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Lecture 0 - Review of Basic Concepts
Lecture 0 - Review of Basic Concepts
Lecture 0 - Review of Basic Concepts
Several adjustment techniques are available, two Least Squares Adjustment – used to solve problems
of these that are used in surveying are: with redundant measurements (number of equations >
number of unknowns)
– applied to survey measurements and models
• Simple Adjustment – approximate adjustment under the category of geodetic survey.
• Least Squares Adjustment – most rigorous
and most commonly used approach The least squares criterion:
φ = ν12 + ν22 + … + νn2 = minimum
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Review of Least Squares Adjustment of Indirect Observations
• General form: (matrix form)
Techniques of least squares: ν + B∆ = f
1. Adjustment of indirect observations where:
(Parametric adjustment) ν = residual matrix
2. Adjustment of observations only B = matrix of coefficients for unknown
(Conditional adjustment) parameters
∆ = matrix of unknowns
f = matrix of numerical constants
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Adjustment of Indirect Observations Adjustment of Indirect Observations
Solution: Solution:
Writing it as the matrix form of ν + B∆ = f,
v1 −1 0 −52°25'37" 5 3 x1 452°03'14"
x1 =
v
2 + 0 − 1 = −63°18' 20" 3 4 x2 410°30 '20"
v 1 1 x2 115°44 '00"
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Adjustment of Observations Only Adjustment of Observations Only
Solution: Solution:
The minimum number of measurements to In matrix form, the form Aν = f can be written as:
solve for a plane triangle is 2. The redundancy v1
therefore is:
(1 1 1) v2 = 03"
r = n – no = 3 – 2 = 1 v
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This number also corresponds to the
number of observation equations needed,
which is: To solve for the residuals we use ν = QATWef.
x1 + x2 + x3 = 180°
v1 + v2 + v3 = 180° - l1 - l2 - l3 = 03”
models O
yo
∆x
xo x
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Review of Linearization Review of Linearization
• uses the Taylor Series Expansion:
Example: Given the estimated values to be x1o = 50m,
dy x2o = 20m, and x3o = 30m, linearize the following
f ( x) = y = yo + ∆x + higher-order terms equations:
dx xo
π 1
where: y1 = x32 + x1 x3
8 2
ignored!
yo = f(xo) 1 1
y2 = x1 x3 + x2 x3
∆x = x - xo 2 2
π 2 1
δ y1
δx
δ y1 δ y1 1
x 0
π 1
x30 + x10
y10 8 x30 + 2 x10 x30 1103.43 2
δ x2 δ x3 2 3 0
4 2 y0 = = = m
J =
1 = y2 1
δ y2 δ y2 δ y2 1 1 1 1 0 x1 x3 + 1 x2 x3 1050.00
δx δ x2 δ x3 2 3
x x3 x10 + x20 2 0 0 2 0 0
1
0
2 0 2 2
15 0 49 Using the linearized form y = y0 + J∆x:
J =
15 15 35 ∆x1
1103.43 15 0 49 2
y= + 15 15 35 ∆x2 m
1050.00
∆x3
Review of Linearization
The linearized forms of the equations are therefore:
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What is Statistics? Application of Statistics
Statistics may be applied to 2 different groups:
• It is a collection of methods for:
Planning Experiments 1. Populations -- Complete collection of all elements
Obtaining… to be studied.
Organizing… -- example, scores, people, measurements.
Summarizing… 2. Samples -- A sub-collection of elements drawn from
Presenting… a population.
Analyzing… -- example, this class is a sample from the
Interpreting… entire population of statistic students – statistic
and Drawing Conclusions from… students are a sample from the entire population of
students, etc.
DATA
characteristic of a population. ∑X i
sample mean = X = i =1
n
Samples Statistics n
∑X i
A Statistic is a measurement describing some population mean = µ = i =1
characteristic of a sample. N
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Standard Deviation Variance
•A measure of variation of the individual values about •Square of the standard deviation
the mean
n
n
∑ (Xi − X ) 2 ∑ (X i − X )2
sample std. dev. = s = i =1 sample variance = s 2 = i =1
n −1 n −1
∑(X − µ )2
n
∑(X i − µ) 2
i
N N
• Expected value
• Sample variance s2 is the best point estimate of
the population variance σ2. • Equal to the mean for a normal distribution
• Sample standard deviation s is the best point • represents the (probability-weighted) average
estimate of the population standard deviation σ. value for the random variable
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Distribution Functions Distribution Functions
Chi-squared Distribution t (student) Distribution