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Toward intercultural competence: from
questions to perspectives and practices
of the target culture
Dale Koike
a
& Manel Lacorte
b
a
Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, TX, USA
b
Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of Maryland,
College Park, MD, USA
Published online: 16 Jun 2014.
To cite this article: Dale Koike & Manel Lacorte (2014) Toward intercultural competence: from
questions to perspectives and practices of the target culture, Journal of Spanish Language
Teaching, 1:1, 15-30, DOI: 10.1080/23247797.2014.898497
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23247797.2014.898497
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Toward intercultural competence: from questions to perspectives
and practices of the target culture
Dale Koike
a
* and Manel Lacorte
b
a
Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA;
b
Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
(Received 7 September 2013; accepted 29 November 2013)
Teaching second-language (L2) culture is problematic due to the possibility of
creating stereotypes and overgeneralizations about the target culture. Several
researchers have proposed raising an awareness of first-language culture (C1) at
the same time they raise that of the second language (C2), to promote a relative
view of the C2. The objective is for learners to recognize themselves and others as
socially constructed. We propose learning culture through activities based on
surveys completed by native speakers (NS) that can lead learners to a deeper
understanding of L2 cultural perspectives and practices. To illustrate this
approach, target culture data (e.g., folk medicines used or the kinds of housing
students live in) were obtained via a questionnaire completed by 154 native-
speaker university students in Spain, Peru, Mexico and Argentina. These data
were used to create activities asking L2 Spanish learners to (1) compare their own
answers to those of the NS, (2) seek an understanding of why the NS responded
that way, (3) react in a similar situation in the target culture and language, using
NS perspectives and practices, and (4) do research with heritage speakers in their
community. In this way, they can develop an emic or insiders perspective on
L2 cultural views, practices, and values.
Keywords: intercultural competence; culture; questionnaire; survey; perspectives;
practices; heritage speakers
La enseanza de cultura en una segunda lengua (L2) puede resultar problemtica
por la posibilidad de crear estereotipos y generalizaciones excesivas sobre la
cultura meta. Varios investigadores han propuesto potenciar la sensibilizacin
hacia la cultura de la primera lengua (C1) al mismo tiempo que se fomenta el
inters respecto a la de la segunda lengua (C2), a fin de promover una visin
relativa de la C2. El objetivo es que los aprendices se reconozcan a s mismos y
reconozcan a otras personas como individuos socialmente construidos. Noso-
tros proponemos aprender cultura mediante actividades basadas en encuestas con
hablantes nativos (NS) que puedan facilitar entre los aprendices una comprensin
ms profunda de las perspectivas y prcticas culturales de la L2. Para ilustrar este
enfoque, obtuvimos datos de la cultura meta (p.ej., medicinas tradicionales de uso
habitual o tipos de vivienda en que los estudiantes suelen residir) a travs de un
cuestionario con 154 hablantes nativos que cursan estudios universitarios en
Espaa, Per, Mxico y Argentina. Usamos estos datos para crear actividades en
que se peda a los aprendices de espaol como L2 que (1) comparasen sus propias
respuestas a las ofrecidas por los NS; (2) tratasen de comprender el porqu de las
respuestas de los NS; (3) reaccionasen a una situacin similar en la cultura y
*Corresponding author. Email: d.koike@austin.texas.edu
Journal of Spanish Language Teaching, 2014
Vol. 1, No. 1, 1530, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23247797.2014.898497
2014 Taylor & Francis
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lengua metas, procurando emplear perspectivas y prcticas propias de los NS, y
(4) llevasen a cabo una investigacin con hablantes de herencia en su comunidad.
De este modo, los aprendices pueden desarrollar una perspectiva mica (desde
adentro) sobre puntos de vista, prcticas y valores culturales en la L2.
Palabras clave: competencia intercultural; cultura; cuestionarios; encuestas;
perspectivas; prcticas; hablantes de herencia
1. Introduction
Culture was often seen in the past as information about distinct areas such as the
arts, literature, philosophy or history; this perspective assumes the study of an
unchanging, monolithic set of cultural information. In recent years, however,
cultural knowledge is now considered an essential component of dynamic commun-
icative acts taking place within any given social context (Duranti 1997). Kramschs
(1998, 105) definition of culture as membership in a discourse community that
shares a common social space and history, and common imaginings represents such
a change in thinking of culture as an object of study, or a set of facts to be learned
about people and their products, lives and behaviors (Phillips 2001). Perspectives in
dealing with culture in the second-language (L2) classroom have shifted from
presenting facts to asking the students to interact with aspects of the target culture
while reflecting on their own first-language culture (C1). The goal is then to develop
an intercultural competence that, according to Bennett, Bennett and Allen (2003,
244), refers to the ability to relate effectively and appropriately in a variety of
cultural contexts. It requires culturally sensitive knowledge, a motivated mindset and
a skillset. In so doing, learners are able to understand more profoundly what
culture actually entails, become more engaged with cultural meanings, and
understand how the language they are learning is so embedded within culture that
the two should not be learned separately.
Raising students awareness of culture presents many challenges. It is difficult to
identify behaviors and values that represent, for example, the entire Hispanic culture.
It is easier to mention cultural artifacts and practices, such as the huipil shawl used
by indigenous people of Mexico and Central America, or the quinceaera celebration
of many Hispanic countries that takes place when a young girl turns 15 years old
(i.e., the big c culture; see Seelye 1984, 19). But culture itself is complex, as
Miquel and Sans (2004) suggest in their conception of three intimately related levels:
(1) culture with a capital C (literature, history, geography, gastronomy, arts, etc.);
(2) basic culture,
1
shared by most members of a society as a way to understand
behaviors and interact appropriately (e.g., the meaning of the color black as a
symbol of mourning in many Hispanic countries, or wishing people a happy saints
day as one would wish them a happy birthday); and (3) kulture with k, which
underlies the behavior and communication of specific groups who speak the same
language (e.g., Latin American immigrant communities in Spain, Latino youth in
the USA).
Galloway (1999) points out that we must also recognize the fact that every
language represents multiple societies and cultures. It is also difficult to identify
cultural behaviors and values (the little c culture) that underlie a society, much
less to generalize them to say that they are representative of most people of that
society. Take, for example, the US Hispanic-American population, embodied in
16 D. Koike and M. Lacorte
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many generations of Spanish speakers in some cases (such as Mexican-Americans) or
in only one (such as the rather recent immigration from El Salvador), not to mention
that this Hispanic-American population comprises native Spanish speakers and their
descendants from many different countries and societies.
Complicating the matter, Knutson (2006, 597) also notes that culture within a
given society undergoes a dynamic process of continual change, as it is influenced by
other societies and experiences. How then does one choose what to teach to learners?
And how does one raise a cultural awareness without running the risk of stereotypes
and overgeneralizations about the target culture?
Finally, in closing this discussion of issues to consider in dealing with culture in
the foreign-language curriculum, we should mention two concepts that are important
and have been mentioned only briefly to this point: (1) meaning in language; and
(2) learners identities in the face of the C2. Regarding meaning in language,
following Liddicoat and Scarino (2013), meanings are created only within a context,
which is itself seen through the perspective of a culture. As they state, culture is a
dynamic process within which meanings are created, exchanged, and interpreted
(p. 8). This view of cultural meaning implies that learners cannot simply read or hear
about the C2 and understand it at a meaningful level, but instead must engage in it in
view of their present and past experiences and knowledge, most of which they draw
from their C1. In other words, following Pikes (1982) concept of a participant
emic or subjective insiders view of a culture and a society, the goal should be to
foster such a viewpoint of the target culture in the L2 learner to the extent possible.
Such a view would be built on the NS insiders perspectives of their C1 and also on
the learners perspectives of their respective C1, with the goal of the learners coming
to understand and accept the NS insiders viewpoints of their C1.
The second issue of identity is also important in the teaching of culture. Learners
come to the task of learning a second language and culture with a sense of a given
identity that they own (Norton 2013). In order to understand and see the C2 relative
to their C1, this identity should undergo at least some change as they look at their
own C1 and then at the C2 to question, reflect on, and attempt to understand and
interpret both of them. This kind of critical understanding positions the learners in
relation to these identities (Liddicoat and Scarino 2013, 9).
In the next section we briefly review some proposals by other researchers for
what teachers can do to help learners achieve an intercultural competence, as well as
teachers cultural beliefs and a basic model for culture teaching. Then we present our
own conception of steps by which learners can come to see culture in relative terms.
Finally, we end with some conclusions and implications for culture teaching and
learning.
2. Proposals for teaching culture; teacher attitudes and needs; cultural teaching model
2.1. Proposals for teaching culture
Several researchers in the past have proposed raising an awareness of C1 at the same
time that the C2 is discussed, in order to promote a relative view of the C2 (Byram
1997). The objective of this proposal is to lead the learners to recognize themselves
and others as socially constructed (Roberts et al. 2001, 30), as well as culturally
constructed (Phillips 2001). This notion represents the view that what others do and
how they co-construct us, and vice versa, greatly influence each of us in our societies.
Journal of Spanish Language Teaching 17
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This view is reflected in the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language
(ACTFL) National Standards (1996, 2006), which state that one cultural goal in
language teaching and learning should be to help learners develop an understanding
of the distinct and unique nature of cultures, both their own and the target culture,
and attempt to discover aspects of the C2 that are similar to and different from their
own C1. Specifically, as OBrien and Levy (2008) clarify:
Standards 2.1 and 2.2 speak to three important aspects of the target culture: (a)
behavioral practices (i.e., patterns of social interactions such as forms of discourse and
the use of space); (b) philosophical perspectives (i.e., meanings, attitudes, values,
ideas); and (c) both tangible and intangible products (i.e., books, tools, foods, laws,
music, games). (Standards 2006, 47, as cited in OBrien and Levy 2008, 664)
Knutson (2006, 592) argues against attempts to present culture as information,
not only because they present the difficult choice of which culture(s) to teach and
what content to include, but also because they implicitly represent cultures under
study as other, or marked, diverging from the home culture norm. Instead, she
argues for a type of cultural instruction that can develop a cross-cultural
awareness and an understanding of cultural-bound values and behavior. Following
Galloways (1999, 153) concept of developing the cross-cultural mind, she also
supports the notion of developing an awareness of ones own (C1) culture at the
same time that one learns of the C2 culture to be able to make comparisons of values
and other cultural aspects appropriately. Such is the concept of learners themselves
as cultural subjects (cf. Kramsch 1993), and raising an awareness of themselves
within their own culture along with other cultures.
This idea fits well with Kramschs (1993, 239) notion of the language learners
third space, referring to that space between the home and the target culture, in
which the instructor attempts to help the learners develop an understanding of C2
behaviors and values, while the learners take whatever information they find most
interesting and relevant and make many of their own interpretations. Kramsch
argues that this unwillingness to try to identify with, much less become like, the
other indicates that there is a need for the learners to understand themselves as
cultural subjects, which they must study before they can truly move on to study
aspects of the C2 such as practices and institutions.
Knutson (2006) also confronts the issue of learners reluctance to let go of their
own identity when interacting with the C2 and not wanting to change their face in
front of their peers. Likewise, this reluctance would impede their embracing aspects
of the C2, including that of a C2 identity. For this reason, she supports the concept
of openly discussing mixed feelings that can emerge during lessons on the C2, even
if antagonistic opinions may be expressed (p. 594).
2.2. Teachers cultural beliefs
Of course, the above goals for the teaching of culture in the L2 classroom also apply to
teachers, who should have a deep understanding of their own culturally conditioned
and individually formed beliefs, attitudes, and values (Quinn Allen 2000, 51). In this
regard, the field of teacher cognition analyzes what teachers know, believe, and
think (Borg 2003, 81) and the relationship of these mental constructs to what teachers
18 D. Koike and M. Lacorte
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do in the L2 classroom(Borg 2006). Research on L2 teacher cognition has been prolific
in recent years, especially related to the teaching of grammar (e.g., Baleghizadeh and
Rezai 2010; Borg 1999; Burgess and Etherington 2002; Wong and Barrea-Marlys
2012). Along these lines, several studies have focused on L2 teachers beliefs and
practices when dealing with culture in their classrooms. In the context of English as a
foreign language in Spain, Sercu, Mndez Garca and Castro Prieto (2005) examine the
extent to which recent views of L2 learning as a self-directed process of constructing
meaning are reflected in teachers practices regarding cultural content. Their analysis
of data obtained through a web-based questionnaire with both open and closed
questions indicates that teachers tend to resort to an information model as the most
efficient way of teaching culture rather than a constructivist model. Constructivism
posits that the way we perceive reality in our world is through the categories that we use
to describe it; the categories are also the way we experience events. A constructivist
model would then require a more interactive approach to culture learning.
Also based on a questionnaire administered to English teachers in China, Han and
Song (2011) note teachers strong doubts about the possibility of students acquiring
intercultural skills at the university level, and of teaching L2/C2 in an integrated way
due to the teachers unfamiliarity with specific aspects of the target cultures as well as
the inadequacy of (inter)cultural elements in the teaching materials (p. 190). In a
study set in a Turkish university using questionnaires and interviews aimed at teachers
of English as an FL, Kuru-Gnen and Saglam (2012) point out that while teachers are
generally aware of the importance of integrating culture in the FL classroom, the
way in which they deal with the target culture is highly affected by curricular
considerations and limitations (p. 44) such as the syllabus, the units in the course
book, and other pedagogical materials. Finally, Byrd et al. (2011), in surveying world
language teachers, found a need for a healthier balance between the traditional
emphasis on cultural products and practices in the FL classroom, and much-needed
attention to understanding cultural perspectives, reflection on underlying cultural
attitudes and beliefs, and the knowledge of how to teach them.
2.3. Toward a model for teaching culture
There are many proposals for teaching culture, including authentic materials,
proverbs, role play, culture capsules, ethnographic projects, literature, film, etc.
(for some recent proposals see Byrd and Wall 2009; Dai 2011; Furstenberg 2010;
Kaiser 2011; Levine 2012). We must also mention the vast inventory of cultural
information on Hispanic artifacts, behaviors, conventions, etc., presented in the
Marco comn europeo de referencia para las lenguas: aprendizaje, enseanza,
evaluacin (MCER) by the Instituto Cervantes.
2
Considering those notions reviewed
above, we take as a point of departure some of the ideas presented by Bennett,
Bennett and Allen (2003) in their Developmental Model on Intercultural Sensitivity
(DMIS). Briefly, the model describes stages through which learners pass as they
acquire intercultural competence, which the authors explain by constructivist
principles (Watzlawick 1984), defined earlier. The authors claim that this framework
provides a way to understand how we develop an ability to construe and, likewise, to
experience cultural differences. Therefore, the more sophisticated and complex the
individuals world view, the more that individual will become interculturally
sensitive and competent (Bennett, Bennett and Allen 2003, 247).
Journal of Spanish Language Teaching 19
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The DMIS is divided into two broad stages through which learners pass:
Ethnocentric and Ethnorelative. In the Ethnocentric stage, the learners perceive
the target culture comparing it to their own C1 but, as time goes on, their
perceptions of cultural differences improve regarding their polarization of differ-
ences. In the Ethnorelative stage, the learners discover their own cultural context and
become increasingly accepting of their own behavior in view of the C2. They become
more adept at shifting their cultural frame of reference to see the C2 gradually
through the eyes of the people who embody the C2. In the final stages, learners are
able to shift their perceptions of self-identity and their perspective of the C2 as a
normal process as they view events, such that they are moving around in cultures
(Bennett, Bennett and Allen, p. 251). Although we do not follow their proposals for
curriculum design, we do incorporate many of these ideas in our method of using
cultural surveys as a basis for teaching culture, which we present in the next section.
An important culture teaching tool is seen in the Cultura Project (Furstenberg
2001, 2003), a telecollaborative course that aims at allowing learners and teachers,
for example in the USA and a target country, to learn about each other via an online
forum (Cultura Community site: http://cultura.mit.edu). The participants complete
surveys and post their opinions on various topics in their native languages for all to
read and comment upon, which in turn become objects of study for language and
cultural viewpoints. Blyths (2012) study based on the Cultura site discusses how
both French and American students were asked to post their thoughts about
individualism/individualism. He finds that for the French, the concept elicits negative
images (e.g., social isolation), while the American students viewed it as a positive
construct (e.g., the American Dream). The Cultura project has generated many
studies (e.g., Bauer et al. 2006; Blyth 2012; Furstenberg 2010; Furstenberg et al.
2001; Levet and Waryn 2006). We note, however, that one drawback of the project
appears to be that it sets up binary distinctions in which students are led to generalize
according to nationality (e.g., the French believe X while the Americans think Y),
which would seem to create divisions instead of intersubjectivity (Trmion 2013). We
believe our proposal, described below, could avoid this problem.
3. The use of cultural surveys
Based on the concepts and ideas about cultural learning and teaching that have been
reviewed in the previous sections, we propose teaching and learning culture through
use of a survey and activities that lead to L2 cultural perspectives and practices. This
proposal is carried out in various stages, which are: (1) finding out what the target
culture(s) think and do; (2) presenting scenarios; and (3) contrasting cultures. These
stages are discussed below.
3.1. Step 1: Finding out what the target culture(s) think and do
3.1.1. Procedures: Participants
We propose that the first step on which to raise cultural awareness is to find out what
people in the target culture(s) believe and do in their everyday practices. To this end,
we gathered data via an online questionnaire from 154 undergraduate university
students who were majoring in English as a Second Language in four Hispanic
countries: Mexico, Peru, Argentina, and Spain.
3
This age group was targeted, as well
20 D. Koike and M. Lacorte
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as this specialty, in order to reflect the age group of our target audience of Spanish
learners (1822 years old, undergraduate level of study), as well as their interest in
learning a foreign language.
4
Professors of English as a Second Language in those
countries that we knew were contacted via email to ask if they would pass on our
email to their students, requesting their participation in the online survey. The survey
was posted on a website for a certain number of days, and any students who wanted
to answer the questions were invited to do so. If they desired, they received their
choice of one of four bestseller books on the New York Times Bestseller List at
that time.
Because the responses were completely spontaneous, we believe we obtained at
least a fairly representative sample of views of Hispanic cultural beliefs and practices
of this age group.
3.1.2. Procedures: Questionnaire
The culture questionnaire used in this study included 19 questions that ranged from
certain cultural products (e.g., the kinds of medicines they use when they are ill) to
practices (e.g., type of housing that they live in while they study at the university).
The topics of the questions were selected according to the scope and sequence of an
elementary Spanish language textbook project that the authors were working on at
the time. The survey was hosted on an online platform (SurveyMonkey) and made
accessible to participants through a website address within a given time frame. Some
of the questions were open-ended, while others were multiple-choice but with one of
the choices as Other, to which the respondents could fill in a blank.
3.1.3. Procedures: Tallying the results
After the survey was closed to further participation, the results were categorized,
tallied, and reported in terms of percentages. Individual answers were also saved in
order to illustrate examples of certain patterns and tendencies. We present two
examples here to illustrate how the survey is used and how activities are developed
from it. For example, one of the questions was:
Question 1: Qu valoras ms a la hora de comer?
After seeing the question, native Spanish speakers saw the following options:
(a) la calidad de la comida
(b) el precio de la comida
(c) la gente con quien comes
(d) el lugar donde comes
(e) otro.
The L2 Spanish learners saw results in percentages as shown in Table 1.
5
As Table 1 illustrates, most of the informants in Peru and Argentina commented
on the quality of the food as being the most important factor. In Mexico, the
responses are mostly divided between the quality of the food and the people with
whom they eat, while in Spain more students identified the people with whom they
Journal of Spanish Language Teaching 21
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eat as most important, followed closely by the quality of the food. It is interesting
that no Spanish students commented on the place of the meal as of any import.
Apparently the price of the food and the place where the meal is eaten are not of
much importance to most participants in all the countries, although the fact that
there are some who ranked these options as most important should be noted, since
outliers are found in any society.
Before the L2 Spanish students see these results, they are also asked to answer the
same questions (e.g., What is most important to you at meal time?), presumably
using software or some other format that displays the percentages of the class
at once. Those results can be posted next to those in Table 1, and students can begin
to discuss among themselves questions based on the table, such as the following:
(1) Despus de ver los resultados de todos los grupos, discutan lo siguiente en
grupos pequeos:
. Por qu hay diferencias entre los grupos?
(a) No hay diferencias entre las culturas hispanas.
(b) La gente come comida buena y barata.
(c) Hay diferencias culturales con respecto a valores y prcticas sociales.
(d) Los estudiantes jvenes demandan una alta calidad de comida.
. Reflejan las diferencias diferentes valores o comportamientos entre los pases?
(a) S.
(b) No.
. Si es as, puedes decir cules son los valores o comportamientos relacionados
a la comida?
(a) La comida es buena si es de calidad y si hay buena compaa.
(b) La comida es un evento social para ciertas culturas hispanas.
(c) Si no como bien, no es comida.
(d) Todas las respuestas ac.
Depending on the level of Spanish proficiency of the group (true beginner,
previous study, accelerated), the questions can be in English or Spanish, with or
without the multiple-choice options provided. The discussion after seeing these
questions, if it occurs, can also be in Spanish or English. The goal is that the students
come to recognize at least some of the following:
(a) There are cultural differences concerning meals even within the Hispanic
culture(s).
Table 1. Qu valoras ms a la hora de comer?
Per Espaa Mxico Argentina
Calidad de la comida 60.9 43.5 41.5 51.1
Precio 8.7 4.4 3.8 4.4
Gente con quien comes 21.7 52.2 39.6 31.1
Lugar donde comes 4.4 0 11.3 8.9
Otro 4.4 0 3.8 4.4
Sin respuesta 0 0 0 0
22 D. Koike and M. Lacorte
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(b) The differences reflect different social expectations and values connected with
meals.
(c) Values among the Hispanic groups in general for this population of students
seem to reflect the expectation that meals should be of good quality but also
should be eaten in good company.
(d) The price and place where meals are eaten are definitely secondary to the
other values for most native speakers in all the countries.
Students should also consider how closely their own C1 cultural values reflect
those seen in the questionnaire results and, where there are differences, what the
origin might be. Since US student populations are increasingly of mixed ethnic
groups, practices and values discussed might reflect that mixture.
3.2. Step 2: Presenting scenarios
The next step is to try to contextualize what the students might have gained from the
questionnaire, relevant to the topic of meals.
Situacin 1:
Te han invitado por email a cenar en Buenos Aires donde ests (donde
estudias) para el cumpleaos de tu amiga argentina. No sabes los detalles todava;
solo la fecha y la hora. Imagina cmo va a ser el escenario (cuntas personas van a
ir; si son amigos muy ntimos o colegas no tan ntimos; si van a cenar en un lugar
elegante o de comida regular; etc.).
[or students may choose from among options such as:
(a) Probablemente van muchos amigos a un restaurante del barrio, con comida
regular que no cuesta mucho.
(b) Probablemente van a un restaurante con comida elegante, y pocos amigos
van a ir.
(c) Probablemente van a la casa de otra amiga que es una cocinera excelente,
pero no va mucha gente porque no hay espacio.
(d) Probablemente van a la casa de una amiga y todos van a llevar cualquier cosa
para comer.]
After the discussion in Step 1, the L2 learners might generalize what they have
learned about the Hispanic cultures, perhaps to guess that for the Argentine friend,
the most likely scenario might (a), (b) or (c). If the friend values food very much, she
probably would like (b) or (c), but if she likes to be with many friends and the food is
not that important, then option (a) might be selected. Of course, these again are
generalizations and one must consider the personalities and circumstances of the
individuals as well.
3.3. Step 3: Contrasting cultures
After learners have had an opportunity to apply their cultural deductions to a
situation in a Hispanic culture, they can then try to imagine how the same situation
would play out in the C1.
Situacin 2: En tu propia cultura:
Journal of Spanish Language Teaching 23
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Imaginemos que tu amiga argentina viene a visitarte en los Estados Unidos. T
quieres invitar a otros estudiantes norteamericanos que tambin estudiaron en
Argentina y que la conocen para verla. Qu escenario escoges?
(a) Tienes una fiesta en casa y compras comida cara porque es muy importante
para tu amiga, pero invitas a solo tres o cuatro amigos.
(b) Compras comida barata pero invitas a muchos amigos porque ellos son lo
ms importante para el evento.
(c) Les pides a muchos amigos que traigan cualquier comida a tu casa (pot
luck).
6
(d) Les pides a pocos amigos que traigan bebidas alcohlicas (byob)
7
y/o la
mejor comida que sepan preparar.
Since it is quite common in the USA for friends to bring drinks (e.g., a bottle of
wine, a six-pack of beer) to an informal party, sometimes the party organizer buys
relatively little in the way of drinks (perhaps soft drinks or a few bottles of wine) and
counts on the friends to bring them. So it may be that the US Spanish learners who
had not had much experience abroad would select option (d), and/or perhaps (c) if
they know the other friends well. These options help defray the costs of the party.
But if one takes the perspective of the Argentine students as reflected in the survey, it
is possible that either (a) or (b) would be the first choices.
This comparison of cultural norms is important, as discussed earlier, because
they are relative to ones own perspective and because the goal is to help the learners
understand (and eventually accept) cultural differences instead of rejecting them as
foreign.
3.4. Second cultural example
Another example is as follows.
Question 2: Quin paga la cuenta?
Related to the same topic of meals, another question that reflects practices is
that of who pays the bill after eating with a friend. The question was presented as
follows: Qu opinas sobre la idea de dividir la cuenta con un/a compaero/a cuando
hay que pagar la cuenta despus de comer en un restaurante?
3.4.1. Step 1: Learners answer the same question
Learners begin by answering the following questions:
(1) Qu opinas sobre la idea de dividir la cuenta con un/a compaero/a cuando
hay que pagar la cuenta despus de comer en un restaurante?
(2) Te ofendes cuando tu compaero/a no quiere dividir la cuenta (que cada
quien pague su propia comida)? Te ofendes a veces cuando l/ella insiste en
dividir la cuenta?
(3) Discuten esto antes de comer?
Results from the class are tallied and shown to the students. Since the first
question was an open-ended question, there were no options presented from which to
24 D. Koike and M. Lacorte
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choose. Students may want to explain their points of view, if there is more than one
popular response.
3.4.2. Step 2: Hispanic students answer the same question
Results for this question from the students of Peru and Spain were as shown in
Table 2.
Learners see their answers in comparison to those displayed in Table 2 and are
asked to comment (in English or Spanish) if they agree or disagree with any of the
opinions expressed by the Hispanic students. They see that most Peruvian students
are in agreement that both people should pay the bill after the meal, whereas the
Spanish students are more divided between both parties paying their own bill or
dividing it only if both ate more or less the same quantity of food. In other words, it
seems that nearly a third of the Spanish students are interested in ensuring equity
among the individuals.
It is interesting to see in the individual comments for Spanish students that one
person differentiated behaviors about paying for food versus for drinks: for drinks,
everyone should pay for a round of drinks (which means there would be a lot of
drinking if the group is large). Among the Peruvian students, it is also of note that
several students felt that if one invited another to eat, then the inviter is expected to
pay; an expectation that was not even mentioned among the Spanish students.
One would hope that the Spanish L2 learners could spot these subtle differences
in behaviors regarding paying the bill after a meal, a matter that could cause
cross-cultural difficulties if expectations in the C1 and C2 are different.
3.4.3. Step 3: Scenarios
Again, the next step is to contextualize the information learned about the target
culture from the questionnaire, which here would be relevant to the topic of settling
the bill after a meal in a Hispanic country with a Hispanic friend.
Table 2. Qu opinas sobre la idea de dividir la cuenta con un/a compaero/a?
Per (%) Espaa (%)
S, es apropiado y correcto 67.7 42.9
Solo si los dos comieron ms o menos lo equivalente 28.6
Tomamos turnos 10.7
Las invitaciones son una excepcin (no se divide) 12.9 1 persona
S, aunque uno pierde 1 persona
Est bien pero es mejor si cada quien paga lo suyo 1 persona
Si son bebidas, cada uno paga una ronda 1 persona
Si es un grupo grande, cada quien paga un porcentaje 1 persona
Hay que discutirlo primero 1 persona -
Depende de la relacin 1 persona -
Hay que pagar lo suyo para evitar malentendidos 1 persona -
Me gusta pagar lo mo 1 persona -
Si puedo ayudar a mi amigo/a 1 persona -
Yo pago por ser caballero 1 persona -
Journal of Spanish Language Teaching 25
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Situacin 3:
Ests en Barcelona y almuerzas por primera vez con una chica que se sienta cerca
de ti en una de tus clases. Ella pide un bocadillo y una cerveza, diciendo que no tiene
mucha hambre, por 5 euros. T tienes mucha hambre y pides el men del da: una
sopa, un platillo de espaguetis, un bife pequeo con patatas, y meln, con un vaso de
vino, por 9 euros.
(1) Al terminar de comer, cmo se paga la cuenta?
(a) Los dos dividen la cuenta en dos.
(b) Cada persona paga lo suyo.
(c) Esta vez t pagas, y ella la prxima.
(d) Si eres hombre, tienes que pagar. Si eres mujer, cada persona paga
lo suyo.
(2) Es mejor discutir esto antes de pedir la comida, durante la comida, o
despus de comer?
(3) Y si la amiga es peruana y estn en Lima?
This scenario puts the learners in the Hispanic culture of Spain (and then Peru)
and asks them to consider the situation of how to pay and how to address the matter
in a perspective that might be more appropriate there. It is likely that, after seeing
the data from the Spanish students, most learners would choose (b) as the preferred
option because the price of the meals should be almost the same if the bill is divided
in half. However, in Peru, the response would likely be (a), where dividing the check
is more expected.
3.4.4. Step 4: Contrasting cultures
Situacin 4:
Ests en Cincinnati, Ohio, almorzando con tu amiga espaola por primera vez.
(1) Al terminar de comer, cmo se paga la cuenta?
(a) Los dos pagan la mitad de la cuenta.
(b) Cada persona paga lo suyo.
(c) Esta vez t pagas, y ella la prxima.
(d) Si eres hombre, debes pagar. Si eres mujer, cada persona paga
lo suyo.
(2) Es mejor discutir esto antes de pedir la comida, durante la comida, o
despus de comer?
In the USA, it is common among students for individuals to pay for their own
meal (b), or they take turns paying if they frequently eat together (c), or they often
split the check if at a sit-down restaurant (not fast food) (a). Social norms
regarding gender roles and who should pay for the bill have changed considerably
over the years such that it is no longer assumed that men always pay the tab (d).
Since discussing the matter of payment with someone one does not know well can be
awkward, it is usually mentioned casually at the middle or end of the meal. If it is the
first time the two parties eat together, there is usually some brief conversation about
how the bill will be paid, and it is frequently split evenly as both will often attempt to
26 D. Koike and M. Lacorte
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order the same meal or something similar to each others price range. In Spain, the
students in our survey indicated that they preferred to split the bill, especially if the
amounts are somewhat different for the two meals.
As a final step in all the cultural topics, if it is possible, learners are asked to find
a Hispanic person they know (in classes, the neighborhood, church or other
organization, etc.) and ask the same question. In this way, they can perhaps learn
more about the cultural norms of the Hispanics in their own community. If the
Hispanics are of the second, third, or other generation in the country, it is likely that
learners will discover that these individuals often shift among cultural norms of the
Hispanic and the dominant society, or that they use norms that represent an
amalgamation of norms.
The goal, of course, is for learners to discuss their own cultural expectations
regarding cultural norms, and to compare them to those of the different Hispanic
groups, so that they might see their own behaviors and values in light of those of
Hispanic cultures. We want them to come to expect more or less certain behaviors
when they are in one or the other culture (with the understanding that not everyone
in a society behaves the same way), and react more or less as native speakers would
expect or at least accept as not being too foreign.
4. Conclusions and implications
This description of how we use cultural surveys serves to illustrate our overall
approach to the teaching of culture; i.e., from questions answered by native speakers
and students to the development of learners understanding of target perspectives
and practices. Since we recognize that not all instructors may have the time or
resources to conduct the same kind of cultural survey with students in other
countries, another option would be to gather data from recently arrived Hispanics or
heritage speakers in the local community. What is important is to hear the voices
of the targeted group of Hispanics themselves, not what a person observes about
the culture. Their information serves as a springboard into discussion and reflection
about both C1 and C2.
Culture permeates every aspect of human life, and it is continuously evolving
(Bennett, Bennett, and Allen 2003). As such, its dynamicity most definitely affects
efforts of intercultural communication and interpretations that people make in such
situations. As Liddicoat (2009, 131) states, Intercultural communication is
communication that is continually mindful of the multiple possibilities of interpreta-
tion resulting from the possible presence of multiple cultural constructs, value
systems and conceptual associations which inform the creation and interpretation of
messages. For that reason, should cultural surveys be used in language teaching,
they should be updated regularly, to reflect cultural changes in Hispanic societies.
Nevertheless, the use of questionnaires also has its limitations, as Drnyei and
Taguchi (2010, 6) point out, including the risk of eliciting simplified and superficial
answers, unreliable and unmotivated respondents, a bias toward providing what is
believed to be the socially desirable answers, and a tendency to overgeneralize.
Despite these risks, we believe the data reflected in our questionnaires show probable
tendencies in the different Hispanic cultures, which can provide valuable information
to students. They serve as a point of departure into the cultural norms under study
and a window to critical thinking about intercultural differences.
Journal of Spanish Language Teaching 27
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In addition, using these questionnaires helps the Spanish language educator tap
into current norms of these students who could arguably be said to represent
communities of practice in their societies (Lave and Wenger 1991). The Hispanic
student groups who participated in our cultural questionnaires often shared the same
career goals (usually English teachers or translators) and went through the same
classes together in their programs for several years. If it can be claimed that they are
indeed communities of practice, then, as Ochs (1996, 416) points out, Members of
societies are agents of culture rather than merely bearers of a culture encoded in
grammatical form the relationship between person and society is dynamic and
mediated through language (cf. Corder and Meyerhoff 2007). It is the task of the L2
educator to help learners find and interact with that relationship between people and
their culture, striving to develop an emic or insiders perspective (Pike 1982) on
L2 cultural views, practices and values.
Notes
1. The authors call this cultura a secas, which we have loosely translated here as basic
culture.
2. See, for example: http://cvc.cervantes.es/Ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/plan_curricular/niveles/
11_saberes_y_comportamientos_introduccion.htm.
3. Although it would be useful for readers to see the complete questionnaire, we are unable to
include it here at this moment because it is part of a larger textbook project. We can only
show a sample of what is included in the questionnaire.
4. As was the case in the United States in the population of students who study foreign
languages as a specialization, the great majority of Spanish native speaker respondents
were females.
5. Students saw the results displayed in pie charts where possible.
6. Pot Luck signifies the expectation that each person invited to the event will bring
something to share with the others (dessert, main dish, salad, etc.).
7. BYOB (bring your own beverage/booze) signifies that the guests are supposed to
bring beverages (usually alcohol) to share with others.
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