of China along with overseas Chinese integrated as
one national, political, cultural and perhaps even ideological-moral group.
Zhonghua refers to the concept of "China" and is the term used in the formal names for both the
People's Republic of China and the Republic of China. Minzu can be translated as "nation," "people,"
or "ethnic group."
Confusion can arise because the term "Chinese" in Western languages is often used to refer both
to Zhonghua minzuand to the Han ethnicity, two concepts which are usually distinct among modern
Chinese speakers.
History
The immediate roots of the Zhonghua minzu lie in the Qing Empire, a multi-ethnic empire created in
the seventeenth century by the Manchus. In order to legitimize their rule, the Manchus sought to
portray themselves as ideal Confucian rulers for the Chinese, Grand khans for the Mongols, and
Chakravartin kings for Tibetan Buddhists. This involved developing clear ethnic or religious identities
within the empire. Administratively, the empire was divided into the provinces of China (China proper)
and the territories of Mongols, Tibetans, and Muslims, which were not subject to the control of the
Chinese bureaucracy. In this fashion, the Qing court intended, and to a large part succeeded, in
gaining the loyalty of the large Han Chinese gentry, whose cooperation was essential to govern China,
as well as other groups such as the Mongols, who acknowledged the Qing as successors to Chinggis
Khan.
By the early twentieth century, partly through the influence of educational institutions, the Manchu had
succeeded in getting the Han intellectual elite to embrace the idea that China was a multi-ethnic state.
After Manchu rule ended in 1911, the Chinese people never returned to the position that "China" was
the property of the Han people.
[1]

In the late nineteenth century, the identities which the Qing had promoted were modified under the
influence of Western concepts of ethnicity and nationality. Chinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-
sen initially planned to expel the Manchus as "foreign invaders" and establish a Chinese nation-
state modeled closely after Germany and Japan. This model was eventually discarded, out of fear that
an overly restrictive view of the ethnic nation-state would dissolve the Qing Empire into several
different nations, which, it was felt, would give the Western powers an opportunity to dominate China.
The unifying and centralizing principles of Japan and Germany were considered examples China
should follow, while the ethnically divided Ottoman Empire was seen as an example of what some
Chinese nationalists feared.
The term Zhonghua minzu was coined by the late Qing philologist Zhang Binglin ( ) and
originally referred only to the Han Chinese. Sun Yat-sen adopted a stance of uniting all the ethnic
groups within China under the concept of Five Races Under One Union, based on the ethnic
categories of the Qing, and expanded the meaning of Zhonghua minzu to encompass this. He wrote,
"Some people say, after the overthrow of the Qing, we do not need nationalism anymore. Those words
now are certainly wrong.... Right now we speak of the 'union of five nationalities' (Han,
Manchu, Mongol, Hui, and Tibetan), but how is it our country only has five nationalities? My stand is
that we should incorporate all the peoples within China into one Chinese nation (Zhonghua
minzu)...and develop the Chinese nation into a very civilized nation, only then will we no longer need
nationalism."
The philosophy of Zhonghua minzu was first publicly espoused by President Yuan Shikai in 1912,
shortly after the overthrow of the Qing Empire and the founding of the Republic of China. Facing the
imminent independence of Outer Mongolia from China, Yuan Shikai stated, "Outer Mongolia is part
of Zhonghua minzu [the Chinese nation] and has been of one family for centuries"
().
After the fall of the Republic of China and the founding of the People's Republic of China, the concept
of Zhonghua minzu became influenced by Soviet nationalities policy. Officially, the PRC is a unitary
state composed of 56 ethnic groups, of which the Han ethnic group is by far the largest. The concept
ofZhonghua minzu is seen as an all-encompassing category comprised of people within the borders of
the PRC.
This term has continued to be invoked and remains a powerful concept in China into the twenty-first
century. It continues to be used by the leaders of China in an effort to unify a highly diverse set of
ethnic and social groups into one political entity, as well as to mobilize the support of overseas
Chinese in developing China.
Implications
The adoption of the Zhonghua minzu concept has given rise to the reinterpretation or rewriting of
Chinese history. For example, the Manchu Dynasty was originally often characterized as a "conquest
regime" or a "non-Han" regime, conveniently ignoring the prominent role that ethnic Chinese played in
the Qing conquest of China. Following the adoption of the Zhonghua minzu ideology, which regards
the Manchus as a member of the Zhonghua minzu, the distinction between non-native and native
dynasties had to be abandoned. The Manchus, being as "Chinese" as the Han, could no longer be
regarded as "barbarianconquerors," and the Qing empire could no longer be regarded as a "conquest
empire."
Rewriting history also meant reassessing the role of many traditional hero figures. Heroes such as Yue
Fei( ) and Koxinga ( ), who were originally considered to have fought for China against
barbarian incursions, had to be recharacterized as minzu yingxiong (ethnic heroes) who fought, not
against barbarians, but against other members of the Zhonghua minzu (the Jurchens and Manchus
respectively). At the same time, China acquired new heroes such as Chinggis Khan, who became a
"Chinese" hero by virtue of the fact that the Mongols were part of the Zhonghua minzu.
During the years of the Republican era (1911 1949), Han Chinese intellectuals struggled to produce
a coherent historical narrative that could incorporate the heterogeneous peoples of the Qing empire
into the new Chinese nation-state. One effort attempted to produce archaeological and anthropological
evidence to suggest that all Chinese people had sprung from a common origin (tongyuan), an
ancient civilization perhaps based along the Yellow River. A more subjective narrative described the
gradual, evolutionary "melding" (ronghe) of several distinct cultures and races into a new national
consciousness.
[2]
Some of these theories became institutionalized doctrines, at the expense of
objective scientific research and exploration.
Controversy
The theory behind the ideology of Zhonghua minzu is that it includes not only the Han but also other
minority ethnic groups within China, such as the Mongols, Manchus, Hmong, Tibetans and others that
have historically and to various degrees interacted with, contributed to and assimilated with the Han,
including the Taiwanese. This theoretical concept is not universally accepted. Supporters of Tibetan
independence or Uighur independence, for example, tend to reject the notion that their respective
ethnic groups are part of a single people with Han Chinese, or that the concept of Zhonghua
minzu should be the grounds for a unified nation-state. They would argue that their peoples have a
culture, a history of political independence, and a sense of nationhood which is quite distinct from that
of the Han Chinese, and that under the right of self-determination, they have a right to political
independence from the Chinese state.
The concept of Zhonghua Minzu is also attacked by supporters of independence for Taiwan, who,
while not denying that most people on Taiwan are ethnically Han Chinese, argue that Taiwan has a
right to independence because it forms a separate and distinct political community from the Mainland.
The boundaries that determine who is, or is not, a member of the Chinese nation have always been
rather inconsistent. For example, whether overseas Chinese are considered part of this Chinese
nationality depends on the speaker and the context. The logic often stems from geographic location
and political statusa Mongol living in the Chinese region of Inner Mongolia would be considered by
most to be part of Zhonghua minzu, while a Mongol living in the independent state of Mongolia is
almost universally considered not to be. Alternatively, a person of Russian, Korean,
or Vietnamese ethnicity with Chinese citizenship would be considered by most Chinese to be a full
member of the Zhonghua Minzu, notwithstanding their cultural differences with the majority Han.
The situation of overseas Chinese in Malaysia and Singapore is also interesting, in that they make a
clear distinction between being Chinese in a political sense and being Chinese in an ethnic sense,
making it unclear whether or not they belong to a group that contains both political and ethnic
connotations.
The conceptual boundaries of the Zhonghua minzu are complicated by independent countries such
as Mongolia and Korea, with their differing interpretations of historical peoples and states. For
instance, the claim of Genghis Khan as a "Chinese" by China is contested by the Mongolians, who
regard him as the father of the Mongolian state.
A dispute of a similar nature has arisen over the status of the state of Koguryo in ancient history, with
the Chinese claiming it as Chinese on the grounds that much of it existed within the historical borders
of China and the Koreans claiming that it was Korean on ethnic grounds.
Dongxiang Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents
Brief Introduction

History

Customs

Diet

Marriage Customs

Costumes

Taboos

Religious Belief

Brief Introduction
Dongxiang ethnic minority, inhabiting mainly in Gansu Province in China, boasts a long history
and unique culture and customs, due to its rich cultural convergence. Most of the Dongxiang
people live in Dongxiang Autonomous County in Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu
Province; some others inhabit Qinghai Province, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and Xinjiang
Uygur Autonomous Region. The major inhabited places of Dongxiang people in Gansu Province
are west of Taohe River, east of Daxia River and south of Yellow River. Those inhabited places
are mainly scattered with mountains, hills and gullies. Dongxiang people communicate with
Dongxiang language which belongs to the Mongolian Language of the Altaic family. Many of their
vocabularies are borrowed from Chinese, and some are from Turkic, Arabian and Farsi, without
their own writing form. Now, they mostly use Chinese characters, and most of Dongxiang people
can speak Chinese.
History
Dongxiang ethnic group originated from different ethnic groups who lived together in Dongxiang
in the late 14th century, mainly including Mongolians and Semu people whose religion is
Islamism. Before the founding of Peoples Republic of China, they were called Dongxiang Hui,
Dongxiang Mongolian, Dongxiang Natives and on the like. They mainly live in Dongxiang
Autonomous County in Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province, and there is a
small number of Dongxiang people scattered in Gansu Province (Lanzhou, Yumen, Guanghe,
Hezheng, Huining and some other counties or cities), Illi prefecture of Xinjiang, ningxia and
Qinghai provinces. They mainly live on farming and are good at growing melons and fruits. They
speak Dongxiang language which belongs to the Mongolian Language of the Altaic family.
Customs
Dongxiang ethnic people are friendly and hospitable. The elderly will go out of the house and
welcome when guests come to visit. When the guests go into the house, Dongxiang people will
lead them to the Kang (heatable bed built of bricks) and offer tasteful tea served cover bowls.
Sometimes rock candy, dried longan or fried jujubes are added into the tea, which is called
Sanxiang Tea. For meals, Dongxiang people like dining guests with chicken, and the grandest
meal is Duanquanyang (serving the whole sheep), meaning all parts of the sheep such as neck,
rib, foreleg, rear leg and tail are served on the table in proper order.
Dongxiang people are polite and hospitable, respecting the old and taking care of children. They
also attach much importance to hygiene. The elderly sit in the seat of honor. During meals, the
younger wont eat until the elderly begin to eat. Except for older women, young women usually do
not sit at the same table with men. Guests should take off shoes while sitting the Kang (heatable
bed built of bricks), while female guests neednt taking off their shoes. Dongxiang people usually
do not sit at the same table and eat with guests, showing their respect to the guests by serving
beside them. Male guests are dined by the host, while female guests by the hostess.
Diet
Dongxiang people mainly live on wheat, highland barley, corn, beans and potato. Common
pastas include steamed bread, noodles and Youxiang (cake of flour with salt, fried in sesame oil).
The most famous are Lahaha (stretched noodles or planed noodles), fried Youxiang, Gajiwa
(chicken is cut and classified to serve to people according to seniority), finger mutton and so on,
which are important dishes to serve guests. There is something particular about Gajiwa: the
whole chicken is divided into 13 parts, and the tail is considered to be the most precious part and
is only served to the elderly or respected guests.
The meat of Zhanyang (fat lamb) is very unique. The whole lamb is boiled using only water, and
at the same time Fazi (lamb heart, liver and lung are chopped and mixed with condiments) is also
steamed above it. Eating Zhanyang and Fazi is a way to ameliorate their diet for Dongxiang
people. They also cook clear mutton soup with Zhanyang, which is delicious and nutritious.
Dongxiang people like tea very much. Tea is indispensable for them during every meal. The tea is
usually made into cover bowls or small teapots. A Gaiwan (cover bowl) consists of lid, bowl and
saucer.
Marriage Customs
For Dongxiang people, their marriages are usually arranged and decided by their parents. Young
men and women are not allowed to meet or talk to each other before marriages, and a
matchmaker is considered as the communication intermediary. The mans family will ask the
matchmaker to make an offer of marriage. If the womans family agrees, the mans family will
send engagement tea as a gift. After that, the formal engagement procedure is formed. The man,
together with his father, the matchmaker and other relatives will take betrothal gifts to the
womans family. There are two kinds of betrothal gifts, including tea, brown sugar and cakes.
Besides, there are also clothes, money, earrings, bracelets and so on, which were previously
discussed and agreed upon. In some mountainous areas, there is also the custom of giving
steamed bread as betrothal gifts. The male party will grind the wheat which is harvested in the
same year into flour, and then make steamed bread. It weighs 1 kilogram for each with turmeric
applied on . When the steamed bread is ready, the white bread with turmeric, looking like
blooming yellow flower, indicates the wish for a bumper year. They will ask the Iman to read the
marriage testimony.
On the day of wedding, the bridegroom with his wedding team will come to the brides home so
that the marriage is acknowledged by the community. When they come to the gate of the grooms
home, the bride will be carried by the escorting team from the horse cart into the yard. Family
members and friends will sing songs to congratulate the couple. When the wedding proceeds to
summit, people will jokingly make fun of the grooms father and other older relatives. They will
daub ashes of pan on to their faces, fasten bells on their waists, and tie their arms and legs.
Costumes
Men usually wear white or black skullcaps. Women wear veiled hats made of silk or sateen.
Young girls or newly-wed women are in green, the middle-aged are in cyan, while the older are in
white. The veil is usually long enough to cover the waist and the hair. Nowadays, young working
women wear white skullcaps for convenience instead of veiled hats.
Dongxiang men are dressed in loose and long robes, white or black skullcaps and wide
waistbands, with some stuff fastened on it, such as knives, pouches, snuff box and spectacles.
Older people prefer gray or black double-breasted long robes. Women are dressed in big-collared
coats and waistcoat is long to the knees. Womens hats are very beautiful and delicate. Girls
wear green or blue round hats with red or green trimmings and colorful tassels or beads on the
edge. Unmarried young girls wear hats made of fine and soft green sateen, whose color is
changed to black after they get married. Older women like towear white skullcaps.
Taboos
Dongxiang people do not wash clothes and other stuff or feed the livestock near streams and
springs, where the water is used for drinking or bathing. Their religious services are forbidden for
non-Muslims. Pictures of people or animals are not allowed to be hung in the living room or the
central room. Smoking and drinking alcohol is strictly forbidden. Non-Muslims can visit the
mosque, but should not enter the main hall unless they are given permission. Non-Muslims
should take off shoes before entering if they are allowed to enter.
Dont litter used paper, make the draw for fortune-telling, or waste food or water. Men are not
allowed to have long hair. Speaking ill of others behind their backs or telling a lie is forbidden.
People are also forbidden to eat animals that die of natural causes, pig, horse, mule, donkey, cat,
dog and coagulated blood of any animal. Dont use cooking tools of non-Muslims. Pancakes and
steamed bread should be divided instead of eating the whole one. Dont make jokes about food.
Dont offer cigarettes or wine. Dont wear decollete in the public. Dont bring unclean stuff to the
graveyard or mosque.
Religious Belief
Dongxiang people are believers of Islamism. Dongxiang communities used to be the
center for learning and spreading Islamism in the 13th century. Nowadays, in Dongxiang
Autonomous County, there are still some graves of Islamic sages. In the beginning of the
18th century, Islamism gradually became the popular religion of Dongxiang ethnic people.
Islamism of Dongxiang is composed of two religious sects, including Qadim (the old) and
Ikhwan (the new). There are four major tariqas (Islamic religious order) in Qadim. The
Ikhwan has no tariqa, and it claims to resume the orthodoxy of Islamism, thus getting
more popular support and advocacy. In the beginning of the 10th century, it was spread to
some other provinces of China, such as Ningxia,Qinghai and Xinjiang.
Man Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents

General Information

Customs

Taboos

General Information
Manchu ethnic minority group has a population of more than 10,000,000, most of whom live in the
northeast three provinces, particularly Liaoning has the largest population of the Manchu people.
A small proportion of the Manchu people live in a homogenious community in some large and
middle cities. Since the founding of the Qing Dynasty, because of the intermarriage between the
Han nationality and the Man Ethnic Minority, and people of the two nationalities live in a mixed
community, the difference between the Han nationality and the Man nationality has been
gradually reduced. The Manchu people believe in Shamanism, later they also believe in the
Buddhism.
The broad northeast region is the birthplace of the Manchu ethnic minority group, which plays an
important role in the history of the Chinese nation with its long history and spirits of
industriousness and dauntlessness. The Manchu people and their ancestors---the Nvzhen tribe
have invaded the central plains twice and established the Jin Dynasty and a completely unified
Qing Dynasty. The Jin Dynasty has confronted the South Song Dynasty for many years, while the
Qing Dynasty had ruled China for 267 years from the founding of the state by Qingtaizu
Nuerhachi and Qingtaizong Huangtaiji, and has experienced the one hundred years prosperity
during the reign of the emperors Kangxi and Qianlong, the downfall during the reign of the
emperors Tongzhi and Guangxu, and the holding of the court behind the screen by the Cixi
Queen Mother. In 1911, the Qing Dynasty ended its rule over the Chinese nation.
The Manchu ethnic minority group has its own language and characters, and it belongs to the
Altai language family. Originally, Manchu people borrowed characters from Mogolia, in 1599, two
courtiers Eerdeni and Zhaerguqiergai created the Man characters without punctuations under the
assignment of the emperor Nuerhachi. In 1632, emperor Huangtaiji ordered Dahai to improve the
Manchu characters, this new type of Man characters with puctuations has been used up to the
present. After the 1640s, most of the Manchu people use Chinese, and now only a small number
of old people in Heilongjiang province can speak the Manchu language.
Originally, the family names of the Manchu people is the Manchu language, such as the family
names of Aixinjueluo, Nala, ect., some family names have the tribe names in front, such as the
Yehe Nala, the Hada Nala, so on and so forth. After the Manchu people invaded and took the
control of the Central Plains, they began to use the family names of the Han nationality, for
example, they changed Aixinjueluoshi to the surname Jin, Fuchashi to Fu, and the Nala shi to Na.
Customs
People of the Manchu ethnic minority group are good at singing and dancing. Most representative
folk dance of the Man Ethnic Minority is the "Zhaoligugu dance", whose libretto clearly reflects the
costumes of the Manchu people and their traditional dieting habits and customs. The costumes of
the Manchu people are the most characteristic of the northern normadic tribes who do hunting on
horsebacks.
Most of the people wear Qi-pao in daily times, and in the Qing Dynasty, Qi-pao has been
popularized throughout the whole country as the national costume. It has the following
characteristics: It is round-collared with big open front. Besides, there are big openings at either
side of the hem ornamented with buttons and buckles. Women wear straight long robes with bag-
sleeves, making them appear slender and beautiful, graceful and elegant. While men would wear
robes with wide horse-hoof shaped sleeves for the convenience of movements on horseback.
The Manchu women pay much attention to the ornamentations on their Qi-pao, they would
embroider the robe with several pieces of laceworks or colored buds on the front openings, on the
sleeves margins, and on the collars. Sometimes, they would even embroider 18 pieces of lacings
in combination with the multicolored broad sleeves, making them appear flamboyant but elegant.
Ordinarily, the Manchu women would not bind their feet, their feet are popularly called the "Big
Feet".
They would wear a kind of high heeled Qi- shoes with wooden soles, while men of the Manchu
ethnic minority group wear boots in most cases. For a long period of time in history, the Manchu
people have been engaged in agriculture, at the same time, they would do various other byworks
like hunting and gathering industry. Their stable food is millet, and they are fond of sticky food.
They are good at raising pigs, so they like to eat white pork, blood sausage and the stewed pork
with sour cabbage and vermicelli. They would eat Jiaozi on holidays, and on the New Year's Eve
of lunar calendar they must eat grilled pork. The favourite dim sum of the Manchu people is
"Saqima", and they are addicted to smoking and drinking.
Ordinarily, the Manch people would leave doors in their houses towards the southeast, and the
houses appear very much like pockets, inside them, there are Kangs on three sides, with the
West Kang as the altar to hold sacrifice to their ancestors. So their houses are popularly called
"the pocket house, Manzi Kang". The Manchu ethnic minority group has a long tradition of
honoring the elders and respecting the ancestors. Whenever there are great happy events and
festival occasions, such as marriage and child birth, building houses and changing one's dwelling
houses, taking up an appointment or the elevation of position, people would always carry out
large-scale ancestor worship ceremonies to pray for good fortunes. .
Taboos
People of the Manchu ethnic minority group hold special fondness to dogs, the acts of beating
dogs or killing dogs are strictly forbidden, they do not eat meat of dogs, do not wear dogskin hats
or wear clothes with dogskin cuffs. Do not chase dogs in the face of the host, and never speak ill
of the dogs, or the hosts would think you are insulting him to his eye and would ask you to leave
immediately, this is because they put much emphasis on the activity of hunting. The Manchu
ethnic minority group takes the West as the superior, so it is a taboo for common people,
especially young people to sit on the west Kang, and women are even more strictly forbidden to
give birth to her child on the West Kang. Besides, people of the Manchu ethnic minority group are
not allowed to hit pied magpies and crows, or to tie livestocks on the Suoluo tree poles.
Mongolian Ethnic Minority
Last updated by fabiowzgogo at 2014/3/4
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Table of Contents

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

HOUSING

DRESS

ACCOUTREMENTS

The Traditional Accoutrements of a Mongolian Male

The Traditional Accoutrements of a Mongolian Female

THE MONGOLIAN DIET

MONGOLIAN SOCIAL CUSTOMS

The Presenting of Hada

The Passing of the Snuffbox

Trading Pipes for a Smoke

FESTIVALS

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION
Before the Mongolian people formed into the large ethnic group that it later so famously
became, there had been many smaller ethnic groups in the region, such as the Xiongnu, Donghu,
Xianbei, Rouran, Turkey, Huihu, Qidan, Shiwei-Daheng and others. Most historians believe that
the earliest folk who identified themselves as being Mongols - that is, the people belonging to the
set of ethnic characteristics that would later be identifed as being "Mongolian" - stem from the
Donghu ethnic group. In any case, in the spring of CE 1206, a powerful Mongolian clan leader of
the region, a certain Temjin, called on all of the other clan leaders in the region to gather at a
specific location on the Orkhon River for the purpose of holding an assembly - a kurultai (the
Altaic equivalent of the Afghan loya jirga) - to discuss the possibility of uniting their separate
territories into one single unit. At this important assembly, two epochal events occurred: the
Mongol empire was born and Temjin was proclaimed it ruler, its Genghis Khan.

During the course of the next half century, Genghis Khan and his immediate successors would
conquer most of Asia and the European parts of Russia, and would extend their power into
Southeast Asia and parts of central Europe - and they could easily have conquered all of Europe,
believe historians, but chose not to pursue this option, for baffling reasons that will probably never
be fully elucidated. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, finally conquered China in 1279
and established the Yuan Dynasty (CE 1279-1368).
Internal rivalry within the Mongol ruling elite, combined with numerous uprisings in response to
the harsh and arbitrary rule of the Mongols, weakened the Yuan grip on China, and in 1368 a
revolt led to the establishment of the Han Chinese Ming Dynasty (CE 1368-1644), and the
Mongols retreated to Mongolia, where they would continue to do battle with their neighbors to the
south, as well as among themselves. Mongolia eventually re-unified, becoming a theocratic
(Muslim) state in 1585, but would become a vassal state to China a hundred years later, in 1691,
under the rule of the Manchus (the part of Mongolia that would later be designated as Inner
Mongolia see below had already come under Manchu domination in 1636), who took
advantage of a number of factors that had constantly dogged the Ming Dynasty: continued
warring against the Mongolians, foreign incursions into China by Western powers, and endemic
corruption.
In 1644 the Qing Dynasty (CE 1644-1911), the last dynasty of imperial China, was ushered in
under the leadership of the Manchus, who would inherit the same existential problems mentioned
above that had dogged the Ming Dynasty.
With China's independence from imperial, though not colonial, rule in 1911 (foreign powers had
carved out portions of China during the Opium Wars of the Qing Dynasty, though the British
would first relinquish Hong Kong in 1997 while the Portugese would first relinquish Maccao in
1999), the Republic of China was established in 1912, in which the southern part of Mongolia,
which thereafter came to be known as Inner Mongolia ("Inner" Mongolia was separated from the
rest of Mongolia, which thereafter came to be known as Outer Mongolia, by the Gobi desert), was
incorporated into the new Chinese republic, a circumstance which - for good or for evil - probably
reflected the actual "facts on the ground" of Inner Mongolia especially, which had been under
strong Manchu influence since 1691 (but the new Chinese republic probably also feared a unified
Mongolia on its doorstep, now that imperial Chinese control of Mongolia no longer existed). Inner
Mongolia became the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region under the People's Republic of China,
which autonomous status it continues to enjoy today.

HOUSING
With the emergence of the PRC in 1949, the Chinese government undertook to modernize life for
the many ethnic minorities that make up China, including its Mongolian ethnic minority. Today,
most Mongols live in modern apartment blocks in urban development centers, in much the same
way that people live everywhere in the developed world. However, the Chinese government has
become increasingly aware of the necessity of preserving the cultural heritage of the Mongolian
people within its borders, including preserving vernacular architecture (i.e., the houses and shops
of ordinary people), which, for the Mongols, consists primarily of the ger (called a yurt in Turkish,
a related Altaic language), the characteristic domed round tent, which is the traditional dwelling of
the Mongol. Many Mongols live in modern urban housing for a part of the year, but switch to the
ger at other times of the year in order to tend to domestic animals (sheep, goats, etc.).
The Mongolian ger is practical in every way: it is quickly collapsible and packs away to almost
nothing, making it easy to transport; its ground-hugging base and its conical - which also sheds
rain instantly - help keep the ger snug to the ground, even in strong winds; and inside, it is very
roomy and ventilated.
The Mongolian ger consists of a wooden, lattice frame, sometimes in sections, which, on location,
is erected into a circle and secured with strips of rope, forming a head-high, self-supporting
cylinder over which an insulating layer of felt is stretched. The felt is fashioned from the wool of
the sheep that the Mongol tends in large flocks, while the wood - entirely unavailable on the
treeless steppe - must be purchased in the shops in the valleys below. A door frame and roof
poles as well as a canvas outer covering complete the ger. For additional stability, especially
during particularly windy weather, a heavy weight is suspended from the center roof poles of the
ger, i.e., inside the tent. The ger can be quickly disassembled and readied for transport - by yak
or camel, the usual mode of transport on the steppe - to the next destination.
There are a number of cultural restrictions with regard to the ger that visitors should be aware of.
For example, there are specific areas within the ger designated for men, for women, for cooking,
and for worshipping. One must not approach a ger by automobile, horse, etc., within a certain
radius, visitors must not touch the entrance-way, and inside the ger, visitors must not loiter in the
kitchen area nor may they touch the center roof poles. Guests may first be seated when invited to
do so by the hosts, and male and female guests sit separately, with males to the right and
females to the left.

DRESS
The hat, the caftan ("deel"), the sash, and the stylish, upturned boots form the indispensible
nucleus of the Mongolian's outdoor attire. In former times, the hat was a highly personal item of
fur and silk, and though its design was primarily utilitarian (especially the everyday hat, or louz,
whose four sides, or flaps, could be turned down for added warmth - for example, over the ears),
it was typically adorned with whatever trinkets the owner valued, or with pearls or even precious
stones, if one could afford them - indeed, the ornamentation on one's hat revealed one's status -
and with long, colorful tassels that streamed in the wind.
Today, the Mongolian's hat is more often than not a mass-produced item, perhaps even imported,
with the quality accordingly. The hat has always been the most special item of a Mongolian's
attire. One does not leave one's hat lying about where it risks being crushed, but places it on a
high perch precisely to avoid such mishaps. Such is the importance that has traditionally been
attached to headdress in Mongolian culture that a hat must be worn when meeting or greeting
non-family members, when entering a ger (though one may be invited to remove the hat once
inside), or when in the street, where it is considered indecorous to go bareheaded.
The deel is perhaps the most practical article of clothing of a Mongolian man of the steppe.
Besides being the main garment (heavy jackets and the like may serve as outer garments over
the deel), the deel can serve as a makeshift tent, a blanket and a screen, or mask, to hide behind,
and it's long sleeves can be rolled down as gloves to provide further protection against the sun,
wind, or rain, etc. There are summer deel and winter deel, just as deel come in various lengths
and in various materials, ranging from leather (skin with or without fur) to cloth. The skin may
stem from the lamb, goat, wolf, fox, otter, marten, or from the snow weasel, to name the most
common. Cloth deel are generally either of a mixture predominantly consisting of cotton, of rayon,
or of pure silk.
The Mongolian's sash is another highly utilitarian item that serves a number of purposes, like all
Mongolian attire. A woman's sash is shorter and folded more narrowly than a man's sash, and in
some localities a woman ceases to wear a sash at all after she marries, wearing instead a tight-
fitting silk vest over the deel, elaborately embroidered and sometimes studded with precious
stones. A man's sash, which is generally cinched tightly at the waist, is much longer and is folded
into a broad band that can serve as a corset, protecting the wearer's internal organs from
excessive jostling while riding. It also serves as a place to stash the indispensible knife and to
attach various accessory pouches.
In addition to serving as a place to stash a knife and to fasten pouches, the sash, given the
characteristic manner in which a deel is cut, serves as the bottom of a "pouch" that is formed by
the sash and the wrap-around portion of the deel above the sash, which offers a vent, or opening,
on the wearer's right-hand side, similar to the hand-warmer "kangaroo" pocket on a sweater, but
here, a single-vented pocket (a quick look at a Mongolian in a deel with the sash in place will
illustrate this "pouch" better than a thousand words - search among the images above*).
Traditional Mongolian boots also serve several purposes related to life on the steppe: they reduce
the incidence of snake and insect bite, and they reduce chafing during the many hours spent on
horseback. The choice of boot type, or style, depends on the season. Traditional Mongolian boots
are generally made of leather, though sometimes they are made of cloth. As Mongolian society
develops and the division of labor intensifies, the old method of Mongolian boot-making may give
way to more modern, mass-production methods, which itself may well dictate boot styles to a
large extent, since the more complicated the method of production, the more expensive the end
product.

ACCOUTREMENTS
The Traditional Accoutrements of a Mongolian Male
The traditional accoutrements of the Mongolian male are: the Mongolian knife, a silver drinking
bowl, an eating set consisting of a knife-and-chopsticks arrangement in its own sheath (in the
spirit of the ubiquitous Swiss Army knife, it may also include a toothpick, an ear scratcher (!), and
a tweezer), a flint-and-steel fire-making kit (usually a leather pouch containing the flintstone, and
with a sturdy piece of steel along its base for striking the flint, making the pouch in effect a mini
leather mitten ending in a firmly-attached piece of steel), silver rings, a snuffbox (today, usually a
bottle), a tobacco pipe, a tobacco pouch, a pipe-cleaning hook, and a hada pouch (hada being
narrow strips of silk or cotton used as a greeting gift, and though the hada itself is not of great
intrinsic value, its symbolic value in this tradition-rich nomadic culture - where everything must be
carried not only in or on the horseman's caftan, but carried so as not to interfere with the
horseman's free movement - is immeasureable).
The sophistication of these accoutrements and their workmanship ranges from the strictly
utilitarian and inexpensive to the outright lavishly artistic and exorbitant, and invariably functions
as a status symbol.

The Traditional Accoutrements of a Mongolian Female
The jewelry traditionally worn by Mongolian women include the use of precious metals (gold &
silver), pearls, coral, agate, green jade, amber, turquoise, and lapis lazuli as well as other
precious and semi-precious stones. Typical women's jewelry include hair pins, ear-rings,
necklaces, bracelets (including Xileboqi back-and-headdress bracelets made of finely-worked
silver and coral, and worn on the head and/ or the back), rings, and the special silver decorations
called Bole that hang on either side of a woman's vest (they are in fact an artistic refinement - a
symbolic replacement - of the utilitarian gadgets that in former times hung from a married
woman's vest, after marriage had forced her to abandon the sash to which she had formerly
attached them). The simpler items of adornment might be worn as part of one's everyday dress,
while the more elaborate ones are only worn during festivals and on other auspicious occasions.
The quality of materials and workmanship of the female's accoutrements, as with those of a male,
serves as a status symbol.

THE MONGOLIAN DIET
The Mongolians' nomadic way of life determined their diet, which traditionally consisted mainly of
the meat, milk and other dairy products provided by the livestock which they tended. This
included mutton, beef and goat, as well as milk and other dairy products from cattle and goats.
On occasion horse meat was eaten, but this was generally only at religious ceremonies and
during festivals, as the horse enjoys a near-sacred status among the Mongols. These people of
the steppe traditionally roast meat over an open fire - or boil it if it is less tender - and bake their
bread in special ovens. A goat or a lamb might be roasted whole, or in sections, such as a leg of
lamb.
Today, the diet of the Mongolians has been expanded to include vegetables as well as pasta and
rice, the former in recognition of the sad fact that the traditional Mongolian diet often leads
tostruma, or an abnormally enlarged thyroid gland leading to a "swollen" neck, a medical
condition caused by the lack of iodine in one's diet, and the latter in order to provide a more
carbohydrate-rich diet and perhaps to supplement meat, which is not always as plentiful as one
might wish.
Milk remains a staple in the Mongolian diet, however. It is also consumed as: yoghurt; milk wine
(i.e., fermented milk, the most prized of which is fermented mare's milk, which can be further
fermented into a frothy, beer-like drink called airag); milk tofu (a process involving coagulated,
fermented milk, where the dry parts are separated and form into a stiff, tofu-like texture); sour milk
(i.e., "buttermilk"); a cottage-cheese like product derived as a "waste product" from the production
of certain types of butter; milk tea (aka Mongolian Tea, the most important beverage for
Mongolians who live - either all or part of the year - in the traditional manner), which is made by
boiling crushed brick tea for a few minutes, then slowly adding milk (1 part milk to 3-6 parts tea)
while stirring constantly; and of course as butter itself, which comes in several varieties
depending on how it is made and the animals from whence it comes. Sometimes the thick cream
of milk is cooled and eaten as-is, with a spoon, or parts of it are skimmed off forming naipizi, or
"milk skin", which tastes like a cross between butter and cream, and also eaten as-is.
4
MONGOLIAN SOCIAL CUSTOMS
Marriage
Marriage among China's Mongolian ethnic minority is a matter of strategic planning and careful
deliberation, not something to be entered into hastily. When the young couple are of appropriate
age, the young man will ask a respected person - usually his father, an uncle, or other relative - to
intercede on his behalf, asking the young woman if she is willing to marry him. However, young,
eligible women do not give in easily, as there are many factors to be considered. Should this
preliminary courtship step prove successful, the young man will bring gifts to the young woman
such as candy, cigarettes, wine, and maybe even livestock, and on that occasion, the extended
family members of the young bride-to-be gather at her house to observe the ritual. If this step
finds favor with the young woman's family and relatives, an announcement will be made
regarding the proposed marriage and its date.
In the interim, the engaged couple, with the help of their respective families, go about securing
the necessary wedding gifts. Since the number 9 is auspicious in Mongolian culture, 9 gifts will
be exchanged on either side. The value of the young man's gifts is generally greater than that of
the young woman's - his gifts are usually in the form of livestock, as this forms the basis of a
Mongolian family's livelihood - so it may happen that the young man is permitted to offer a lesser
number of gifts so long as the value of his gifts exceeds the value of the young woman's gifts
(which may necessitate a switch to a cheaper set of gifts on the part of the bride-to-be, so that the
equation can go up, as it were).
There is much excitement on the wedding day itself. Prior to the wedding ceremony the couple
circle around their new home - a ger - three times for good luck, then jump over a pile of burning
wood, the latter of which symbolizes a blessing by the fire god and expresses the hope that the
couple's future together will be as bright as a flaming fire. At the wedding ceremony, family and
friends sing, dance, and dine. This joyous ceremony continues for another two days, and is
perhaps the most important event in the life of the young couple, and is an important event for the
parents as well as for the village.

The Presenting of Hada
Hada, a Tibetan word, is a strip of silk used as a greeting gift among both Tibetans and Mongols.
It is presented under very specific circumstances only: when welcoming unfamiliar guests in one's
home or when encountering a stranger on the steppe with whom a cordial relationship has
developed. Hada is usually made from either silk or cotton. Mongolian hada is generally white in
color, but shades like light blue and light yellow occur as well. When one is lucky enough to be
presented a hada, one should grasp it gently in both hands while bowing slightly, as this is what is
expected of one by one's host, who will himself bow. The giving/ receiving of hada, including the
act of bowing to each other, is an outward sign of mutual respect, something that is very
important in Mongolian culture.
The Passing of the Snuffbox
Passing the snuffbox is an old tradition in Mongolian culture, and is the most common exchange
of amenities when people meet. When one is a guest in a Mongolian home, the host will take out
his snuffbox, open it - its contents generally being very aromatic and consisting of a blend of
tobacco and/ or herbs - and pass it on to the guest. One is expected to pass the snuffbox under
one's nose in order to better appreciate the tobacco's aroma. To be polite, one should nod one's
head or give another sign of approbation. This shows respect and can serve as the basis for
future amicable relations.
The snuffbox itself may be in any of a number of shapes, from the rectangular/ square to the oval
to the cylindrical, or in still other shapes, and with engravings whose workmanship reveal the
quality of the snuffbox. The snuffbox contains a small spoon made either of gold, silver, copper,
ivory, or camel bone.
Trading Pipes for a Smoke
When welcomed into a Mongolian home, a guest is expected to invite the host to smoke, and to
offer the host his pipe. The host, anticipating this, accepts the pipe of the guest and fills it with his
own tobacco. The host then passes his own empty pipe to the guest, who accepts it and fills it
with his own tobacco. Then the two of them each enjoys his own tobacco, but smoked in the
other's pipe.
The pipe itself is commonly adorned with silver, with intricate flower motifs engraved into it. The
bowl of the pipe is generally made of briar, while the bit, or mouthpiece, may be made of agate or
jade. The tobacco pouch is generally made of brightly colored silk, which develops a fine patina
over time. A Mongolian's tobacco paraphenalia is truly a thing of beauty, combining artistic
expression with functionality.
FESTIVALS
The Nadam Grassland Festival
Naadam, short for Eriyn Gurvan Naadam ("Three Manly Games") means "Entertainment!" in the
mind of the typical Mongolian. The Naadam Grassland Festival of Inner Mongolia Autonomous
Region is China's Mongolian ethnic minority's most magnificent yearly entertainment event,
combining the traditional "Three Manly Games" of Naadam wrestling, horse racing, and archery
with cultural exhibits and even a livestock fair.

* Mongolian attire is so out-of-this-world exotic that French artists working on one of the latest
Star Wars films opted to fashion the costume of the prominent character, Queen Amidala, after
one of the more stylish examples of a Mongolian female costume, and no one can deny that a
well-fitting caftan makes a male look as roundedly dashing as Errol Flynn looked pointedly
swashbuckling inThe Adventures of Robin Hood.

Yi Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents

General Information

Languages

Arts and Cultures

General Information
Yi people mainly live in Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.
Boasting a population of 4,446,100 people (according to census made in 1997 in Yunnan), Yi
Ethnic Minority is the largest Ethnic Minority among all ethnic minorities in Yunnan Province. Most
counties and cities of Yunnan are settled by Yi people, and the most populated areas are
Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Ailao Mountain and Wumeng Mountain areas in Honghe
River Hani Yi Autonomous Prefecture, and Little Liangshan Mount area to the north of Dianxi. Yi
Ethnic Minority has a long history and it was recorded quite early in historical books. The
ancestors of Yi people were known as Kunming people who had close relations with Shiqiang
people in history.
Languages
Yi language comes from the family of Tibetan-Cambodian of Sino-Tibetan system. Comprising of
six dialects, it has its own written characters, the earliest form of Chinese pinyin. Among them,
the most widely used characters are about 1000. In 1957, a standard Yi language diagram was
passed by. It came into forth at once specified with 819 standard characters.
Arts and Cultures
Yi Ethnic Minority has splendid culture and art. Works on history, literature, medicine, and
chronology written in Yi language are valuable documents. The popular civil dance with Yi people
is called Tiaoye, a form of collective dance. Traditional industrial arts include embroidery, coating
of lacquer, silver accessory, carving, and painting, etc. Yi people depend on agriculture with
husbandry as their assistant industry. Handicraft industry is very developed. Clothing of Yi people
are diversified with about 100 categories.

Bai Ethnic Minority


General Information

Language

Costume

Food and Drink

Sandao Tea Ceremony

Rituals

Taboos

Festivals

Local Houses

Batik

Religion

General Information
People of the Bai Ethnic Minority mainly live in Dali, Lijiang, Bijiang, Baoshan, Nanhua,
Yuanjiang, Kunming, and Anning of Yunnan Province, Bijie of Guizhou Province, Liangshan of
Sichuan Province, and Sanzhi of Hunan Province. The population of the Bai nationality is
185,800.
Todays Bai are descendants of the ancient Ji. During the pre-Qin period (about 2,200 years ago),
the Ji inhabited the drainage area of the Huangshui River. However, during the Han and Jin
Dynasties, they scattered along the eastern side of the Lanchangjiang River in Yunnan Province
and the northern Honghe River area. During this time, they lived with the Qiang people (another
nationality in China). Gradually, the Ji concentrated in fewer areas. Since the Northern and
Southern Dynasties, the Ji have been known as the Bai.
Around the second century BC, the forefathers of the Bai settled in Dali. In the year 109 BC,
Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent troops to Yunnan, conquered it, and established Yizhou
County in Yunan. In the late seventh and early eighth centuries, Piluoge, a Bai leader, united the
tribes of the Bai nationality around Erhai Lake and set up a regime known as Nanzhao. The
people living around Erhai Lake are the ancestors of todays Bai population.
In the year 937, the Dali Kingdom under the central government of the Song Dynasty was
founded. In later years, it had closer contacts with the central parts of China. Because of these
contacts and the exchange of cultures, the Bais culture was greatly enriched. In the year 1253,
the Mongol army conquered the Dali State. In 1271, the Yuan Dynasty replaced the Song
Dynasty. The central government of the Yuan Dynasty established Yunnan Province, where the
Dali Kingdom was once situated. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, many people of Bai
nationality took positions in the central and local governments by passing the imperial
examinations.
The Bai ancestors were known as "Dianfen," "Sou," "Baiman," "Bairen," and "Minjia" during
different periods in history. Naxi people call the Bai "Nama," and Lisu people call the Bai "Emo."
And, the Bai people from different places call themselves different names, such as Fenzi,
Fenerzi, Baini, or Baihuo. In 1956, when the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture was founded, their
names were unified as one, as Bai.
Language
Bai has its own language, which belongs to the Tibet-Burma language group in the Chinese-
Tibetan language family. The Bai language has three dialects: the southern dialect, the central
dialect, and the northern dialect. The majority of the Bai people speak the southern dialect, also
known as the Dali dialect. Chinese language is also widely used by the Bai, who started making
records with written Chinese characters during the Tang Dynasty. Because of the frequent
interactions between the Bai and the Han, the Bai language adopted many words from the
Chinese language. In ancient times, Chinese became the popular language where the Bai lived.
During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, the Bai once completely adopted Chinese characters but
pronounced them differently.
Costume
The Bai costume has a long history. As long as 1,800 years ago, the Bai wove a kind of cloth
known as "Tonghua. During the Nanzhao Regime and the Dali Kingdom, the Bai created their
own styles of clothing. Now, the clothes of the Bai people are bright and well-matching in colors,
delicate and fine in embroideries, and plain and simple in style.
Bai clothing is usually adorned with camellia flowers because they view these flowers as a
symbol of beauty. The Bai enjoy their lives and love flowers. They like to wear a red scarf on their
shoulders and a white outer upper garment, a combination that resembles blooming camellias.
White is the favorite color of the Bai. They believe that white represents dignity and high social
status, and this can be seen in their clothes. It is typical for men to wear white outer upper
garments and white trousers. Girls and women have more choices of colors. They like to wear
white, light blue or pink outer upper garments and rosy, purple or black waistcoats. An unmarried
girl always combs her hair into one pigtail, tied with a red string at its end, and then coils it over
her head. She also likes to wear an apron with embroideries. In general, girls enjoy dressing up
like beautiful camellia flowers.
The scarf on a girl's head is special and has a special name, "the flower in the wind and the moon
on a snowy night." The overall shape of the scarf on a girls head is that of a crescent. The upper
part of the scarf is as white as snow. The embroideries on the lower part are of flowers. The tail of
the scarf falls down naturally on one shoulder, waving to and fro in the wind.
Food and Drink
Pickles: The Bai enjoy fresh vegetables and pickles. Women are good at making a variety of
pickles. They are also experts at making sauces, such as broad bean sauce, lobster sauce, and
flour sauce. The people in Jiangchuan and Heqing cook different dishes with edible seaweed
picked from Erhai Lake.
Meat: Pork is the main meat of the Bai diet. The Bai prepare different dishes with it and enjoy
ham, sausage, banger, smoked pig liver, and smoked pig intestines. During winter, people enjoy
beef soup with radishes, turnips, and shallots. People living near a river or a lake are good at
cooking fish.
Tea: For the Bai, tea is a popular drink. They normally drink tea twice a day, in the early morning
and at noon. The tea drunk in the early morning is called "morning tea" or "wakening tea," and is
consumed immediately after getting up. The tea drunk at noon is called "relaxing tea" or "thirst-
satisfying tea. People often add some popcorn and milk to their tea.
Sandao Tea Ceremony
The Sandao tea ceremony is well-known at home and abroad. There are two types of tea
ceremonies.
The first serves baked tea. People put tea with large leaves or tea from a place called Xiaguan
into a very small pot and bake it over a charcoal fire. They shake the pot at all times to avoid the
leaves from burning. When they can smell the fragrance of the tea, they pour a little boiled water
into the pot and immediately sense the aroma. After a while, they add more boiled water into the
pot and then the tea is ready. Normally, the hosts pour the tea into guests' cups three times. The
first time lets the guests smell the aroma, the second time lets them taste the tea, and the third
time lets them satisfy their thirst. In China, the tea ceremony is called Sandao tea, meaning tea
services of three times. It is also called "thunderous tea" because it makes a loud sound when
people add water to the baked tea in the pot for the first time.
Rituals
The Bai people are very hospitable. Guests are well-received and well-treated. The well-known
Sandao tea ceremony is a good example of the ritual of the Bai when they receive and entertain
guests. Normally, locals offer only a half cup of tea but a full cup of wine to a guest because they
believe this shows respect. They don't force guests to drink the wine, and guests may drink as
much as they like. When warmly received, guests should say "thank you" to their host.
It is tradition for the Bai people to honor their elderly. Young people always take the initiative to
greet old people, to say hello to them, to give them their seats, and to offer them tea and
cigarettes. The first cup of tea for the day is given to the most senior member in a family. He
always takes up the seat of honor at the dining table and is the first to eat. Young people are not
allowed to speak badly in front of old people, and it is impolite for young people to cross their legs
when sitting in the presence of old people.
Taboos
The fireplace in a home is sacred and people are not allowed to spit at it or walk over it. It is also
taboo to sit on the threshold of a house. Women should avoid walking over the tools that men
use. And people in mourning are not allowed to enter other people's houses. On New Year's Day
on the Chinese lunar calendar, using a knife, carrying water home, and sweeping the floor are
taboo. On New Year's eve, people should return borrowed items and retrieve items they lent to
others; otherwise, they will have bad luck and a poor harvest in the coming year. The seventh day
of the New Year is women's day and on that day, women do not cook, carry water, or do other
housework. Instead, they relax, play, and enjoy themselves. The ninth day of the New Year is
men's day and on this day, men relax and rest. In Yuanlong County, on the 15th of the seventh
month of the lunar calendar, people are not allowed to visit others' homes.
Festivals
The main festivals of the Bai include the March Fair, worship gathering in three temples, the
Torch Festival, the Folk Song Singing Festival at Shibaoshan Mountain, and Protecting
Immortal's Day.
March Fair
Also known as the Kwan-yin Fair, is one of the most important festivals. It is held annually at the
foot of the Diancang Mountain in the west of Dali city. The fair lasts from the 15th to 20th in the
third month of the Chinese lunar calendar. Of religious origin, it has become a commercial fair. >>
Read more
Torch Festival
On the 25th of the sixth month of the Chinese lunar calendar, the Bai celebrate the annual Torch
Festival in a special way. They wear costumes and butcher pigs and sheep for a feast. Children
dye their fingernails red with a kind of flower root. On the eve of the festival, people get everything
ready for the big celebration. They set up a large torch about 20 meters high made of stalks and
pine branches. On the of the torch sits a large flag. Several small flags are fixed around the
torch, printed with auspicious Chinese characters meaning peaceful land, favorable weather,
bumper harvest, and abundant farm animals. Fruits, fireworks, and lanterns are hung around the
torch.
Worship Gathering in the three temples
This activity is called Guanshanglan in the Bai language. It is a carnival for the Bai people to
entertain themselves during the slack season for farming. It is also an occasion to welcome the
coming of immortals from heaven, and occurs from the 23rd to the 25th of the fourth month,
according to the Chinese lunar calendar. This event dates back to ancient times and was
originally a religious ceremony. The three temples involved are the Chongsheng Temple, the
Shengyuan Temple, and the Jinkui Temple.
On the first day, people from the villages gather at Dali City and march off to Shengyuan Temple
to pray for favorable weather and a bumper harvest. On the second day, they walk together to
Jinkui Temple to offer sacrifices to a famous historic king, Duan Zongpang. On the last day, they
go to Chongsheng Temple to pray for happiness and peace. The procession disassembles at a
village named Mayi.
Folk Song Singing Festival at Shibaoshan Mountain
This annual festival lasts a week, from the 27th of the seventh month to the third of the eighth
month in the Chinese traditional calendar. During this period, thousands of young people from
Jianchuan County, Yunlong County, Lanping County, Heqing County, and Lijiang County
assemble at the four temples in Shibaoshan Mountain to sing folk songs. The four temples are
Shizhong Temple, Baoxiang Temple, Haiyun Temple, and Jinding Temple. People play musical
instruments and sing love songs, even in front of the solemn statues of Buddha. This festival is to
commemorate a legendary pretty girl who lived 2,000 years ago who sung very well. Today,
young people use the festival as an occasion to make friends or to find lovers.
Protected Immortal's Day
The immortal is equivalent to a western patron saint. The worship of the protected immortal is
popular with the Bai. In Dali, people worship immortals to a greater degree. Almost every village
has its own protected immortal and people select a Buddha, a Dragon King, a king, a general, or
a hero as their protected immortal. However, the celebration date differs from place to place.
People say prayers, burn incense sticks, and kowtow in front of the statue of their protected
immortal. They also sing and dance on this day.
Local Houses
The houses of the Bai people fall into three categories, according to the material, decorations,
and furnishings. The three categories are: bamboo sawali house and thatched cottage, wooden
house, and house with tiled roof. This division reflects the different economic levels and the
different geographical environments.
Bamboo sawali house and thatched cottage
A bamboo sawali house is usually built on the slope of a hill or mountain. It has two stories; the
lower story is about 1.5 meters tall and the upper story is 2.5 meters tall. The lower one stores
livestock while people live in the upper. The floor of the upper story is wooden and the walls are
made of bamboo sawali. The house is about 10 meters long and 4.5 meters wide. The upper
story is usually divided into two small rooms and one big room using bamboo sawali walls. One of
the small rooms is a bedroom for children or the youngest son and his wife. The other small room
is to store farming tools and utensils. The big room serves as the sitting room, the kitchen, and
the bedroom for the elderly, or the host and hostess.
People build a thatched cottage with wooden pillars and beams of about 8 to 15 centimeters in
diameter. The cottage is enclosed with walls of branches, bamboo sawalis, or maize stalks. The
roof is covered with thatches. The cottage measures 8 to 15 square meters in area. It has only
one room. A fire pit is at the center of the room. Beside the fire pit, boards are put on the floor for
a bed. People lay cabinets, back baskets, barrels, knives, and hoes at the corners of the room.
Bamboo sawali houses and thatched cottages are mainly found in the areas in Nujiang Prefecture
inhabited by the Bai.
Wooden house
The Bai in Eryuan County, Yunlong County, Lanping County, and Weixi County live in wooden
houses. People build the houses with pine trunks of about 10 to 15 centimeters in diameter. They
make the pine trunks square in cross-section and then lay one pine trunk on another to set up the
walls. However, the material for the roof is different, and uses boards or thatches. Some wooden
houses have only one room. This type of house measures 4.5 meters long, 3.9 meter wide, and
2.5 meters high. It is for a couple and their children under seven years old. Children over seven
years of age live in another wooden house or with their grandparents. A fire pit used for cooking
is found in the center of the house.
House with tiled roof
The typical house with a tiled roof has two stories. Each story has three rooms. The ground floor
has two bedrooms and one sitting room. In front of the house is a courtyard and steps leading to
the sitting room. On the second floor is one storeroom, and probably another bedroom. A
memorial tablet is usually placed against a wall where the family holds memorial ceremonies for
their ancestors. Houses with tiled roofs are found in Dali, Kunming, Lijiang, and Yuanjiang.
Batik
Batik is a ancient art of the Bai. The pattern of the cloth is simple and natural, looks graceful, and
yet is not extravagant. People make different garments with the tie-dye cloth.
In the past, people used hand-loomed cloth as the basic material. Now they use cloth produced
by machines in modern factories.
The batik goes through three steps: making knots, dipping and dyeing, and drying in the sun.
The first step is to make some knots in a piece of white cloth by sewing and tying according to the
requirements of the designed pattern. It is important to tie these knots tightly. Then, dip the cloth
into the die vat and leave it there for a certain amount of time. Fish out the cloth and let it dry in
the sun. The dyeing and drying process is repeated several times. The next thing people do is put
the cloth in clean water to clear off the redundant dye from the cloth. They then take out the
stitches and a miracle appears: the tied parts of the cloth that were not affected by the dye form a
pattern. The untied part of the cloth turns deep blue and the tied part remains white, creating a
piece of beautiful tie-dye cloth.
With this method of dyeing, people don't know exactly what the cloth will look like. Surprising and
unexpected patterns on the cloth usually appear.
The main ingredients of the dye are banlangen (a kind of herb) and indigo. Compared with
chemical dye, these natural dyes are better at creating natural colors and do not fade easily.
The garments made of tie-dye cloth wear more comfortably and don't negatively affect ones skin.
The most well-known production centers for tie-dye cloth are Zhoucheng Township and Xizhou
Township in Dali City.
Religion
The Bai worship their own protected immortals and believe in Buddhism. Almost every village has
its own protected immortal. The choice of the immortals varies. Some are kings from history and
some are heroes. During the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism came to the area and gradually was
accepted. Many temples have been built since then and many can still be found, especially
around Erhai Lake
Dai Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents

The Dai Language and Writing System

Women's Costumes

Men's Costumes

In General

Local Specialties

Sacrificial Occasions

The Water Splashing Festival

The Dragon Homage Festival

The Bei Ye Culture

The Dai Calendar

Introduction

The Peacock Dance

The Choreography of the Peacock Dance

Hand Gestures

Basic Body Movements

The Traditional Dai House

Religious Architecture: Temples and Pagodas

The Importance of the Physical Setting

The Buddhist Temple

The Temple Gate

The Buddhist Hall

The Buddhist Pagoda

The Buddha Statue

The Paper-cut

Dai Buddhist Temple Art: Jin Shui Pillar Patterns and Murals

The Satchel

The Tattoo, or Body Art

The Courtship Custom of the Flower Ball Festival

The Custom of Thread Twining

The Dai (alternatively, Tai) are one of the 56 official ethnic minorities in China, whose ethnic
majority are of course the Han Chinese. The Dai Ethnic Group comprises several smaller ethnic
groups living mainly in the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture and in the Dehong Dai
and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, both of which prefectures are located in the southern part of
Yunnan Province, though smaller pockets of Dai live in and around the Yunnan cities of Xinping
and Yuanjiang, as well as in other autonomous counties in Yunnan Province. In all there are
roughly 1.2 million Dai living in China. However, the Dai of China belong to a larger family of Dai/
Tai ethnic groups that also exist in neighboring Burma, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Present-day Dai peoples call themselves, besides Dai, which means freedom - and which is the
consensus designation that the Dai have themselves chosen after their liberation by the PRC -
also Daile, Daiya, Daina, and Dai Beng, as well as other local designations depending on the
enclave. During the Tang (CE 618-907) and Song (CE 960-1279) Dynasties, they were often
referred to as the "olden Teeth" and "blackened Teeth" peoples, as a result of the Dai tradition of
blackening one's teeth by chewing betel nuts. Blackened teeth in women especially was
considered a mark of beauty, or at least of modesty, and it seems that the betel nut juice
prevented cavities (it should also be mentioned that Japanese women in the 16th century
followed the same practice for roughly the same reasons).
A Brief History of the Dai People
The origin of the Dai ethnic family goes back to the ancient Baiyue (alternatively, Bai Yue, or
Hundred Yue) people, a tribe of ancient ethnic groups. The term "Yue" has historically been used
in a broad-stroke manner by the ancient Chinese to refer to any number of larger to smaller
ethnic groups that do not necessarily belong in the same ethnic "pot", much like the ancient
Greeks used the term "Keltai" (corresponding to the present-day English-language term "Celt") to
refer, in broad-brush strokes, to certain peoples of present-day Europe, stretching from France
through Germany and on to the British Isles.
The Baiyue include the Dong, though this group insists that it is a separate ethnic entity. In fact,
scholars believe that the original Yue folk who branched out along a northerly route that would
lead them into present-day China (a similar group, forebears of the present-day Tai (alternatively
"Thai") folk of Thailand, branched southward) are in fact forebears to the Han Chinese - indeed,
the Cantonese language is also called the Yue language (to read more about this interesting
migration theory, which relates the Dong, the Yue, and the ancestors of the Han together, click
here).
The earliest Dai peoples of China were separated into three different groups, corresponding to
three kingdoms: the Mong Loong Kingdom (Kingdom of Uncle), situated in the southern Yellow
River region; the Mong Pa Kingdom (Kingdom of Auntie), in present-day Sichuan Province; and
the Mong Yio Kingdom (Kingdom of the Yue/ Yi peoples), east of the Yangtze River. With plentiful
rainfall and fertile land, the areas that these three Dai groups inhabited was quasi-subtropical,
and thus suitable for the planting of Dai crops that today would be called cash crops. According to
ancient Chinese documents, the Dai had a fairly well-developed system of agriculture, and a part
of their crops were sold, or bartered, for other commodities. The Dai are believed by scholars to
be one of the first ethnic groups to employ oxen to till the land.
The forebears of the present-day Dai Ethnic Minority of China first organized themselves into a
semi-unified political organization - the "Shan Guo" - during the Qin (BCE 221-207) and Han
(BCE 206 - CE 220) Dynasties period. In BCE 109, Emperor Wu Di of the Western Han (BCE 206
- CE 009) Dynasty set up the prefecture of Yizhou (alternatively Yi Zhou, "Yi" being a variant of
"Yue", and "Zhou" (alternatively "Zhao") meaning state, or prefecture) as a special area to house
the Yue people in southwestern China, corresponding to present-day Guizhou, Sichuan and
Yunnan Provinces.
In subsequent years the Dai of Yizhou Prefecture sent emissaries bearing tributes to the Han
court in Luoyang in appreciation of the recognition shown them by the Chinese emperor. Included
in the entourage were Dai musicians and acrobats whose performance at the Han court won the
Dai people great praise; these emissaries, or "Dai ambassadors", received gold seals from the
emperor while their leader was given the title of "Great Captain." In the years that followed, the
Dai people would be officially affiliated with the Han Dynasty, receiving recognition and protection
from Han rulers in exchange for their loyalty to the emperor.
Over the years the resourceful Dai further multiplied and split into smaller groups, or tribes. From
the 8th to the 12th century, the Dai of the Dehong region had lived under their own separate,
semi-autonomous rule - but within the confines of Imperial China, of course - in the Meng Mao
Kingdom whose capital was Ruilijiang. But in the 12th century, a Dai chieftain named Pa Ya Zhen
unified all of the Dai tribes and established a local kingdom, albeit, still within the confines of
Imperial China, called Mengle, with Jinghong in present-day Yunnan Province as its capital.
During the Yuan (CE 1271-1368) Dynasty, the Dai homelands were subordinated to Yunnan
Province, and the feudal system of appointing hereditary headmen from among the ethnic
minorities - including from among the Dai - was instituted, which was a step backward compared
to the more progressive organizational system of the previous, principally Han Chinese,
dynasties, and it was surely a form of cultural appeasement towards ethnic minorities with whom
the Yuan Dynasty had its share of problems. However, this neo-feudal system continued, not only
with respect to the Dai, but with respect to the bulk of China's ethnic minorities, on through the
Ming (CE 1368-1644) and the Qing (CE 1644-1911) Dynasties, except for small enclaves of
minority groups that lived within the confines of the more advanced Han Chinese areas; these
latter enclaves of Dai folk were subject to the same administrative rule as the surrounding
mainstream Chinese society.
After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the new republic, under the rule of the Kuomintang - which
feared a civil-war-like break-up of the country (and which may even have feared defeat at the
hands of some of these minority groups, not least the Mongolians) - set up a special
administrative entity, a county, in the Dai homelands, and a policy of oppression was thereafter
pursued throughout the reaches of the county's administration.
After the formation of the People's Republic of China, the Dai area that had been under strict
Kuomintang rule was "liberated" (1950). In subsequent years, in particluar between 1954 and
1985, upwards of 90% of the Dai people would come to live in areas which had been granted
autonomous administration within the PRC.
Present-Day Dai People
The Dai Language and Writing System
The language of the Dai belongs to the Zhuang-Dai branch of the Zhuang-Dong group of
Chinese-Tibetan Phylum, or family of languages. The Dai have their own special writing system,
which is written in an alphabetic, as opposed to a character, script. There are five different
branches of this writing system spread throughout the various Dai communities in China. Among
these, the most common are the Daikou and the Daina writing systems, which are also known as
the Xinshuangbanna and the Dehong writing systems, respectively.
Costumes
Women's Costumes
Traditionally, Dai women wore tight-sleeved short dresses and sarongs, which accentuated their
slim but shapely figures admirably, imparting a femininity and daintiness that was, and remains,
unique. Dai women's clothing, particularly in the Xishuangbanna region, comes in a wide variety
of styles. Undergarments are typically of a light shade such as white, light green, sky-blue or pink.
Over this is worn a jewel-collared short-waisted shirt that rides above the hips, exposing part of
the lower back. It either buttons down the front, or on the right side, and has long, tight-fitting
sleeves. The skirt, or sarong, is tight-fitting as well, and is quite long, reaching, in some cases,
almost to the ground. It is not uncommon for a Dai woman to wear a silk girdle around her waist,
and to wind her long, beautiful hair into an elegant bun, fixed with a shapely comb, a her head.
Younger Dai women decorate their hair with flowers, while older Dai women typically wear a hat,
often made of bamboo straw. A woman's personal jewelry includes silver earrings, necklaces,
waistbands, bracelets, and bejeweled coronets. Some Dai women also wear jewelry made of
jade, agate and colored glass.
Men's Costumes
Traditionally, Dai men wore collarless, tight-sleeved short jackets - with the opening down the
front or along the right side, as seen in the Dai woman's shirt - and long, baggy pants. This
tradition continues today. In winter, Dai men drape a blanket over their shoulders in lieu of a coat.
To finish off his rather austere wardrobe, a Dai man wears a turban in black, white, or blue.
Diet
In General
Rice is the staple of the Dai diet. The Dai in the Dehong region prefer a rice sort that, when
cooked, produces a looser-grained finished product, i.e., does not stick together (similar to long-
grained rice in Europe and America), while the Dai of the Xishuangbanna region generally prefer
a stickier, more glutinous type of rice, similar to the rice sort that is used in Europe and America
to make pudding.
The Dai are fond of pork, beef, duck, chicken, and fish; they seldom eat mutton. In some areas,
dog meat is also popular among the Dai. In general, the Dai love flavors that are sour and/or
spicy hot. They are known for their roasted chicken and pickled fish, but also for their pickled
bamboo shoots, pickled peas, and pickled meat. Not surprisingly, the Dai are wild about dry
sauerkraut. The Dai are fond not only of fish, but also of other seafoods such as shrimp, crab,
and shellfish. Besides being fond of sour and spicy hot dishes, the Dai also enjoy foods that are
slightly bitter, such as bitter gourd and bitter bamboo shoots, both of which everyday vegetable
dishes are as common to a Dai household as is apple pie to an American household.
Local Specialties
Since the Dai live in areas that are hot and humid, replete with a cornucopia of large insects, they
have learned to incorporate this rich protein source into their diet. Therefore, dishes and snacks
made of insects constitute a large part of the Dai diet, and enhance it with their special flavors. In
addition to the cicada, the bamboo worm as well as a number of species of spiders are the most
commonly used insects in the Dai diet, which also includes exotic foods such as field turtle and
the eggs of giant ants. The Dai also have a liking for partially-fermented wine that is generally
homemade. These are more often than not sweet wines. Although tea is a local specialty, the Dai
prefer their tea made of large-leaf tea sorts that are not highly perfumed. Other typical Dai
products include sun-dried pork, sun-dried eel, and salted eggs.
Etiquette and Taboos
Sacrificial Occasions
1) Tourists are forbidden to enter a stockaded village when the Dai are engaged in the worship of
the stockade god.

2) Tourists are required to take off their shoes before entering a Buddhist temple.

3) Neither may a tourist step on the shadow of a monk, nor touch the head of a monk. Proper
etiquitte calls for passersby of all nationalities and faiths to show respect to a monk by placing
their palms together in the universal gesture of prayer, and nodding a greeting, however slight the
movement.
Weddings, Childbirths and Funerals
1) A tourist may not enter the home of a pregnant woman or a sick man.

2) A special object made of bamboo hanging near the main door of a home signifies that a
pregnant woman is nearing childbirth, and this means that all visitors will be refused.

3) A tourist may not enter a home where a member has just died. Moreover, a tourist is forbidden
to attend a Dai funeral ceremony without express permission of the family.

4) A bamboo keg for holding water is always hung near the door where a death has occurred in a
family. Inside this keg are placed sour leaves, and after the funeral rites have been completed, all
participants sprinkle a small amount of this special water over their heads, in order to turn away
evil spirits.
Festivals
The Water Splashing Festival
The Water Splashing Festival falls during the New Year of the Dai Calendar. It is sometimes
called Shanghan or Jingbimai (both variants meaning "New Year"), but it is more commonly
called Hounan ("Water Splashing Festival") in the Dai language. The Water Splashing Festival is
not only the first Buddhist festival of a new year, but also the most important festival observed by
the Dai. (To learn more about the Water Splashing Festival, click:
http://www.chinatravel.com/facts/water-splashing-festival.htm)
The Dragon Homage Festival
The Dai pay yearly homage to the dragon, who is seen as a deity with the power to bless or
punish mankind, especially as regards the yearly harvest. This Dragon Homage Festival is held at
a date determined by the Dai calendar, which means that it often falls in January of the Western
calendar, and thus also occurs close to the traditional Chinese Spring Festival. During the Dragon
Homage Festival, a monk from the village temple organizes the collection of food and clothing to
be offered to the Dragon God.
Every Dai, without regard to income or social standing, is encouraged to make such an offering to
the Dragon God, though one of course offers gifts commensurate with one's wealth. For example,
rich families might offer items in gold or silver, including coins. All offerings are dropped off at the
temple, where they are preserved in an appropriate "Dragon Palace" until the highlight ceremony
of the Dragon Homage Festival, at which time the "Dragon Palace" is placed on a bamboo raft
and allowed to drift away down the Menglong River, while the people pray and chant Buddhist
scripture.
Dai Cultural Identity
The Dai enjoy a rich and colorful culture, the Bai Yue culture, whose designation today is
shortened to Bai Ye to distinguish it from the original anthropological culture of the ancient Bai
folk. The ancient Bai Yue culture was in the forefront of social development in many respects
when the Dai first began to organize themselves into communities in China. The Dai also have
their own calendar, they have books in Dai script for calculating solar and lunar eclipses, and their
historical documents span a rich variety of literary works, from poetry and fables to ancient stories
and legends.
The Bei Ye Culture
Bei Ye Culture is a general term for the social and cultural history of the Dai people. Bai Ye
cultural artifacts and traditions include original scripture etched onto the leaves of the pattra tree
(a tropical plant native to the Dai homelands), Dai scripture copied onto cotton paper, and "song"
("chanting" may be the better term) books, as well as a plethora of lesser cultural traditions that
are handed down generation after generation, and thus every Dai individual is a walking preserve
of Dai culture. The Bei Ye Culture became known especially for the scriptures that were etched
onto the leaves of the pattra tree.
Bei Ye scriptures, as indicated, are preserved on two different media: the leaf of the patta tree
and paper made of cotton. The former is called "Tanlan" in the language of the Dai, while the
latter is called "Bogalesha". The Bei Ye culture has developed over time from its origins as a
collection of primitive ethnic and religious practices that have been combined with the influences
of neighboring cultures, primarily the Han Chinese culture, but also Indian Buddhist culture (the
Dai practice a form of Buddhism that differs from the Chinese-influenced Indian Buddhism of the
mainstream Han Chinese).
Though they live in separate countries, and in some cases miles apart, the Dai of China, the Lao
of Laos, the Shan of Myanmar, and the Thai of Thailand all have evolved from the same ethnic
origins - they all share the same Bai Ye culture particular to Southeast Asia.
The Dai Calendar
The Dai have their own calendar, which is still in use today. The Dai calendar is unusual,
compared to the Han Chinese lunar calendar, in that the former incorporates elements of both the
solar and the lunar calendars. Borrowing from the Han Chinese Taoist tradition, the Dai use the
method of Heavenly Stems and the Terrestrial Branches to record days and years in their "hybrid"
calendar (this is a reference to the Taoist sexagenary cycle, or a cyclical system of 60
combinations of the two basic cycles: the 10 Heavenly Stems and the 12 Earthly Branches). The
Dai have chosen to not only employ much of the Han Chinese calendar terminology, they have
also preserved the Han Chinese pronunication of this terminology.
A year is divided into twelve months in the Dai calendar, while some months are called "single"
months and others are called "double" months. There are thirty days in a "single" Dai month, and
twenty nine days in a "double" Dai month. A year is also composed of three seasons: the Cold
Season, which runs from January to April; the Hot Season, which runs from May to August; and
the Rainy Season, which runs from September to December. To further account for the
irregularities of the earth's orbit, so as to make the Dai calendar fit the actual time trajectory of the
earth's orbit, there are seven leap years to every span of nineteen years.
According to ancient Dai documents, there are four epochs, termed "Saha", in Dai history. The
fourth epoch is the current one, or the "Zhujiang Saha", which began in the year CE 647, circa, in
Western calendar terms, and was announced by a Dai religious leader by the name of
Payazhula.
Songs and Dances
Introduction
The Dai are exceptionally good at singing and dancing. Their most popular dances are the
Peacock Dance, the Lusheng Dance, the Sanxian Dance, the Lion Dance and the Drum Dance.
The most important musical instrument in accompanying Dai dances is the so-called elephant-
foot drum, which can be played by people of all ages, from a young child to an pensioner.
The elephant-foot drum is typically long, and made of a section of log that has been hollowed out,
then covered with the skin of a python, though today sheepskin is used (otherwise pythons might
soon be on the endangered species list). The drum is painted in a variety of bright colors, and
adorned with the feathers of a peacock - a bird that is especially auspicious in Dai culture, hence
the dance of the same name. A stout ribbon serves as a strap that is attached to the drum so that
it can be carried by the performing dancer. The performing dancer carries the elephant-foot drum
slung over his left shoulder, beating the drum mainly with his right hand, while his left hand helps
to steady and/or shift the position of the drum so as to facilitate the playing rhythm.
Regarding the origin of the elephant-foot drum, legend has it that in ancient times, the Dai
homelands were frequently subjected to severe flooding. The people learned about the presence
of an evil dragon nearby that was causing the floods. A brave Dai youth, aided by his fellow
villagers, eventually managed to kill the monster, and for the celebrations that followed, a special
drum was hollowed out of a log and the hide of the slain dragon was used as the drum's
resonating outer skin.
The Peacock Dance
The Peacock Dance is the favorite dance of the Dai. It is a very graceful and elegantly performed
dance that imitates the stately strutting of the peacock, and is marked by undulations of the waist
and the arms. The Peacock Dance is usually performed during Dai New Year celebrations, as
well as during certain Buddhist festivals such as the annual Baipala Festival. As with so many
other folkloric practices, there is a Dai legend attached to the origin of the Peacock Dance. The
legend goes like this...
Long, long ago, the feathers of the peacock were not so colorful and beautiful, nor did the
peacock possess the characteristic "eyed" tail feathers by which it is known today. The peacock
was known, however, for its relative tameness and obedience. It so happened that once during a
Buddhist festival at a local temple, word spread that the Buddhist patriarch would descend to
earth. Therefore a great throng of adherents came rushing to the temple, which quickly became
overcrowded.
In the meantime, a peacock in a remote mountain region heard the news of the imminent arrival
of the patriarch at the temple in question, and being a devout Buddhist peacock, it therefore flew
the long journey to join the other worshippers in the already overcrowded little temple, where the
patriarch himself had just arrived.
When the peacock, in agitation at not being able to get a better view of the patriarch, paced back
and forth behind the throng of other worshippers, the patriarch became aware of this and cast a
beam of the light of Buddha in the direction of the devout peacock. The light beam struck the tail
of the peacock, lighting it up in iridescent colors and producing the characteristic "eyed" tail
feathers by which the peacock is recognized today.
On departing, the patriarch said to the devout peacock that the two would meet during the next
Baipala Festival. From then on, when the Patriarch descended to earth during the Baipala
Festival, he would first meet with his human followers at the temple, and afterward he would visit
the peacock on its remote mountain and watch it prance and dance and show off its beautiful tail.
That is how the peacock came to be so beautiful, and that is also why the Dai perform a dance in
its honor every year during the major Dai festivals, including the harvest festival and of course the
Baipala Festival.
The Choreography of the Peacock Dance
The Peacock Dance involves a number of fixed elements that imitate the behavior of the
peacock. These imitative elements include: launching into flight from the nest; flying about;
strolling about; searching for a water source; peering intensely, combined with suggestive eye
movements; bathing in a water puddle; spreading the wings and shaking them to dry off; and
spreading the tail feathers as if to announce its presence as the most exquisite creature in the
whole of the animal kingdom.
Hand Gestures
The hand gestures of the Peacock Dance include the following: turning the thumb inwards
towards the palm of the hand, while extending the four fingers that are held tightly together (not
splayed); tucking the thumb only slightly, with the index finger bent and the other three fingers
extended but splayed (known as the "peacock hand" gesture); the thumb and index finger
extended and clasped together at the ends, and with the other three fingers fanned out, in a
slightly curved manner, suggesting the shape of an eye.
Basic Body Movements
Typical Dai dance movements involve lowering the body, raising the body, stepping to the right
and stepping to the left (usually combined with lowering and raising the body). Raising the body
from a lowered position begins on both legs but ends on only one: as the dancer rises, one leg is
forced backwards, ending in a kicking motion as the dancer rotates from side to side, then the
"kick" leg is brought forward and the dancer hops to the side, onto that leg, i.e., the dancer hops
laterally, either to the right or to the left, depending on which leg was used for the kicking motion.
The dancer alternates between kicking backwards with the right and then the left leg.
The beginning of the dance is signalled by a lowering of the body. It is done with a straightened
back, and to the accompaniement of a heavy mucical rhythm. In both lowering and raising the
body, the dancer maintains a rigidly straightened back posture. While hopping right (left), the
dancer swings the body to the right (left) and brings the knees together, turning the head sharply
in the opposite direction of the body.
Dai Architecture
The Traditional Dai House
Dai architecture, except for temple architecture, which was built according to dictated
architectural standards of Buddhism, is vernacular architecture, i.e., it is "people's architecture",
or architecture that does not involve the services of professional architects.
The most typical building material in Dai culture is bamboo, and the building style of the typical
Dai house is called "Gan Lan". The columns, beams, purlins, rafters, and walls of the house are
of bamboo, as is the gate leading to the house. In fact, the grass, or thatch, that covers the roof of
a Dai traditional house is held together in tufts, or bundles, with the help of bamboo twigs, which
are quite elastic. In some areas, the roof consists of bamboo shafts split in half, then tied to
gether to form a seamless roof. Obviously, the greater the bearing requirement the larger, or
sturdier, the bamboo. Thus the house's main framework will be made of the largest bamboo
shafts, while narrower bamboo is used for walls, for the roof, and as a final covering over the
bearing framework of the floor, if wooden planks are not to be used.
A traditional Dai house is two-storeyed, and roughly square in shape. The upper storey serves as
the living quarters for the family, while the lower storey, which may be only partially walled in, but
is generally partitioned into more than one room, serves as a storeroom for grain, etc., and as a
shelter for livestock. The living quarters contain, besides bedrooms, room for working, for dining,
and for receiving guests. There is traditionally a balcony for washing clothes. It is here that the
household water supply, its water tank, is located. The advantage of having the living quarters
raised above ground are obvious: it reduces the risks to life and property during high water
conditions (flooding), being well above ground, it is free of dampness, ground chill, and it is
generally free of insects, especially mosquitoes.
Religious Architecture: Temples and Pagodas
The Importance of the Physical Setting
Religious buildings in China are traditionally built in secluded, auspicious locales on mountains or
hills, tucked in among trees. The aesthetics of the physical setting is of paramount importance in
the placement of religious buildings in China, as the physical setting contributes greatly to the
overall religious experience.
The Buddhist Temple
The Buddhist temple, or "Wa" in the language of the Dai, is a place of reverence. The typical
temple complex consists of a temple gate, the main hall, and various rooms for the monks who
live and work at the temple, as well as a special room for housing the drum. The larger the temple
complex, the greater number of pagodas. The placement of the pagodas - indeed of the
placement of all the building components - is undertaken with an eye to the overall aesthetics of
the temple complex, taking the ography of the surrounding terrain into consideration (these
considerations hold true in China not only for Buddhism, but also for Taoism).
The Temple Gate
Facing eastward, and slighly offset behind the meter-high wall that surrounds the temple
complex, the temple gate is built in a memorial archway style, with two equal-sized staircase
steps before and after the archway itself. Such symmetry is crucial to the memorial archyway
style.
The Buddhist Hall
The main hall, or Buddhist Hall, is also called a "Wei Han" in the language of the Dai. Situated on
an east-west axis, the Buddhist Hall is the primary place of worsip, it is the locale where
Buddhists gather to worship the founding father of Buddhism, Sakymuni Buddha. Here
worshippers light incense, chant sutras, and conduct the various religious activities in accordance
with Buddhist tradition. The center area of the Buddhist Hall is ped with a roof with an apsis in the
center, with one-half of the roof sloping in one directon and the other half sloping in the opposite
direction, in the quintessentially Chinese hip-and-gable roof style. There is a dividing wall directly
below the apsis, such that each half of the roof corresponds to a walled-off room below the roof,
one room, or hall, facing eastward, the other westward. A large statue of Buddha stands in the
hall facing eastward (below is a detailed description of the Buddha statue).
The walls of the Buddhist Hall are only two meters high, and seem dwarfed by the height of the
arched roof. Since Dai homelands are synonymous with a humid climate, even the Dai Buddhist
temple walls are constructed so as to permit ventilation. Windows, where present, are quite small.
The supporting pillars of the main hall are thick and sturdy, and the pillars as well as supporting
beams are painted a bright red. This feature, together with the "Jin Shui" scripture which adorns
the walls of a Dai Buddhist temple, defines, as it were, Dai temple architecture.
The Buddhist Pagoda
Either standing alone or as part of the superstructure of a Buddhist monastery, the brick-built
pagoda is a repository for relics, and for the ashes of Buddha. Being the dominant feature of the
skyline of a Dai village, Dai Buddhist pagodas differ considerably from the corresponding
pagodas of Han Chinese and Tibetan-Chinese areas. The plinth of the Dai Buddhist pagoda is
typically either in the shape of the Chinese "Ya", or in the shape of a lotus blossom. The overall
shape of the pagoda is in the form of an upside-down Buddhist alms bowl. The pedestal on which
it stands has a rock-solid appearance, which contrasts with the light appearance of the pagoda
that rises above it. Where there are multiple pagodas, they generally come in varying shapes, yet
each fits the overall scheme of the temple's superstructureas well as the overall scheme of the
layout of the temple complex.
The Buddha Statue
The statue of Buddha represents the pinnacle of Dai sculptural arts. It is made by Dai artists who
are Buddhist devotees. The Dai Buddha statue is generally of two varieties: one that is a
traditional Sakymuni Buddha representation, i.e., with "snail-shaped" hair (sometimes flame-
shaped or lotus-flower-shaped) and an exposed right shoulder; and one that is a more stately
representation of Buddha with a crown, in a resplendent cape, and with an arm-guard as well as
precious stones decorating the front, or chest area. It is typical for the Dai Buddha to be in a
sitting posture.
This Buddha is characterized by a head that makes up one-third of the height of the statue.
Other, smaller Buddha figures may be in a standing posture, with more natural proportions (the
head of the sitting Buddha figure is considered the most prominent feature). In contrast to the
Han Chinese Buddha figure, which is generally quite plump and often smiling, the Dai Buddha
figure is slimmer, with a more subdued expression on a more elongated face a a thin neck that
protrudes above broad shoulders and a short upper torso.
Dai Handicrafts
The Paper-cut
The Dai paper-cut is the traditional folk art of the Dai minority. Paper-cut drawings are used as
well to design patterns on household articles such as bed linen, bags and hats. The Dai paper-cut
motifs are beautiful and intricate, composed of images of grass, trees, insects, animals and
humans, all interacting in a harmonious way. Others contain a more specific set of story-telling
images relevant to the Dai culture, as well as relevant to more local traditions. In the paper-cut,
the Dai follow a proud Chinese tradition, albeit, adapted to meet the specific cultural and artistic
aspirations of the Dai ethnic minority.
Dai Buddhist Temple Art: Jin Shui Pillar Patterns and Murals
Jin Shui is a common pillar decoration method in Dai Buddhist temples involving Dai scripture.
The Jin Shui procedure is complicated, but can be described roughly as follows: the areas of the
pillars to receive the decorations are chosen, then painted black. Paper-cut images of the
scripture's text are then pasted onto the black areas of the pillar, after which the rest of the pillar
is painted red. When the red paint dries, the paper-cut images are painted with a golden paint
which seeps into the paper and onto the black background behind it, leaving a red pillar with
scripture in golden letters of the Dai alphabet, called "Jin Shui".
The mural is the most vivid form of folk painting among the Dai. Murals are usually drawn on
temple walls in a fluid, panoramic style that typically tells a story. The imagery almost always
involves the Buddha and various princes and princesses, as well as impressive members of the
animal kingdom such as the white elephant, horses, and deer. Another fixture in the Dai Buddhist
temple mural is the Buddhist pagoda set in among bright green trees. The colors of a Dai
Buddhist temple mural are in general very bright and richly contrasting.
The Satchel
The Satchel, also called "Tong Pa" in the language of the Dai, belongs the practical side of Dai
handicrafts; it is very popular among the Dai. The satchel is used for the safekeeping of variety of
everyday items from cigarettes to special seeds to sewing items and decorations. Young people
use the satchel to keep memorable items exchanged with a boyfriend or a girlfriend. The patterns
on the satchel are varied, typically with multiple images of animals, some rare, and with trees and
flowers of a variety of types. Sometimes the artist will include geometrical shapes for added
interest. In general, each pattern - be it animal, plant, or geometrical shape - has its own
significance, as does each particular color theme. For example, red and green signify respect for
ancestors, while the image of a peacock signifies good luck, the image of an elephant signifies a
good harvest as well as a happy life in general. Such images reflect the Dai people's tendency to
strive for a better life for themselves and for future generations.
The Tattoo, or Body Art
The Dai are proud of their beautiful tattoos - "the more the better" seems to be the motto. When a
boy reaches the age of eleven or twelve, a tattoo artist is invited to tattoo the boy's body and
limbs with designs of animals, flowers, geometric patterns, and examples of Dai script. Tattooing
is achieved by first drawing the relevant patterns on the skin with colored dye, then the patterns
are pricked with a fine needle which will allow the dye to sink into the skin. After a period of time
(the curing period), the pattern is then permanent. The most propitious time of the year for
tattooing is during the Dragon Boat Festival.
The origin of tattooing in the Dai culture stems from a legend. Long, long ago (as most legends
worth their salt begin) the Dai people were still in search of a suitable homeland, and in this
nomadic state, they continued to move along the river, or to move to other rivers, in search of
their staple food at the time, fish. On one particular river, the Dai encountered a very hostile
dragon that would attack anything with a dark yellowish color, including humans. In an attempt to
deceive this fierce dragon, the Dai painted their skin in the colors of the dragon - which included
black, but excluded yellow, of course.
Unfortunately, when the Dai entered the river, which was essential both in order to fish, to bathe,
and to wash their clothing, the paint - which was only painted on the outer surface of the skin -
would wash off, and the dragon would attack anew. A clever shaman figured out how to make the
body paint permanent by applying the paint, then pricking the skin, and thus was born the
practice of tattooing among the Dai people.
Religion
Most of the Dai people believe in the Sthaviravada (the little vehicle) while some still adhere to
the principle of animism, or the notion that all things, from what we call animate to inanimate
things, possess a soul. The Sthaviravada holds that the world of senses is void, and that to reach
nirvana, or the state of release from material existence, it is necessary to transcend the demands
of the senses.
The Buddha sutra of the Sthaviravada is generally called The Three Pitakas, one of which is the
sutra that aims at maintaining stability in the laws of the universe. Another, the Vinaya Pitaka,
advocates religious discipline, while the last, the Abhidharma Pitaka, makes public the Buddhist
theory and its teachings. According to the Sthaviravada, it was a common practice to send young
boys to the temple to be educated, which also elevates the boy's social status. There, the boy
would learn to read, write and chant scriptures, but it served as a form of schooling in general.
Some of the boys would enter the monastery to become monks, though the vast majority
remained within their villages, partaking in secular life as well.
Customs
The Courtship Custom of the Flower Ball Festival
There are many ways for Dai youths to express their affection for the opposite sex, but chief
among them is the Flower Ball Festival. When the New Year of the Dai Lunar Calendar - i.e., the
Water-Splashing Festival - is on the horizon, all the unmarried youths of the village and its
environs get together to participate in the Flower Ball Festival. The event is carried out by having
boys and girls stand in separate lines opposite each other, then the boy throws the flower ball,
when it is his turn, to the girl he fancies the most and who is standing in the line directly opposite
him (as can be understood, the girls line up first, then the boys take their positions opposite the
girl of their choice, and, by pre-arrangement, any potential conflict such as two boys wishing to
court the same girl is resolved by parents, well in advance of the Flower Ball Festival). Flower ball
throwing is done round after round, because not every girl catches the flower ball on the first
attempt (it is a requirement to eventually catch the flower ball).
The rule is if the girl doesn't catch the flower ball, the boy will give the girl a gift as
encouragement, since further rounds will be played for those not having caught the flower ball. In
the event that a girl does not catch the flower ball, she is required to pick a flower for the boy who
cast the ball to her. In reality, a girl may deliberately fail to catch the flower ball many times over,
in order to thus elicit more gifts (a certain amount of pre-arrangement here cannot be excluded).
Not all boys and girls "paired" at a Flower Ball go on to become serious sweethearts, but many, if
not most, do, as there is more to the ceremony than innocent children choosing a favorite -
suitability issues such as social standing, inter-family relations, etc., plays a role as well.
The Custom of Thread Twining
The Thread Twining Custom is known in the Dai language as Shu Huan, meaning "twining the
souls". Shu Huan is a social event that involves the extended families of both parties to the
wedding, as well as specially invited guests. It is done both at an official "engagement" ceremony
that takes place any time between the 15th of December (the Opening-of-the-Door Festival) to
the 15th of September of the following year (the Closing-of-the-Door Festival), and during the
marriage ceremony itself. The purpose of this well-wishing ceremony is to pray for the bride and
groom, and to twine thread for them in the hope that theirs may be a happy and well-suited union.
During the wedding ceremony itself, the host first prays for the bride and groom, then he takes a
long white thread and begins to twine it around the hands of the new couple as a symbol of a
long, healthy and happy life together. Thereafter the other family members of both the bride and
groom perform the same symbolic thread twining ritual upon the bride and groom, and lastly,
invited friends of the couple do the same.
The custom of twining thread as a symbol of the marriage union is an old Dai tradition. Once
again, its origin is enshrouded in legend...
Long, long ago, there was a very young princess - just a girl, really - who often wondered about
what type of man she would someday marry. One day, the princess mused to a very young male
servant - a boy of roughly her own age, in fact: "I wonder who I will eventually marry?" The young
boy answered matter of factly, and without the slightest hesitation: "You are going to marry me."
Upon hearing this, the princess, in a fit of rage, grabbed a knife lying on a nearby table and threw
it at the boy, making a deep gash in his forehead, which would leave a permanent scar.
Moreover, the young boy, for his impertinence, was driven out of the country.
There, the young boy became a young man, and a very successful one at that: he eventually
became the country's king. As was the custom at the time, rulers of neighboring states and
countries chose intermarriage as a means of defusing potential rivalry, so a marriage between the
young king and the princess of the country from which the young man, as a boy, had been rudely
kicked out, was arranged. On the day of the wedding, the princess immediately recognized the
groom-to-be as her former servant, for the scar from the deep gash she had given him as a boy
was clearly visible on his forehead. The princess was so overwhelmed with remorse - and also
with awe at the boy's prophetic words - that she placed her right hand between the hands of her
groom-to-be, and proceeded to twine their hands together, as a sign of her eternal devotion to her
coming husband and king.
Hui Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents

Religious Belief and Customs

Dietary Customs

Daily Beverages

Festivals of the Hui Nationality

Characteristics of the Clothes

Customs of Marriage

Taboos of the Hui Nationality

Religious Belief and Customs
The Hui Nationality practice the Islamic religion. In areas where there are dense distributions of
the Hui people, mosques are built which hold religious activities hosted by imams. The main
religious scripture of the Hui Nationality is the Koran and the believers of Islam are called
Muslims. The Hui people live a very traditional Islamic way of life. They abide by all the religious
rules such as not consuming pork. The Islamic religion has played a very important role in the
growth and development of the Hui Nationality. Mosques are places for Muslims of the Hui ethnic
group to have religious services and hold activities; some mosques also have the liability to
disseminate religious knowledge as well as cultivate Islamic clerical practitioners. Mosques are
considered a sacred place of worship by all Hui Muslims.

Hui Family
According to the Islamic calendar, on the tenth day of the twelfth month is Edi Al-Adha Day, or the
Feast of Sacrifice. Every year on this day, animals such as camels, oxen and sheep are killed in
sacrifice to their God Allah. Islamic precepts prescribe the ninth month on the Islamic calendar as
the period of Ramadan, meaning a month of fasting. During this time, all Hui Muslims must
abstain from all forms of drinks, food, and sex; the purpose of Ramadan is to make the people
contemplate and reflect seriously on their own sins as well as make the financially rich people
have personal painful experiences about caused by starvation. The period of fasting ends on the
first day of the tenth month called Hari Raya Puasa noted by grand galas held to celebrate the
accomplishment of the fasting activity. On this day, all Muslims get up very early, take a bath,
light incense and then go to the mosque in formal clothes for a religious service and to listen
respectfully to the lectures and sermons given by imams. After that, they go to their cemeteries
and hold activities to worship and cherish the memory of the deceased, in order to show that they
will never forget their ancestors.
Dietary Customs
The Hui people are widely distributed throughout China so their diets have developed differently.
The Hui people who live in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region specially love wheaten food and they
like to eat noodles and dough sheets. In addition, they also like Tiaohefan; this is prepared by
making porridge with mutton pieces, spices, and diced vegetables. At the end, boiled noodles or
dough sheets are put inside the porridge. The Hui people living in provinces
of Gansu and Qinghaitake wheat, corns, highland barleys and sweet potatoes as their main daily
food. Fried cakes and fried dough pastries are very special foods loved by the Hui people from
various regions and are always used as gifts for relatives and friends during festivals. The typical
food of the Hui people includes the following: Niangpi-- which is a kind of steamed noodles mixed
with different seasonings-- Hand-Pulled Noodles, Dalumian-- which refers to boiled noodles
mixed with fungus, sliced meat, and eggs--, Fried Noodles with Meat, Uncongealed Bean curd,
Cattle Head Soup, Noodles Mixed with Sliced Meat and Vegetables, and many more. In many of
the Hui families, fermented flour dough is prepared all through the year and can be used at any
time in need. The Hui people living in urban areas like to drink milk tea at breakfast all through the
four seasons of the year. The meat they eat mainly includes beef and mutton; sometimes they
also eat camel and various kinds of fish that have scales raised in northern China including black
carps, silver carps, belugas, etc.
Pigeons are believed to be sacred birds by the Hui ethnic group living in Gansu Province;
therefore, pigeon is often raised but seldom eaten. If someone is seriously ill, the Imam in the
mosque can give permission to create a tonic from cooked pigeons for the patient.
The Hui people are good at various cooking techniques, which include pan-frying, sauting,
braising, frying, quick-frying, roasting, etc. Muslims are able to prepare exquisite colorful dishes
using a variety of flavor, colors and smells containing ingredients such as long-thread moss,
Chinese wolfberry, oxen and sheep hamstrings, chicken, duck, and seafood; on the other hand
they also create delicious home-cooked food and snacks with their own unique and distinguishing
features. Among the Hui people who live in the northwestern part of China, there is the popular
habit of eating pickled vegetables.
The Hui people are relatively particular about beverages. They only drink water from a flowing or
clean source. It is not acceptable for people to take a bath, wash clothes or pour dirty water
around the sources of drinking water. The Hui people also like to drink tea and use it to treat their
guests. Tureen Tea, which is popular among the Hui people in northwest China, is very well-
known. The Hui people living in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region also drink the Eight
Treasures Tea made of tea leaves, white sugar, Chinese wolfberry, Chinese date, walnut, longan
pulp, sesame, raisin, apple slices and more; Pot Tea is a kind of tea that is heated on stove in a
pot containing only a little water before drinking it.
The typical dishes of the Hui nationality mainly include the Muslim Wanshengma Cakes, sheep
tendons, Golden Phoenix Braised Chicken, Wengzi Soup Balls, and Green Bean Skins. In Xining
City of Qinghai Province, the well-known Wanshengma Cakes of the Hui Nationality is very
popular; as well as The Golden Phoenix Braised Chicken in the city of Shijiazhuang, Hebei
Province; the Ma Family Pot-stewed Chicken and the Baiyunzhang Dumplings in the city of
Baoding, Hebei Province; the Ma Family Steamed Dumplings in Shenyang City and the Muslim
Baked Cake in Yi County,Liaoning Province; the Shredded Bread in Mutton and Beef Soup
in Shaanxi Province; and the Wengzi Soup Balls , Green Bean Skins and Rice Noodles in Beef
Soup in Changde, Hunan Province.
Five Dishes and Four Oceans, Nine Greatness and Thirteen Flowers, Round Moon on the
Fifteenth Day of a Month are some of the famous Muslim meals prepared during feasts
throughout China. Five Dishes means five kinds of sauted dishes served together at the same
time, and Four Oceans refer to four soup dishes served all at once. Nine Greatness, Thirteen
Flowers, Round Moon on the Fifteenth Day of a Month are the elegant and beautiful names of
nine bowls of food, thirteen bowls of food and fifteen bowls of food respectively.
Daily Beverages
The traditionally beverage of the Hui people is tea. It is not only the everyday drink of the Hui
Nationality, but also the most precious beverage when preparing a feast for guests. Tea plays a
very important part in the diet and life of the Hui people.
Wherever you are in China, a hospitable Muslim host will always first come up and serve a cup of
hot strong tea. The Hui people are very particular about tea services. In many of the Hui families
there are various sets of tea services. In the past, the pots used to make and heat tea were
usually made of silver or copper, and designed in various styles with very unique and
distinguished characteristics. There were copper teapots with long spouts, silver duck teapots,
copper fire teapots, and more. Nowadays when making tea, the Hui people usually use porcelain
pots, tureens, or porcelain cups with covers; when boiling the tea, they mainly use tin-iron pots,
and in the summer purple-sand pottery pots.
Tureen tea, which is drank in a very unique way by the Hui people living in the northwestern part
of China, is believed to date from the Tang Dynasty (618-907AD). It has been handed down from
generation to generation and is widely enjoyed by the Hui people. It is made up of the tray, the
tureen, and the cover, which are nicknamed Three Cannon Batteries. During the heat of the
summer, tureen tea becomes drink of choice among the Hui people While in the cold winter,
during the slack farming season, the Hui people usually sit around the morning stove, bake some
slices of bread or eat some flour pastries, and enjoy a cup of Tureen Tea.
The Hui people also take Tureen Tea as the best and perfect beverage to treat guests. It is
always served along with flour pastries or dried nuts to guests during all festive activities such as
Eid Al-Adha Day, Hari Raya Puasa, and wedding ceremonies. There are various customs for
serving tea to a guest. The host will first open the cover of the tureen, put the tea leaves into the
tureen, pour the water inside, and last put the cover back on the tureen before offering it to the
guest with both hands. If there are several guests coming, the host has to serve the tea to them in
a correct order according to the ages, hierarchies and status. The guest with the greatest honor
should be the first one to enjoy the tea.
When drinking Tureen Tea, one can not put away the cover or puff the tea leaves on the surface
of the water using his mouth; instead, he should put the tureen and the tray in his left hand, and
use the right hand to remove the cover to across the surface of the water. This is done in order to
sweep the tea to the edge of the tureen wall to accelerate the pace the sugar crystals will melt.
They are also very particular about the ways of skimming the tea with the cover. It is said that
after the first time, the tea becomes very sweet and after the second time it becomes much more
fragrant. Each time the teat is skimmed, the guest should suck in the tea using his mouth while
tilting the cover. He can neither pick up the tureen and swallow the tea in succession, nor gasp
while drinking the tea. Instead he should drink slowly and enjoy every mouthful of the tea. In order
to be polite and respectful when served a cup a tea, a guest must not stand on ceremony or put
aside his cup without a taste.
Festivals of the Hui Nationality
The Hui people have three main festivals: Hari Raya Puasa, Eid Al-Adha, and Mawlid an-Nabi. All
the festivals and memorial days follow the Islamic calendar. The Islamic calendar is calculated
according to the moon; one year is divided into twelve months. Each year contains is made up of
about 354 days. In leap years, once every 30 years, there are 355 days. There are no leap
months in the Islamic calendar. Compared with the Gregorian calendar, there are eleven days
less each year, and there is one more year by the calculation of the Islamic calendar in every
32.6 Gregorian years. As a result, using the Gregorian calendar, the above-mentioned three main
festivals of the Hui Nationality occur one month earlier every three years.
Hari Raya Puasa of the Hui Nationality (Fast Ending Festival)
The Hui people living in Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, and Yunnan provinces also call this festival
Daerde; it is widely celebrated among the ten Islamic ethnic groups in China. However, the ten
ethnic groups all possess many of their own special and local customs and characteristics for
celebrating this festival.
The feast month of the Hui nationality, which is also called Ramadan, comes in the ninth month of
the Islamic calendar. Why do the Hui people have the fasting activity in this month? According to
the records from the Koran, when Mohammed, Islam's prophet, was forty years old, Allah, the
Islamic God, began to teach him the enlightenments from the Koran during the ninth month of
that Islamic year. As a result, the Hui people consider this month to be the most exalted,
auspicious and happiest time of the year. In order to commemorate this important event in their
history, they began to fast in the ninth month for a whole month. The starting and ending date of
the fasting month depends on the date when the new crescent moon appears.
During the fasting month, the life of the Hui people is always much more colorful and sumptuous
than normal. Usually all the Muslim families prepare beef, mutton, rice, flour, white sugar, tea,
fruits and many other kinds of nourishing food.
The Muslims, who have to fast, should eat enough food before dawn; from the dawn until sunset,
they must abstain from any sexual life as well as all kinds of food and drink. The purpose of this
ritual fasting is to provide a painful experience of hunger and thirst; therefore, they are able to feel
empathy for what it is to live in the shoes of a poverty stricken person in hopes they will provide
help. By doing this fasting activity, the Hui people have gradually developed the virtues of being
unremitting, unyielding and disinterested.
After the whole day of fasting at sunset, when it finally comes time to eat, most of the fasting men
will go to the mosque and wait. When they hear the sound of the clapper in the mosque which
means that it is time to eat, they begin to enjoy their food. If it is summer, they will first eat some
fruits if it is available, otherwise if there are no fruits they just drink a cup of water or tureen tea
before dinner. If it is in winter, some Muslims are very particular about it and they will eat some
dates before having dinner. Legend goes that Mohammed liked to eat some dates everyday at
the end of fasting; as a result, the Hui people still retain this habit. When the one-month long
fasting period is over, there comes the festival of Hari Raya Puasa, which is one of most
ceremonious festivals in each Islamic year.
The festival of Hari Raya Puasa lasts for three days. On the first day as soon as the foredawn
comes, people begin to prepare in a bustle. All families get up very early and then begin to clean
the courtyard and laneways, in order to create an atmosphere of cleanness, comfort and pleasure
to others. All people, including men and women, young and old wear their favorite new clothes.
The mosques are all cleaned up during this festival. Big banners with slogans of Celebrating the
Hari Raya Puasa Festival and colorful lanterns are hung there in the mosques.
During the festival, all Muslim families make their traditional ethnic foods such as fried dough
pastries and fried cakes. At the same time they kill chickens and sheep and make cold bean jelly
and braised vegetables; these are sent as gifts to relatives, friends and neighbors to express their
best regards to each other.
The Hui people living in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region will sweep away the dust in their
houses and whitewash their buildings before the festival. Men will have a haircut, and both men
and women will take a bath and wear new clothes. The whole family will have braised soup. In
most places of China, inhabited by Hui people, they keep almost the same customs as in
Xinjiang. Most young people from the Hui nationality hold their wedding ceremonies during this
festival, which makes it much more exciting and reveal gorgeous and fascinating colors.
The Eid al-Adha Festival of the Hui Nationality (Feast of Sacrifice)
Eid al-Adhs, which is the pronunciation of the Arabic language, means sacrifice and self-devotion,
as a result it is also called Feast of Sacrifice or Festival of Fidelity and Filial Piety. In most places
where the Hui people live it is called Little Eid. As one of the three main festivals of the Islamic
religion, it is usually celebrated seventy days after the Fast Ending Festival.
Why do the Hui people kill animals to celebrate this festival? It is said that Ibrahim, who was the
ancient Prophet of human beings, was enlightened by God Allah at night and Allah ordered him to
kill his own son Ishmael as a sacrifice to himself; it turned out Allah just wanted to test the
religious belief of Ibrahim. Ibrahim sharpened his knife, approached his son and said, My dear
son, as your father, I really do not have the heart to kill you. Please just leave and go far far
away! However, his son Ishmael answered, Nothing in the world but the God of Allah is the
Master of this world! Dad, we are the servants of Allah, and we can only worship Almighty Allah
after coming to this world! Then, when Ishmael lied down on his side, his father put the knife onto
his throat. Now the father was so sad that he cried and tears just rolled down from his eyes like a
stream. Just at this moment, Allah dispatched a fairy named Jiboreyile with a black-headed
antelope to the father and the son. The antelope served as sacrifice to Allah instead of Ishmael.
Then the father took his knife and cut through the throat of the antelope, which died quickly. This
is the origin of this festival. In this story the fidelity to God Allah and the sons filial piety to his
parent without hesitation should both be learned by the future generations and also the father and
the son should be great models for the whole world to learn from.
That is the reason the Hui people, as well as preparing fried cakes and fried flour pastries, also
kill oxen, sheep and camels during a grand ceremony for this festival. Generally speaking, as for
the families who financially live a good life, one person has to kill one sheep by himself, and
seven people work together to kill an ox or a camel. They are also very particular about the
etiquettes of killing animals; sheep less than two years old and calves or camels less than three
years old should not be killed. Animals that are blind, lame, without a tail or both ears can not be
killed either. People should choose the strong and bonny livestock to kill. After the animals are
killed, the meat has to be divided into three parts, the first part is for the family members, the
second part will be sent to relatives, friends and neighbors and the last part will be used as alms
to help the poor.
After the ceremony of killing animals, all families again become very busy. The old people boil the
meat as they inform the children that after eating the meat they should bury the bones
underground covered by yellow earth instead of giving them to dogs. This is a particular custom
during the festival. When the meat is cooked, it should be sliced and divided into small packages.
The mutton should be broiled and made into dishes; then they visit relatives and friends, send
dishes and fried cakes to each other and give their best regards to others. Some families even
invite imams to come to chant Koran, eat and visit the cemeteries to recall and worship their
ancestors. Various forms of celebrating exist with similarities and differences depending on the
location. In some places the Hui people organize various cultural and sports activities besides
getting together and visiting relatives and friends. The Hui ethnic group living in Xinjiang Uyghur
Autonomous Region likes to organize different kinds of recreational activities during this festival
and celebrate it with great joy and extraordinary excitement.
The Mawlid an-Nabi of the Hui Nationality (The Birthday and the Anniversary of the Death
of Mohammed)
Mawlid an-Nabi is a day to commemorate the birthday as well as the anniversary of the death of
the Islamic prophet Mohammed, As the birthday and the anniversary of the death of Mohammed
are both on the twelfth day of the third month according to the Islamic calendar, the Hui people
celebrate them together and call this festival Mawlid an-Nabi. On this day, the Muslims first go to
the mosque to chant the Koran, sending blessing on Mohammed and his family (Durood), and
listen to the lectures about the life stories of Mohammed given by imams. Then they donate
grains, edible oil, meat and money to the mosque; at the same time they invite several people
who take charge of milling flours, purchasing the things they need, frying cakes, boiling meat,
making dishes etc. All the routine chores and errands are done by the Hui people who come
voluntarily. The Hui people consider the voluntary labor on this day to be doing good deeds. As a
result, all of them volunteer to come and do the jobs one after another.
When the ceremony is over, people begin to gather and dine together. In some places where the
economy is well developed and there are large and spacious places for a big dinner, they prepare
dozens of tables of dishes for everybody to enjoy the food happily. While in some other areas,
they have set meals, called set bowls by the Hui people; the food is divided equally into different
bowls and each person shares one set of the meal. If there are those who have attended the
religious ceremony in the mosque, donated money and other things and at last have not come for
the dinner, their relatives or friends will be asked to take back some fried cakes for them to have
a taste.
Characteristics of the Clothes
The men of the Hui Nationality usually wear the Hui style hat, which are small black-colored and
white-colored hats without brims; most of the Hui men like to wear white ones. Some of them do
not wear hats and instead they wrap their heads with white towels or cloth, and are therefore
nicknamed Head-Wimpled Hui People. There are also some others who wear pentagonal,
hexangular or Octagonal hats, as a result of the different branches of Islam they believe in and
different places they live in. In winter, some old Hui people, for example the imams, do not like to
wear thick cotton hats; instead, they wear white hats and put a blue embroidered earmuff made of
cotton or fur on each ear. They like to wear double-breasted white shirts, and some even like to
wear white trousers and socks to make them look very tidy, bright and solemn.
Blue waistcoats are a common fashion among both men and women; men especially like to put
on an extra waistcoat outside their shirts to create a distinct contrast and make them look pure,
fresh, elegant and solemn. When a cold winter comes, they will overalls over a cotton or leather
waistcoat to add comfort and warmth without looking overstuffed. The Hui people living in cold
alpine areas like to wear fur garments, periderm garments and garments made from the skins of
old sheep.
The women of the Hui Nationality are also very particular about their dresses and toilettes. They
usually wear white round-edged hats and veils on their heads. The custom of wearing veils
originates from the Arabian countries and the Islamic religion. The Arabian areas used to have
strong wind, sandstorms and also a shortage of water there. As a result, people at that time there
were not able to take baths or wash their faces and hands frequently. In order to protect
themselves from wind and sand, as well as pay close attention to hygiene, the Islamic women
made the veils by themselves that could cover their faces and protect their heads. As time went
on, there gradually came the habit of wearing veils among the Hui women.
The veils of the young girls, married women and old people are different from each other.
Normally the young girls wear green veils with golden edges as well as simple and elegant
embroidered patterns of flowers and grasses; the married women wear black veils which cover
them from the heads until the shoulders; elderly women wear white ones which cover them from
their heads to their backs. The Hui women usually wear side opening clothes; young girls and
married women like to inlay threads, embed colors, make rolloffs and embroider flowers on their
clothes. It is also very common adorn gold or silver bracelets , earrings and rings; some of them
even like to paint a colored dot on their forehead and dye their fingernails to add a , pure, fresh,
clean, graceful, and pretty look
Customs of Marriage
The marriage of the Hui people is bound by the Islamic rules, just like the other nine ethnic
groups living in China who also believe in Islam. Mohammed once said, The marriage system is
ruled by me, and anybody who does not abide by my rules will not be considered to be my
followers. As a result, all marriages of the Hui people must abide by the relevant rules of Islam
and they should consider their marriage a very sacred event willed by the God Allah. Their
marriage should be permitted by both sides and abide by the principle of freewill decision.
Betrothal gifts should be given with the help of parents and the matchmaker and all the
procedures should conform with the Islamic rules, before wedding ceremony is held.
Before the marriage of the Hui people, the mans family should give betrothal gifts to the girls
family; they will then contract the marriage and fix the date of their wedding ceremony. When they
become engaged, relatives and friends should be invited to drink tea and eat some snacks. When
holding the wedding ceremony, they should invite an imam to extol God Allah as well as serve as
the chief witness of the marriage. The imam praises God Allah for his contributions to the perfect
marriage between the two young people. Then he teaches the bride and groom the relevant
Islamic knowledge, tells both sides to abide by the virtues of trust and honesty and recite the
words of Mohammed, and asks them what their religious names are, if they do not have one, he
will give them their religious names. The imam will also ask the groom whether he has already
sent a gift to the bride as gift symbolizes the true love between husband and wife. At last, the
imam reads the marriage testimony, which can not be omitted from the ceremony, which means
that this marriage is officially admitted by the Islamic religion. After that, the activity of Handing
Out Longevity Nuts will be held. The imam first puts some snacks with lucky meanings, including:
longevity nuts which symbolize long life, dates which symbolize giving birth to a baby as soon as
possible, metal coins which symbolize affluence and honor, peanuts, fruits, popcorns, walnuts,
and so forth, on the table. Then he gets three handfuls of them and puts them into the
handkerchief the groom has already prepared before giving them to the bride; in some places the
nuts are put into the undergarments of the groom. When all the guests leave, the husband and
the wife enjoy those gifts together to symbolizes true love, sticking together through thick and thin
and living together happily all through their lives. The nuts also symbolize the best wishes to this
couple from the imam.
Taboos of the Hui Nationality
The Hui people do not eat pork, dogs, horses, donkeys and mules. Bloods from animals, poultries
and livestock that die naturally or are not killed by people who believe in Islam are also not
allowed to be eaten. People can not smoke or drink in other peoples homes. No jokes about food
are acceptable, and any food that is unacceptable by the Hui people can not be used to make
metaphors; for example, one should not say that the color of chili is as red as blood. One should
not bare his or her bosom and arms in front of others. All livestock should be kept away from
drinking water from the wells or springs which are used as a water source. Also people should not
wash their hands, faces, or clothes near the wells or springs. Before getting the water, one should
wash his or her hands. Any remaining water after use in a container should not be poured back in
the source. The Hui people always pay close attention to hygiene in their daily life. If it is possible,
people should wash their hands both before and after meals using flowing water. Most of the Hui
people do not smoke or drink. While dining together, the seniors should be invited to sit at the
honorable seats, and juniors should not sit together with the seniors on the beds or Kang--hot
rock bed, instead they should sit at the edge or just on benches on the floor. In addition, when
taking water or meals, one should not do it in an outward way; if their bowl is far away from their
food they will be considered throwing out their dishes.
The most remarkable food and drink habit of the Hui Nationality is that some kinds of foods are
forbidden. As for meat, they only eat the meat of the animals that parteth the hoof and chew the
cud, such as oxen, sheep, camels, deer, and wild rabbits. As for birds and poultries, they only eat
the meat of chickens, ducks, geese, cooers, and pigeons. For seafood, only fish and shrimps can
be eaten. Of all the animals mentioned above, if they are killed by people from other nationalities
or die naturally, the Hui people should not eat them. Only those that are killed by the special cook
or the imam from the mosque can be eaten.
Besides pork, the Hui people do not eat the meat of the following kinds of animals, including
those that have paws or do not chew the cud, such as horses, mules, donkeys, cats, dogs,
elephants, tigers, leopards, bears, wolves, foxes, rats and badgers, those that are very dragonish
and have a bad temper-- eagles, sparrow hawks, condors, owls, and crows-- amphibians,
snakes, peculiar-looking seafood-- such as turtles, loaches, frogs, mussels, holothurians, crabs,
etc--. However, nowadays in some places, the rules about the kinds of seafood that cannot be
eaten have changed a little bit.
The custom of not eating pork originates directly from the Islamic religion. It used to be an ancient
custom of some nomadic ethnic groups living on the tropical and droughty Arabian Peninsula.
Later Mohammed listed this rule into the records of the Koran and then it became an Islamic rule.
According to the Koran, it is believed that the main reason for not eating pork is that pigs are dirty
animals that can never be cleaned.
The Koran is the origin of the Islamic belief and laws, and it is the ultimate norm of the behaviors
conducted by Muslims. As a result, all Muslims must abide by all of the rules. As for the food
taboos, they have been developed in a long period of time in history and gradually became
integrated in the life of the Hui Nationality. All of these taboos have been accepted and handed
down from generation to generation by the Hui people.
Lahu ethnic minority
Overview
Lahu ethnic minority is one of the oldest ethnic groups in China, originated from the ancient Qiang
people. They lived a nomadic life in the beginning. Then, they gradually moved southward, and
finally settled near Lancang River. They have the characteristics of both the northern nomads and
the southern farmers. People of Lahu ethnic group mainly inhabit in Yunnan Province, Simao
Prefecture, Lincang Prefecture, Xishuangbannan Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Honghe Hani Yi
Autonomous Prefecture and Yuxi City. Lancang Lahu Autonomous County and Menglian Dai and
Lahu Autonomous County are the major inhabited sites for Lahu people. In addition, as a cross
national ethnic group, there are more than 160,000 Lahu people living in other countries, such as
Burma, Thailand, Vietnam and Laos. They mainly engage in agriculture.
People of Lahu ethnic minority have their own language, which is divided into two dialects,
including Lahu Na and Lahu Xi. Both belong to Tibetan-Burman group of the Sina-Tibetan
phylum. In the past, there were no scripts for Luhu people. In the beginning of the 20th century,
western missionaries created a script system composed of Latin letters, but it was not widely
spread. After the founding of the Peoples Republic of China, new spelling characters were
created. Lahu ethnic group has a very long history, whose ancestors were the ancient Qiang
people who moved southward from areas in Qinghai and Gansu provinces, and entered Yunnan
Province and Indo-China Peninsula. In April 1953, when the Lancang Lahu Autonomous County
was established, the ethnic group got their name Lahu according to their will.
History
People of Lahu ethnic minority were originated from ancient Qiang people who used to live in
Gansu and Qinghai provinces. They moved southward, and during the Warring States Period
(475B.C.-221B.C.), they settled in Yunnan Province. The Lahu tribe was under affiliation of Yi
tribes. When the taxes became too heavy, they would hold military revolts and migrated to large
tribes. The Lahu leaders also launched military operations in order to expand. After the failure of
the military operations, the whole tribe migrated. The migration of Lahu ethnic group had never
sped since Tang Dynansty (618A.D.-907A.D.). In the end of Song Dynasty, there were at least
three large-scale migrations. It was until Qing Dynasty that the Lahu ethnic group had settled in
the areas of todays distribution areas, but there were still some minor migrations that migrated to
Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and some other countries. Due to the constant migrations, Lahu
ethnic minority had formed two parts, including east and west of Lancang River. Meanwhile,,
different historical developments of the two areas were also formed.
After the founding of the Peoples Republic of China, great changes happened to the areas where
Lahu people lived. With the help of the Chinese government and the efforts of Lahu people, their
economy and culture developed quickly.
Marriage
Lahu ethnic minority adopts monogamy, and they have social freedom in love and marriage. The
two parties are very polite to each other at the meeting of different clans. When the male and
female go steady, the male party will ask the matchmaker to bring 2 to 4 pairs of dried squirrels
and 1 kilogram of wine to the females home in order to propose marriage. If the parents of the
female approve, the male party will send betrothal presents again and discuss about the wedding
date and the marriage way (living in the males home or the females home) with the female party.
If they decide to live in the males home, the male party will hold banquets and send people
(including the groom) to escort the bride to come to the grooms home on the wedding day,
meanwhile, the female party will send people to escort the bride to the grooms home. On
contrary, if they decide to live in the females home, the female party will prepare banquets, and
the groom will go to the females home under the escort of the matchmaker. After the wedding,
the groom will stay and live at the brides home, staying for 1 year, 3 years or 5 years, or even
longer. The male lives and participates in production work at his wifes home, and receives equal
treatment as a son. There is no discrimination. Until the day when the male needs to leave his
wifes home, relatives and family members will hold banquets, and the husband can either take
the wife to his home, or live on their own with his wife at another place at the village of where his
wife lives. Whatever marriage way is, at the first spring festival after the wedding, a pig leg must
be cut out and it will be given to the brides brother if they kill pigs. While the brides brother will
send, the neck of the pig or the prey and four glutinous rice cakes to his sister for three years in a
row. After receiving the gifts, his sister must present 6 kilograms of wine in return. Divorces are
rare in this minority.
Taboos
The taboos in daily life include: The daughter-in-law is not allowed to eat together with her father-
in-law. The sister-in-law is not allowed to eat together with her brother-in-law. They are not
allowed to enter the rooms of father-in-law or brother-in-law at random. When passing stuff, they
should not touch hands. Women, no matter married or unmarried, should not take off their
kerchiefs in front of the senior people, nor can they be unkempt.
A piebald horse is considered as a sacred horse, a cuckoo is considered as a sacred chick, while
a snake with bold tail is considered as a dragon. Nobody dare to hurt or kill these animals. Lahu
people do some fortune telling when they kill pigs or chicken. It is considered auspicious if the
chick has bright eyes, or the pig has lots of bile; otherwise it is inauspicious and people should be
cautious in everything.
Diet
Their diet includes two kinds, raw food and cooked food. They cook food by boiling or roasting.
They have kept the habit of eating roasted meat from ancient times till present. They will stick the
meat and spray it with salt and condiments on two bamboo sticks, and then roast it at the fire till
the meat becomes brown and crispy. Corns and dry rice are pounded by wooden pestles. Before
1949, only a few households owned pots and Zengzi (a kind of small bucket-shaped boiler). They
cooked food by using thick bamboo tubes, putting corn flour or rice and some water into the
bamboo tube, stuffing up the nozzle with tree leaves and putting the bamboo tube on the fire.
When the bamboo tubes cracked and the food is ready, they will rift cut the bamboo tube and
begin to eat. Nowadays, only people in remote mountainous areas still use bamboo tubes. They
use iron pans, aluminium pots or wooden Zengzi for cooking. Their staple food is corn, and there
is a special way to consume corns. Firstly, they pound the corn to peel off the peel, and immerse
the corn in water, lasting for half a day. Then fish out the corn and dry it in the air. At last, pound
the corn into flour and steam it into a kind of pastry. Every Lahu person is fond of drinking wine,
and every household uses corn and wild fruits as materials to make wine every year. When
guests come to visit, or during festivals, Lahu people usually go on a drinking spree. They don't
have the habit of growing vegetables. They will pick up the wild plants in the mountains or fields if
they think the plants are not poisonous or smelly.
Houses
The building structure of Lahu peoples houses is very simple. Houses are low, narrow, dark and
damp. They build their houses on the mountain slope and then build walls with earth and the roof
with couch grass, using only 4 to 6 logs to build a house. The eaves of the two sides of the house
is facing respectively the earth slope and the slope toe. There are several small rooms in a
house. Parents live in one room, and every married couple live in one room. The room on the left
is for the parents, and the room on the right is for children or guests. Besides the public hearth in
the living room, there is also one hearth in every room. At the hearth, there is usually a thin
slabstone (sometimes iron plate) hanging above for roasting food. In every household, there is a
Zhoudu (cooking stove) for cooking food for the whole family. In the house, there are specific
positions for placing farming tools or other utensils, and these stuff should not be placed at
random.
Songs and Dances
Songs and dances are the most enjoyable activities in the lives of Lahu people. They express
emotions by sing and dancing in occasions of weddings, births, birthdays, religious sacrifices,
farming activities or guests visiting. There are very old songs that were passed down from
generation to generation, and there are also new songs that were improvised when they were
evoked by some touching scenes. Besides Lusheng dances, there are triple steps and senary
steps which imitate the scenes of farming work, daily life or movements of various animals. Every
Lahu people can dance. The common musical instruments are Lusheng (a reed-pipe wind
instrument), Bawu (another reed-piped wind instrument) and Kouxian (a kind of harmonica).
Religion
Lahu ethnic minority believes that the natural world is governed by some formidable and
respectable mysterious power the spirits. They call it Nei (meaning inside), and they think it
exists in the sky, the earth, the moon, the sun, the stars, the mountains and the water, and inside
human bodies. The weather, the harvest of grain and peoples health is all related to Nei. With
the forming of the concept of Nei, the fortune telling and sacrificial ceremonies were developed
according to it.
Costumes
In ancient times, all the Lahu people wore robes. Nowadays, men usually wear collarless black
short coat, with light-colored or white shirts. They wear loose long pants, and wear skullcaps or
simply tie a kerchief on the head. Women in different regions wear different costumes, including
two types. One type is to tie a kerchief on the head, wear long robes with buttons in the front, and
the slits on the two sides are very big. In the front, there are silver plats, and colorful geometric
patterns are decorated on the brims of the front, sleeves and slits. They wear long pants. In some
regions, women like wearing colorful belts on the waist, which preserves many features of the
robes of the northern ethnic groups. The other type of clothing is the typical south ethnic groups.
They wear tight-sleeve short coats and tight skirts. They wrap their legs with black cloths, and tie
kerchieves of various colors on the heads. People of Lahu ethnic group are fond of black color
and consider black color as beautiful. Therefore, their clothes mainly use black color as the base
color, and then decorate with colorful threads, strips or patches. The whole color is deep but also
with distinctive contrasts, which present a beautiful image.
Festivals and Customs
Spring Festival: It is called Kuonihani in Lahu language. It usually falls on the first to ninth day
of January in Chinese Lunar calendar, almost the same with that of the Han nationality.
Lusheng Dancing Festival: It is also called Qiangxinshui, and is a very important and unique
activity during the Spring Festival. Qiangxinshui means rushing to the mountain spring to snatch
the xinshui (new water) on the first day of the New Year, being a very important New Year
activity for Lahu people. They consider the new water as the cleanest, sacred and the symbol of
auspiciousness and happiness. Whoever snatches the new water first, his or her family will get
more blessing and a harvest year. Therefore, in every morning of January 1, when the rooster
heralds the break of day, every household will send a representative to take bamboo tubes or
bottle gourds and rush to the spring to snatch the new water. The snatched new water will firstly
be used to worship the ancestors, and then be given to the old people to wash faces.
Kuota Festival: This is the grandest, the most joyous and bustling traditional festival of the Lahu
people. It is also called the great year by Lahu people. It falls on the first day of January
according to Chinese Lunar calendar, and lasts for nine days. Before the New Years Eve, every
household will tidy up their houses and villages. People kill pigs, immerse rice, and put the Ciba
(glutinous rice cake) on the farming tools to represent that these tools have worked for a whole
year and deserve to share the festive joy. People will also mow grass for the cattle to appreciate
their hard work.
Torch Festival: Torch Festival is full of ethnic fun. Pine woods are made into torches and ignited.
Young people are dressed in their festival costumes, singing and dancing by the campfire. It is a
very lively, happy and bustling scene.
Changxin Festival: Changxin means tasting the new, and Changxin Festival is for Lahu people
to celebrate the harvest. During the festival, people of the whole village kill pigs and make wines,
and every person takes a rest for two days. Before the festival, people will harvest a part of the
grains and make sacrificial ceremonies to the ancestors. After that, they begin the real harvest.

Wa Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents

General Information

History

Language

Custom

Food and Drink

Etiquette and Taboos

Festival

Culture and Art

Residence

Religion

General Information
The Wa people live mainly in Yunnan Province. According to the 2000 census, the Wa Ethnic
Minority has a total population of 396,000 in China, with some 383,000 in Yunnan Province. The
Wa people, inhabiting the region between the Mekong River and the Salween River, live mainly in
Cangyuan, Gengma, Shuangjiang, Yongde, Zhenkang Counties of Lincang Prefecture, and
Ximeng, Menglian, Lancang Counties of Simao Prefecture. Of these, Cangyuan and Ximeng are
the two counties where the Wa people live in compact communities, their population accounting
for over 50% of the total Wa population in China.

Wa Girls
History
There are several different legends about the origin of the Wa Ethnic Minority : the Wa people
came out from "Sigang Li"("Sigang Li" means that the ancestors of the Wa people come out of a
gourd or a cave in the mountain, of which, "Sigang" means a gourd or a cave in the mountain and
"Li" means "to come out". It is said that the gourd and the cave are in the north Myanmar, not far
from Simeng and Cangyuan Counties.)God created Daguya and Yeli, who were the first
ancestors of the Wa people; Daneng smeared his saliva on Yenumu, who later gave birth to the
first Wa generation. The legend about "Sigang Li" is the most popular explanation spread among
the Wa people.
According to historical records, the Wa people are the descendants of the "Baipu" people who
lived before the Qin period (221 BC- 26 BC). They were called "Wangman", "Guci" and "Kawa" in
theTang, Ming and Qing Dynasties respectively. With the founding of the People's Republic of
China, they were formally named "Wa" by the government after unanimous approval from the
people.
However, the Wa people in different places in Yunnan Province call themselves by different
names. For example, those living in Ximeng, Menglian and Lancang Counties call themselves
"Ah Wa" or "Le Wa", in Cangyuan, Shuangjiang and Gengma Counties "Ba Raoke" or "Bu Rao",
and in Yongde and Zhenkang Counties "Wa". Interestingly, these names all mean "the people
living on the mountain."
Language
The language of the Wa Ethnic Minority , which includes four dialects, belongs to the Wa-Deang
branch of the Mon-Khmer language of the Austro-Asiatic family. It has close relationships with the
language of the Dai Ethnic Minority, from which 10% of the Wa words are borrowed. The Wa
people previously had no written language. They kept records and accounts by woodcutting,
bean counting, rope knotting, and engraving bamboo strips. They passed messages by using
material objects. For example, sugarcane, bananas and salt signified friendship, chilies meant
anger, and cock feathers denoted urgency. An alphabetic script was created for them in 1957.
Custom
The Wa people like to wear homespun clothes, each geographical area having its own distinctive
style. Most like black clothes with red decoration. Men usually wear short black collarless coats
and loose trousers. They keep their hair short and always wrap their heads with black or red
turbans like horns. Some wear circular earrings, silver bracelets, and bamboo or silver necklaces
as well. When going out, every man likes to carry a homespun bag on his arm and wear a sword
on his waist, making him look more masculine. Tattooing is also a common practice among men.
The Wa women, most of whom are longhaired, wear short black collarless jackets that just reach
the upper part of their bellies, and skirts with red and black stripes. They usually wear big
earrings, colorful strings of beads and thick silver necklaces, with red bands around their waists
and bamboo or rattan bangles around their bare arms and legs. The old women like to wear big
umbrella-like five-inch-long ear tubes, where they can put some fragrant flowers, grass and even
money for easy access when they go shopping.
In Ximeng County where the Wa people live in compact communities, every woman, rich or poor,
always wears a pair of wide bracelets. According to legend, long ago, in the primeval forests of
the Awa Mountain, large wild man-eating bears lived. It was known that if a bear caught a person
by the hand, it would not let him go but eat him. One day, a beautiful Wa girl was picking
mushrooms on the mountain when she saw a wild bear coming towards her. At this moment, the
clever girl took out a bamboo pipe for drinking from her basket, put her right hand into the pipe,
and let the bear hold it. Feeling so sure that its food would not be able to escape, the bear held
the bamboo pipe tightly to it and grinned conceitedly. Seeing the bear pay no attention to her, the
girl withdrew her hand from the pipe discreetly and escaped from the danger. From then on, all
the Wa girls, when going out, put their wrists into bamboo pipes just in case. As time went by,
wide bracelets replaced bamboo pipes as a token of luck. Nowadays, most of the wide silver
bracelets worn by the Wa women are five inches wide and engraved with all kinds of beautiful
patterns.
The headmen of the Wa villages or tribes have their own dressing style. They wrap their heads
with red cloth. Sacred figures such as the sun, moon, stars, dragons and bulls' heads are
embroidered on their clothes. Two doors are also embroidered to show that their ancestors were
once the entrance guards of "Sigang Li". The pattern of two dragons holding the sun in their
mouths is embroidered on their underclothes, which can be worn by no one but the village
headmen.
Food and Drink
The Wa people have two or three meals a day. Their staple food is rice, which is complemented
with kaoliang, buckwheat, maize and beans. Chicken congee and camellia congee are regarded
as their delicacies. Chilies are a great favorite with all the Wa people, young or old, and a meal is
not considered complete without chilies.
The Wa people mainly eat pork, beef and chicken. They also eat rats and over ten kinds of
insects such as bamboo pupas, red caterpillars, besom caterpillars, and wax gourd caterpillars,
etc. Usually the edible insects are mixed with rice and cooked to be congee, which tastes hot and
delicious when combined with vegetables, salt and chilies. The typical Wa dishes are: camellia
congee, grilled snake meat, peas fried with ant eggs, fried firewood worms, etc.
The Wa people like keeping bees, chewing betel nuts and drinking wine and bitter tea. The wine
they drink is home-brewed. The tea, boiled in a pottery pot and brewed into a thick paste, is dark
brown in color and bitter in taste. Bitter as it is, the tea is remarkably refreshing and is a great
thirst- quencher. The Wa people, young or old, have the habit of chewing betel nuts. While
working, resting or chatting, they are often seen chewing betel nuts.
Etiquette and Taboos
Etiquette:The Wa people are warm and hospitable to their guests. When guests enter their
houses, the Wa people will entertain them with wine in bamboo cups as a token of welcome and
respect. The Wa etiquette of welcoming guests with wine is different from place to place. In some
areas, when presenting a cup of wine to his guest, the host should drink a mouthful first to show
his sinceritywhile the guest in one swallow to show his politeness. In other areas, both the host
and the guest squat down, and the host presents a cup of wine with his right hand to the guest,
who reaches for it also with his right hand and then pours or flips a little wine to the ground,
showing his respect for the host's ancestors. The conclusion of the two customs is the same.
When the guest is leaving, the host will hold a full gourd of wine, drink a mouthful first, and then
present it the guest, who should drink it up to show that he will never forget the host's hospitality
and friendliness.
Taboos: The Wa people regard the following actions as taboos: riding a horse into the village,
touching their heads or ears, giving chilies and eggs as gifts, entering the wooden drum house
without permission, giving girls ornaments, and counting money or sitting on the hostess's
wooden stool in the host's home. If a wooden pole is put in front of the door of a house, that
means someone in the house is sick and no one but his family members may enter it.
Festival
Pulling Wooden Drum Festival: The "Gerui" month of the Wa calendar, which is equivalent to
December of the solar calendar, is the time for pulling the wooden drum. Unlike the popular
leather drums, a wooden drum is a drum made of a whole piece of tree-trunk, its surface not
enveloped with any leathers. On the eve of the festival, the headman and the "moba" (priest) of
the village lead several male villagers to a tall tree that they have already chosen beforehand.
Under the tree, they first make offerings and chant incantations to expel evils spirits. Then the
"moba" brandishes an ax, making a few cuts on the trunk of the tree. Other villagers then chop it
down. After that, they put three stones on the tree stump as a token payment to the tree ghost for
buying the tree. Then they cut the trunk into the size suitable for the drum they need.
Next morning, all the villagers put on their best costumes and go to the mountain to join in pulling
the log (semi-finished wooden drum) down to the village. The "moba" guides the procession with
twigs held in his right hand, leading some male villagers to pull the log and sing the song "pulling
the wooden drum". Other villagers either shout loudly to boost their morale or scatter rice and
splash wine on the ground as the log is pulled along. The log is left at the entrance to the village
for two or three days. After the sacrificial rite with cocks as offerings, the log is pulled from the
village gate to the place beside the wooden drum house where the carpenters will fashion it into a
drum. In pulling the wooden drum, both men and women participate, singing and dancing. Some
young people often take this opportunity to find their future husbands or wives. The whole
program lasts for many hours. After the drum is made and tested, people put it into the wooden
drum house, where they dance heartily again to the drum beats.
Sowing Seeds Festival: Sowing Seeds Festival is held in the "Qiai" month of the Wa calendar,
that is, March of the solar calendar. In this festival, the Wa people gather to sacrifice an ox. The
event is usually hosted by the owner of the ox. After the owner butchers the ox by thrusting an
iron sword into its heart, its flesh is divided evenly into many parts, which are used by the
villagers as offerings to worship their ancestors. The bones of the ox, symbolizing wealth, belong
to its owner. After worshipping their ancestors and having lunch, the Wa people begin to sow rice
seeds.
Fresh Rice Festival: Fresh Rice Festival is the favorite festival of the Wa people and usually lasts
three days. In the middle of the eighth month of the lunar calendar when paddies are just ripe, all
the Wa families go to the paddy fields to pick some fresh paddies at the time announced by the
village headman. When returning home, they put some paddies in the prepared barn or bamboo
basket, and pound the rest to be husked rice grains, which are soon cooked. After that, they
place 7 bowls of rice with meat and 7 bowls of wine as offerings on the table, inviting the spirits of
their ancestors and the gods in charge of the heaven, earth, mountains, and grains to enjoy their
harvests. Then they burn 7 pieces of incense. At the end of the rite, all the family members eat
the 7 bowls of rice. In the evening, Most of the people gather to enjoy the festival, singing and
dancing until dawn. On the second day, all the young people go out to repair the old roads and
bridges or build new ones, making ready for carrying bags of fresh paddies into the village. On
the third day, the Wa people, continue to enjoy the festival with more singing and dancing. The
young men and women often take this opportunity to seek out a mate.
"Bengnanni" Festival: "Bengnanni" Festival, which is the Wa festival for bidding farewell to the
past and welcoming new arrivals, is held on the last day in the last month of the Wa calendar.
Before dawn, all the young and middle-aged men gather in the house of the village headman,
with a pig and a cock killed as sacrificial offerings. Each family, holding a basin of glutinous rice
and a piece of baba (rice cake) on a bamboo table, pays a New Year call to the headman and
worship ghosts, gods and their ancestors. After that, all the Wa people give babas to one another,
greeting with words of blessings. At dawn, after presenting offerings to their sacred tree, the Wa
people go hunting and fishing, praying for good luck in the new year.
Culture and Art
Literature: The Wa Ethnic Minority boasts rich and colorful folklore, vivid myths, touching poems
and legends. Famous myths include "Sigang Li", "ancestors of the human being", "the big snake
is vomiting" and "the origin of all things", the most popular of which is "Sigang Li". The Wa people
have created many oral stories to praise goodness and justice and to attack perfidiousness and
hypocrisy. "The old man and the crocodile" is such a typical story.
Singing and dancing are very important to the Wa people. At festivals, the Wa people, wearing
their best costumes, sing and dance day and night for several days. There are many forms of Wa
folk dances including the drum dance, pole dance, sword dance, plume dance, lusheng dance,
hand towel dance, string instrument dance, gong dance, and bamboo flute dance. The
subdivisions of drum dance are wooden drum dance, tom-tom dance, elephant-foot drum dance,
bronze drum dance, and bamboo drum dance. Of these, wooden drum dance best represents the
characteristics of the Wa Ethnic Minority.
The Wa people regard the wooden drum as a divine tool that has exceptional power and is the
symbol of existence and prosperity. They believe in many gods, of whom, Muyiji is a powerful god
that creates all things in the world and has the right to decide their life and death. Legend has it
that, long ago, at the beginning of history, a disastrous flood devoured almost all the lives on land.
It was Muyiji that saved the Wa people with a wooden trough, which later enabled them to survive
and develop. Therefore, in most of the traditional sacrificial rites, the Wa people pay a high tribute
to the wooden drum and worship Muyiji, praying for his blessings by singing and dancing.
Wooden drum dance is a traditional dance that is performed to worship Muyiji in the "Gerui"
month of the Wa calendar (the 12th month of the lunar calendar). It consists of four main parts:
"pulling wooden drum", "dancing in the house of wooden drum", "beating wooden drum", and
"offering sacrifices to Muyiji", faithfully reproducing the solemn scenes of the ancient Wa people's
unceasing and united struggle against nature and reflecting their yearning for a happy life.
The most common wooden drum dance is "beating wooden drum". The Wa people use wood
drums and cymbals as major instruments, which are blended with songs and chanting, to create
the main melody with strong and harmonious rhythm full of encouragement and impulsion. Men
wear red ribbons on their heads and wide pants; women, with white ribbons on their heads, wear
bracelets and skirts, and their long hair swings loose and wild. The dance is grand: At dusk, a
long haired female dancer stands on the wooden drum, raising hands to the sky. Two men stand
at each end of the drum with drum sticks in hand; other actors are around the drum, dancing
slowly to the singers' call, the drum and cymbals. It's a mixture of slow and fast beat, anger and
sadness, anxiety and happiness. As the highlight comes, the dancing steps become orderly and
powerful, straightforward and uninhibited, grand and magnificent, which, seeming to shake the
sky and the land, fully describes the Wa people's vigorous vitality and their spirit of fighting
against nature.
The content and the performing techniques of today's wooden drum dance have reached a higher
level. It has adopted some movements of the Wa women such as "swinging hair", which thus
adds to the charm of Wa's art. Wooden drum dance is a shining pearl in the culture of wood
drum.
Sculpture and Painting The sculptures and paintings of the Wa people bear strong minority
characteristics and high artistic levels. Ancient cliff paintings of the Wa people have been
discovered in Yunnan Province in recent years. The cliff paintings in Cangyuan County, which
describe the hunting, dancing and working scenes of the ancient Wa people with simple,
straightforward and uninhibited patterns, are rare and valuable artistic treasures useful to the
study of the history of the Wa Ethnic Minority .
Residence
The Wa people usually live in compact communities in the form of villages, each of which
normally consists of dozens of or even hundreds of households. The Wa people live in bamboo
houses that are similar in shape to those of the Dai people. Most of the Wa villages were built on
hills or slopes. The styles of their houses vary depending on their locations. Most houses are
constructed with bamboo and straw and are usually two storied. The upper floor is for family
accommodation while the ground floor is reserved for their livestock. The building of a new house
is a community affair. People in the same village will offer to help and present timber and straw as
gifts. Generally, a house will be completed in one day through a collective community effort. After
completing the house construction, all the young people in the village will be invited to the new
house to attend a celebration including dancing, singing and drinking.
Religion
The Wa people worship nature, believing that all mountains, rivers and other natural phenomena
have their deities. They associate ghosts, gods and spirits with their ancestors. They call the sun
god "Li", the moon god "Lun", plant god "Pen", animal god "Neng", air god "Nu" and water god
"Ah-yong". The Wa people think that ghosts, gods and spirits, big or small, should have their own
duties and responsibilities and can't manage others' business. If something unfortunate happens
to a person, he has to give offerings to a particular ghost or god in charge of it for blessings.
Miao Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents

General Information

History

Customes

Festivals

General Information
The Miao ethnic minority group is one of the few minority nationalities that have an extensive
population existing in and out of Mainland China. Scattered worldwide, the Miao diaspora exists
on five continents and many countries, including Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, France, Britain,
Canada, Australia, and the United States, among others. In China, they inhabit a wide range of
land in south-central China, including settlements in Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi,
Hubei, and Hainan Provinces. Approximately four million Miao reside in present-day Guizhou, a
population that accounts for over half of the Miao in China. Census reports have the Miao
situated in rural and urban environments across the prefectures and counties of Guizhou.

People often refer to Guizhou Province as the base of the Miao nationality. Inside Guizhou, the
majority of the Miao population resides in the Southeastern Guizhou Miao and Dong Autonomous
Prefecture. Tai County has the highest concentration of Miao ethnicity at 97% and is referred to
as the number one county of the Miao nationality. The remaining population is distributed
among less concentrated counties in the province.
In southeastern Guizhou, the Miao population accounts for over 25% of the total Miao people in
China. This subgroup tends to inhabit remote mountainous areas far away from the city in tight-
knit village networks. In fact, they seldom live in villages consisting of any nationality other than
their own.
The Guizhou Miao nationality, representing the Miao nationality of China, can be used to illustrate
the main cultural characteristics of the Miao as a whole. The language system is intricate,
consisting of three wide spread dialects, numerous sub-dialects, and many localized dialects. The
Miao language belongs to the Miao-Yao branch of the Chinese-Tibetan language family and
consists of three main dialects: the Western Hunan dialect, the Eastern Guizhou dialect and the
Sichuan-Guizhou-Yunnan dialect. The Eastern Guizhou dialect is exclusive to the Taijiang Miao
nationality. In general, many Chinese and foreign ethnologists regard Guizhou as an ideal place
to research the Miao nationality. However, the Taijiang region is considered to be the brightest
pearl in regards to understanding the customs and culture of the group specifically.
For sustenance, the Miao rely heavily on agriculture and for the most part are a typical agrarian
society. However, hunting also plays an important, albeit minor, role. Miao arts and crafts are
beautifully colored and renowned at home and abroad. Crafts such as cross-stitch, embroidery,
brocade, wax printing, paper cutting, and general adornment creation are cultural staples. Among
these, Miao wax printing has over 1000 years of history, while Miao clothing incorporates
hundreds of styles in varying arrays of color. Headdress is common, often using flowers to accent
vibrant patterns. The Miao are generally adept singers and dancers and specialize in love songs
and songs for toasting. The reed pipe is the most commonly used musical instrument during
musical serenades or feasts.
History
The Miao have a long, storied history and it is believed that their ancestors may have been part of
the Three South people (an ancient nationality) that originated from the Zong people of the Zhou
Dynasty. During the Qin and Han Dynasties (from approx. 200 BCE to 200 CE), they mainly
occupied Western Hunan and Eastern Guizhou Provinces and gradually moved and spread
throughout the mountainous areas in Southwestern China. Through legends and stories the Miao
assert their lineage stems from the ancient Jiuli people. The Miao people in Sichuan, Guizhou,
and Hunan Provinces believe Chi You, an ancient mythical half bull/half giant creature and leader
of the Jiuli, is their ancestor. Thousands of years ago, the Jiuli tribe was forced to retreat from the
lower reaches of the Yellow River to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze after a sound
defeat at the hands of the Yellow Emperor. From this defeat and exodus the "Three Miao" were
gradually formed. By the 2nd century BCE, most of the Miao's ancestors had moved on to the
Xiang River basin, and into the aforementioned provinces of modern day China.
Customes
The Miao nationality pays great attention to etiquette, especially with respect to the treatment of
guests. For instance, when a guest visits, the host kills a chicken or a duck to entertain and feed
the guest. If the guest comes from afar or has a long journey, the host will first invite the guest to
drink an alcohol called Horn spirit. When the chicken is eaten, the chicken head is presented to
the senior member of the feast, while the senior himself presents the youngest with a chicken leg.
Another common tradition steeped in etiquette is a chicken/duck heart sharing custom unique to
the Miao. The eldest person of the family uses chopsticks to pick up the chicken/duck heart and
presents it to the guest. However, the guest cannot eat the whole chicken heart. He or she must
share the chicken heart with the elder that has just presented him or her with the gift. If the guest
has a low alcohol tolerance or does not like eating fat meat, he or she can explain the reason to
the host. While the host surely wont look down upon a guest that requests minimal refreshments,
they do regard gluttony or over-indulgence as an insult to the host.
Glutinous rice cake is a customary dessert used when Miao men and women fall in love and get
married. It is also used as a sort of valentine for admirers to express their feelings. For instance,
the Miao girls and boys of Hunan present glutinous rice cakes to each other in which a mandarin
duck is drawn as love tokens. The host of a wedding asks bride and groom to eat glutinous rice
cake in which a dragon, phoenix and Feng doll are drawn. Also, at the wedding ceremony a bride
and groom must drink Jiaobei spirit together from special cups. In doing so the bride and groom
cross their wrists and drink wine from their own cup.
Festivals
Lusheng Festival
The Lusheng Festival is the most influential festival of the Miao minority. It is popular throughout
Guizhou, Yunnan, and Sichuan provinces. The Lusheng Festival in Kaili, the famous tourist hub
in Guizhou province, is considered to be one of the grandest celebrations of the Miao.
Sisters' Meals festival
The Sisters' Meals festival is for the celebration of love (similar to the western Valentines Day). It
is celebrated by the Miao people in Guizhou province, especially in Taijiang and Jianhe Counties
along the banks of the Qingshui River. It is the oldest Asian Valentines Day.
New Year of Miao Ethnic Group
According to Miao custom, the tenth lunar month is the beginning of a new year. Therefore the
Miao New Year festival, the most important festival for Miao people, is usually celebrated around
this time. However, the exact date varies each year and is only disclosed one or two months in
advance. Regular updates can be found on our website as the festival approaches.
The celebration of the Miao New Year in Leishan, Guizhou Province is the grandest among
Miao festivities. During the event tourists can enjoy watching enchanting Miao customs
come alive through various kinds of ethnic activities. These include the festival parade
that features Miao girls and women in traditional Miao dress, the traditional music of the
Lusheng (a kind of musical instrument made of bamboo), bullfights, horseracing, and of
course, lots of singing and dancing

Tibetan Ethnic Minority
Origin of Tibetan people
In ancient times, the ancestors of the present Tibetans lived along the both sides of the Yarlung
Tsangpo River. In the 6th century, the chieftain of the Yarlung tribe conquered several nearby
tribes and became king. He was known as Zanpu (king), and established the Po Dynasty. Then in
the early 7th century, Songtsen Gampo (Zanpus grandson) unified the whole of Tibet and shifted
the capital to Lhasa, which is to this day still the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region. This is
known in Chinese history as the Tupo kingdom. In 641, Songtsen Gampo married Princess
Wencheng of Chinas Tang Dynasty, and was given the title of "the King of China's West." In 710,
Xidezuzan (a later Tibetan king) married Princess Jincheng also of the Tang Dynasty. These 2
unions were the origins of Chinese and Tibetan cooperation, a connection which has had a strong
and undeniable influence on Tibetan society in the fields of politics, economics, and culture.

Further on during the Yuan Dynasty of the 13th-14th century, the central Chinese government
appointed a department specifically to manage affairs in Tibet and thus brought the region under
their direct management. The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) set up a local government in Tibet, and
the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) subsequently appointed a ministry to deal with affairs in Tibet and
Mongolia. The central government officially approved the title of Dalai Lama in 1653 and the title
of Panchen Lama in 1713. In 1728, a resident minister in charge of Tibetan affairs was appointed,
followed by the creation of the "Gexia," or Tibetan local government, in 1751.
In 1934, the government of the Republic of China set up a resident agency to administer affairs in
Tibet, and in 1959, Tibet Autonomous Region was officially established.
Clothing
Tibetans are infamous for their iconic traditional clothing. Generally speaking, they wear short
blouses and upper garments made of silk or cloth with long sleeves inside, a wide and loose robe
on the outside, and long boots of quality cattle hide. For the convenience of work or labor, the
people usually expose their right shoulder or both arms by tying the pair of sleeves around their
waist. Both men and women sport pigtails, but men always coil up their pigtails over their head;
women comb their hair either into 2 or many small pigtails flooding down onto the shoulder, at the
end of which some beautiful ornaments and decorations are tied. Furthermore, Tibetan women
prefer to wear an apron with beautiful patterns.

Tibetan Clothing
Housing
There is an old folktale by the name of "Dipper Brothers" that is well known among Tibetans. The
legend goes that in ancient times, one day, 7 brothers from the east cut trees, carried stones, and
built a giant building overnight to house the common people and to shelter them from the storm.
Due to their grand generosity, the brothers were invited to Heaven to build houses for the gods,
each of which combined to create the celestial constellation now known as the Big Dipper.
This story shows that it was in their need to protect themselves against the powers of nature that
the Tibetans improved their architecture skills and their styles of inhabitation. During the period of
Tubo I, the first palace Rongbuklakon was built on the of a small hill in the Yarlong Valley. The
following Sampos built a series of palaces such as Qinghandazhi Palace, Potala Palace, and
many more. During the time of Trisong Detsan, the emperor from 755 to 797, the first Samye
Monastery was built based on the beliefs of Buddhism tenets. The monastery is a magnificent
creation consisting of Buddha relics, rites, bonze, and more. From then on, through these first
examples, the foundations of the Tibetan housing style and construction had more or less been
laid.
Traditional Tibetan houses, like other Tibetan culture forms, are unique and full of local
characteristic features: in the valley area of south Tibet, people live in castle-like houses. In the
pastoral area in north Tibet, people live in tents most of the time. On the other hand, those in the
forest area along the Yarlung Tsangbo River live in wooden buildings which are each distinctive
from each other. Finally, people in the Ali plateau region live in cave dwellings.
In agricultural and pastoral areas, people usually house themselves in a yak hair tent. They spin
the yak hair into threads and weave it into striped cloth, then they sew the cloth into a square tent
of 2 pieces, which are joined by 10 ouches or so to form a completed tent. This kind of tent is
usually square-shaped supported by 8 upright pillars. On one end, more than 10 strings of yak
hair are tied to the pillars at the of the tent, while the other end is tied to the poles about 3 meters
away, making the tent flat and firm. The tent is about 20square meters in area and 1.7 meters
high with a ventilating slit at the to let out smoke and heat when opened and to keep the tent
warm and protected from wind and rainwater if covered. In the front of the tent there is a string
tied to the door curtain which can be drawn to control the opening. On hot days, the door curtain
can be propped up to let air in making the inside cool and comfortable. The yak hair material is
instrumental to the success of the tent, making it wearable, thick, and durable enough against
strong winds and snowstorms. Meanwhile, it is also convenient to be dismantled, put up, and
removed, fitting for nomadic life.
According to traditional customs, when guests visit a Tibetan's home, the men are always seated
on the first seat on the right, which is called the "guest seat," and women are sat on the first seat
on the left, which is called "kitchen range."
In the rural areas of southern Tibet, representative flat roof houses can be seen everywhere. In
fact, it is recorded in the Old Tibetan Annals which were sealed in the 11th century that "All
houses have flat roofs throughout Tibet." All these houses are surrounded by bounding walls. In
the layout of traditional residences, the scripture hall is in the middle, the living rooms are at the 2
sides, the kitchen is closely adjacent to the living rooms, and the restroom is at the 2 corners of
the bounding wall far from the living rooms. Windows have eaves, the edges of which are folded
with colorful square wood so as to protect the windowsill from rain and at the same time
showcase the homes beauty. The 2 sides of all residence doors and windows are spread with
black paint, which provide stark contrasts with the while walls. Generally, rural area residences
courtyards include a tool production room, foraged grass storing room, sheep pen, cowshed, and
more due to the agricultural lifestyles of its inhabitants.
The average citizen lives in a simple bungalow with a stone bounding wall. Girders are used as
framework, and the section of the wood column is round shaped; the upper section is thin and the
lower part is thicker. A chapiter, the capital of a column, is equipped with a square wooden bucket
and wood pillow, with wooden beams and rafters laid on one by one; then tree branches or short
sticks are added and stones or clays cover the surface. Some houses apply the locally weathered
"Aga" earth to protect against rain leakage.
In rural residences, most houses are U-shaped and single-storied. Around the roof are parapet
walls 80 centimeters high, and stacks are made at the 4 corners. On New Years Day according
to the Tibetan calendar, each stack table is inserted with tree branches which are decorated with
colorful scripture streamers and will be replaced each Tibetan calendar year in hope of
prosperous luck. There is also an incense burner right in front of the house where sacrifices are
offered. As well, there is a small Buddha niche above the entrance door, displaying Kalachakra
(the design of Gathering Ten Powerful Elements), which symbolizes Missh honzon and
mandala. These symbols are used to show piety and demonstrate prayer in order to avoid
demons and wicked spirits and to help change adverse predestined situations into favorable
circumstances.
In the forest regions of eastern Tibet, most villages are located halfway up the hillside. People
gather raw materials from the local countryside to build their wooden houses, with log walls and
pitched roofs covered with wooden tiles. In the Kongpo area, houses usually have irregular stone
walls. Generally, they are 2 stories high with a wooden ladder leading to the upper storey. The
inhabitants usually live upstairs and keep their livestock downstairs. The main room is behind the
entrance door, with a cooking range of 1 square meter in the middle; the whole family will have
their meal around the cooking range and warm themselves at the same time. Indeed, the cooking
range is the center of activity for the entire family. Guests also enjoy tea and talk there.
The history of Tibetan homes and architectural styles has a history that extends well into the past.
Plenty of architectural remnants have been found among the Kanuo New Stone Age artifacts
from as early as 4,000 years ago. Some typical locally featured buildings are:
1. Castle-like houses
Many houses constructed with earth, stone, and wood in Lhasa, Xigaze, Chengdu, and in their
surrounding villages resembles Western medieval castles and are thus colloquially called
"castles" by the local people. This kind of house is the most representative of Tibet, with adobe
walls as thick as 40 to 50 centimeters, or stone wall as thick as 50 to 80 centimeters. Also, the
roofs are flat and covered with Aga earth. These kinds of houses are warm in winter and cool in
summer, suited for the climate on the plateau. Castle-like homes are primarily stone-wood
structures of primitive simplicity, though they look dignified, and their strength makes them good
for taking shelter from the wind and cold, but also for defense. Another important variable to
consider is the slope on which the house lies. The inward-sloping walls provide extra stability in
case of tremors and earthquakes, and the walls built closely next to the hillside remain vertical for
stability. Such kinds of houses are usually 2 to 3 stories high with a circular corridor built inside
and rooms separated by columns.
The ground floor, low in height, is very stable and often used as a storeroom. The lower story is
also usually used as the barn for animals while the upper stories are reserved for the human
living quarters. In this way, humans are free of the smell and disturbance of animals. The second
floor is the living quarters with a living room (larger one), bedroom, kitchen, storage room, and/or
stairs room (small one). If there is a third floor, it generally serves as a prayer hall for chanting
Buddhist scriptures or as a space for drying clothes. There is always a well in the yard, with the
lavatory situated in the corner. In the rural area of Shannan, people often add a sliding door to the
outer corridor so as to make full use of room due to their fondness for outdoor activities, a feature
that makes their buildings quite distinctive. For most farmers, not only do they spend much
energy and thought designing the living room, kitchen, storage room, and yard, but they also
spend efforts to arrange their animal barns and the location of the lavatory in order to make them
exert their functions to the full extent.
Overall, these buildings have such distinguishing features as a square living room, composite
furniture, and low ceilings. Most living rooms are composed of 4 2 meter-by-2 meter units with a
total coverage of 16 square meters. Furniture includes a cushion bed, small square table, and
Tibetan cupboards that are short, multifunctional, and easy to assemble. The items are often
arranged along the walls so as to make full use of the room and space.
The residential buildings in the eastern forest area have an entirely different style. The houses in
Nyingzhi are mostly composed of a living room (doubling as a kitchen), storage room, stables,
outer corridor, and lavatory, with an independent courtyard. The room is square or rectangular,
made of smaller square units on the base, and the furniture and bed are put around the fireplace.
The building is 2 to 2.2 meters high. Due to much rain in the forest area, most are built with
sloped roofs; meanwhile, the space under the sloped roof can be used for storing foraged and
miscellaneous articles. People in the forest regions draw on local resources, so their buildings are
mainly wooden structures. Walls are made from stone, slate, and cobblestone, as well as lumber,
thin bamboo strips, and wicker strips. Roofs are covered closely with wooden tiles held stable by
stones.
2. Tents
Tents, unlike castle-like houses in agricultural areas, are a special form of architecture suitable for
nomadic and traveling lives. The common tents are usually small and elegant, being square or
rectangle at the base. To pitch a tent, people first use sticks to make a frame as high as 2 meters,
and then they cover it with black yak felt, leaving a chink in the middle with a 15 centimeter width
and 1.5 meter length. This split lets smoke out and sunlight in. As well, the 4 sides of the tent are
secured to the ground with yak wool ropes. Inside, people build a 50 centimeter high wall made of
grass-earth blocks, earth blocks, or stones, on which barley, butter bags, or yak dung (used as
fuel) are usually placed. The tent is typically poorly furnished, without many household items. In
the middle (near the door) of the tent, an earthy fireplace is set up, and behind is a worshipping
place equipped with Buddha statues. People often spread a sheepskin rug on the floor for rest or
sleep.
People in cities and agricultural areas like to live in Tibetan cloth tents. Those in pastoral areas
are used to living in yak wool tents.
3. Cave dwellings
In Ali, houses are usually separate from their neighbors. The houses are built with earth and
wood and reach as high as 2 stories. In summer, people live on the second floor, and when
winter sets in, they move down to live on the first floor since it is warmer than the above floor.
Although most Tibetans live in houses, there are still some who choose to live in cave dwellings.
Cave dwellings are frequently built by the side of a hill or mountain, and they take many shapes
such as squares, rounds, rectangles, and so on. The majority of are square with an area of 16
square meters, a height of 2 to 2.2 meters, and feature a flat ceiling. Cave dwellings are certainly
a special form of residential building on the Tibetan plateau.
Customs
Presenting Hada
Presenting hada is a kind of very common courtesy. Hada is a long piece of silk used as a
greeting gift. In Tibet, it is customary to present hada to guests during the occasion of weddings
and funerals. It is also commonly presented when people visit senior citizens, worship Buddha,
and bid farewell to guests. Also, it is said that only after people present hada in a monastery can
they pay homage to the Buddha statues. They are then free to visit the different halls. Before
departure, they will leave a hada beside their seats to indicate that even though their body has
left, their hearts are still there.

Presenting Hada
Presenting hada, in short, is used to show purity, loyalty, faithfulness, and respect to the
receivers.
Hada is made of silk, sometimes raw silk, and is loosely weaved. They feature different kinds of
auspicious patterns such as lotuses, bottles, umbrellas, and conches. The material varies in
quality, but generally that is not a concern as long as the hada can express good wishes. They
come in different lengths, some as long as 3 or 4 meters though some as short as half a meter.
Hada is normally white because Tibetans believe that white symbolizes purity and luck. However,
there is a kind of hada with 5 colors on them: blue, white, yellow, green, and red, respectively
indicating the sky, clouds, land, river, and the God in charge of Buddha dharma. Five-colored
hada is a highly valued gift which can be presented to Buddha statues or intimate relatives.
According to Buddhist teachings, five-colored hada is the cloth of Buddha. Therefore, it can only
be presented on special occasions.
The ways that hada is presented varies from person to person. The following is what people
usually do to present a hada: take the hada with their both hands, lift it up to the same level as
the shoulder, reach out their hands, bend over, and pass it to the guest. Make sure that the of
one's head is in the same level with the hada. Only in this way can you express your respect and
best wishes. For the receiver, he should receive it with both hands. To seniors or elders, you
should lift the hada up over your head with your body bent slightly forward and put it in place in
front of their seats or feet. For peers or those below you, you can hang the hada around their
necks.
Presenting hada is very common in Tibet. Even when people correspond with each other, they
won't forget hada. They always enclose a mini hada in the letter for greeting and expressing good
wishes. What's even more interesting is when Tibetans go out, they tend to take with them
several hadas in case an opportunity rises so they may be ready to give them to friends and
relatives they encounter.
Hada expresses different meanings in different circumstances. During festivals or holidays,
people exchange hadas to wish each other a merry holiday and a happy life. In weddings, people
present hadas to the bride and groom to wish them eternal love and a joyous future together. In
receptions, they are presented to guests to wish that the Buddha shall bless them. In funerals,
people give hadas to express condolences to the dead and comfort the grieved relatives of the
dead.
When it comes to the origin of the hada tradition, there are various versions of the story. One
version has something to do with Zhang Qian's diplomatic mission. In the Han Dynasty, Zhang
Qian, a respected diplomat, was sent on an assignment to the nations west of China. When he
passed Tibet, he presented silk to the chieftain of the local tribe. In ancient China, silk was highly
valued and symbolized pure friendship in that people in the tribes thought that giving silk was a
kind of courtesy to enhance relationships. Gradually it became a custom extended to all.
Another version of the origins of hada has to do with the ancient Tibetan king, Wangbasi. The
king brought hada back after he met with the emperor Khubli Khan of the Yuan Dynasty (1279-
1368). The hada had the pattern of the Great Wall and the Chinese characters "ji xian gru yi"
(good luck and happiness to you). Later, people gave hada religious sense saying that hada was
the ribbons in fairy maidens' clothes and symbolized purity and authority.
Prostrating
On the roads to Lhasa, from time to time, travelers can see Buddhists prostrating (lying face
down in adoration and devotion). They begin their journey from their home and keep on
prostrating all the way to Lhasa. They wear hand pads, kneepads, and a protective leather upper
outer garment. With dust on their faces and innumerable hardships in their lives, slowly they
move forward by prostrating forward every 3 steps for months or for years, toward the holy city of
Lhasa. Three or 4 acquaintances may go together under the same belief and for the same
direction. Many years ago, Buddhists would go empty-handed, even without food or extra clothes.
When they felt hungry or cold, they would beg and beg. Things are different now. A Buddhist may
be designated for taking charge of food and clothes supplies, providing convenience for his
companions, but never will he be allowed to replace a prostrator. The prostrating Buddhists are
very scrupulous. They won't give up no matter their exhaustion. In case of heavy traffic or other
situations, they will draw a line with some pebbles instead of prostrating. With determination and
strong faith, they then continue to walk and prostrate forward.
The prostrator follows these procedures: first, stand straight upright, chant the 6-character truth
meaning "merciful Buddha," put their palms together, raise their hands up over their heads, and
take a step forward; second, lower their hands down in front of the face, take another step
forward; third, lower their hands down to the chest, separate both hands, stretch them out with
the palms down, kneel down to the ground, then prostrate with the forehead knocking the ground
slightly. Stand up again and repeat the whole procedure.
Another, simpler method is to walk around the monastery in a clockwise direction and prostrate.
Starting from the front gate of the monastery, Buddhists also prostrate once every 3 steps,
chanting the 6-character truth and some Buddhism scriptures.
Prostrating is related to Lamaism and has much to do with the Chinese custom of kowtow.
Kowtow was a kind of daily etiquette in the feudal society. According to the ancient book Zhouli
Chunguan Dazhu, there were 9 kinds of kowtow, illustrating that the etiquette was popular as far
back as in the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC). In the following year of the Revolution of 1911
(also known as the Xinhai Revolution), Sun Yat-sen (first president and founding father of the
Republic of China) abolished the etiquette.
The exchange between the Tang Dynasty (618-907) and Tupo regime indicates the 2
nationalities, Chinese and Tibetan, can learn from each other. Kowtow spread to Tibet. In order to
show their fidelity, Buddhists transformed kowtow into prostrating. Gradually, prostrating became
widely accepted and practiced.
Making Model Pagoda
Making model pagodas is a religious custom in Tibet. People firstly make a clay impression of a
pagoda and bake it. The result is a ceramic pagoda. It comes in a cone shape and different sizes.
Inside the model, there is put in place a small piece of paper written with spell, and a small
amount of highland barley. Finally, it is usually placed around a real pagoda or a statue, as a
sacrifice to the Buddha. In the Aba district, Tibetans pray for a bumper harvest year by putting
their model pagodas at the side of a road or a village, or burying them in the farmland in hopes
that they will kill harmful insects.
Walking Around Pagodas
Pagodas are very important symbols of Buddhism. Buddhist scriptures are placed inside the
pagodas and statues of Buddha are carved on the exterior. Buddhists regard pagodas highly.
Whenever they see one, they will walk around it once in a clockwise direction while chanting the
6-character truth, fingering their beads, and praying for peace. Some will walk around it several
times, and some will place offerings in front of the pagoda.
Turning Prayer Wheels
Tibetans believe in Lamaism. The believers must recite or chant Buddhist scriptures very often.
For the illiterate, they can turn prayer wheels with scriptures inside. Turning the prayer wheel is
equivalent to chanting scriptures and it has become routine work for Tibetan people. Many
Tibetans keep portable prayer wheels at home. They come in different sizes and quality, but there
is one thing in common, and that is that they all have scriptures inside. Followers of the Yellow
sect turn the wheel clockwise, while followers of the Black sect turn it counterclockwise.

Turning Prayer Wheels
Religious Rituals in the New Year
Among many festivals, Tibetans put much stress on the celebration of New Year's Day by the
Tibetan calendar. Every year on 29th of the last month, the ritual of "expelling ghosts" is
performed. However, the date might be different from place to place. Monasteries as well as
homes perform the ritual separately. According to tradition, people will hold the ritual after dinner.
The ritual originates from totem worship in ancient time. It is called "Guduo" in the Tibetan
language.
On this New Years day, people prepare a very special dinner called "Gutu." For dinner, usually
congee of barley or soup of Zanba are eaten. The special Gutu consists of 9 foodstuffs that
include barley flakes, peas, dough ball soup, radish, and more. To add to the festivity of the
scene, people choose some symbolic items and stuff them into the wheat paste balls. Some
symbolize luck while others symbolize different personalities. The stuffed paste balls and dough
balls are cooked together in a ceramic pot into a delicious soup. Before they eat the Gutu soup,
everybody rubs some parts of his or her body with a wet paste ball uttering phrases such as "Ah,
the sufferings, pains, and diseases all go away from me." Then they put the paste ball into the
pot.
When all these rituals are completed, the hostess will distribute the soup for everyone with a
cooking spoon. When someone finds a food item which looks like the sun, moon, books, or
statues in their bowls, everyone will s eating and raise their cups to toast the finders good luck
and happiness. When someone has paste balls stuffed with sheeps hair, stones, or dairy
products in their bowls, people will say that he should be as gentle as the sheep hair, as strong-
willed as the stone, and as pure as milk. When someone has paste balls stuffed with salt, pepper,
a porcelain piece, or charcoal, people will say that he should not be lazy, unforgiving, nor cruel,
and request him to sing a song as punishment. When a young girl has a paste ball stuffed with
something resembling a naughty child, people will laugh loudly and advise her to keep her purity.
If someone is unlucky enough to have their paste ball stuffed with a thorny fruit called Simare,
people will tell him to get along well with others and he has to drink wine and imitate a barking
dog as punishment. In the end, everyone will pour their leftovers of the Gutu soup into the broken
cooking pot and wish it to carry all bad luck away by saying: "take all the bad luck away and
never return. In this way, the special dinner comes to end.
Also on New Years day, there is a ritual of expelling ghosts, a tradition that is performed
differently in different places. Generally, a man will light a torch, carry it to every room, and shout
"get out, get out." Finally he throws the torch away on a crossroad nearby. In some locations, it is
quite complicated and performed after the special Gutu dinner. One man carrying the broken pot
with ghosts in it precedes others who hold torches high and shout, "get out, get out, ghost." They
march towards a crossroad and the man leaves the broken pot there. Then they march back
towards home and sing the praises for the gate:
Gate is a golden gate.
White cloth is cloud.
Stone threshold looks beautiful.
Wooden gate looks bright.
Auspicious gate faces east.
Sunshine and moonlight fall in,
With fortune and happiness.
Fortune and happiness fill the house,
Driving the ghosts away,
Driving the bad luck away.
Clean and clear we come back.
Open the golden gate.
After this, the gate is opened. A bonfire is lit near the doorsill in the sitting room. Everyone then
jumps over a fire. Then, someone in the room will splash water over everyone who has just
finished jumping. After these special activities, the ritual of expelling ghosts comes to an end.
Ghost Dance
This is a religious ritual popular in the northern part of Aba Prefecture. People make use of the
ritual to pray for happiness and peace. On the last day of the year by the Tibetan calendar,
monasteries hold a meeting of dharma. Some lamas wear ancient costumes and masks,
disguising themselves as ghosts. In groups, they come out to the central square and dance to the
accompaniment of drums, conches, and cymbals. While they dance, they cry out in hopes of
driving ghosts away.
Visiting Relatives
Visiting relatives is a common tradition for nearly all nationalities around the world. Simple though
it may seem, it reflects the different customs of different nationalities. In Tibet, when visiting
relatives, the visitor usually carries a basket filled with gifts on his or her back. The baskets are
covered with a cloth so no one can see what is inside. In addition, the visitor always takes a
thermos flask of buttered tea and a plastic bucket of barley beer. These 2 items are
indispensable.
When a guest arrives, the host and hostess are very pleased. Their first words will be "ah, you're
welcome here." Then they will begin to chat while drinking the tea and barley beer that the guest
brought. After 2 or 3 hours of chatting, the guest will ask the host to accept the gifts in the basket.
The host won't take all the gifts, but will leave something like food or eggs for the guest to take
back. This is because taking all the gifts would spoil a person's good and modest name. What's
more, the host will put something new in the basket in return, something inexpensive such as
fresh cabbage, fresh fruits, or clothes for the children. The host will take great care to remember
what has been received, so that gifts of similar value can be taken on a return visit at a later time.
During the holidays, guests often stay very late.
Ritual to Mark a Girl's Adulthood
In some parts of Tibet, a girl is considered to have come of age when she reaches 17. Her
parents always mark the event with a ritual, on the second day of the New Year according to the
Tibetan calendar. Parents prepare beautiful clothes and all kinds of ornaments for the occasion.
An expert woman will be invited to do the girl's makeup. In rural areas, small girls typically sport 2
pigtails. They will have 3 pigtails by the age of 13 or 14, 4 at the age of 15, and at 17 years old,
she may have several dozens pigtails which symbolize her adulthood. Young men are allowed to
court a girl with many pigtails. When the ritual is performed, her relatives and friends will come
around to congratulate the girl.

Wa Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents

General Information

History

Language

Custom

Food and Drink

Etiquette and Taboos

Festival

Culture and Art

Residence

Religion

General Information
The Wa people live mainly in Yunnan Province. According to the 2000 census, the Wa Ethnic
Minority has a total population of 396,000 in China, with some 383,000 in Yunnan Province. The
Wa people, inhabiting the region between the Mekong River and the Salween River, live mainly in
Cangyuan, Gengma, Shuangjiang, Yongde, Zhenkang Counties of Lincang Prefecture, and
Ximeng, Menglian, Lancang Counties of Simao Prefecture. Of these, Cangyuan and Ximeng are
the two counties where the Wa people live in compact communities, their population accounting
for over 50% of the total Wa population in China.

Wa Girls
History
There are several different legends about the origin of the Wa Ethnic Minority : the Wa people
came out from "Sigang Li"("Sigang Li" means that the ancestors of the Wa people come out of a
gourd or a cave in the mountain, of which, "Sigang" means a gourd or a cave in the mountain and
"Li" means "to come out". It is said that the gourd and the cave are in the north Myanmar, not far
from Simeng and Cangyuan Counties.)God created Daguya and Yeli, who were the first
ancestors of the Wa people; Daneng smeared his saliva on Yenumu, who later gave birth to the
first Wa generation. The legend about "Sigang Li" is the most popular explanation spread among
the Wa people.
According to historical records, the Wa people are the descendants of the "Baipu" people who
lived before the Qin period (221 BC- 26 BC). They were called "Wangman", "Guci" and "Kawa" in
theTang, Ming and Qing Dynasties respectively. With the founding of the People's Republic of
China, they were formally named "Wa" by the government after unanimous approval from the
people.
However, the Wa people in different places in Yunnan Province call themselves by different
names. For example, those living in Ximeng, Menglian and Lancang Counties call themselves
"Ah Wa" or "Le Wa", in Cangyuan, Shuangjiang and Gengma Counties "Ba Raoke" or "Bu Rao",
and in Yongde and Zhenkang Counties "Wa". Interestingly, these names all mean "the people
living on the mountain."
Language
The language of the Wa Ethnic Minority , which includes four dialects, belongs to the Wa-Deang
branch of the Mon-Khmer language of the Austro-Asiatic family. It has close relationships with the
language of the Dai Ethnic Minority, from which 10% of the Wa words are borrowed. The Wa
people previously had no written language. They kept records and accounts by woodcutting,
bean counting, rope knotting, and engraving bamboo strips. They passed messages by using
material objects. For example, sugarcane, bananas and salt signified friendship, chilies meant
anger, and cock feathers denoted urgency. An alphabetic script was created for them in 1957.
Custom
The Wa people like to wear homespun clothes, each geographical area having its own distinctive
style. Most like black clothes with red decoration. Men usually wear short black collarless coats
and loose trousers. They keep their hair short and always wrap their heads with black or red
turbans like horns. Some wear circular earrings, silver bracelets, and bamboo or silver necklaces
as well. When going out, every man likes to carry a homespun bag on his arm and wear a sword
on his waist, making him look more masculine. Tattooing is also a common practice among men.
The Wa women, most of whom are longhaired, wear short black collarless jackets that just reach
the upper part of their bellies, and skirts with red and black stripes. They usually wear big
earrings, colorful strings of beads and thick silver necklaces, with red bands around their waists
and bamboo or rattan bangles around their bare arms and legs. The old women like to wear big
umbrella-like five-inch-long ear tubes, where they can put some fragrant flowers, grass and even
money for easy access when they go shopping.
In Ximeng County where the Wa people live in compact communities, every woman, rich or poor,
always wears a pair of wide bracelets. According to legend, long ago, in the primeval forests of
the Awa Mountain, large wild man-eating bears lived. It was known that if a bear caught a person
by the hand, it would not let him go but eat him. One day, a beautiful Wa girl was picking
mushrooms on the mountain when she saw a wild bear coming towards her. At this moment, the
clever girl took out a bamboo pipe for drinking from her basket, put her right hand into the pipe,
and let the bear hold it. Feeling so sure that its food would not be able to escape, the bear held
the bamboo pipe tightly to it and grinned conceitedly. Seeing the bear pay no attention to her, the
girl withdrew her hand from the pipe discreetly and escaped from the danger. From then on, all
the Wa girls, when going out, put their wrists into bamboo pipes just in case. As time went by,
wide bracelets replaced bamboo pipes as a token of luck. Nowadays, most of the wide silver
bracelets worn by the Wa women are five inches wide and engraved with all kinds of beautiful
patterns.
The headmen of the Wa villages or tribes have their own dressing style. They wrap their heads
with red cloth. Sacred figures such as the sun, moon, stars, dragons and bulls' heads are
embroidered on their clothes. Two doors are also embroidered to show that their ancestors were
once the entrance guards of "Sigang Li". The pattern of two dragons holding the sun in their
mouths is embroidered on their underclothes, which can be worn by no one but the village
headmen.
Food and Drink
The Wa people have two or three meals a day. Their staple food is rice, which is complemented
with kaoliang, buckwheat, maize and beans. Chicken congee and camellia congee are regarded
as their delicacies. Chilies are a great favorite with all the Wa people, young or old, and a meal is
not considered complete without chilies.
The Wa people mainly eat pork, beef and chicken. They also eat rats and over ten kinds of
insects such as bamboo pupas, red caterpillars, besom caterpillars, and wax gourd caterpillars,
etc. Usually the edible insects are mixed with rice and cooked to be congee, which tastes hot and
delicious when combined with vegetables, salt and chilies. The typical Wa dishes are: camellia
congee, grilled snake meat, peas fried with ant eggs, fried firewood worms, etc.
The Wa people like keeping bees, chewing betel nuts and drinking wine and bitter tea. The wine
they drink is home-brewed. The tea, boiled in a pottery pot and brewed into a thick paste, is dark
brown in color and bitter in taste. Bitter as it is, the tea is remarkably refreshing and is a great
thirst- quencher. The Wa people, young or old, have the habit of chewing betel nuts. While
working, resting or chatting, they are often seen chewing betel nuts.
Etiquette and Taboos
Etiquette:The Wa people are warm and hospitable to their guests. When guests enter their
houses, the Wa people will entertain them with wine in bamboo cups as a token of welcome and
respect. The Wa etiquette of welcoming guests with wine is different from place to place. In some
areas, when presenting a cup of wine to his guest, the host should drink a mouthful first to show
his sinceritywhile the guest in one swallow to show his politeness. In other areas, both the host
and the guest squat down, and the host presents a cup of wine with his right hand to the guest,
who reaches for it also with his right hand and then pours or flips a little wine to the ground,
showing his respect for the host's ancestors. The conclusion of the two customs is the same.
When the guest is leaving, the host will hold a full gourd of wine, drink a mouthful first, and then
present it the guest, who should drink it up to show that he will never forget the host's hospitality
and friendliness.
Taboos: The Wa people regard the following actions as taboos: riding a horse into the village,
touching their heads or ears, giving chilies and eggs as gifts, entering the wooden drum house
without permission, giving girls ornaments, and counting money or sitting on the hostess's
wooden stool in the host's home. If a wooden pole is put in front of the door of a house, that
means someone in the house is sick and no one but his family members may enter it.
Festival
Pulling Wooden Drum Festival: The "Gerui" month of the Wa calendar, which is equivalent to
December of the solar calendar, is the time for pulling the wooden drum. Unlike the popular
leather drums, a wooden drum is a drum made of a whole piece of tree-trunk, its surface not
enveloped with any leathers. On the eve of the festival, the headman and the "moba" (priest) of
the village lead several male villagers to a tall tree that they have already chosen beforehand.
Under the tree, they first make offerings and chant incantations to expel evils spirits. Then the
"moba" brandishes an ax, making a few cuts on the trunk of the tree. Other villagers then chop it
down. After that, they put three stones on the tree stump as a token payment to the tree ghost for
buying the tree. Then they cut the trunk into the size suitable for the drum they need.
Next morning, all the villagers put on their best costumes and go to the mountain to join in pulling
the log (semi-finished wooden drum) down to the village. The "moba" guides the procession with
twigs held in his right hand, leading some male villagers to pull the log and sing the song "pulling
the wooden drum". Other villagers either shout loudly to boost their morale or scatter rice and
splash wine on the ground as the log is pulled along. The log is left at the entrance to the village
for two or three days. After the sacrificial rite with cocks as offerings, the log is pulled from the
village gate to the place beside the wooden drum house where the carpenters will fashion it into a
drum. In pulling the wooden drum, both men and women participate, singing and dancing. Some
young people often take this opportunity to find their future husbands or wives. The whole
program lasts for many hours. After the drum is made and tested, people put it into the wooden
drum house, where they dance heartily again to the drum beats.
Sowing Seeds Festival: Sowing Seeds Festival is held in the "Qiai" month of the Wa calendar,
that is, March of the solar calendar. In this festival, the Wa people gather to sacrifice an ox. The
event is usually hosted by the owner of the ox. After the owner butchers the ox by thrusting an
iron sword into its heart, its flesh is divided evenly into many parts, which are used by the
villagers as offerings to worship their ancestors. The bones of the ox, symbolizing wealth, belong
to its owner. After worshipping their ancestors and having lunch, the Wa people begin to sow rice
seeds.
Fresh Rice Festival: Fresh Rice Festival is the favorite festival of the Wa people and usually lasts
three days. In the middle of the eighth month of the lunar calendar when paddies are just ripe, all
the Wa families go to the paddy fields to pick some fresh paddies at the time announced by the
village headman. When returning home, they put some paddies in the prepared barn or bamboo
basket, and pound the rest to be husked rice grains, which are soon cooked. After that, they
place 7 bowls of rice with meat and 7 bowls of wine as offerings on the table, inviting the spirits of
their ancestors and the gods in charge of the heaven, earth, mountains, and grains to enjoy their
harvests. Then they burn 7 pieces of incense. At the end of the rite, all the family members eat
the 7 bowls of rice. In the evening, Most of the people gather to enjoy the festival, singing and
dancing until dawn. On the second day, all the young people go out to repair the old roads and
bridges or build new ones, making ready for carrying bags of fresh paddies into the village. On
the third day, the Wa people, continue to enjoy the festival with more singing and dancing. The
young men and women often take this opportunity to seek out a mate.
"Bengnanni" Festival: "Bengnanni" Festival, which is the Wa festival for bidding farewell to the
past and welcoming new arrivals, is held on the last day in the last month of the Wa calendar.
Before dawn, all the young and middle-aged men gather in the house of the village headman,
with a pig and a cock killed as sacrificial offerings. Each family, holding a basin of glutinous rice
and a piece of baba (rice cake) on a bamboo table, pays a New Year call to the headman and
worship ghosts, gods and their ancestors. After that, all the Wa people give babas to one another,
greeting with words of blessings. At dawn, after presenting offerings to their sacred tree, the Wa
people go hunting and fishing, praying for good luck in the new year.
Culture and Art
Literature: The Wa Ethnic Minority boasts rich and colorful folklore, vivid myths, touching poems
and legends. Famous myths include "Sigang Li", "ancestors of the human being", "the big snake
is vomiting" and "the origin of all things", the most popular of which is "Sigang Li". The Wa people
have created many oral stories to praise goodness and justice and to attack perfidiousness and
hypocrisy. "The old man and the crocodile" is such a typical story.
Singing and dancing are very important to the Wa people. At festivals, the Wa people, wearing
their best costumes, sing and dance day and night for several days. There are many forms of Wa
folk dances including the drum dance, pole dance, sword dance, plume dance, lusheng dance,
hand towel dance, string instrument dance, gong dance, and bamboo flute dance. The
subdivisions of drum dance are wooden drum dance, tom-tom dance, elephant-foot drum dance,
bronze drum dance, and bamboo drum dance. Of these, wooden drum dance best represents the
characteristics of the Wa Ethnic Minority.
The Wa people regard the wooden drum as a divine tool that has exceptional power and is the
symbol of existence and prosperity. They believe in many gods, of whom, Muyiji is a powerful god
that creates all things in the world and has the right to decide their life and death. Legend has it
that, long ago, at the beginning of history, a disastrous flood devoured almost all the lives on land.
It was Muyiji that saved the Wa people with a wooden trough, which later enabled them to survive
and develop. Therefore, in most of the traditional sacrificial rites, the Wa people pay a high tribute
to the wooden drum and worship Muyiji, praying for his blessings by singing and dancing.
Wooden drum dance is a traditional dance that is performed to worship Muyiji in the "Gerui"
month of the Wa calendar (the 12th month of the lunar calendar). It consists of four main parts:
"pulling wooden drum", "dancing in the house of wooden drum", "beating wooden drum", and
"offering sacrifices to Muyiji", faithfully reproducing the solemn scenes of the ancient Wa people's
unceasing and united struggle against nature and reflecting their yearning for a happy life.
The most common wooden drum dance is "beating wooden drum". The Wa people use wood
drums and cymbals as major instruments, which are blended with songs and chanting, to create
the main melody with strong and harmonious rhythm full of encouragement and impulsion. Men
wear red ribbons on their heads and wide pants; women, with white ribbons on their heads, wear
bracelets and skirts, and their long hair swings loose and wild. The dance is grand: At dusk, a
long haired female dancer stands on the wooden drum, raising hands to the sky. Two men stand
at each end of the drum with drum sticks in hand; other actors are around the drum, dancing
slowly to the singers' call, the drum and cymbals. It's a mixture of slow and fast beat, anger and
sadness, anxiety and happiness. As the highlight comes, the dancing steps become orderly and
powerful, straightforward and uninhibited, grand and magnificent, which, seeming to shake the
sky and the land, fully describes the Wa people's vigorous vitality and their spirit of fighting
against nature.
The content and the performing techniques of today's wooden drum dance have reached a higher
level. It has adopted some movements of the Wa women such as "swinging hair", which thus
adds to the charm of Wa's art. Wooden drum dance is a shining pearl in the culture of wood
drum.
Sculpture and Painting The sculptures and paintings of the Wa people bear strong minority
characteristics and high artistic levels. Ancient cliff paintings of the Wa people have been
discovered in Yunnan Province in recent years. The cliff paintings in Cangyuan County, which
describe the hunting, dancing and working scenes of the ancient Wa people with simple,
straightforward and uninhibited patterns, are rare and valuable artistic treasures useful to the
study of the history of the Wa Ethnic Minority .
Residence
The Wa people usually live in compact communities in the form of villages, each of which
normally consists of dozens of or even hundreds of households. The Wa people live in bamboo
houses that are similar in shape to those of the Dai people. Most of the Wa villages were built on
hills or slopes. The styles of their houses vary depending on their locations. Most houses are
constructed with bamboo and straw and are usually two storied. The upper floor is for family
accommodation while the ground floor is reserved for their livestock. The building of a new house
is a community affair. People in the same village will offer to help and present timber and straw as
gifts. Generally, a house will be completed in one day through a collective community effort. After
completing the house construction, all the young people in the village will be invited to the new
house to attend a celebration including dancing, singing and drinking.
Religion
The Wa people worship nature, believing that all mountains, rivers and other natural phenomena
have their deities. They associate ghosts, gods and spirits with their ancestors. They call the sun
god "Li", the moon god "Lun", plant god "Pen", animal god "Neng", air god "Nu" and water god
"Ah-yong". The Wa people think that ghosts, gods and spirits, big or small, should have their own
duties and responsibilities and can't manage others' business. If something unfortunate happens
to a person, he has to give offerings to a particular ghost or god in charge of it for blessings.
Yao Ethnic Minority

Table of Contents

General information

The ethnic history of the Yao people

Tradition and customs

Architecture

Various Festivals of the Yao nationality

Etiquette and taboos of the Yao nationality

Religious belief

General information
As one of the ethnic minorities in China, the Yao ethnic group has a population of about 2.6
million, most of whom are farmers living in mountainous areas. Titles that they call themselves
include the Mian, Jinmen, Bunu, Bingduoyou, Heiyoumeng, and Lajia. In the past, the Yao people
were further divided into subgroups based on historical differences in their economic
backgrounds, lifestyles, manners and customs including the following and more: Pan Yao, Shanzi
Yao, Dingban Yao, Hualan Yao, Guoshang Yao, Baiku Yao, Hong Yao, Landian Yao, Bapai Yao,
Pingdi Yao, Ao Yao, etc. In total, there used to be as many as twenty branches of the Yao ethnic
group. The different groups of the Yao people had different styles and characteristics in
production methods, architectures, and clothes in history. After the founding of the People's
Republic of China in 1949, they were combined and are now collectively referred to as the Yao
ethnic group. The Yao people mainly live in the Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and the
provinces of Hunan, Yunnan,Guangdong and Guizhou in China.

Girl of Yao Ethnic Group
Most of the Yao people live together in small groups that are distributed widely throughout the
mountainous regions in the above mentioned provinces. According to the nationwide population
census conducted in the year 2000, the Yao ethnic group has a population of 2,637,421.The Yao
have their own language, but it has complicated and quite different local dialects in different
regions. The variations can be so vast that members of different groups can not even understand
each other. Furthermore, they do not have their own written language, so they have adopted the
system of Chinese characters. . The Yao language belongs to the branch of Miao and Yao
Languages, a Sino--Tibetan Language Family. Because they have lived together and
communicated with the Han, Zhuang and Miao nationalities for a very long time, the Yao people
in different regions can generally speak Chinese, and some can also speak Zhuang and Miao
languages.
The Yao people mainly live in subtropical areas, where it usually has an altitude between 1000
and 2000 meters. The villages in which they live are surrounded by plenty of green trees as well
as bamboo; as a result, it is very picturesque and beautiful there. Historically, the Yao people had
close relations with the Miao ethnic group, both of whom originated from the Wuling People in Qin
and Han Dynasties. Around the Sui Dynasty (560 A.D.- 618 A.D.) , the Yao and Miao nationalities
living in today's Hunan and Hubei Provinces had evolved into two different ethnic groups. The
ancestors of the Yao people in today's Yunnan Province moved from of Guangxi, Guangdong
and Guizhou Provinces to Wenshan area during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Later some of
them moved to the Honghe River Basin, Mojiang and Mengla areas. Many of the Yao people now
in Yunnan Province can not only speak their own language, but also speak Chinese, and the
languages of the Zhuang and Miao nationalities, as they used to interact frequently with one
another.
The ethnic history of the Yao people
There are differing opinions about the origins and ancestry of the Yao people. Some experts
believe that the ancestors of the Yao were the Shanyue People who lived in the mountain areas
of todays Zhejing Province about 2500 years ago; others believe that they descended from the
Wuximan People who lived in the southwest of todays Hunan Province about 2000 years ago.
On the other hand, there is also a belief that the Yao people did not originate in one particular
region, but a variety of locations; however, it is widely believed that the Yao people are originally
connected and related to the Jingman, ChangshaWuling People, both of whom lived in todays
Hunan Province.
When the unified multinational centralized system was established in China by Emperor
Qinshihuang in 221 BC, a policy of banishing criminals to the minority inhabited border areas was
adopted. As a result, a lot of Han people from the central parts of China were sent to today's
Changsha and Wuling regions. These people also brought their advanced instruments of
production as well as technologies, which gradually promoted the development of social
production in these regions. During both the Western Han (202 BC --- 25 AD) and Eastern Han
Dynasty (25AD---220AD), the minority people in Wuling area had to pay high taxes to the
government. As a result, the minority groups including the ancestors of the Yao people in the
Wuling area were once forced to fight against the government in the Eastern Han Dynasty.
During the Southern and Northern Song Dynasties , the ancestors of the Yao people inhabited
many locations throughout China: from today's Shou County of Anhui Province in the east to
Shang County of Shanxi Province in the west, Wuling area until the eastern part of today's Henan
Province, and the Northwest region of today's Anhui Province. During this period, there was close
communication and interaction between the economies and cultures of the Yao and Han people.
In the Tang Dynasty (618AD---907AD), the Yao people mainly lived in the provinces of Hunan,
Guangxi and Guangdong, and at that time were called Moyao ethnic group. The Moyao people
were mostly farmers. Later in the Song Dynasty (960AD---1234AD), the government treated the
minorities who lived in the Yao inhabited region with an autonomous status. In some of these
areas, under the rule of the local hereditary chieftains or officials, the process of the feudalization
was accelerated. There was one important migration in the history of the Yao people. In the Yuan
Dynasty (1271AD---1368AD), some officials from the local government came to the Yao ethnic
group to collect taxes. They were greatly welcomed by the Yao people and treated so well that
they forgot to go back to the government office; however, their leader mistakenly believed that
they had been killed by the Yao people. As a result, the government sent troops to these areas
trying to slaughter the local Yao people. Consequently, the Yao people were forced to vacate
their land and migrate to different places. Before they departed and went separate ways, they
divided an ox horn into twelve parts; one part was kept by each of the twelve families. They
vowed all of them would return to their homeland one thousand years later.
During the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, the Yao ethnic groups were distributed in the
provinces of Guangxi, Guangdong, southwest Hunan, Yunnan, and some mountainous areas in
Guizhou. As they lived in many different places, the development of their social economies widely
differed; as a result were quite out of balance. It developed very quickly in some areas resulting in
economies that rivaled the Han; however, in the remote mountainous areas, the Yao people just
lived in groups around the creeks and valleys and also they did not even have farming. These
people lacked a method of farming, so they made a living by hunting animals in the mountains.
As a result of the exploitation, wars and slaughters by the feudal rulers, some of the Yao people
escaped to borders of Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. In the 1970s some of the Yao people living in
these countries immigrated to the US, France, Canada and other countries.
Tradition and customs
The clothes of both men and women of the Yao ethnic group are made of blue and green folk
weaves. Men like to wear front opening short robes without collars, together with long pants or
knee-length shorts. The men living in Yao villages in Nandan County of Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region wear white embroidered trousers, The Yao men living in Liannan Yao
Autonomous County of Guangdong Province are fond of making chignons, pronounced "sheen-
yon," usually decorated with pheasant feathers for their hair , and wimpling, or wrapping their
heads with red cloth. Yao women like to wear side opening jackets without collars and long pants,
shorts, or accordion pleated skirts. In addition, they always sew colorful and gorgeous hand-
stitching work as well as embroideries on the collars, cuffs, belts and skirt hems, to make them
very bright-colored and eye-catching. The Yao people have many varieties and styles of
headdresses. They like to use silver hairpins, silver flowers, strings of silver beads, small arch-
shaped silver planks and so on together with colorful ribbons to make head accessories. Judging
from the different accessories, one can easily tell whether or not a girl is a maiden, unmarried or
married woman.
The main foods of the Yao people are corn, rice, and sweet potatoes. In daily life they eat
soybeans, peas, pumpkins, peppers, domestic fowl, and livestock. In Jinxiu Yao Autonomous
County of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, the local Yao people catch migrating birds in
basins and pickle them to make a special delicacy to treat distinguished guests. In some areas of
the northern part of Guangxi where the Yao people live, oil-tea is very popular. First, they saut
tea leaves in oil; and then they make soups with the leaves; after that, they add some seasonings
such as fresh ginger, pepper, and salt into the soup. At last, the soup is mixed with fried rice, fried
peas and candies before drinking it. This kind of oil-tea has a very special and unique flavor.
Architecture
The Yao people dwell in bamboo huts, log cabins, thatched cottages and a few live in houses
built with mud walls and tiled roofs. A Yao house is usually composed of three rooms, the middle
of which is the family room, while on either side of it is the bedroom with a kitchen in the front and
a sleeping bed in the back part. The bath, shed, pen and lairage are built in front of and behind
the house respectively.
Generally speaking, the Yao people do not intermarry with other ethnic groups. The custom of
having the husband live with the wife's family is quite popular. The young men and women have
the freedom of choosing and falling in love with a partner. Through the form of ballads, they seek
their lovers during festivals, assemblies, and the slack farming season during which they visit
different villages. If they both like each other, they will give each other keepsakes. This is the
tradition of falling in love freely without the intervention of parents. In some areas they need
permission from their parents, so a matchmaker will assist in communicating between the two
parties before they decide to get married.
The funeral customs of the Yao ethnic group differ in different regions and branches. For
example, The Mianzhi branch of the Yao people typically bury their deceased in graves. In the
past, rock burial used to be popular among the Buluzhi branch, but nowadays they have adopted
the practice or ritual burials instead. The adults of the Lajiazhi branch are cremated after death,
while minors are buried and babies have a tree burial (when a baby dies soon after birth, the
corpse will be put into a bamboo basket and then hung on a tree in the woods). In the
Liannanbaipai branch, when people die, the corpse will first be bound to a chair. When the funeral
procession is held, it will be carried to the tomb and then put into the coffin. This kind of burial is
called a Traveling Corpse Burial by the local people.
Various Festivals of the Yao nationality
The Yao ethnic group has many festivals, such as the Spring Festival, Lantern Festival, Qingming
Festival, the Dragon Boat Festival, Ganba Festival, New Rice Festival, Mulian Festival, Panwang
Festival, etc. The Panwang Festival is the biggest among the Yao people. The Yao ethnic people
like singing loud, clear and beautiful ballads whenever there is a festival or happy event. The
festivals mentioned above can be divided into big festivals and mini-festivals. Big festivals include
the Panwang Festival, Spring Festival, Danu Festival, Ghost Festival, Shewang Festival,
Qingming Festival, etc. There are less important festivals almost every month. Danu Festival,
which is held among the Yao people in the Duan Yao Autonomous Region in Guangxi, is very
popular and ceremonious.
Panwang Festival
It is said that this is a festival to commemoratehe struggle of their ancestors against the
exploitation of ancient hereditary chieftains. Panwang Festival has been commonly referred to as
Entertaining God of Panwang and thanking him for making their wishes come true. It is held on
October 16th according to the local calendar every three or five years; however, in some areas,
the Yao people have this festival once in twelve years. The frequency of this festival depends on
the traditions of different Yao branches, how good the harvest is and the health of both people
and their livestock. Usually one, several families, or maybe even the whole village celebrate this
festival together. During the main ceremony, the folk master will entertain the God of Panwang,
pray and sing songs for him. One method of prayer is the long-drum dance which asks Panwang
for protection. This festival is usually celebrated ceremoniously by the Mianzhi branch of the Yao
people.
Taonianbai Festival
The name of this festival means a festival celebrated in the middle of the month. It is celebrated
from March 15th to March 17th every year according to the local calendar. During these three
days, all the people in the Yao villages are very excited and happy. Young girls who have grown
up playing and swimming in the clean creeks all look slim and naturally pretty; however, during
these days, they all dress up and look much more lovely and beautiful. All of them wear
embroidered blouses and straight skirts with various patterns. In addition, they also wear silver
necklaces and gilded earbobs, and can be seen smiling under beautiful silk umbrellas. While the
young men have their heads wimpled with checkered turbans, and wear pants with their own
ethnic features. All of them look energetic and robust. Even the elderly grandpas and grandmas
coming from near and far dress up especially for this festival and gather together to celebrate this
traditional event.
There is a moving and tragic story that surrounds the evens of the Taonianbai. It is said that
during Emperor Kangxi's Reign in the Qing Dynasty, troops from the government came to
conquer the regions where the Yao ethnic group lived, and pillaged the Yao villages killing a lot of
innocent local people. Consequently, all the Yao people lived a very miserable and abject life,
and faced the threat of extinction.
Just at this moment, with danger prevailing all over these regions, Fengjie, who was a smart,
brave, capable and experienced girl from the Yao nationality, with all her heart and soul as well
as grief and indignation, organized all the brave and robust young men and women from different
Yao villages. They worked hard and steadfast collecting stones and rocks to build fortifications,
cut trees to make strongholds, and guarded their homeland against the invaders. When the
invading troops were defeated, she and the Yao army chased the remaining invaders back to
their base, which was then burned by the Yao army and turned into ashes.
After the first failure, the local governor asked the emperor to dispatch more and more
government troops. With the advantage of the complicated local ography and Fengjie's intelligent
leadership, all the Yao people held together, adept at defending and attacking. The government
troops could do nothing to win the war. At last, they devised a deceptive plan.
They dispatched a strong young soldier disguised as a vendor from the Yao ethnic group to the
Yao village with a lot of daily-use necessities for sale, such as salt and cloth. He went to Fengjie's
house to sell goods. When the latter found him to be one single man, just opened the door and
welcomed him. However, the man suddenly took out his sword and stabbed at Fengjie. Almost
simultaneously, awaiting government troops ambushed the village from outside. Seriously injured
and unprepared for battle, Fengjie led the Yao armies to fight against the government troops in
today's Shuidongping region for three days. Because they were outnumbered, all the 600 Yao
people, including Fengjie, were slaughtered by the government troops.
The brave girl Fengjie lost her life in that battle; however, from then on, she has always lived in
the hearts of all Yao people. After her death, people wanted to do something to commemorate
this brave girl, but were afraid any such activities would bring suspicion and hate from the feudal
rulers. As a result, they just came to Shuidongping area, gathered together and held various
activities of their own ethnic features from May 15th to May 17th every year. During the three
days, the young men and women would seek their lovers, dance and sing, through which they
expressed their love and respect to the great heroine Fengjie. As time went on, this activity
gradually became a traditional big festival of the Yao nationality for people to assemble as well as
do some shopping.

Taoliaogui Festival
The name of this festival means escaping from ferocious and sinister evils. There are two phases
to celebrate this festival. The first time is on July 2nd according to the local calendar in the Maole
area; the Yao people living here begin to eat cucumbers and white melons after this day because
of the following legend. At the end of the Song Dynasty, the ancestors of the Yao people who
lived in Tianlu area of Jian city, Jiangxi Province were often exploited by the two local magistrates
Zhao and Wang. On July 2nd, some pregnant women escaped to hide in the cucumber and white
melon fields around Ejing Hill and avoided persecution from the government troops. After these
Yao made a rule that from then on, only after July 2nd, could they and their descendants eat
cucumbers and white melons. To do so, is taboo and considered bad luck. The second phase of
this festival is from July 8th to July 10th. This time the festival is celebrated by the Yao people in
Xiaoshajiang region. It is said that on the first year of Emperor Yongzheng's Reign (1723), six
girls from four local Yao families were bullied and chased by one bad landlord causing a
resistance. The landlord lied to the government and said that the girls wanted to start a rebellion.
In addition, he asked the government to send troops to arrest the girls. The Yao people organized
together and fought against the government troops in Dashajing and Xiaoshajiang areas; they
retreated to Matang Mountains and guarded themselves with the help of the complicated local
environment. At last, the government was forced to negotiate peace with the Yao people. The
Yao people gave two nicknames Dashaguang and Xiaoshaguang for the two places where they
had resisted the invading troops from the government. The two nicknames mean Big Slaughter
Place and Small Slaughter Place. Later in order to promote the friendship and solidarity between
the Yao nationality and other ethnic groups, they changed the names into Dashajiang and
Xiaoshajiang. Nowadays during the festival, all the Yao people will dress up, gather together and
hold various fun activities. Many other ethnic groups, including the Han, nearby also join them.
People have parties, dances, and sing ballads. It is especially a good forum for young single men
and women to seek their lovers. It is a very happy event and full of a festive and joyous
atmosphere.
Danu Festival
Danu is a name from the Yao language meaning never forget. This festival comes on May 29th.
It is believed that this day is the birthday of Zuniang, an ancestor of the Yao people. As a result, it
is also name named Zuniang Festival.
It is said that Zuniang was actually known as Miluotuo by the ancient Yao people. Once she
asked her third daughter to go to the mountains to reclaim the land. Before her daughter left, she
gave her a precious item---the bronze drum. The drum helped the young girl dispel birds and
make a good harvest. The third daughter of Zuniang got married with a local Yao man and lived
happily in the mountains. Their lives flourished and created more and more descendants, who
were the early ancestors of today's Yao nationality. To commemorate Zuniang, the Yao people
celebrated her birthday and named it Danu Festival.
On this day, all the Yao people from different villages clean their houses and streets; they also
make offerings of rice wines and sticky rice cakes to worship Zuniang. According to traditional
customs, all families have to sacrifice some chickens and sheep. Young men and women wear
special clothes and assemble at one place; they celebrate the birthday of Zuniang by hitting a big
drum which symbolizes the bronze drum that Zuniang had given to her daughter. All of them
worship Zuniang piously and pray to her for a good harvest every year as well as a happy and
prosperous life to both man and livestock. While enjoying the performance of hitting the drum, all
the people will try their best to propose a toast to the best drummer and deem him King of Drum.
In addition, they will sing the traditional Miluotuo songs accompanied by dance and music as a
tribute to Zuniang and what she had done for the Yao people.
Ox Festival
The Ox Festival of the Yao nationality deals with agriculture production. In the areas where the
Yao ethnic group live, ox is a very important source of animal power for in farming. People need
ox to plough and harrow their farmland. In the past, some of the Yao people also used oxen to
pull their carts when transporting goods. Because of the reliance on oxen for labor, it has
gradually become a cherished and loved symbol and tradition to the Yao nationality as well as the
creation of The Ox Festival. According to the folk legends of the Yao nationality, April 8th every
year is the birthday of ox; therefore, the Yao people make this day the Ox Festival, during which
all oxen have a rest. People are not allowed to shout or scream to oxen or even beat them with
whips or sticks. In today's Lucheng area of Tianlin County, Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous Region,
all the Yao families kill chickens and ducks, pick up mud-snails, and catch loaches to prepare
sacrifices for worshipping the byres. They take off the ring from an oxs neck and put it into a
bamboo basket together with three stones, three peaches and one scarecrow ( symbolize a
shepherd ), and then hang the bamboo basket on the byre. This job has been known as
Protecting the Soul of the Ox.
In today's Fuchuan Yao Autonomous County of Guangxi, the Yao people make fodders mixed
with wines and eggs to feed the ox, and then take them to a place abundant with water and green
grass for the ox to enjoy. The people just sit down on the grass and enjoy the delicious food they
have brought with them from home. When night falls, they wash their ox to make them look as
clean as a penny before taking them back home. After the ox enter their byres, people burn
incense and light fireworks to worship the God of Ox and pray for their oxs safety and peace. In
today's Guiping City of Guangxi, on this day colorful sticky rice wrapped with fresh mango leaves
are made in each Yao family, and brought to the byre as sacrifices to worship the God of Ox and
pray for peace and safety for all livestock as well as a good harvest. At last, they feed the ox the
delicious sticky rice.
Etiquette and taboos of the Yao nationality
Etiquette has always been considered very important by the Yao ethnic group. In their daily life
there are a lot of customary manners and taboos. When people meet each other while on the
way, they always have to say hello, otherwise it will be considered impolite. The people should
also never wash their face and feet in the same basin. While having dinner it is not allowed to use
another persons chopsticks or bowls. Clothes cannot be dried in front of gates after being
washed. Spitting is forbidden indoors. People cannot kill pigs on the Day of Pig and chickens on
the Day of Chicken; as well as, no selling of ox or horses on the Day of Ox and Horses. When a
guest visits a Yao family, he must greet the hostess to make her happy, otherwise be considered
arrogant and impolite.
The Yao ethnic group respect old people very much. When meeting an elderly person outside, it
is necessary to say hello and then retreat to the lower part of the road for them to pass. One must
dismount if he meets an old person while riding a horse. It is not allowed to sit cross-legged,
speak dirty words, or use their names while sitting in front of seniors or old people. While having
dinner with seniors or old people, one should offer them a higher seat, serve them food, and put
the most delicious dishes close to the senior guests.
On January 1st according to the local calendar, the Yao women stay at home instead of visiting
other families. They do not eat green vegetables and some even place a tree branch in front of
their house gate. All families stay at home on January 3rd, 5th, and 6th.
The Dragon Worshipping Ceremony is held every year on January 2nd by the Yao people -- in
some areas it is held on March 3rd. On this day they worship the Soul of Rice, the Goddess of
Rice, the ancestor Pangu, the Jade Emperor, the ancestor Shennong, and more, in order to pray
for healthy livestock, bountiful harvests, safety and peace throughout the year, and security of
money and property. During the ceremony, an activity is held to clean; women are not allowed to
participate. Also at this time, strangers cannot enter the villages. Strangers already residing inside
the village must wait until the ceremony has completed to leave.
The fire pit is the most important part of a Yao family. The tripod on the fire pit cannot be stepped
on and the firewood or straws cannot be burned with the back or end first. In some places the
Yao people do not eat dog, so if visitors come to the Yao community, they should not beat the
host familys dogs eat dog meat. In some of the regions where the Yao people live, it is forbidden
to eat turtles, snakes or eels.
Religious belief
The Yao ethnic group has very complicated religious beliefs. In some areas the worship of nature,
the worship of ancestors or the worship of totems plays a very important part in people's lives.
While in some other places, the Yao people mainly believe in witches and Daoism. Daoism has
greatly influenced the Yao nationality. All funerals are held under the doctrines of Daoism
combined with a few characteristics of the primitive Yao religion. . The Yao nationality believes
that dogs are their ancestors. As a result, during important festivals, they always let dogs lick the
food on table first before they have dinner. It is said that long ago, there were two kings who were
fighting each other; one king made a pledge that anybody who killed his enemy would be able to
marry his daughter. The ancestor of the Yao community--- a dog --, took the imperial order, went
secretly into the other king's headquarter at night and bit off his head. The king who had made
the promise could revoke his word, even though it was a dog that had killed his enemy. He
ordered them to seclude themselves in great mountains and stay away from the outside world.
The ancestor of the Yao nationality came to a place surrounded by high mountains with the
daughter of the king. Then at night the ancestor of the Yao ethnic group suddenly changed into a
man from a dog, and they two became husband and wife. They had more and more children and
gradually developed into a group of one thousand families. Later this place was named One
Thousand Family Village.
Dujie:the Adult Ceremony of the Yao Nationality
After fifteen years old all the young boys and girls of the Yao ethnic group will have to change
their flower-trimmed hats to fascinators, to symbolize the maturity of their bodies. Boys have to
undergo Dujie, which is actually the Adult Ceremony. In some Yao villages, in order to publicize
the 'Ten Testaments, old performing artists are invited to rap and give lectures to educate the
young boys about the dangers of pornography, robbery, rape, and laziness. Instead, they should
learn to work hard, make progress, respect the old and love the young, and manage the
household with diligence and thrift. The Yao people can fall in love independently and have thrifty
wedding ceremonies. The Landian branch of the Yao people have the tradition of matrilocal
marriages in which the husband lives with his wifes family.
Dujie is a unique and peculiar customary ceremony when a boy enters manhood. It is a
very sacred and holy lesson man must receive in the process of his growing up; it is even more
important and ceremonious than marriage. The Yao people do not consider 18 years old as the
age of maturity. Instead, they believe that, regardless of how old a man is, as long as he has
participated in and passed the adult ceremony, he is an adult. This passing will make him
protected by God and accepted by the society with all rights and responsibilities of a man,
capable of serving as a public official of the village, and eventually realize the social value of a
man. A man who has not taken part in or passed the adult ceremony is not considered as a real
man with great value. As a result, he does not have social status, will not be loved by girls, and
probably can never find a wife to get married. If an elderly person has never participated in an
adult ceremony, then he must manage to do it as soon as possible, otherwise he will not be
accepted as a member of the Yao ethnic group. With a long history, the adult ceremony now still
plays a very important role in the social life of the Yao people living in Jiangcheng County of
Yunnan Province.
The process of the adult ceremony is very complicated in the Yao community and takes a lot of
preparation time. As soon as a boy is ten years old, his parents will invite a knowledgeable man
to calculate the best year for him to take part in the adult ceremony. One or two years before the
ceremony, the parents begin to do detailed preparations and set its exact date. After all this is
done, as many knowledgeable teachers as possible will be invited again. The teachers will
instruct the boy by using books and instilling as much knowledge about all the traditional
moralities, virtues, and rules of the Yao nationality which eventually make the boy cultivate his
own morality; they will further show the boy and have him practice diligently on a big table what
he must do during the ceremony. The boy has to sleep in bed covered with a quilt for five days
before the ceremony begins.
The whole process of the adult ceremony is long and complicated. It begins even before the sun
rises. The teacher will first read scriptures and help the boy go through the religious rites. Then
the teacher who wears a red gown helps the boy put on the same clothes, tie a red belt, and wear
a charm of the ancient Yao sacred statue. The teacher ties one end of a red ribbon to his own
waist, and the other end to the boy's waist, which symbolizes that his student is just like the baby
who has not yet been delivered from the mother's womb. With the divine sword and the ritual
apparatus in his hands, the teacher leads the boy into the courtyard for the ceremony. On the
way there, the teacher also hands out paper money to the surrounding audience. After reaching
the altar of heaven, the boy will first walk around the altar in three clockwise circles under the
leadership of the teacher. Then the teacher climbs up to the altar with a tool shaped like tree
leaves in his hands, murmuring some words. Then he comes down, leads the boy to the big
table, and unties the red belt symbolizing birth. At the same time, he tells the boy about the oath
he will make. The boy kneels down to thank his teacher before the wooden ladder is taken away.
Then the boy swears to the heaven, that he will never murder, commit any crime of arson,
robbery, theft, rape, kidnapping, mistreat his parents, backstab any person, etc. When the oath is
finished, the teacher makes a red stamp on one of the boy's hands with a triangle seal before the
adult ceremony is concluded.
The adult ceremony in the Yao community of Jiangcheng County, Yunnan Province has its own
unique ethnic features. All through the ceremony, traditional Yao virtues and moralities as well as
commandments and spirits are taught, in order to instill morals into boys entering society, and
provide good education and training at a critical stage of their development. The adult ceremony
can actively promote study, inheritance, and development of the traditional culture of the Yao
nationality.
Paohuabao-A unique and amazing custom of the Yao nationality
Paohuabao is a form of entertainment among the young men and women of the Yao nationality in
Funing County, Yunnan Province. It is called Wuduo in the Yao language.
Huabao is actually a small package of corn sewed in red, yellow, blue and white cloths. All the
men join together as one group and women as the other group; the groups do not have a size
limit. The groups are spaced about three meters apart; each person has one package in both
hands. One picks the package with his or her left hand, and then throws it to the other side with
the right hand. Then repeat it. The spectacle of this activity looks like a flurry of colorful flowers
flying through the air.
Legend goes that long ago, there was a young man and a girl who had fallen in love with each
other. The man was named Panasi, and the girl was known as Liusanniang. The chieftain of the
Yao nationality wanted to take Liusanniang as one of his concubines, but was refused. Then he
turned to Panasi and said that he must make a phoenix coat with five colors in one day, otherwise
he would not be allowed to marry Liusanniang. Panasi went through a lot of hardships without
even catching one single bird. When he believed that he was without hope, a fairy was greatly
moved by the spirits of Panasi and gave him a phoenix coat. With the help of Liusanniang and all
the other villagers, Panasi defeated and killed the chieftain He was then wed to Liusanniang. In
order to commemorate the fairys help, Panasi embroidered four packages in four colorsred,
yellow, blue and white, following the colors of the phoenix coat. The last color black was
abandoned, which symbolized breaking through the darkness and coming into the bright world.
From then on, there was the activity of Paohuabao in the Yao community.
Nowadays this activity in Funing County is an event of social interaction between young Yao men
and women. Many of them get their life long partners by taking part in this activity.