p. II.

2/1
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!
Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
A"ove a certain flo# velocity one has a transition
II$2 % &ur"ulent 'lo#
laminar ( tur"ulent
#ith velocity com)onents perpendicular to the main flo# direction$
*ei+h"orin+ layers transmit momentum not only "y molecular interaction
"ut also "y cross currents$
E E h h r + with ...eddy current
2
[ ] [ ]
m
E
s
= =
Laminar and tur"ulent velocity )rofiles in a )i)e
p. II.2/2
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
,'rictional force- at the #all .no tur"ulence at the #all, E/00 %
x
w
r R
v
r
t h
=

Physical intuition% ( , , , , )
w x
F v D geometry t r h =
Usin+ dimensional analysis one +ets%
2
1
2
( , ) with
x
w
x
v D
f Re geometry Re
v
r
t
h
r
= =
introducin+ the Reynolds number Re and the friction factor f
Inter)retation of 1e num"er%
.
Re
v v vD
v
D
r r
h
h
= = =
momentum transport by
momen
convection
diffu tum transport y sion b
'or the diffusion term a sim)lification of *e#ton la# is used
x
yx
v v
y D
t h h

;
p. II.2/3
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!
Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
A fe# e2am)les%
film flo# circular strai+ht )i)e curved )i)e .s)iral0

if 2R3D 4 000 , #ith
D$$$)i)e diameter, 2R$$$s)iral diameter
Re 1
cr
@
3
Re 2
2
cr
D
R
@
Re 23
cr
@
'or different +eometries the friction factor f for tur"ulent flo# can only
"e determined e2)erimentally$
In +eometrically similar )i)es the flo# fields at same Re num"er are
called dynamically similar$ &he flo# )attern is characterized "y Re only$
&he chan+e from laminar to tur"ulent is at a critical Reynolds number
Re
cr
$
p. II.2/!
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!
Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
&he conce)t of laminar "oundary layer
5ith tur"ulent flo# the flo# )attern can "e a))ro2imately
descri"ed "y a laminar "oundary layer .#ith constant velocity
+radient0 and a tur"ulent core #ith constant velocity .)lu+ flo#0$
tur"ulent
)lu+ flo#
6
h
laminar flo#
v
ma2 7
&he shear stress at the #all is in this case%
x
w
h
v
t h
d
=
E2am)le% 'or tur"ulent flo# in )i)e at 1e/0
8
one has f / 0$00!8 and thus
d
h
3D / 0$00!
5ith
2 1
2
w x
f v t r =
one ends at% Re
2
h
D f
d
=
p. II.2/"
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
Friction factors for flow in tubes I
$ Laminar flo# in circular tu"es .1e 4 29000% 1e#ritin+ the results
of II$$" one +ets%
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
2
2
1 2
2 1
2 2 1#
1 1 1
1 1 1 Re
( )
(Re )
2 2 2
2 2 $
w
x x x
p p p p R R
x x x x
f
p p R
v v D v
R
R x x
h h
t h h
r r
h
h
- -
- -
= = = =
-
-
or%
#!
!
Re
f =
9$ General relationshi) for tu"es #ith relative roughness 2 is +iven in
the fi+ure on the ne2t )a+e%
.Blasius equation0
2$ Turbulent flo# in circular tu"es .!000 4 1e 4 0
8
0% em)irical
relationshi)%
1
!
! .31# Re f
-
=
p. II.2/#
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
p. II.2/%
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
Friction factors for flow in tubes II
!$ Pressure dro) in strai+ht channels% &he momentum "alance for
stationary flo# reads #ith A : area of cross-section and
S : ,#et- circumference .#ith considera"le friction0%
( )
1 2 2 1
( )
x w
F p A p A S x x t = = - - -

.Fanning equation0
2
2 1
( )
2
w
x
S x x S
p f v x
A A
t r -
D = = D
&o+ether #ith the definition of the friction factor
one +ets%
2 1
2
w
x
f
v
t
r
=
'or laminar flo# .1e429000
one has%

'or tur"ulent flo# #ith !00041e40
8
one has%
2
2
1# 2 $
Re 2
x x x
p v x v x v
R R
r h
D = D = D
1
!
1
2 2 1.%"
!
2
.31# 2 .31#
Re
! 2 !
x
x x x
v R
p v x v x v
R R
r
r r
h
-
-

D = D = D


p. II.2/$
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
7ue to the form of the 'annin+ e;uation for non-circular )i)es the so-
called hydraulic diameter is introduced, #hich #as also used in )$II$23<%
!
h
A
D
S
=
p. II.2/&
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!
Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
Friction factors for flow in tubes III
In )ractical )ro"lems often the
relationshi) "et#een a +iven )ressure
dro) and the corres)ondin+ flo# rate
is of )articular interest$
1earran+ement of the 'annin+
e;uation leads to%
&he r$h$s$ of this e;uation is usually
+iven in flo# )ro"lems$ &he l$h$s$
is a function of 1e only, and can "e
calculated from the fi+ure in )$II$23<
and re)resented in a ne# +ra)h$
5ith this +ra)h for +iven )ressure
dro) the corres)ondin+ 1e num"er
an the flo# rate can "e easily
determined$
2
3
2
2 2
2
! Re !
2
x
x
v D
D p D p
f
x x
v
r
r
h h
r

D D
= =

D D

p. II.2/1
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
Pressure drop in pipe systems
In )i)e systems one has to do #ith a com"ination of )i)es and various
other elements li=e fittin+s, "ends, valves, etc$
>ulti)lication of momentum #ith the corres)ondin+ velocity leads to an
e;uation for ener+y flo#%
for the )um)in+ ener+y to "uild u) mechanical ener+y and to overcome
friction losses$
. v v r
2
2 2
2 1 2 1
1
1 1
( ) ( )
2
A m fr m
dp g h h v v E f f f
r

= + - + - +

+eneral Bernoulli
e;uation
5ithout friction losses .E
fr
/00 and #ithout )um)in+ .
A
/00 the follo#in+
sim)lified ?ernoulli e;uation is o"tained%
2
2
p v
h
g g r
+ + = constant along a stream line
'or the friction losses E
fr
one has the follo#in+ e2)ressions%
for strai+ht channels
for fittin+s, "ends, $$$
2
2
fr
v
SL
E f
A
=
2
2
fr w
v
E K =
and for a #hole system%
2 2
2 2
fr w
i j
i j
v v
SL
E f K
A

= +



p. II.2/11
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
p. II.2/12
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
p. II.2/13
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
p. II.2/1!
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!
Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
Pressure drop in pipe systems - !amples
a$ "traight hori#ontal tube% &he +eneral ?ernoulli e;uation sim)lifies
in this case to%
2
2 2
2 1
2 1 2 1
1
1 1
( ) ( )
2
fr fr
p p
dp g h h v v E E
r r

-
= + - + - + = + + +

and thus insertin+ the 'annin+ e;uation%

2 2
1 2
2 2
fr w
v v
p p SL
E f K
A r
-
= = = #ith
w
SL
K f
A
=
&he friction loss factor K
#
can "e calculated analytically for some
)ractically im)ortant cases$ &he follo#in+ three e;uations can "e used
for these calculations, #ith F
#
"ein+ the force e2erted on the #all "y the
flo#in+ fluid%
1 1 2 2
2 1 2 2 1 1
2
2 2
2 1 2 1
1
( )
1 1
( ) ( )
2
m
m
mass balance
momentum balance
Bernoulli equation
w
fr
v A v A
F v v p A p A
E dp g h h v v
f r r
f
r
= =
= - + -

= - + - + -

p. II.2/1"
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
"$ "udden tube e!pansion%
In this case eddy currents occur "ehind the corner
of the e2)ansion leadin+ to a force term #hich can
"e #ritten as%
#ith )
?
"ein+ the )ressure @ust "ehind the e2)ansion$
It turns out that the follo#in+ a))ro2imation is valid%
&he momentum "alance leads to%
and thus%
2
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2
1 2 2
1
1 1
( ) 1
2 2
fr
p p p p A
E v v v
A r r


- -
= + - = + -




2 1
( )
w B
F A A p = -
1 B
p p
2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1
( ) ( )
m w
F A A p v v p A p A f = - = - + -
or%
2
2 1
2
1 2 2 2 1 2
1
2
( )
( ) (1 )
m
v v
A
p p v v v v
A
A
f
r r
-
- = = - = -
2
2 2 2 2
2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
1
1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
fr fr
p p
dp g h h v v E v v E
r r

-
= + - + - + = + - +

&he ?ernoulli e;uation +ives%

&o+ether #ith the momentum e;uation #e end u) at%
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
fr
A
E v
A

= -


or%
2
2
1
1
w
A
K
A

= -


p. II.2/1#
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Chapter II.2 Flow Phenomena Turbulent Flow
c$ Gradual tube e!pansion%
In this case the force term can "e estimated "y%
&he momentum "alance leads to%
1 2
1 2
( )
2
w
p p
F A A

!
2 1
1 2
1 2
( )
2
m
v v
p p
A A
f -
- =
+

fr
E = &he ?ernoulli e;uation leads to%
#hich is indeed true, if the an+le fulfills 32 4 AB$
If one starts #ith the assum)tion of zero frictional ener+y
Cne ends u) #ith the force term as first assumed a"ove$
'lo# #ith ne+li+i"le ener+y dissi)ation )lays +enerally an
im)ortant role and #ill "e treated se)arately in the ne2t
section$

fr
E =