Site Histories in Environmental Site Assessments: A New Opportunity for Public Historians

Author(s): Dale A. Stirling

Source: The Public Historian, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Spring, 1990), pp. 45-52
Published by: University of California Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3378687
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S i t e Hi st ori e s i n
En vi ron me n t alS i t e
Asse ssme n t s: A N e w
Opport un i t y f or P ub li c
Hi st ori an s
DALEA. S TIRLIN G
OUR N ATION IS AT RIS K. Ove r t he past t w o c e n t uri e s, ow n e rs of prope r-
t i e s support i n g i n dust ri al an d c omme rc i al ac t i vi t i e s have re le ase d mi lli on s
of t on s of hazardous mat e ri als i n t o our n at i on 's ai r, soi l, an d groun d w at e r.
S uc h ac t i vi t yt hre at e n s n ot on lyour e n vi ron me n t , b ut human he alt h an d
saf e t yas w e ll. Ac t i vi st s li ke Rac he l Carson an d Ralph N ade r re c ogn i ze d a
ge n e rat i on ago t he grave dan ge r of ade c li n e i n e n vi ron me n t al quali t y. As
an at i on , how e ve r, w e have b e e n slow t o ac kn ow le dge our e n vi ron me n t al
prob le ms. The ac t i vi st s' c rusade s provi de d t he i mpe t us f or gove rn me n t al
ac t i on i n t he 1960s w he n t he i n i t i al f oc us of f e de ral an d st at e e n vi ron me n -
t allaw s w as t o c le an upt he n at i on 's w at e rw ays an d ai r. Ade c ade lat e r t he
e mphasi s shi f t e d t o re gulat i n g di sposal of soli d an d li qui d w ast e s on lan d,
an d ove r t he past de c ade , at t e n t i on has t urn e d t o t he t housan ds of n e -
gle c t e d an d ab an don e d hazardous w ast e si t e s t hroughout t he c oun t ry,
w hi c h pose t hre at s t o human he alt h an d t he e n vi ron me n t . 1
DALEA. S TIRLIN G i s an e n vi ron me n t al hi st ori an w i t h t he ge oe n vi ron me n t al c on sult i n g f i rm
of Lan dauAssoc i at e s, In c ., b ase d i n Edmon ds, Washi n gt on . He re c e i ve d hi s M.A. i n hi st ory
f romAlaskaP ac i f i c Un i ve rsi t y. P re vi ouslyhe w as an e n vi ron me n t al hi st ori an w i t h aS e at t le -
b ase d c on sult i n g f i rm.
Thi s art i c le i s b ase d i n part on "The Import an c e of Hi st oryi n En vi ron me n t al S i t e Asse ss-
me n t s," w hi c h t he aut hor pre pare d f or t he S olvi n g En vi ron me n t al P rob le ms Con f e re n c e at
t he Eve rgre e n S t at e Colle ge , Olympi a, Washi n gt on , Apri l28, 1989.
1. Ralph P alumb o an d An dre w Ke n e f i c k, "N e got i at i n g an d Draf t i n g Re alEst at e S ale
Agre e me n t s: The S e lle r's P oi n t of Vi e w ," (pape r pre se n t e d at t he Hazardous Wast e i n Re al
Est at e Tran sac t i on s Con f e re n c e ; S e at t le , Washi n gt on , Marc h 9, 1989), 1.
45
The P ub li c Hi st ori ars, Vol. 12, N o. 2 (S pri n g 1990)
C) 1990 b yt he Re ge n t s of t he Un i ve rsi t yof Cali f orn i a
s-
. . l:-
As n e w de ve lopme n t s are plan n e d, i t i s e sse n t i alt o re se arc h past use s of si t e s t o de t e rmi n e
t he i r pot e n t i alf or c on t ami n at i on . (P hot o c ourt e syof t he S e at t le De part me n t of Con st ruc t i on
an d Lan d Use , 1987)
46 * THEP UBLIC HIS TORIAN
The f i rst si gn i f i c an t e n vi ron me n t al ac t w as t he Re sourc e Con se rvat i on
an d Re c ove ryAc t (RCElA), e n ac t e d as P ub li c Law 94-580 i n 1976. It s
pri mary purpose i s t o prot e c t human he alt h an d t he e n vi ron me n t . Ot he r
ob je c t i ve s i n c lude c on se rvi n g valuab le mat e ri al an d e n e rgyre sourc e s b y
provi di n g assi st an c e t o st at e an d loc algove rn me n t s f or prohi b i t i n g ope n
dumpi n g; re gulat i n g t he man age me n t of hazardous w ast e s; e n c ouragi n g
re c yc li n g, re use , an d t re at me n t of hazardous w ast e s; provi di n g gui de li n e s
f or soli d w ast e man age me n t ; an d promot i n g b e n e f i c i al soli d w ast e man age -
me n t , re sourc e re c ove ry, an d re sourc e c on se rvat i on . Compli an c e w i t h
t he ac t i s t he re spon si b i li t y of t hose w ho ge n e rat e , t ran sport , t re at , st ore ,
or di spose of hazardous w ast e ; as w e llas t hose w ho produc e , b urn , di st ri b -
ut e , or marke t hazardous-w ast e -de ri ve d f ue ls an d t hose w ho st ore hazar-
dous w ast e s i n un de rgroun d st orage t an ks. P e rhaps t he most si gn i S c an t
e le me n t of RCRAi s S ub t i t le C, w hi c h provi de s f or a"c radle -t o-grave 7'
programt o re gulat e hazardous w ast e s f romge n e rat i on t hrough di sposal or
de st ruc t i on .2 The f orc e of RCElAw as f urt he r e n han c e d i n 1984 b yt he
Hazardous an d S oli d Wast e Ame n dme n t (HS WA), w hi c h b an s c e rt ai n
w ast e s f romlan df i lli n g af t e r spe c i f i c dat e s; sub je c t s pre vi ously un re gu-
lat e d hazardous w ast e s t o RCRArule s; an d provi de s addi t i on al aut hori t y
t o t he En vi ron me n t al P rot e c t i on Age n c y(EP A) t o f orc e ow n e rs an d ope ra-
t ors t o c le an upc on t ami n at i on prob le ms c ause d b ye arli e r i n ade quat e
man age me n t or di sposal prac t i c e s.
The most si gn i f i c an t st at ut e f or e n vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s w as
e n ac t e d i n De c e mb e r 1980. The Compre he n si ve En vi ron me n t al Re -
spon se , Compe n sat i on , an d Li ab i li t i e s Ac t (CERCLA9popularly kn ow n
as S upe rf un d e st ab li she d aprogramt o i de n t i f yhazardous w ast e si t e s
w hi c h w e re li ke lyt o re le ase w ast e i n t o t he e n vi ron me n t , t o e n sure t he i r
c le an upb yre spon si b le part i e s or t he gove rn me n t , t o asse ss n at ural re -
sourc e s damage , an d t o c re at e c lai mproc e dure s f or part i e s w ho c le an e d
upsi t e s or e xpe n de d mon e yt o re st ore n at ural re sourc e s.3 More i mpor-
t an t ly, i t i mpose d joi n t an d se ve ral li ab i li t yw i t hout re gard t o f ault f or all
c ost s assoc i at e d w i t h c le an i n g upasi t e c on t ami n at e d w i t h hazardous
sub st an c e s. Those pot e n t i ally li ab le i n c lude an ype rson w ho c urre n t ly
ow n s or ope rat e s prope rt y, an ype rson w ho at t he t i me of di sposal of a
hazardous sub st an c e ow n e d or ope rat e d prope rt y, an ype rson w ho ar-
ran ge d f or di sposal or t re at me n t of suc h sub st an c e s on t he prope rt y, an d
an yt ran sport e rs w ho se le c t e d t he si t e . Those li ab le c an i n c lude t he
purc hase r t he le n de r, ale sse e , part n e rshi ps, of f i c e rs, di re c t ors share -
holde rs, an d pare n t , suc c e ssor, an d af f i li at e d c orporat i on s. 4 Duri n g
CERCLA's f i rst f i ve ye ars, ac t i on w as large lyli t i gi ous, c on c e rn i n g t he
2. P .L. 96-510, 94 S t at . 2767. S e e also RCRAHan db ook (Con c ord, Massac huse t t s:
ERT, In c ., 1986), 11.
3. P . L. 94-580, 90 S t at . 2795. S e e also S upe rf un d Han db ook (Con c ord7 Massac huse t t s:
ERT, In c ., 1987), 11.
4. Li n daDi al, "En vi ron me n t alCon c e rn s i n Re al Est at e Tran sac t i on s," (pape r pre -
se n t e d at t he Fi f t h An n ualHazardous Wast e Law an d Man age n le n t Con f e re n c e ; S e at t le ,
Washi n gt on , De c e mb e r 9 1988), 2.
EN VIRON MEN TAL S ITEAS S ES S MEN TS * 47
i i n ple me n t at i on an d c on st i t ut i on ali t y of t he ac t . Bye arly1985 t he EP A
on lyc on si de re d t e n si t e s c le an e d up. Con gre ss t he n de man de d more
ac t i on , w hi c h re sult e d i n t he S upe rf un d Ame n dme n t s an d Re aut hori za-
t i on Ac t (S ARA) of Oc t ob e r 1986 S ARAi s af i ve -ye ar e xt e n si on of
CERCLA; i t s pri maryob je c t i ve i s t o c le an uphazardous mat e ri als at
un c on t rolle d or ab an don e d hazardous w ast e si t e s. In addi t i on , i t i n -
c lude s a$500 mi lli on f un d f or t he c le an upof le aki n g un de rgroun d st or-
age t an ks.5 N lore i mport an t ly, w i t hi n S e c t i on 107(b ) of S ARAi s aprovi -
si on f or mi n i mi zi n g li ab i li t yt hrough an "i n n oc e n t purc hase r de f e n se ."
Whi le past ow n e rs of prope rt i e s mi ght n ot avoi d li ab i li t y, b uye rs may
e sc ape li ab i li t yan d e st ab li sh t he "i n rloc e n t purc hase r' de f e n se . To do so,
t he ymust show t hat t he yhad n o re ason t o kn ow t hat an yhazardous
mat e ri al w as di spose d of at t he prope rt yb yun de rt aki n g at t he t i me of
prope rt yac qui si t i on all<'appropri at e i n qui ry" or"due di li ge n c e " i n i n ve s-
t i gat i n g pre vi ous ow n e rshi pan d use s of t he prope rt y.6 It should b e
n ot e d) how e ve r, t hat t o dat e , t he c ourt s have b e e n un w i lli n g t o f i n d
f avor w i t h t he i n n oc e n t purc hase r de f e n se b e c ause ade f i n i t i on of "appro-
pri at e i n qui ry" or "due di li ge n c e " has n ot b e e n de t e rmi n e d.
Con gre ss w as prob ab lyun aw are of t he f ar-re ac hi n g c on se que n c e s of
RCRA, CERCLA, an d S ARAon re ale st at e t ran sac t i on s, b e c ause hazar-
dous w ast e li ab i li t i e s an d re gulat ory c on t ami n at i on on prope rt i e s have n ot
on lysi gn i f i c an t ly de laye d re ale st at e de ve lopme n t an d li mi t e d prope rt y
value sn b ut have also re sult e d i n e xt raordi n ary c le an upan d t ran sac t i on s
c ost s) e ve n f or n e w ow n e rs w i t h n o i n volve me n t i n or kn ow le dge of
hazardous mat e ri als man age me n t or di sposal on t he i r prope rt y.7 Ac c ord-
i n gly, i t i s t he f e ar of b e i n g he ld li ab le f or prope rt y c le an upc ost s an d t he
i n n oc e n t lan dow n e r or purc hase r de f e n se provi si on t hat i s re sult i n g i n
re ale st at e f i rms b an ki n g i n st i t ut i on s, re ale st at e at t orn e ys, an d lan d
spe c ulat ors c on t rac t i n g out e n vi ron me n t al asse ssme n t s of prope rt i e s t he y
are se lli n g, b uyi n g, or t ran sf e rri n g. In de e d, n o lon ge r are lan d t i t le i ssue s
or t he le sse e lle ssor re lat i on shi p just re ale st at e mat t e rs; e ve ryde c i si on t o
b uy, se ll, re f i n an c e , le ase , f ore c lose , or de ve lopprope rt ymust n ow ac -
kn ow le dge an d de li n e at e t he possi b i li t y of prope rt y c on t ami n at i on .8 Thus,
w he re as t he passage of t he N at i on al Hi st ori c P re se rvat i on Ac t of 1966 an d
si mi lar sub se que n t ac t s an d ame n dme n t s provi de d job opport un i t i e s f or
arc hae ologi st s an d c ult ural re sourc e spe c i ali st s b e gi n n i n g i n t he 1960s,
t he passage of RCRA, CERCLA, an d S ARAc an provi de pub li c hi st ori an s,
i n t he n e xt de c ade , e mployme n t doi n g e n vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s of
rural, re si de n t i all i n dust ri al, an d c omme rc i al prope rt i e s. The f e de ral law s
are support e d b ysome t i me s e ve n more st ri n ge n t st at e law s7 suc h as N e w
Je rse y's En vi ron me n t al Cle an upRe spon si b i li t y Ac t (ECRA) of De c e mb e r
5. S upe rf un d Han db ook, 11.
6. Di al, "En vi ron me n t al Con c e rn s i n Re alEst at e Tran sac t i on s," 6.
7. KarlBourde au, "Mi n i mi zi n g Hazardous Wast e Li ab i li t i e s i n Re alEst at e Tran sac -
t i on s," The Con st ruc t i on Law ye r 6(4)3.19, August 1986.
8. Hart Crow se r, In c ., P rope rt yEn si ron me n t alAsse ssme n t S e rri c e s (S e at t le , 1988), 1.
48 * THEP UBLIC HIS TOEUAN
31, 1983, w hi c h re qui re s si t e asse ssme n t s t o b e c on duc t e d f or c e rt ai n
t ype s of i n dust ri al si t e s.9
En vi ron ule n t al si t e asse ssme n t s are usually c on duc t e d b ye n vi ron me n t al
c on sult i n g f i rms st af f e d b yhydroge ologi st s, i n dust ri al hygi e n i st s, ge olo-
gi st s, t oxi c ologi st s, an d e n vi ron me n t al e n gi n e e rs. Through t he i r assoc i at e d
prof e ssi on al organ i zat i on s suc h as t he Hazardous Wast e Ac t i on Coali t i on of
t he Ame ri c an Con sult i n g En gi n e e rs Coun c i l,l t he Ame ri c an S oc i e t yof
Foun dat i on En gi n e e rs, an d t he Ame ri c an S oc i e t yof Ci vi lEn gi n e e rs, a
ge n e rally ac c e pt e d f ormat f or c on duc t i n g e n vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s
has e volve d. The f i rst , an d arguab ly, most i mport an t st e pi n t hi s proc e ss i s
t he si t e hi st ory, i n w hi c h i n f ormat i on i s gat he re d on past an d pre se n t use s of
aprope rt yt o de t e rmi n e t he pot e n t i al f or e n vi ron me n t al c on t ami n at i on .
S ub se que n t st e ps i n c lude asi t e re c on n ai ssan c e t o ob se rve c urre n t c on di -
t i on s; are vi e w of f e de ral, st at e , an d loc ale n vi ron me n t al age n c yf i le s t hat
mayre lat e t o t he prope rt y; an d, w he n appropri at e , soi lan d groun d-w at e r
t e st i n g t o de t e rmi n e t he e xt e n t of c on t ami n at i on . Ge n e rally, aphase -on e
asse ssme n t i n c lude s t he si t e hi st ory, si t e re c on n ai ssan c e , an d age n c yf i le
re vi e w . P hase t w o t e st s soi ls an d groun d w at e r.
The i mport an c e of c on duc t i n g are vi e w of aprope rt y's past use s i s
re c ogn i ze d b yt he se prof e ssi on al organ i zat i on s an d i s e c hoe d i n art i c le s
t hat appe ar w i t h re gulari t y i n e n vi ron me n t al an d e n gi n e e ri n g journ als an d
pe ri odi c als suc h as P ollt 4t i on En gi n e e rt n g, Hazw ast e N e w s, Ci vi l En gi -
n e e r, Hazardous Mat e ri als Con t rol, Hazmat World, an d Hazardous
Wast e Man age me n t .llHow e ve r, si n c e most c on sult i n g f i rms do n ot e m-
ployhi st ori an s, t he i r e n vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s are n ot as t horough
as t he yshould b e . I w as made part i c ularly aw are of t hi s w he n I re ad a
c ompe t i n g c on sult i n g f i rm's asse ssme n t of aprope rt yI had re se arc he d.
Whe re as I had use d ove r t e n st an dard sourc e s, t he yhad si mplyt alke d t o a
pre vi ous ow n e r an d c he c ke d ac urre n t st re e t di re c t ory t o se e w ho oc c u-
pi e d adjac e n t prope rt i e s at t he t i me t he i r st udyw as c on duc t e d. Thi s
approac h w as n e i t he r ac c urat e or c ompre he n si ve . Thus, alt hough f e w
pub li c hi st ori an s have don e t hi s t ype of w ork, t he i r ski lls quali f yt he mt o
make an i mport an t c on t ri b ut i on t o solvi n g our n at i on 's e n vi ron me n t al
prob le ms. On lyt hrough ast ron g si t e hi st oryt hat e xami n e s past prope rt y
use s w i llt he prope rt yb uye r or se lle r kn ow w hat possi b le c on t ami n an t s
mayhave b e e n re le ase d t o t he e n vi ron me n t .
What doe s agood si t e hi st oryac c ompli sh?
* It c harac t e ri ze s kn ow n ac t i vi t yon an d adjac e n t t o aprope rt y f romi t s
un de ve lope d st at e t o i t s c urre n t c on di t i on .
9. S e e N e w Je rse yDe part me n t of En vi ron me n t al P rot e c t i on , Gui de t o t he En vi ron me n -
t alCle an upRe spon si b i li t yAc t (Tre n t on , 1988).
10. The Coun c i l's Hazardous Wast e Ac t i on Coali t i on c lose lyf ollow s t he c urre n t le gal
c li mat e of En vi ron me n t al S i t e Asse ssme n t s an d has pub li she d se ve raluse f ult e xt s, i n c ludi n g
The Hazardous Wast e P rac t i c e :Te c hn i c alan d Le galEn vi ron me n t i n 1989.
11. Man yof t he se pe ri odi c als are avai lab le f re e of c harge . S i mplyf i llout t he i n n e r re ade r
se rvi c e c ards, man yof w hi c h are post age f re e .
EN VIRON MEN TAL S ITEAS S ES S MEN TS * 49
* It i de n t i f i e s past ac t i vi t i e s t hat w e re li ke lyt o ge n e rat e hazardous w ast e s.
* It i de n t i f i e s w hat pot e n t i al c on t ami n an t s w e re re le ase d t o t he e n vi ron -
me n t as are sult of t hose ac t i vi t i e s.
Kn ow i n g t he parame t e rs of agood si t e hi st oryi s ast art , b ut doe s n ot
guaran t e e t he e n d produc t . P e rhaps t he most i mport an t role of t he hi st o-
ri an i n e n vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s i s le arn i n g w hat dat asourc e s w i ll
most e f f i c i e n t lyan d ac c urat e ly c harac t e ri ze prope rt yde ve lopme n t Of -
t e n , re se arc h mat e ri als de ar t o hi st ori an 's he art s, li ke arc hi val man u-
sc ri pt s, are n ot avi ab le re sourc e b e c ause c li e n t s n e e di n g e n vi ron me n t al
si t e asse ssme n t s n e e d t he mf ast . Hi st ori an s of t e n have days, rat he r t han
w e e ks an d mon t hs, t o c omple t e t he i r re port s, an d t hi s le ave s li t t le t i me t o
c on duc t arc hi val re se arc h. Havi n g c on duc t e d n e arlyon e hun dre d e n vi ron -
me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s f or i n dust ri al, c omme rc i al, rural, an d re si de n t i al
prope rt i e s i n t he P ac i f i c N ort hw e st an d Alaska, I have f oun d t he f ollow i n g
dat asourc e s part i c ularly use f uli n de t e rmi n i n g hi st ori c use s of prope rt i e s:
* Topographi c maps an d c oun t yat lase s show i n g ge n e ral lan d-use pat t e rn s
ove r t i me .
* Ci t yst re e t di re c t ori e s 1i st i n g oc c upan t s alphab e t i c ally b yn ame or st re e t
addre sse s an d c orre spon di n g oc c upan t s (c alle d re ve rse di re c t ori e s).
Whe n e xami n e d e ve ryf i ve or t e n ye ars, suc h di re c t ori e s re ve alc han g-
i n g ac t i vi t yon aprope rt y.
* Hi st ori c re ale st at e an d i n suran c e maps t hat are prope rt y-spe c i f i c an d
t hat of t e n show de t ai le d prope rt yuse ove r t i me .
* Orali n t e rvi e w s t hat provi de f i rst -pe rson ac c oun t s of b usi n e ss ac t i vi t i e s.
(The se should b e ve ri f i e d t hrough doc ume n t at i on ).
* Ae ri al phot ographs. N ot on lydo t he se show ge n e ral lan d-use pat t e rn s
ove r t i me , b ut t he yc an also re ve ale n vi ron me n t al prob le ms suc h as
dumpi n g, lan df i lli n g, soi lst ai n i n g, an d ve ge t at i on di st re ss.
* Ci t y, c oun t y, an d re gi on al hi st ori e s c ove ri n g t he ac t i vi t i e s of i n dust ry.
* Corporat e hi st ori e s, w hi c h of t e n de sc ri b e t he hi st oryof c ompan y de ve l-
opme n t , lan d use , an d i n dust ri al proc e sse s.
* Lan d-use re c ords f romc i t y, c oun t y, an d st at e lan d-use plan n i n g age n -
c i e s.
* Re c ords f rome n vi ron me n t al age n c i e s, i n c ludi n g un de rgroun d st orage
t an k re gi st e rs, suspe c t e d an d kn ow n c on t ami n at e d si t e s li st s, an d w ast e
di sc harge pe rmi t s.
* Compan y re c ords an d orali n f ormat i on provi de d b yt he c li e n t or c urre n t
an d/or past prope rt yow n e rs an d oc c upan t s.
Ot he r re c ords suc h as b ui ldi n g pe rmi t s an d plan s an d f i re de part me n t
i n spe c t i on re c ords c an also prove use f ul. Hi st ori an s should re me mb e r,
how e ve r, t hat ran ki n g dat asourc e s i s c ri t i c al. In addi t i on , hi st ori an s must
gauge t he value of t hose sourc e s i n re lat i on t o t he t ype of prope rt y b e i n g
re se arc he d. For i n st an c e , arural or agri c ult ural prope rt yre qui re s di f f i e r-
e n t dat asourc e s t han doe s ac omme rc i al prope rt yi n ac e n t ral b usi n e ss
di st ri c t of alarge c i t y. On t he ot he r han d, t he t i me i t t ake s t o f e rre t out
50 * THEP UBLIC HIS TORIAN
i n f ormat i on on aruralprope rt y, w he re lan d-use doc ume n t at i on i s li mi t e d,
some t i me s e quals or e xc e e ds t he t i me re qui re d t o asse ss ac omrn e rc i al
prope rt y. Ti t le se arc he s are i n c re asi n glyde man de d as part of si t e hi st o-
ri e s. In f ac t , apropose d CERCLAame n dme n t , "In n oc e n t Lan dow n e r
De f e n se Ame n dme n t ," w ould ac t uallyre qui re are c orde d c hai n of t i t le
i n c ludi n g allde e ds, e ase me n t s, le ase s, re st ri c t i on s, an d c ove n an t s f or a
pe ri od of f i f t yye ars. Thi s i s un f ort un at e f or t hre e re ason s. Fi rst , t i t le
se arc he s are c ost ly, an d mayn ot f i t w i t hi n t he proje c t b udge t s. S e c on dly,
t he yof t e n t ake more t han aw e e k t o c ompi le , so t he yusuallye xt e n d t he
proje c t b e yon d i t s allot t e d hours. An d t hi rdly, t he yre ve alon lyt he c hai n
of ow n e rshi p, n ot n e c e ssari lyt he ac t i vi t yt hat oc c urre d on t he prope rt y.
P rope rt yi n f ormat i on f romt he c i t yor c oun t yre alprope rt ydi vi si on , t ax
asse ssor, or b ui ldi n g de part me n t of i e n prove s more valuab le .
Wi t h dat asourc e s i n han d an d age n e rali de aof t he hi st orvof aprope rt y's
use , w hat i s t he hi st ori an 's n e xt st e p? The purpose of an e n vi ron me n t al si t e
asse ssme n t i s t o de t e rmi n e w hat pot e n t i alc on t ami n an t s e xi st on aprop-
e rt y. At t hi s poi n t i n t he asse ssme n t proc e ss, t he n , t he hi st ori an 's t horough
kn ow le dge of hi st ori c al an d c on t e mporary i n dust ri al proc e sse s c ome s i n t o
play. The hi st ori an kn ow s t hat c e me n t produc t s man uf ac t ure rs use d f ue loi l
t o f i re ki ln s, w hi c h sugge st s t hat un de rgroun d st orage t an ks mayhave b e e n
use d, w hi c h mayhave le ake d or mayst i llb e le aki n g. The hi st ori an kn ow s
t hat mac hi n e shops ge n e rat e gre at quan t i t i e s of me t alde b ri s, an d t hat
c ut t i n g oi ls are use d dai ly. The hi st ori an kn ow s t hat lumb e r yards t re at
lumb e r w i t h an t i -f un gal an d an t i -st ai n i n g c he mi c als, an d t hat pri n t i n g
shops ge n e rat e w ast e i n k an d i n k sludge s c on t ai n i n g me t als an d solve n t s.
Tw o pri marysourc e s of i n f ormat i on are valuab le t o hi st ori an s de ve lopi n g
e xpe rt i se i n hi st ori c an d c on t e mporary i n dust ri al proc e sse s an d assoc i at e d
hazardous mat e ri als b ooks on t he hi st oryof i n dust ryan d t e c hn ology, an d
man uals, e n c yc lope di as, han db ooks, an d at lase s re lat i n g t o spe c i f i c i n dus-
t ri e s. 12 Ot he r use f ulmat e ri als c an b e f oun d i n hi st ori c i ssue s of i n dust ri al
magazi n e s, i n dust ri al an d t e c hn ologyse c t i on s of an t i quari an b ookshops,
an d hi st oryof t e c hn ologyan d i n dust rymuse ums. Amon g t he pri mary
12. S ome part i c ularly valuab le hi st ori c w orks on i n dust ri al proc e sse s i n c lude J. Me rri t t
Mat t he w s, Ble ac hi n g b Re lat e d P roc e sse s (N e w York:The Che mi c alCat alog Compan y,
1921); Rudolf Cle me n , By-P roduc t s i n t he P ac ki n g In dust ry(Chi c ago: Un i ve rsi t yof Chi c ago
P re ss, 1927); Raymon d N aut h, The Che mi st ryan d Te c hn ologyof P last i c s (N e w York: Re i n -
hold P ub li shi n g, 1947); Mai soi n Vvarre , The Che mi st ryof an d Man uf ac t ure of Cosme t i c s
(N e w York:Van N ost ran d Compan y, 1941); He rman n Vuhe an d S adi e Van de rb i lt , Food
In dust ri e s (East on , P e n n .:The Che mi c al P ub li shi n g Compan y, 1923); W.J. At ki n son But t e r-
f i e ld Gas Man uf ac t ure (Lon don :Charle s Gri f Bi n & Compan yLt d, 1896); J.J. Clark, The
Man uf ac t ure of P ulpb P ape r, Volume s I-IV (N e w York:Mc Graw -Hi ll Book Compan y,
1921); Fran k Mi le s, The Man uf ac t ure of S ulf uri c Ac i d (Lon don : Gurn e y& Jac kson , 1925);
J.P . Mi lli n gt on , Mode rn In dust ri alChe mi st ry(Be rli n :Fran z S i e me n rot h P ub li she r, 1911);
E. Hausb ran d, P ri n c i ple s an d P rac t i c e of ln dust ri al Di st i llat i on (Lon don : Chopham& Hall
Lt d, 1925); John De lmon t e , The Te c hn ologyof Adhe si re s (N e w York: Re i n hold P ub li shi n g,
1947); F.W. Hodki n an d A. Couse n , Te xt b ook of Glass Te c hn ology(N e w York: John Wi le y
& S on s, 1925); Ale xan de r Fi n dlay, The Tre asure s of Coal Tar (N e w York:Van N ost ran d
Compan y, 1917).
EN VIRON MEN TAL S ITEAS S ES S MEN TS * 51
sourc e s, t hose man uals, e n c yc lope di as, han db ooks, an d at lase s t hat w e re
pub li she d as t he i n dust ri al proc e sse s w e re b e i n g de ve lope d are most he lp-
f ul. P e rhaps t he b e st plac e t o f i n d t he se w orks i s i n t he un i ve rsi t y b ran c h
li b rari e s. S ome large r voc at i on al sc hools w i llalso have olde r man uals an d
han db ooks i n t he i r t e c hn i c al li b rari e s.
If t he re se arc he r has n o ac c e ss t o ori gi n al sourc e s, t he n b ooks on t he
hi st oryof i n dust ri al proc e sse s are an opt i on . The se , how e ve r, are rare ly
de t ai le d e n ough an d t e n d t o f oc us on t he pi on e e rs of i n dust ry an d t e c hn ol-
ogyrat he r t han spe c i f i c proc e sse s. Hi st ori c i n dust ri al magazi n e s, suc h as
Che mi c alP roc e ssi n g, e st ab li she d i n 1938, c on t ai n art i c le s e xplai n i n g pro-
c e sse s of t he day. But t he se are of t e n more di f f i c ult t o f i n d t han hi st ori c
man uals an d han db ooks. An ot he r opt i on i s t o haun t an t i quari an b ook-
st ore s, w hi c h of t e n c on t ai n valuab le w orks on pe t role umre f i n i n g, pai n t
man uf ac t uri n g, mac hi n i n g, an d glass maki n g, most pub li she d b e f ore
1960. Af i n alopt i on i s t o c on t ac t hi st oryof i n dust ry an d t e c hn ology muse -
ums t hat mai n t ai n arc hi ve s an d li b rari e s.
S e ve rali mport an t sourc e s i n t roduc e re se arc he rs t o c on t e mporary i n -
dust ri al proc e sse s.l3 Ot he r sourc e s of i n f ormat i on are i n dust ri al proc e ss,
i n dust ri al mai n t e n an c e , an d e n gi n e e ri n g pe ri odi c als an d journ als li ke
Che mi c alP roc e ssi n g, Mai n t e n an c e Te c hn ology, In dust ri alHe at i n g,
Foun dryMan age me n t , Cat t i n g ToolEn gi n e e ri n g, Mi li t aryEn gi n e e r,
Ci vi lEn gi n e e ri n g, an d S t an dardi zat i on N e w s, t hat i n c lude art i c le s on
man agi n g i n dust ri al w ast e . Fi n ally, i n 1985, t he En vi ron me n t al P rot e c -
t i on Age n c y's Of f i c e of S oli d Wast e an d Eme rge n c y Re spon se pub li she d
agui de , Doe s Your Busi n e ss P roduc e Hazardous Wast e , f or small-
quan t i t yhazardous mat e ri al ge n e rat ors suc h as laun dri e s, phot o lab s,
mac hi n e shops, an d e le c t roplat e rs; t hat i n c lude s w ast e t ypi c allyge n e r-
at e d b yaw i de vari e t yof smalli n dust ri e s.
In addi t i on t o kn ow i n g i n dust ri al proc e sse s, i t also he lps t o kn ow b asi c
pri n c i ple s of hydrology, as of t e n t he most i mport an t i ssue i n an e n vi ron -
me n t alsi t e asse ssme n t i s w he t he r c on t ami n an t s have e n t e re d i n t o t he
prope rt y's groun d w at e r. 14 Adjac e n t prope rt i e s must b e looke d at as w e ll,
e spe c i allyhazardous on e s, li ke gas st at i on s, t hat are loc at e d up-gradi e n t .
Hazardous mat e ri als on on e prope rt ymayhave mi grat e d t hrough soi lan d
groun d w at e r f romac t i vi t i e s on an ot he r.
En vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s pre se n t ye t an ot he r c halle n gi n g oppor-
t un i t yf or pub li c hi st ori an s. Be c ause law f i rms, b an ks, re ale st at e f i rms,
an d lan d spe c ulat ors are re qui ri n g"si t e hi st ori e s," t he door i s ajar. Ope n -
13. E. P aulDe Garmo, J. Te mple Blac k, an d Ron ald A. Koshe r, Mat e ri al an d P roc e sse s
i n Man uf ac t uri n g (N e w York:Mac Mi llan P ub li shi n g Compan y, 1984); N . Irvi n g S ax an d
Ri c hard J. Le w i s, Dan ge rous P rope rt i e s of In dust ri alMat e ri als (N e w York:Van N ost ran d
Re i n hold, S e ve n t h Edi t i on , 1989); C. Dat sko, Mat e ri al P rope rt i e s an d Man uf ac t uri n g P rop-
e rt i e s (N e w York:Wi le yan d S on s, 1981); an d Raymon d Ki rk, En c yc lope di aof Che mi c al
Te c hn ology(N e w York:Wi le yan d S on s, 1984).
14. Tw o e xc e lle n t t e xt s t o c on sult i n t hi s re gard are He rman Bouw e r, Groun dw at e r
Hydrology(N e w York:Mc Graw -Hi ll, 1978) an d Fle t c he r Dri sc oll, Groun dw at e r an d We lls
(S t . P aul:John son Di vi si on , 1986).
52 * THEP UBLIC HIS TORIAN
i n g t he door c an b e di f f i c ult , how e ve r, b e c ause e n vi ron me n t al prof e ssi on -
als st i llmust b e c on vi n c e d t hat hi st oryi s use f ul t o t he m. On t he un i ve rsi t y
le ve l, pub li c hi st oryprograms should i n vi t e c on sult an t s t o provi de i n f or-
mat i on on e n vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s as ac are e r opt i on f or st ude n t s.
At t he same t i me , t he yc an e duc at e t he se c on sult an t s ab out t he value of
usi n g hi st ori an s f or phase -on e st udi e s. In di vi dually, aspi ri n g pub li c hi st ori -
an s mi ght volun t e e r or do e n t ry-le ve l w ork i n ac on sult i n g f i rm. On c e
f i rms re c ogn i ze hi st ori an s' re se arc h an d an alyt i c al ski lls, more job s may
ope n up. (Hi st ori an s w ho have de ve lope d e xpe rt i se i n lan d-use plan n i n g
w i llb e e ve n more at t rac t i ve .) An ot he r opt i on i s f or pub li c hi st ori an s t o
of f e r sub c on t rac t i n g se rvi c e s t o c on sult i n g f i rms doi n g t he si t e hi st oryf or
af i xe d f e e . Fi n ally, hi st ori an s c an marke t si t e hi st oryse rvi c e s t o law f i rms
b an ks, savi n gs an d loan s, an d re ale st at e f i rms.
In large part , maki n g t hi s t ype of hi st oryavi ab le job opport un i t y li e s i n
t he han ds of pub li c hi st ori an s alre adyw orki n g i n t he f i e ld, w ho are me n t ors
of asort ,l5 an d t he pub li c hi st oryc ommun i t y as aw hole w hi c h has b e e n
e f f e c t i ve i n marke t i n g t he value of pub li c hi st orydi sc i pli n e s t o pri vat e 7
c omme rc i al, an d gove rn me n t al age n c i e s. Fromaprof e ssi on al st an dpoi n t ,
how e ve rX t he re are di sadvan t age s i n pre pari n g si t e hi st ori e s f or e n vi ron -
me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s. Most n ot ab ly, muc h of t he i n f ormat i on use d i s
propri e t ary, part i c ularly i f i t i s provi de d b yac li e n t w hi c h me an s t hat
f i t ure pub li c at i on , w he t he r as ac ase st udyor use as an e xample i n a
c on f e re n c e pape rX i s n ot possi b le . Illaddi t i on , t he se asse ssme n t s are usu-
allyat e ame f f ort . Of t e n t he hi st ori an 's w ork i s i n c orporat e d i n t o alarge r
re port t hat i s si gn e d b yt he proje c t man age r; t he t e amme mb e rs' i n di vi dual
e f f ort s are n ot re c ogn i ze d. In t hi s c ase , t he n e e d f or re c ogn i t i on i s out -
w e i ghe d b yt he un i f i e d f ron t of t e amw ork t ake n b ymost c on sult an t f i rms.
The re i s also li ab i li t yassoc i at e d w i t h t hi s w ork t hat man ypub li c hi st ori an s
do n ot e xpe ri e n c e . Due t o t he c li e n t -se n si t i ve n at ure of prope rt y t ran sf e rs
axld e n vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s, as w e llas t he le galf rame w ork w i t hi n
w hi c h t he se are c on duc t e d, pub li c hi st ori an s mayf i n d t he mse lve s provi d-
i n g de posi t i on s an d af f i i davi t s an d ac t i n g as e xpe rt w i t n e sse s i n c ourt . En vi -
ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s are pron e t o li t i gat i on , e spe c i allysi n c e t he
me an i n g of "due di li ge n c e >' has n ot b e e n t e st e d i n c ourt an d also b e c ause
t he re i s n o e st ab li she d st an dard re gardi n g how si t e hi st ori e s are don e . S o
que st i on s w i llpe rsi st . How f ar b ac k should w e re se arc h? Is at i t le se arc h
w ort h t he t i me , e f f ort , an d c ost ? What sourc e s should b e c on sult e d? The se
an d ot he r que st i on s w i llb e an sw e re d, as si t e hi st ori e s b e c ome amore
promi n e n t f e at ure i n e n vi ron me n t al si t e asse ssme n t s.
15. Af i n e i n t roduc t i on t o t he hi st ori c al c on t e xt of hazardous w ast e man age me n t i s Crai g
Colt e n 's art i c le "Hi st ori c al Que st i on s i n Hrdous Wast e Man age me n t ," w hi c h appe are d i n
t he Wi n t e r 1989 i ssue of The P ub li c Hi st ori an . Also i n f ormat i ve i s S he lle yBookspan 's short
art i c le "Hi st ori an s, S pe c i ali zat i on an d Toxi c Tort ," w hi c h appe are d i n t he S pri n g 1989 i ssue
of P ub li c Hi st oryN e w s.
The aut hor w e lc ome s i n qui ri e s an d c omme n t s. He c an b e re ac he d at Lan dauAssoc i at e s,
In c .; P .O. Box 1029; Edmon ds, Washi n gt on 98020.