UNIT II

Medium access CSMA Ethernet Token ring FDDI - Wireless LAN ridges and
S!itches
Medium-Access
"# An access method is a set o$ rules go%erning ho! the net!ork nodes share the
transmission medium#
&# Medium Access Control Techni'ues are needed to decide !hich station !ill use
the shared medium at a (articular (oint in time# A )unch o$ LAN standards
collecti%el* kno!n as IEEE +,& LANs as sho!n in Fig# &#"#
-# The LAN standard includes CSMA.CD/ Token )us/ Token 0ing medium access
control techni'ues along !ith di$$erent to(ologies#
1# All these standards di$$er at the (h*sical la*er and MAC su) la*er/ )ut are
com(ati)le at the data link la*er#
Figure 2.1 IEEE +,& Legac* LANs
2# The +,&#" su) la*er gi%es an introduction to set o$ standards and gi%es the details
o$ the inter$ace (rimiti%es#
3# It (ro%ides relationshi( )et!een the 4SI model and the +,& standards#
5# The +,&#& su) la*er descri)es the LLC 6logical link la*er7/ !hich is the u((er (art
o$ the data link la*er# The lo!er (art o$ the data link la*er is MAC 6Medium
Access Control7 su) la*er#
+# LLC $acilitate error control and $lo! control $or relia)le communication#
8# It a((ends a header containing se'uence num)er and ackno!ledgement num)er#
",# The standards +,&#-/ +,&#1 and +,&#2 descri)e three LAN standards )ased on the
CSMA.CD/ token )us and token ring/ res(ecti%el*#
""# Each standard co%ers the (h*sical la*er and MAC su) la*er (rotocols#
Medium Access Control (MAC) techniques
"# A net!ork o$ com(uters )ased on multi-access medium re'uires a (rotocol $or
e$$ecti%e sharing o$ the media#
&# As onl* one node can send or transmit signal at a time using the )roadcast mode/
the main (ro)lem here is ho! di$$erent nodes get control o$ the medium to send
data/ that is 9!ho goes ne:t;<#
-# The (rotocols used $or this (ur(ose are kno!n as Medium Access Control 6MAC7
techni'ues# The MAC techni'ues can )e )roadl* di%ided into $our categories/
"# 0ound-0o)in
&# Contention-)ased
-# 0eser%ation-)ased
1# Channeli=ation-)ased
Figure 2.2 >ossi)le MAC techni'ues
Gols o! MAC
Initili"tion? The techni'ue ena)les net!ork stations/ u(on (o!er-u(/ to enter
the state re'uired $or o(eration#
#riorit$? In managing access and communications time/ the techni'ue should )e
a)le to gi%e (riorit* to some stations o%er other stations to $acilitate di$$erent t*(e
o$ ser%ices needed#
%imittions to one sttion? The techni'ues should allo! transmission )* one
station at a time#
&ecei't? The techni'ue should ensure that message (ackets are actuall* recei%ed
6no lost (ackets7 and deli%ered onl* once 6no du(licate (ackets7/ and are recei%ed
in the (ro(er order#
(rror %imittion? The method should )e ca(a)le o$ encom(assing an a((ro(riate
error detection scheme#
&eco)er$? I$ t!o (ackets collide 6are (resent on the net!ork at the same time7/ or
i$ notice o$ a collision a((ears/ the method should )e a)le to reco%er/ i#e# )e a)le
to halt all the transmissions and select one station to retransmit#
&econ!igur*ilit$? The techni'ue should ena)le a net!ork to accommodate the
addition or deletion o$ a station !ith no more than a noise transient $rom !hich
the net!ork station can reco%er#
Com'ti*ilit$? The techni'ue should accommodate e'ui(ment $rom all %endors
!ho )uild to its s(eci$ication#
&eli*ilit$? The techni'ue should ena)le a net!ork to con$ine o(erating in s(ite
o$ a $ailure o$ one or se%eral stations#
1. &ound &o*in Techniques
"# In 0ound 0o)in techni'ues/ each and e%er* node is gi%en the chance to send
or transmit )* rotation#
&# When a node gets its turn to send/ it ma* either decline to send/ i$ it has no
data or ma* send i$ it has got data to send#
-# A$ter getting the o((ortunit* to send/ it must relin'uish its turn a$ter some
ma:imum (eriod o$ time#
1# The right to send then (asses to the ne:t node )ased on a (redetermined
logical se'uence# The right to send ma* )e controlled in a centrali=ed or
distri)uted manner# There are t!o techni'ues/ the* are
"#" >olling- e:am(le o$ centrali=ed control
"#& Token (assing - e:am(le o$ distri)uted control
1.1. >olling
"# The message contains the address o$ the node )eing selected $or granting access#
&# Although all nodes recei%e the message/ onl* the addressed node res(onds and
then it sends data/ i$ an*# I$ there is no data/ usuall* a 9(oll re@ect< message is sent
)ack#
-# The $irst node is again (olled !hen the controller $inishes !ith the remaining
codes#
1# The (olling scheme has the $le:i)ilit* o$ either gi%ing e'ual access to all the
nodes/ or some nodes ma* )e gi%en higher (riorit* than others# >riorit* o$ access
can )e easil* im(lemented#
Figure 2.+ >olling using a central controller
2# >olling can )e done using a central controller/ !hich ma* use a $re'uenc* )and to
send out)ound messages as sho!n in Fig#&#-#
3# 4ther stations share a di$$erent $re'uenc* to send in)ound messages# The
techni'ue is called $re'uenc*-di%ision du(le: a((roach 6FDD7#
5# Main dra!)acks o$ the (olling scheme are high o%erhead o$ the (olling messages
and high de(endence on the relia)ilit* o$ the controller#
+# >olling can also )e accom(lished !ithout a central controller# Aere/ all stations
recei%e signals $rom other stations as sho!n in Fig# &#1#
Figure 2., >olling in a distri)uted manner
1.2 #Token (assing
"# In token (assing scheme/ all stations are logicall* connected in the $orm o$ a ring
and control o$ the access to the medium is (er$ormed using a token as sho!n in
Fig#&#2#
&# A token is a s(ecial )it (attern or a small (acket/ usuall* se%eral )its in length/
!hich circulate $rom node to node#
-# In case o$ token ring/ token is (assed $rom a node to the (h*sicall* ad@acent node#
1# In the case o$ token )us/ token is (assed !ith the hel( o$ the address o$ the nodes/
!hich $orm a logical ring#
2# In either case a node currentl* holding the token has the Bright to transmitC#
3# When it has got data to send/ it remo%es the token and transmits the data and then
$or!ards the token to the ne:t logical or (h*sical node in the ring#
5# I$ a node currentl* holding the token has no data to send/ it sim(l* $or!ards the
token to the ne:t node#
Figure 2.- A token ring net!ork
Figure 2.. token (assing mechanisms
#er!ormnce?
>er$ormance o$ a token ring net!ork can )e re(resented )* t!o (arametersD
Through(ut/ !hich is a measure o$ the success$ul tra$$ic/ and
Dela*/ !hich a measure o$ time is )et!een !hen a (acket is read* and !hen it is
deli%ered#
2. Contention-*sed A''roches
"# 0ound-0o)in techni'ues !ork e$$icientl* !hen ma@orit* o$ the stations ha%e
data to send most o$ the time# ut/ in situations !here onl* a $e! nodes ha%e
data to send $or )rie$ (eriods o$ time/ 0ound-0o)in techni'ues are unsuita)le#
&# Contention techni'ues are suita)le $or )urst* nature o$ tra$$ic#
-# In contention techni'ues/ there is no centrali=ed control and !hen a node has
data to send/ it contends $or gaining control o$ the medium#
1# The (rinci(le ad%antage o$ contention techni'ues is their sim(licit*#
2# The* can )e easil* im(lemented in each node#
3# The techni'ues !ork e$$icientl* under light to moderate load/ )ut (er$ormance
ra(idl* $alls under hea%* load#
2.1 AL4AA
"# The AL4AA scheme !as in%ented )* A)ramson in "85, $or a (acket radio
net!ork #A sim(li$ied situation is sho!n in Fig# &#5#
&# Esers are allo!ed random access o$ the central com(uter through a common
radio $re'uenc* )and $" and the com(uter centre )roadcasts all recei%ed signals
on a di$$erent $re'uenc* )and $&#
-# This ena)les the users to monitor (acket collisions/ i$ an*#
1# The (rotocol $ollo!ed )* the users is sim(lestD !hene%er a node has a (acket
to sent/ it sim(l* does so# The scheme/ kno!n as >ure AL4AA/ is trul* a $ree-
$or-all scheme#
2# Frames !ill su$$er collision and colliding $rames !ill )e destro*ed# *
monitoring the signal sent )* the central com(uter/ a$ter the ma:imum round-
tri( (ro(agation time/ user comes to kno! !hether the (acket sent )* him has
su$$ered a collision or not#
Figure 2./ Sim(li$ied AL4AA scheme $or a (acket radio s*stem
Figure 2.0 Collision in >ure AL4AA
2.1.1. >ure AL4AA
"# It ma* )e noted that i$ all (ackets ha%e a $i:ed duration o$ T 6sho!n as F in Figure
&#87/ then a gi%en (acket A !ill su$$er collision i$ another user starts to transmit at
an* time $rom T )e$ore to until T a$ter the start o$ the (acket A as sho!n in
Fig#&#+#
&# This gi%es a %ulnera)le (eriod o$ &T# ased on this assum(tion/ the channel
utili=ation can )e com(uted#
-# The channel utili=ation/ e:(ressed as through(ut S/ in terms o$ the o$$ered load F
is gi%en )* SGFe
-&F
#
Figure 2.1 %ulnera)le (eriod in >ure AL4AA
1# ased on this/ the )est channel utili=ation o$ "+H can )e o)tained at 2, (ercent o$
the o$$ered load as sho!n in Fig#&#",#
2# At smaller o$$ered load/ channel ca(acit* is underused and at higher o$$ered load
too man* collisions occur reducing the through(ut#
Figure 2.12 Through(ut %ersus o$$ered load $or AL4AA (rotocol
2.1.2. Slotted AL4AA
"# Su)se'uentl*/ in a ne! scheme/ kno!n as Slotted AL4AA/ !as suggested to
im(ro%e u(on the e$$icienc* o$ (ure AL4AA#
&# In this scheme/ the channel is di%ided into slots e'ual to T and (acket
transmission can start onl* at the )eginning o$ a slot as sho!n in Fig# &#""#
Figure 2.11 Slotted AL4AA? Single acti%e node can continuousl* transmit at $ull rate o$
channel
-# This reduces the %ulnera)le (eriod $rom &T to T and im(ro%es e$$icienc* )*
reducing the (ro)a)ilit* o$ collision as sho!n in Fig# &#"&#
1# This gi%es a ma:imum through(ut o$ -5H at ",, (ercent o$ o$$ered load/ as
sho!n in Figure &#",#
Figure 2.12 Collisions in Slotted AL4AA
2.2 CSMA
In this scheme/ a node ha%ing data to transmit $irst listens to the medium to check
!hether another transmission is in (rogress or not#
The node starts sending onl* !hen the channel is $ree/ that is there is no carrier#
That is !h* the scheme is also kno!n as listen-)e$ore-talk#
There are three %ariations o$ this )asic scheme as outlined )elo!#
6i7 "-(ersistent CSMA? In this case/ a node ha%ing data to send/ start sending/ i$ the
channel is sensed $ree# I$ the medium is )us*/ the node continues to monitor until the
channel is idle# Then it starts sending data#
6ii7 Non-(ersistent CSMA? I$ the channel is sensed $ree/ the node starts sending the
(acket# 4ther!ise/ the node !aits $or a random amount o$ time and then monitors the
channel#
6iii7 >-(ersistent CSMA? I$ the channel is $ree/ a node starts sending the (acket#
4ther!ise the node continues to monitor until the channel is $ree and then it sends !ith
(ro)a)ilit* (#
The e$$icienc* o$ CSMA scheme de(ends on the (ro(agation dela*/ !hich is re(resented
)* a (arameter a/ as de$ined )elo!?
>ro(agation dela*
a G
>acket transmission time
2.+ CSMA.CD
"# CSMA.CD (rotocol can )e considered as a re$inement o%er the CSMA scheme#
&# In CSMA scheme/ !hen t!o (ackets collide the channel remains unutili=ed $or
the entire duration o$ transmission time o$ )oth the (ackets# I$ the (ro(agation
time is small 6!hich is usuall* the case7 com(ared to the (acket transmission
time/ !asted channel ca(acit* can )e considera)le#
-# This !astage o$ channel ca(acit* can )e reduced i$ the nodes continue to monitor
the channel !hile transmitting a (acket and immediatel* cease transmission !hen
collision is detected#
1# This re$ined scheme is kno!n as Carrier Sensed Multi(le Access !ith Collision
Detection 6CSMA.CD7 or Listen-While-Talk#
4n to( o$ the CSMA/ the $ollo!ing rules are added to con%ert it into CSMA.CD?
I$ a collision is detected/ the node immediatel* ceases transmission and it
transmits @amming signal $or a )rie$ duration to ensure that all stations kno!
that collision has occurred#
A$ter transmitting the @amming signal/ the node !aits $or a random amount o$
time and then transmission is resumed#
2# To achie%e sta)ilit* in the )ack o$$ scheme/ a techni'ue kno!n as )inar*
e:(onential )ack o$$ is used#
3# A node !ill attem(t to transmit re(eatedl* in the $ace o$ re(eated collisions/ )ut
a$ter each collision/ the mean %alue o$ the random dela* is dou)led#
5# A$ter "2 retries 6e:cluding the original tr*7/ the unluck* (acket is discarded and
the node re(orts an error# A $lo!chart re(resenting the )inar* e:(onential )ack o$$
algorithm is gi%en in Fig# &#"-
Figure 2.1+ inar* e:(onential )ack o$$ algorithm used in CSMA.CD
Figure 2.1, Com(arison o$ the through(uts $or the contention-)ased MACs
Figure 2.1- A (lot o$ the o$$ered load %ersus through(ut $or the %alue o$ a G ,#,"
#er!ormnce Com'rison *et3een C4MA5C6 nd To7en ring8
"# It has )een o)ser%ed that smaller the mean (acket length/ the higher the ma:imum
mean through(ut rate $or token (assing com(ared to that o$ CSMA.CD#
&# The token ring is also least sensiti%e to !orkload and (ro(agation e$$ects
com(ared to CSMS.CD (rotocol#
-# The CSMA.CD has the shortest dela* under light load conditions/ )ut is most
sensiti%e to %ariations to load/ (articularl* !hen the load is hea%*#
1# In CSMA.CD/ the dela* is not deterministic and a (acket ma* )e dro((ed a$ter
$i$teen collisions )ased on )inar* e:(onential )ack o$$ algorithm#
2# As a conse'uence/ CSMA.CD is not suita)le $or real-time tra$$ic#
I((( 022.+ nd (thernet
(thernet - A 9rie! :istor$
"# Ethernet re$ers to the $amil* o$ local-area net!ork 6LAN7 (roducts co%ered )* the
IEEE +,&#- standard that de$ines !hat is commonl* kno!n as the CSMA.CD
(rotocol#
&# Three data rates are currentl* de$ined $or o(eration o%er o(tical $i)er and t!isted-
(air ca)les?
", M)(sI",ase-T Ethernet
",, M)(sIFast Ethernet
",,, M)(sIFiga)it Ethernet
-# Ethernet has sur%i%ed as the ma@or LAN technolog* )ecause its (rotocol has the
$ollo!ing characteristics?
It is eas* to understand/ im(lement/ manage/ and maintain#
It allo!s lo!-cost net!ork im(lementations#
It (ro%ides e:tensi%e to(ological $le:i)ilit* $or net!ork installation#
It guarantees success$ul interconnection and o(eration o$ standards-
com(liant (roducts/ regardless o$ manu$acturer
(thernet Architecture
It can )e di%ided into t!o la*ers?
#h$sicl l$er8 this la*er takes care o$ $ollo!ing $unctions#
Encoding and decoding
Collision detection
Carrier sensing
Transmission and recei(t
6t lin7 l$er8 Follo!ing are the ma@or $unctions o$ this la*er#
Station inter$ace
Data Enca(sulation .Deca(sulation
Link management
Collision Management
#h$sicl %$er8
"# Since Ethernet de%ices im(lement onl* the )ottom t!o la*ers o$ the 4SI (rotocol
stack/ the* are t*(icall* im(lemented as net!ork inter$ace cards 6NICs7 that (lug
into the host de%iceJs mother)oard/ or (resentl* )uilt-in in the mother)oard#
&# Karious t*(es ca)ling su((orted )* the standard are sho!n in Fig#&#"3# The
naming con%ention is a concatenation o$ three terms indicating the transmission
rate/ the transmission method/ and the media t*(e.signal encoding#
-# Consider $or e:am(le/ ",ase-T# !here ", im(lies transmission rate o$ ", M)(s/
ase re(resents that it uses )ase)and signaling/ and T re$ers to t!isted-(air ca)les
as transmission media#
Figure 2.1. T*(es o$ medium and con%ention used to re(resent them
;rious stndrds re discussed *elo38
1.129se--?
"# It su((orts ", M)(s )ase)and transmission#
&# The standard s(eci$ies ,#2 inch coa:ial ca)le/ kno!n as *ello! ca)le or thick
Ethernet# The manner o$ inter$acing a com(uter is sho!n in Fig# &#"5# Each ca)le
segment can )e ma:imum 2,, meters long#
-# E( to a ma:imum o$ 2 ca)le segments can )e connected using re(eaters/ !ith
ma:imum length &2,, meters# At most ",&1 stations are allo!ed on a single
LAN#
Some other characteristics $or this media are?
"# Ta(? Not necessar* to cut a ca)le to add a ne! com(uter
&# Transcei%er? It (er$orms send.recei%e/ collision detection/ (ro%ides isolation
-# AEI? Attachment Enit Inter$ace is directl* (laced on the ca)le a$ter %am(ire
!ire ta( on the ca)le
1# AEI dro( Ca)le? This ca)le is used to inter$ace the net!ork inter$ace unit o$ the
com(uter !ith the AEI#
Figure 2.1/ inter$acing a Com(uter in ",ase-2 standard
2. 129se-28
"# It also su((orts ", M)(s )ase)and transmission#
&# The standard s(eci$ies ,#&2 inch coa:ial ca)le kno!n as chea(er net or thin
Ethernet# Each ca)le segment can )e ma:imum "+2 meters long#
-# E( to a ma:imum o$ 2 ca)le segments can )e connected using re(eaters/ !ith
ma:imum length o$ 8&2 meters#
1# The inter$acing mechanism o$ a com(uter is sho!n in Fig# &#"+# It ma* )e noted
that in this case there is no need $or AEI dro( ca)le/ !hich is re'uired in case o$
",ase-2 standard#
4ome other chrcteristics re8
L Ese $or o$$ice LAN.
de(artmental LAN
L NC connector is used to
inter$ace a com(uter
L Dro( ca)le is not re'uired
Figure 2.10 inter$acing a com(uter in ",ase-& standard
+.129se-T8
"# This standard su((orts ", M)(s )ase)and transmission and uses &1AWF
Enshielded T!isted >air 6ET>7 ca)le o$ )oth Cat-- and Cat-2 categor* ca)les#
&# A AE $unctions as a multi- (ort re(eater !ith stations connected to it !ith 0M12
connector#
-# Ma:imum length o$ a ca)le segment is ",, meters#
1# It uses star to(olog* as sho!n in Fig# &#"8# This allo!s eas* to maintenance and
diagnosis o$ $aults#
2# As a conse'uence/ this is the most (re$erred a((roach used $or setting u( o$ a
LAN#
Figure 2.11 inter$acing a com(uter in ",ase-T standard
,.129se-F8
"# It allo!s long distance connections using o(tical $i)er#
&# The to(olog* is same as ",ase-T/ )ut the medium is a (air o$ o(tical $i)er
instead o$ t!isted-(air o$ !ire# It has the $ollo!ing di%isions?
",aseF> -A (assi%e-star to(olog*/ u( to " Nm link
",aseFL - An as*nchronous (oint-to-(oint link/ u( to & Nm
",aseF - A s*nchronous (oint-to-(oint link/ u( to & Nm !ith "2
cascaded re(eaters#
6t lin7 l$er8 (thernet MAC 4u* l$er
The MAC su) la*er has t!o (rimar* res(onsi)ilities?
"# Data enca(sulation/ including $rame assem)l* )e$ore transmission/ and $rame
(arsing.error detection during and a$ter rece(tion
&# Media access control/ including initiation o$ $rame transmission and reco%er*
$rom transmission $ailure
The 9sic (thernet Frme Formt
The IEEE +,&#- standard de$ines a )asic data $rame $ormat that is re'uired $or all
MAC im(lementations# The )asic data $rame $ormat contains the se%en $ields sho!n in
Fig# &#&,
#rem*le (#A)? It consists o$ 5 )*tes# The >A is an alternating (attern o$ ones
and =eros that tells recei%ing stations that a $rame is coming#
4trt-o!-!rme delimiter (4F6)? It consists o$ " )*te# The SFD is an alternating
(attern o$ ones and =eros/ ending !ith t!o consecuti%e "-)its indicating that the
ne:t )it is the le$t-most )it in the le$t-most )*te o$ the destination address#
Figure 2.22 Ethernet Frame Format
6estintion ddress (6A)? It consists o$ 3 )*tes# The DA $ield identi$ies !hich
station6s7 should recei%e the $rame# The le$t-most )it in the DA $ield indicates
!hether the address is an indi%idual address 6indicated )* a ,7 or a grou( address
6indicated )* a "7#
The second )it $rom the le$t indicates !hether the DA is glo)all* administered
6indicated )* a ,7 or locall* administered 6indicated )* a "7#
The remaining 13 )its are a uni'uel* assigned %alue that identi$ies a single
station/ a de$ined grou( o$ stations/ or all stations on the net!ork as sho!n in
Fig# &#&"
Figure 2.21 Ethernet MAC Address
4ource ddresses (4A)? It consists o$ 3 )*tes# The SA $ield identi$ies the sending
station# The SA is al!a*s an indi%idual address and the le$t-most )it in the SA
$ield is al!a*s ,#
%ength5T$'e? It consists o$ 1 )*tes# This $ield indicates either the num)er o$
MAC-client data )*tes that are contained in the data $ield o$ the $rame/ or the
$rame t*(e ID i$ the $rame is assem)led using an o(tional $ormat#
I$ the Length.T*(e $ield %alue is less than or e'ual to "2,,/ the num)er o$ LLC
)*tes in the Data $ield is e'ual to the Length.T*(e $ield %alue#
I$ the Length.T*(e $ield %alue is greater than "2-3/ the $rame is an o(tional t*(e
$rame/ and the Length.T*(e $ield %alue identi$ies the (articular t*(e o$ $rame
)eing sent or recei%ed#
6t? It is a se'uence o$ n )*tes o$ an* %alue/ !here n is less than or e'ual to
"2,,# I$ the length o$ the Data $ield is less than 13/ the Data $ield must )e
e:tended )* adding a $iller 6a (ad7 su$$icient to )ring the Data $ield length to 13
)*tes#
Frme chec7 sequence (FC4)8 It consists o$ 1 )*tes# This se'uence contains a
-&-)it c*clic redundanc* check 6C0C7 %alue/ !hich is created )* the sending
MAC and is recalculated )* the recei%ing MAC to check $or damaged $rames#
The FCS is generated o%er the DA/ SA/ Length.T*(e/ and Data $ields#
To7en &ing (I((( 022.-)
Token 0ing? A rie$ Aistor*
"# The term Token 0ing is generall* used to re$er to )oth IMJs Token 0ing
net!ork and IEEE +,&#2 net!orks#
&# Token 0ing and IEEE+,&#2 are )ased on token (assing MAC (rotocol !ith ring
to(olog*#
-# Token is (assed in the net!ork and the station that gets the token can onl*
transmit#
1# As one node transmits at a time/ there is no chance o$ collision#
2# Stations are connected )* (oint-to-(oint links using re(eaters# Mainl* these links
are o$ shielded t!isted-(air ca)les# The re(eaters $unction in t!o )asic modes?
Listen mode/ Transmit mode#
To7en &ing <'ertion
"# Token-(assing net!orks mo%e a small $rame/ called a token/ around the net!ork#
>ossession o$ the token grants the right to transmit#
&# I$ a node recei%ing the token has no in$ormation to send/ it (asses the token to
the ne:t end station#
-# Each station can hold the token $or a ma:imum (eriod o$ time#
1# I$ a station (ossessing the token does ha%e in$ormation to transmit/ it sei=es the
token/ alters " )it o$ the token/ a((ends the in$ormation that it !ants to transmit/
and sends this in$ormation to the ne:t station on the ring#
2# While the in$ormation $rame is circling the ring/ no token is on the net!ork/
!hich means that other stations !anting to transmit must !ait# There$ore/
collisions cannot occur in Token 0ing net!orks#
3# I$ earl* token release is su((orted/ a ne! token can )e released immediatel* a$ter
a $rame transmission is com(lete#
5# The in$ormation $rame circulates around the ring until it reaches the intended
destination station/ !hich co(ies the in$ormation $or $urther (rocessing#
+# The in$ormation $rame makes a round tri( and is $inall* remo%ed !hen it reaches
the sending station#
8# The sending station can check the returning $rame to see !hether the $rame !as
seen and su)se'uentl* co(ied )* the destination station in error-$ree $orm#
",# Then the sending station inserts a ne! $ree token on the ring/ i$ it has $inished
transmission o$ its (ackets#
""# Token-(assing net!orks are deterministic/ !hich means that it is (ossi)le to
calculate the ma:imum time that !ill (ass )e$ore an* end station !ill )e ca(a)le
o$ transmitting#
#riorit$ 4$stem
"# Token 0ing net!orks use a so(histicated (riorit* s*stem that (ermits certain
user-designated/ high-(riorit* stations to use the net!ork more $re'uentl*#
&# Token 0ing $rames ha%e t!o $ields that control (riorit*?
(riorit* $ield
reser%ation $ield
-# 4nl* stations !ith a (riorit* e'ual to or higher than the (riorit* %alue contained
in a token can sei=e that token#
1# A$ter the token is sei=ed and changed to an in$ormation $rame/ onl* stations !ith
a (riorit* %alue higher than that o$ the transmitting station can reser%e the token
$or the ne:t (ass around the net!ork#
2# When the ne:t token is generated/ it includes the higher (riorit* o$ the reser%ing
station#
3# Stations that raise a tokenJs (riorit* le%el must reinstate the (re%ious (riorit* a$ter
their transmission is com(lete#
&ing Mintennce
"# There are t!o error conditions that could cause the token ring to )reak do!n#
4ne is the lost token in !hich case there is no token the ring/ the other is the
)us* token that circulates endlessl*#
&# To o%ercome these (ro)lems/ the IEEE +,& standard s(eci$ies t!o monitors/ the*
are
acti%e monitor
(assi%e monitor
-# The acti%e monitor detects the lost condition using a timer )* time-out
mechanism and reco%ers )* using a ne! $ree token#
1# To detect a circulating )us* token/ the monitor sets a Bmonitor )itC to one on an*
(assing )us* token#
2# I$ it detects a )us* token !ith the monitor )it alread* set/ it im(lies that the
sending station has $ailed to remo%e its (acket and reco%ers )* changing the )us*
token to a $ree token#
3# 4ther stations on the ring ha%e the role o$ (assi%e monitor#
5# The (rimar* @o) o$ these stations is to detect $ailure o$ the acti%e monitor and
assume the role o$ acti%e monitor# A contention-resolution is used to determine
!hich station to take o%er#
#h$sicl %$er
"# The Token 0ing uses shielded t!isted (air o$ !ire to esta)lish (oint-(oint links
)et!een the ad@acent stations#
&# The )ase)and signaling uses di$$erential Manchester encoding#
-# To o%ercome the (ro)lem o$ ca)le )reak or net!ork $ailure/ !hich )rings the
entire net!ork do!n/ one suggested techni'ue/ is to use !iring concentrator as
sho!n in Fig# &#&&
Figure 2.22 Star Connected 0ing to(olog*
1# It im(oses the relia)ilit* in an elegant manner# Although logicall* the net!ork
remains as a ring/ (h*sicall* each station is connected to the !ire center !ith
t!o t!isted (airs $or &-!a* communication#
2# Inside the !ire center/ )*(ass rela*s are used to isolate a )roken !ire or a $ault*
station# This To(olog* is kno!n as Star-Connected 0ing.
Frme Formt
Token 0ing and IEEE +,&#2 su((ort t!o )asic $rame t*(es?
Tokens $rames
Data.command $rames
Tokens are - )*tes in length and consist o$ a start delimiter/ an access control )*te/ and
an end delimiter#
Data.command $rames %ar* in si=e/ de(ending on the si=e o$ the In$ormation $ield# Data
$rames carr* in$ormation $or u((er-la*er (rotocols/ !hile command $rames contain
control in$ormation and ha%e no data $or u((er-la*er (rotocols#
To7en Frme Fields
4trt
6elimiter
Access
Control
(nding
delimiter
Token Frame contains three $ields/ each o$ !hich is " )*te in length?
4trt delimiter (1 *$te)? Alerts each station o$ the arri%al o$ a token# This $ield
includes signals that distinguish the )*te $rom the rest o$ the $rame )* %iolating the
encoding scheme used else!here in the $rame#
Access-control (1 *$te)? Contains the >riorit* $ield and the 0eser%ation $ield/ as
!ell as a token )it and a monitor )it#
(nd delimiter (1 *$te)? Signals the end o$ the token or data.command $rame#
6t5Commnd Frme Fields
4trt Access Frme 6estintion 4ource 6t
Frme
chec7 (nd Frme
6elimiter Control Control ddress ddress sequence 6elimiter 4ttus
Data.command $rames ha%e the same three $ields as Token Frames/ (lus se%eral
others# The Data.command $rame $ields are descri)ed )elo!?
Frme-control *$te (1 *$te)Iindicates !hether the $rame contains data or
control in$ormation#
6estintion nd source ddresses (2-. *$tes)IConsists o$ t!o 3-)*te
address $ields that identi$* the destination and source station addresses#
6t (u' to ,-22 *$tes)IIndicates that the length o$ $ield is limited )* the
ring token holding time/ !hich de$ines the ma:imum time a station can hold
the token#
Frme-chec7 sequence (FC4- , *$te)IIs $iled )* the source station !ith a
calculated %alue de(endent on the $rame contents# The destination station
recalculates the %alue to determine !hether the $rame !as damaged in transit#
I$ so/ the $rame is discarded#
Frme 4ttus (1 *$te)Ithis is the terminating $ield o$ a command.data
$rame# The Frame Status $ield includes the address-recogni=ed indicator and
$rame-co(ied indicator#
To7en 9us (I((( 022.,)
Token us? A rie$ Aistor*
Stations are logicall* connected as a ring )ut (h*sicall* on a us and $ollo!s
the collision-$ree token (assing medium access control (rotocol#
So the moti%ation )ehind token )us (rotocol can )e summari=ed as?
The (ro)a)ilistic nature o$ CSMA. CD leads to uncertaint* a)out the
deli%er* timeD !hich created the need $or a di$$erent (rotocol
The token ring/ on the hand/ is %er* %ulnera)le to $ailure#
Token )us (ro%ides deterministic deli%er* time/ !hich is necessar* $or real
time tra$$ic#
Token )us is also less %ulnera)le com(ared to token ring#
Functions o! To7en 9us
"# It is the techni'ue in !hich the station on )us or tree $orms a logical ring that is
the stations are assigned (ositions in an ordered se'uence/ !ith the last num)er
o$ the se'uence $ollo!ed )* the $irst one as sho!n in Fig# &#&-
&# Each station kno!s the identit* o$ the station $ollo!ing it and (receding it#
Figure 2.2+ Token us to(olog*
-# A control (acket kno!n as a Token regulates the right to access#
1# When a station recei%es the token/ it is granted control to the media $or a
s(eci$ied time/ during !hich it ma* transmit one or more (ackets#
2# It ma* (oll stations and recei%e res(onses !hen the station is done#
3# I$ its time has e:(ired then it (asses token to ne:t station in logical se'uence#
Aence/ stead* (hase consists o$ alternate (hases o$ token (assing and data
trans$er#
The MAC su) la*er consists o$ $our ma@or $unctions?
"# inter$ace machine 6IFM7
&# access control machine 6ACM7
-# recei%er machine 60:M7
1# transmit machine 6T:M7
"# IFM inter$aces !ith the LLC su) la*er# The LLC su) la*er $rames are (assed on
to the ACM )* the IFM and i$ the recei%ed $rame is also an LLC t*(e/ it is
(assed $rom 0:M com(onent to the LLC su) la*er# IFM also (ro%ides 'ualit* o$
ser%ice#
&# The ACM is the heart o$ the s*stem# It determines !hen to (lace a $rame on the
)us/ and res(onsi)le $or the maintenance o$ the logical ring including the error
detection and $ault reco%er*#
-# The res(onsi)ilit* o$ a T=M is to transmit $rame to (h*sical la*er# It acce(ts the
$rame $rom the ACM and )uilds a MAC (rotocol data unit 6>DE7 as (er the
$ormat#
1# The &=M acce(ts data $rom the (h*sical la*er and identi$ies a $ull $rame )*
detecting the SD and ED 6start and end delimiter7# It also checks the FCS $ield to
%alidate an error-$ree transmission#
Frme Formt
The $rame $ormat o$ the Token us is sho!n in Fig# &#&1# Most o$ the $ields are same
as Token 0ing#
Figure 2.2, Token us $rame $ormat
%ogicl ring mintennce
The MAC (er$orms the $ollo!ing $unctions as (art o$ its maintenance role o$ the ring#
Addition to the &ing?
Each node in the ring (eriodicall* grants an o((ortunit* $or ne! nodes to enter
the ring !hile holding the token#
The node issues a solicitsuccessor" (acket/ in%iting nodes !ith an address
)et!een itsel$ and the ne:t node in logical se'uence to re'uest entrance#
The transmitting node then !aits $or a (eriod o$ time e'ual to one res(onse
!indo! or slot time#
I$ more than one node re'uests/ to enter the ring/ the token holder !ill detect a
gar)led transmission#
6eletion !rom &ing?
A station can %oluntaril* remo%e itsel$ $rom the ring )* s(licing together its
(redecessor and successor#
The node !hich !ants to )e deleted $rom the ring !aits until token comes to it/
then it sends a set successor (acket to its (redecessor/ instructing it to s(lice to its
successor#
Fult Mngement8
A suita)le management scheme should )e im(lemented $or smooth $unctioning#
It is done )* the token-holder $irst/ !hile holding the token/ node ma* hear a
(acket/ indicating that another node has the token#
&ing Initili"tion8
0ing is to )e initiali=ed )* starting the token (assing# This is necessar* !hen the
net!ork is )eing setu( or !hen ring is )roken do!n#
T*le 2.1 Com'rison o! the three stndrds
Function C4MA5C6 To7en *us To7en ring
Access determination Contention Token Token
>acket length 31 )*tes 6Freater None None
restriction than &#T(ro(7
>riorit* Not su((orted Su((orted Su((orted
Sensiti%it* to !ork load Most sensiti%e Sensiti%e Least sensiti%e
>rinci(le ad%antage Sim(licit*/ !ide 0egulated.$air 0egulated.$air
installed )ase access access
>rinci(le disad%antage Nondeterministic Com(le:it* Com(le:it*
dela*
Fi*er 6istri*uted 6t Inter!ce (F66I)
"# Fi)er Distri)uted Data Inter$ace 6FDDI7/ de%elo(ed )* American National
Standards Institute 6ANSI7 is a token (assing ring net!ork that o(erates at ",,
M).s on o(tical $i)er-medium#
&# Its medium access control a((roach has close similarit* !ith the IEEE +,&#2
The FDDI standard di%ides transmission $unctions into 1 (rotocols?
>h*sical medium de(endent 6>MD7
>h*sical 6>AO7/
Media access control 6MAC7
Logical link control 6LLC7
Figure 2.2- FDDI (rotocols
Medium
"# The standard (h*sical medium is multi -mode 3&#2."&2 micron o(tical $i)er
ca)le using light emitting diode 6LED7 transmitting at "-,, nanometers/ as
the light source#
&# FDDI can su((ort u( to 2,, stations !ith a ma:imum distance o$ & Nm
)et!een stations and ma:imum ring circum$erence o$ &,, Nm#
-# FDDI o%er co((er is re$erred to as Co((er-Distri)uted Data Inter$ace
6CDDI7#
1# 4(tical $i)er has se%eral ad%antages o%er co((er media# In (articular/
securit*/ relia)ilit*/ and (er$ormance are all enhanced !ith o(tical $i)er
media )ecause $i)er does not emit electrical signals#
2# A (h*sical medium that does emit electrical signals 6co((er7 can )e ta((ed
and there$ore %ulnera)le to unauthori=ed access to the data that is
transmitted through the medium#
3# Fi)er is immune to radio $re'uenc* inter$erence 60FI7 and electromagnetic
inter$erence 6EMI7#
5# FDDI uses 1.2 code $or )lock coding#
+# The 2-)it code is selected such that it has no more than one leading =ero
and no more than t!o trailing =eros and more than three consecuti%e ,Cs do
not occur# Ta)le &#1 sho!s the encoded se'uence $or all the 1-)it data
se'uences# This is normall* line coded !ith N0P-I#
T*le 2.2 FDDI >h*sical la*er s(eci$ication
T*le 2.+ 1.2 encoding
To'olog$
"# The )asic to(olog* $or FDDI is dual counter rotating rings? one
transmitting clock!ise and the other transmitting counter clock!ise as
illustrated in the Fig# &#&3
&# 4ne is kno!n as (rimar* ring and the other secondar* ring#
-# Although theoreticall* )oth the rings can )e used to achie%e a data
trans$er rate o$ &,, M).s/ the standard recommends the use o$ the
(rimar* ring $or data transmission and secondar* ring as a )acku(#
1# In case o$ $ailure o$ a node or a $i)er link/ the ring is restored )*
!ra((ing the (rimar* ring to the secondar* ring as sho!n in Fig#&#&5#
2# The redundanc* in the ring design (ro%ides a degree o$ $ault tolerance/
not $ound in other net!ork standards#
3# Further im(ro%ement in relia)ilit* and a%aila)ilit* can )e achie%ed )*
using dual ring o$ trees and dual homing mechanism#
Figure 2.2. FDDI dual counter-rotating ring to(olog*
Fult Tolernce
"# FDDI (ro%ides a num)er o$ $ault-tolerant $eatures#
&# FDDIJs dual-ring en%ironment/ the im(lementation o$ the o(tical )*(ass s!itch/ and
dual-homing su((ort make FDDI a resilient media technolog*#
6ul &ing
"# FDDIJs (rimar* $ault-tolerant $eature is the dual ring#
&# I$ a station on the dual ring $ails or is (o!ered do!n/ or i$ the ca)le is damaged/ the
dual ring is automaticall* !ra((ed 6dou)led )ack onto itsel$7 into a single ring#
-# When the ring is !ra((ed/ the dual-ring to(olog* )ecomes a single-ring to(olog*#
6a7 6)7
Figure 2.2/ FDDI ring !ith a 6a7 )roken link/ 6)7 de$ecti%e station
1# When a ca)le $ailure occurs/ as sho!n in Fig# &#&56a7/ de%ices on either side o$ the
ca)le $ault !ra(# Net!ork o(eration continues $or all stations#
2# When a single station $ails/ as sho!n in Fig# &#&56)7/ de%ices on either side o$ the
$ailed 6or (o!ered-do!n7 station !ra(/ $orming a single ring#
<'ticl 9$'ss 43itch
An o(tical )*(ass s!itch (ro%ides continuous dual-ring o(eration i$ a de%ice on the
dual ring $ails#
This is used )oth to (re%ent ring segmentation and to eliminate $ailed stations $rom
the ring#
Frme Formt
Each Frame is (receded )* a (ream)le 6"3 idle s*m)ols-""""7/ $or a total o$ 31 )its/
to initiali=e clock s*nchroni=ation !ith the recei%er# There are + $ields in the FDDI $rame as
sho!n in Fig# &#&+#
Figure 2.20 Frame $ormat $or the FDDI
46? The $irst )*te/ a$ter the (ream)le/ o$ the $ield is the $rameCs starting $lag# As in Token
ring these )its are re(laced in (h*sical la*er )* the control codes#
FC? it identi$ies the $rame t*(e i#e# token or a data $rame#
Address? the ne:t & $ields are destination and source addresses# Each address consists o$ &-3
)*tes#
6t8 Each data $rame carries u( to 12,, )*tes#
FC4? FDDI uses the standard IEEE $our-)*te c*clic redundanc* check#
(6? this $ield consists o$ hal$ a )*te in data $rame or a $ull )*te in token $rame# This
re(resents end o$ the Token#
F4? FDDI FS $ield is similar to that o$ Token 0ing# It is included onl* in data.Command
$rame and consists o$ one and a hal$ )*tes#
Medi Access Control
The FDDI media access control (rotocol is res(onsi)le $or the $ollo!ing ser%ices#
"# Fair and e'ual access to the ring )* using a timed token (rotocol# To transmit on the
ring/ a station must $irst ac'uire the token# A station holds the token until it has
transmitted all o$ its $rames or until the transmission time $or the a((ro(riate ser%ice
is o%er# S*nchronous tra$$ic is gi%en a guaranteed )and!idth )* ensuring that token
rotation time does not e:ceed a (reset %alue# FDDI im(lements these using three
timers/
Token holding Timer 6TAT7/ !hich determines ho! long a station/ ma*
continue once it has ca(tured a token#
Token 0otation Timer 6T0T7 is reset e%er* time a token is seen# When timer
e:(ires/ it indicates that the token is lost and reco%er* is started#
The Kalid Transmission Timer 6KTT7 is used to time out and reco%er $rom
some transmit ring errors#
&# The $rame status 6FS7 )*te is set )* the destination and checked )* the source
station/ !hich remo%es its $rame $rom the ring and generates another token#
-# Transmitting/ recei%ing/ re(eating and stri((ing $rames and tokens $rom the ring/
unlike IEEE +,&#2/ are (ossi)le $or se%eral $rames on the ring simultaneousl*#
1# It also does ring initiali=ation/ $ault isolation and error detection as !e ha%e
discussed $or IEEE +,&#2#
T*le 2., Com'rison o! the stndrds
#rmeters F66I I((( 022.+ I((( 022.-
ANDWIDTA ",,M).s ",M).s 1 or "3M).s
NEME0 4F
STATI4NS
2,, ",&1 &2,
MAQ# DISTANCE
ETWEEN
STATI4NS
&Nm 6MMF7
&,Nm 6SMF7
&#+Nm -,,m 61M).s7
",,m 60EC4#7
MAQ# NETW40N
EQTENT
",,Nm &#+Nm KA0IED WITA
C4NFIFE0ATI4N
L4FICAL
T4>4L4FO
DEAL 0INF/ DEAL
0INF 4F T0EES
ES SINFLE 0INF
>AOSICAL
T4>4L4FO
0INF/ STA0
AIE0A0CAICAL
STA0
ES/ STA0 0INF ES
AIE0A0CAICAL
STA0
MEDIA 4>TICAL FIE0 4>TICAL FI0E/
TWISTED-WI0E/
C4AQIAL CALE
TWISTED-WI0E
4>TICAL FIE0
ACCESS
META4D
TIMED-T4NEN
>ASSINF
CSMA.CD T4NEN >ASSINF
T4NEN 0ELEASE AFTE0 T0ANSMIT - AFTE0 ST0I>>INF
40 AFTE0
T0ANSMIT6"37
F0AMES4N LAN
>E0 ACCESS
MELTI>LE SINFLE SINFLE
MAQ# F0AME SIPE 12,, OTES "2"+ OTES 12,, OTES 617
"5/+,, OTES 6"37
>ireless %ocl Are Net3or7 (>%AN)
Ad%antages are?
A%aila)ilit* o$ lo!-cost (orta)le e'ui(ments
Mo)ilit*
Installation s(eed and sim(licit*
Installation $le:i)ilit*
0educed cost o$ o!nershi(
Scala)ilit*
Ao!e%er/ !ireless LAN technolog* needs to o%ercome a num)er o$ inherent limitations and
challenges#
Some o$ the limitations and challenges are mentioned )elo!?
Lo!er relia)ilit* due to susce(ti)ilit* o$ radio transmission to noise and
inter$erence#
Fluctuation o$ the strength o$ the recei%ed signal through multi(le (aths causing
$ading#
Kulnera)le to ea%esdro((ing leading to securit* (ro)lem#
Limited data rate )ecause o$ the use o$ s(read s(ectrum transmission techni'ues
en$orced to ISM )and users#
"# The !ireless LAN technolog* is )ased on IEEE +,&#"" standards#
&# IEEE +,&#"" is commonl* re$erred to as !ireless Ethernet )ecause o$ its close
similarit* !ith the IEEE +,&#-#
-# The IEEE +,&#"" standard )asicall* de$ines the (h*sical and data link la*er#
Trnsmission Medi
There are three media that can )e used $or transmission o%er !ireless LANs#
"# In$rared
&# Micro!a%e
-# 0adio $re'uenc*
1. In$rared
"# In$rared s*stems 6I0 s*stems7 are sim(le in design and there$ore ine:(ensi%e#
&# The* use the same signal $re'uencies used on $i)er o(tic links#
-# I0 s*stems detect onl* the am(litude o$ the signal and so inter$erence is greatl*
reduced#
1# These s*stems are not )and!idth limited and thus can achie%e transmission s(eeds
greater than the other s*stems#
2# In$rared transmission o(erates in the light s(ectrum and does not re'uire a license
$rom the FCC to o(erate#
2. Micro!a%e
"# Micro!a%e 6MW7 s*stems o(erate at less than 2,, milli!atts o$ (o!er in com(liance
!ith FCC regulations#
&# MW s*stems are )* $ar the $e!est on the market#
-# The* use narro!-)and transmission !ith single $re'uenc* modulation and are set u(
mostl* in the 2#+FA= )and#
1# The )ig ad%antage to MW s*stems is higher through(ut achie%ed )ecause the* do not
ha%e the o%erhead in%ol%ed !ith s(read s(ectrum s*stems# 0adio LAN is an e:am(le
o$ s*stems !ith micro!a%e technolog*#
+. 0adio $re'uenc*
"# 0adio $re'uenc* s*stems must use s(read s(ectrum technolog* in the Enited States#
&# This s(read s(ectrum technolog* currentl* comes in t!o t*(es?
a# Direct Se'uence S(read S(ectrum 6DSSS7
)# Fre'uenc* Ao((ing S(read S(ectrum 6FASS7
There is a lot o$ o%erhead in%ol%ed !ith s(read s(ectrum and so most o$ the DSSS and
FASS s*stems ha%e historicall* had lo!er data rates than I0 or MW#
. 6irect 4equence 4'red 4'ectrum (6444) 4cheme
"# Direct Se'uence S(read S(ectrum 6DSSS7 re(resents each )it in the $rame )* multi(le
)its in the transmitted $rame#
&# DSSS re(resents each data , and " )* the s*m)ol " and R" and then multi(lies each
s*m)ol )* a )inar* (attern o$ R"Cs and "Cs to o)tain a digital signal that %aries more
ra(idl* occu(*ing larger )and#
-# The IEEE +,&#"" uses a sim(le ""-chi( arker se'uence "" S-"/ R"/ -"/ -"/ R"/ -"/
-"/ -"/ R"/ R"/ R"T !ith U>SN or >SN modulation#
1# The DSSS transmission s*stem takes " M)(s data/ con%erts it into "" M)(s signal
using di$$erential )inar* (hase shi$t ke*ing 6D>SN7 modulation#
2# The arker se'uence (ro%ides good immunit* against inter$erence and noise as !ell
as some (rotection against multi-(ath (ro(agation#
3# In )oth cases o$ s(read s(ectrum transmission/ the signal look like noise to an*
recei%er that does not kno! the (seudorandom se'uence# The third transmission
media is )ased on in$rared signal in the near %isi)le range o$ +2, to 82, nanometers#
Figure 2.21 Direct-se'uence s(read s(ectrum techni'ue using arker se'uence
*. Frequenc$ :o''ing 4'red 4'ectrum (F:44)
"# The idea )ehind s(read s(ectrum is to s(read the signal o%er a !ider $re'uenc* )and/
so as to make @amming and interce(tion more di$$icult and to minimi=e the e$$ect o$
inter$erence $rom other de%ices#
&# In FA it is done )* transmitting the signal o%er a random se'uence o$ $re'uenciesD that
is/ $irst transmitting at one $re'uenc*/ then second/ then a third and so on#
-# The random se'uence o$ $re'uencies is generated !ith the hel( o$ a (seudorandom
num)er generator#
1# As )oth the recei%er and sender use the same algorithm to generate random se'uence/
)oth the de%ices ho( $re'uencies in a s*nchronous manner and $rames transmitted )*
the sender are recei%ed correctl* )* the recei%er#
2# This is some!hat similar to sending di$$erent (arts o$ one song o%er se%eral FM
channels#
Multi'th Inter!erence
Inter$erence caused )* signals )ouncing o$$ o$ !alls and other )arriers and arri%ing at
the recei%er at di$$erent times is called multi(ath inter$erence# Multi(ath inter$erence a$$ects
I0/ 0F/ and MW s*stems#
To'olog$
"# Each com(uter/ mo)ile/ (orta)le or $i:ed/ is re$erred to as a station in +,&#""#
&# The di$$erence )et!een a (orta)le and mo)ile station is that a (orta)le station mo%es
$rom (oint to (oint )ut is onl* used at a $i:ed (oint#
-# Mo)ile stations access the LAN during mo%ement#
1# Fundamental to the IEEE +,&#"" architecture is the conce(t o$ asic Ser%ice Set
6SS7 or !ireless LAN cell#
2# A SS is de$ined as a grou( o$ stations that coordinate their access to the medium
under a gi%en instance o$ medium access control#
3# The geogra(hic area co%ered )* a SS is kno!n as the asic Ser%ice Area 6SA7/
!hich is %er* similar to a cell in a cellular communication net!ork#
5# All stations !ith in a SA !ith tens o$ meters in diameter ma* communicate !ith
each other directl*#
+# The +,&#"" standard su((orts the $ormation o$ t!o distinct t*(es o$ SSs?
ad hoc net!ork
In$rastructure SS
8# T!o or more SSJs are interconnected using a Distri)ution S*stem or DS# This
conce(t o$ DS increases net!ork co%erage# Entr* to the DS is accom(lished !ith the
use o$ Access >oints 6A>7#
",# An access (oint is a station/ thus addressa)le# So data mo%es )et!een the SS and the
DS !ith the hel( o$ these access (oints#
""# Creating large and com(le: net!orks using SSJs and DSJs leads us to the ne:t le%el
o$ hierarch*/ the E:tended Ser%ice Set or ESS#
"&# Stations !ithin the ESS can communicate or e%en mo%e )et!een SSJs trans(arentl*
to the LLC#
"-# Ad hoc net!orks are tem(orar* in nature/ !hich are t*(icall* created and maintained
as needed !ithout (rior administrati%e arrangement# A t*(ical ad hoc net!ork is
sho!n in Figure &#-, 6a7#
"1# Se%eral SSs are interconnected )* a distri)ution s*stem to $orm an e:tended ser%ice
set 6ESS7 as sho!n in Fig# &#-,6)7#
"2# The SSs are like cells in a cellular communications net!ork#
"3# Each SS is (ro%ided !ith an Access (oint 6A>7 that has station $unctionalit* and
(ro%ides access to the distri)ution s*stem#
"5# A>s o(erate on a $i:ed channel and remain stationar* like )ase stations in a cellular
communication s*stem#
6a7 6)7
Figure 2.+2 6a7 asic Ser%ice set 6SS7/ 6)7 In$rastructure SS 6ESS7
Figure 2.+1 E:tended ser%ice set 6ESS7
"# An ESS can also (ro%ide gate!a* access $or !ireless users into a !ired
net!ork#
2. Each end station associates itsel$ !ith one access (oint# Figure &#-" sho!s
three SSs interconnected through three A>s to a distri)ution s*stem#
-# For $or!arding $rames across the A>s/ )ridging (rotocol ma* )e used/
!hich is )e*ond the sco(e o$ IEEE +,&#"" standard# Ao!e%er/ the +,&#""
standard s(eci$ies ho! stations select their access (oints#
The techni'ue used $or this (ur(ose is kno!n as scanning/ !hich in%ol%es the
$ollo!ing ste(s?
A station sends a (ro)e $rame#
All A>s !ithin reach re(l* !ith a (ro)e res(onse $rame#
The station selects one o$ the access (oints/ and sends the A> an Association
0e'uest $rame#
The A> re(lies !ith an Association 0es(onse $rame#
Acti)e 4cnning
"# The a)o%e (rotocol is used !hen a station @oins a net!ork or !hen it !ants to
discontinue association !ith the e:isting A> )ecause o$ !eakened signal strength
or some other reason#
&# The discontinuation o$ association takes (lace !hene%er a station ac'uires a ne!
A> and the ne! A> announces it in ste( 1 mentioned a)o%e#
-# For e:am(le/ assume that station is mo%ing a!a* $rom the SS o$ A>-"
to!ards the SS o$ A>-&#
1# As it mo%es closer to the SS o$ A>-&/ it sends (ro)e $rames/ !hich is res(onded
e%entuall* )* A>-&#
2# As some o$ (oint o$ time station (re$ers A>-& o%er A>-" and associates itsel$
!ith the access (oint A>-&#
3# The a)o%e mechanism is kno!n as acti%e scanning/ as the node is acti%el*
searching $or an access (oint#
#ssi)e 4cnning
"# An access (oint also (eriodicall* sends eacon $rame that ad%ertises the
ca(a)ilities o$ the access (oint#
&# In res(onse/ a station can associate to the A> sim(l* )* sending it an Association
re'uest $rame# This is kno!n as (assi%e scanning#
Medium Access Control
CSMA.CD techni'ue !orks great $or !ired LANs )ut !ireless to(ologies can
create a (ro)lem $or CSMA.CD#
Some o$ the challenges are?
The !ireless LAN is (rone to more inter$erence and is less relia)le#
The !ireless LAN is susce(ti)le to un!anted interce(tion leading to securit*
(ro)lems#
There are so called hidden station and e:(osed station (ro)lems#
The :idden 4ttion #ro*lem
"# Consider a situation !hen A is transmitting to / as de(icted in the Fig# &#-&# I$ C
senses the media/ it !ill not hear an*thing )ecause it is out o$ range/ and thus !ill
$alsel* conclude that no transmission is going on and !ill start transmit to # the
transmission !ill inter$ere at / !i(ing out the $rame $rom A#
&# The (ro)lem o$ a station not )een a)le to detect a (otential com(etitor $or the
medium )ecause the com(etitor is too $ar a!a* is re$erred as Aidden Station
>ro)lem.
-# As in the descri)ed scenario C act as a hidden station to A/ !hich is also
com(eting $or the medium;
Figure 2.+2 Aidden Station >ro)lem
(='osed 4ttion 'ro*lem
"# No! consider a di$$erent situation !here is transmitting to A/ and C sense the
medium and detects the ongoing transmission )et!een and A#
&# C $alsel* concludes that it cannot transmit to D/ !hen the $act is that such
transmission !ould cause on (ro)lem#
-# A transmission could cause a (ro)lem onl* !hen the destination is in =one
)et!een and C# This (ro)lem is re$erred as E:(osed station >ro)lem.
1# In this scenario as is e:(osed to C/ thatCs !h* C assumes it cannot transmit to
D# So this (ro)lem is kno!n as E:(osed station (ro)lem 6i#e# (ro)lem caused due
to e:(osing o$ a station7#
Crrier 4ense Multi'le Access 3ith Collision A)oidnce (C4MA-CA)
The solution to these (ro)lems is Carrier Sense Multi(le Access !ith Collision
A%oidance or CSMA.CA as sho!n in Fig# &#--#
Min ste's cn *e summri"ed s8
Sender sends a short $rame called 0e'uest to send 0TS 6&,)*tes7 to the
destination# 0TS also contains the length o$ the data $rame#
Destination station res(onds !ith a short 6"1 )*tes7 clear to send 6CTS7 $rame#
A$ter recei%ing the CTS/ the sender starts sending the data $rame#
I$ collision occurs/ CTS $rame is not recei%ed !ithin a certain (eriod o$ time#
C4MA5CA 3or7s s !ollo3s8
"# The station listens )e$ore it sends# I$ someone is alread* transmitting/ !ait $or a
random (eriod and tr* again#
&# I$ no one is transmitting then it sends a short message# This message is called the
0ead* To Send message 60TS7#
-# This message contains the destination address and the duration o$ the
transmission# 4ther stations no! kno! that the* must !ait that long )e$ore the*
can transmit#
1# The destination then sends a short message/ !hich is the Clear To Send message
6CTS7# This message tells the source that it can send !ithout $ear o$ collisions#
2# Each (acket is ackno!ledged# I$ an ackno!ledgement is not recei%ed/ the MAC
la*er retransmits the data# This entire se'uence is called the 1-!a* handshake
(rotocol#
Figure 2.++ Four-Wa* handshake (rotocol
Crrier 4ensing
In IEEE +,&#""/ carrier sensing is (er$ormed in t!o le%els?
"# >h*sical carrier sensing
&# Kirtual carrier sensing#
1. #h$sicl crrier sensing
It is (er$ormed at the radio inter$ace )* sensing the (resence o$ other IEEE +,&#""
stations )* anal*=ing all detected (ackets#
2. ;irtul crrier sensing
It is used )* a source station to in$orm all other stations in the SS a)out the
length o$ the data $rame that it intends to send#
The headers o$ the 0TS and CTS control $rames contain the duration $ield 6in
Vsec7#
Stations detecting a duration $ield ad@ust their Net!ork Allocation Kector 6NAK7/
!hich indicates the duration the station must !ait )e$ore channel can )e sam(led
again $or sensing status o$ the medium#
"# The a)o%e (rotocol kno!n as Multi(le Access Carrier A%oidance 6MACA7 !as
su)se'uentl* e:tended to im(ro%e its (er$ormance and the ne! (rotocol/ !ith the
$ollo!ing three additions/ !as renamed as MACAW#
&# First/ the recei%er sends an ACN $rame a$ter recei%ing a $rame and all stations
must !ait $or this ACN $rame )e$ore tr*ing to transmit#
-# Second/ the )ack-o$$ algorithm is to run se(aratel* $or each data stream/ rather
than $or each station# This change im(ro%es the $airness o$ the (rotocol#
1# Finall*/ some mechanism !as added $or stations to e:change in$ormation a)out
con$iguration#
2# The distri)uted coordination $unction 6DCF7 (ro%ides su((ort $or as*nchronous
data trans$er on a )est-e$$ort )asis#
Four $ollo!ing t*(es o$ inter $rame s(aces 6IFSs7 are used?
Short IFS 6SIFS7? This is the (eriod )et!een the com(letion o$ (acket
transmission and the start o$ ACN $rame#
>oint coordination IFS 6>IFS7? This is SIFS (lus a slot time#
Distri)uted IFS 6DIFS7? This >IFS >lus a slot time#
E:tended IFS 6EIFS7? This is longer than IFS used )* a station that has recei%ed a
(acket that it could not understand# This is needed to (re%ent collisions# The
se'uence o$ e%ents that take (lace at the source/ destination and other stations is
sho!n in Figure &#-1#
Figure 2.+, CSMA.CA ack-o$$ algorithm timing se'uence
Frming
The $rame $ormat o$ the IEEE +,&#"" is sho!n in Figure &#-2# The $rames can )e
categori=ed into three t*(esD management $rame/ control $rame and data $rame#
The management $rames are used $or association and disassociation o$ stations
!ith at the A>/ authentication and de-authentication/ and timing and
s*nchroni=ation#
Figure 2.+- Frame $ormat $or +,&#""
The MAC header consists o$ se%en $ields and is -, )*tes long#
The $ields are $rame control/ duration/ address "/ address &/ address -/ se'uence
control/ and address 1 in Fig# &#-3#
The $rame control $ield is & )*tes long and is com(rised o$ "" su)$ields as
sho!n in Fig#&#-5#
Figure 2.+. MAC header
Figure 2.+/ Frame Control Field
Frme Control Field (in MAC heder)
"# The (rotocol %ersion $ield is & )its in length and !ill carr* the %ersion o$ the
+,&#"" standard# The initial %alue o$ +,&#"" is ,D all other )it %alues are
reser%ed#
&# T$'e and su*t$'e $ields are & and 1 )its/ res(ecti%el*# The* !ork together
hierarchicall* to determine the $unction o$ the $rame#
-# The remaining + $ields are all " )it in length#
1# The To 64 $ield is set to " i$ the $rame is destined $or the distri)ution s*stem#
2# From 64 $ield is set to " !hen $rames e:it the distri)ution s*stem# Note that
$rames !hich sta* !ithin their )asic ser%ice set ha%e )oth o$ these $ields set to
,#
3# The More Flg !ield is set to " i$ there is a $ollo!ing $ragment o$ the current
MSDE#
5# &etr$ is set to " i$ this $rame is a retransmission#
+# #o3er Mngement $ield indicates i$ a station is in (o!er sa%e mode 6set to "7
or acti%e 6set to ,7#
8# More dt $ield is set to " i$ there is an* MSDEs are )u$$ered $or that station#
",# The >(# $ield is set to " i$ the in$ormation in the $rame )od* !as (rocessed !ith
the WE> algorithm#
""# The <rder $ield is set to " i$ the $rames must )e strictl* ordered#
"&# The 6urtion5I6 !ield is & )*tes long# It contains the data on the duration
%alue $or each $ield and $or control $rames it carries the associated identit* o$
the transmitting station#
"-# The ddress !ields identi$* the )asic ser%ice set/ the destination address/ the
source address/ and the recei%er and transmitter addresses# Each address $ield is
3 )*tes long#
"1# The sequence control !ield is & )*tes and is s(lit into & su)$ields/ $ragment
num)er and se'uence num)er#
"2# Frgment num*er is 1 )its and tells ho! man* $ragments the MSDE is )roken
into#
"3# The sequence num*er !ield is "& )its that indicates the se'uence num)er o$ the
MSDE# The $rame )od* is a %aria)le length $ield $rom , - &-"&# This is the
(a*load#
4ecurit$
"# IEEE +,&#"" s(eci$ies an o(tional MAC la*er securit* s*stem kno!n as Wired
E'ui%alent >ri%ac* 6WE>7#
&# The o)@ecti%e is to (ro%ide a le%el o$ (ri%ac* to the !ireless LAN similar to that
en@o*ed )* !ired Ethernets#
-# Ad%anced Encr*(tion Standard 6AES7 6+,&#""i7 $or authentication and encr*(tion
is recommended as a long-term solution#
I((( 022.11 e=tensions
The ne! acti%it* ga%e rise to t!o more standardsD IEEE +,&#"" ) and IEEE +,&#""a#
022.11*8
This standard !as de%elo(ed )* IEEE !ith the su((ort $rom the consortium
Wireless Ethernet Com(ati)ilit* Alliance 6WECA7#
This standard is )ack!ard com(ati)le !ith the original standard that added t!o
ne! data rates 2#2 m)(s and "" M)(s using t!o coding techni'uesD the
mandator* coding mode kno!n as Com(lementar* Coding Ne*ing 6CCN7
modulation and >acket inar* Con%olution Coding 6>CC7#
022.118
The successor to +,&#"") is +,&#""a !ith greater s(eed and at a di$$erent
$re'uenc*#
It o(erates at radio $re'uencies )et!een 2 FA= incor(orating a coded multi-
carrier scheme kno!n as 4rthogonal Fre'uenc* Di%ision Multi-carrier 64FDM7#
022.11g8
The success o$ +,&#"") has led to another e:tension that (ro%ides && M)(s
transmission#
It retains )ack!ard com(ati)ilit* !ith the (o(ular +,&#"") standard# This
standard !ill )ecome +,&#""g#
>iFi8
An* o$ the a)o%e !ireless LAN standards are re$erred to )* the )rand name
?>iFi@#
It essentiall* denotes a set o$ Wireless LAN standards de%elo(ed )* the !orking
grou( "" o$ the IEEE LAN.MAN Standards Committee 6IEEE +,&7#
>iMAA8
The stor* o$ !ireless LAN cannot )e com(lete !ithout the mention o$ WiMAQ/
!hich stands $or >orld!ide Intero(era)ilit* $or Micro!a%e Access )* the
WiMAQ Forum#
The $orum !as $ormed in Mune &,," to (romote con$ormance and
intero(era)ilit* o$ the IEEE +,&#"3 standard/ o$$iciall* kno!n as Wireless
6Metro(oliton Area Net!ork7 MAN#
The Forum descri)es WiMAQ as Wa standards-)ased technolog* ena)ling the
deli%er* o$ last mile !ireless )road)and access as an alternati%e to ca)le and
DSLW#
It su((orts (oint to multi-(oint 6>M>7 )road)and !ireless access# WiMAQ can
deli%er a ma:imum o$ 5, M)it.s/ o%er a ma:imum distance o$ 5, miles 6""&#3
kilometers7#
Internet3or7ing 6e)ices
Karious internet!orking de%ices are?
"# Au)s
&# ridges
-# S!itches
1# 0outers
2# Fate!a*s
&e'eters
"# A single Ethernet segment can ha%e a ma:imum length o$ 2,, meters !ith a
ma:imum o$ ",, stations 6in a chea(er net segment it is "+2m7#
&# To e:tend the length o$ the net!ork/ a re(eater ma* )e used as sho!n in Fig#&#-+#
-# Functionall*/ a re(eater can )e considered as t!o transcei%ers @oined together and
connected to t!o di$$erent segments o$ coa:ial ca)le# The re(eater (asses the
digital signal )it-)*-)it in )oth directions )et!een the t!o segments#
1# As the signal (asses through a re(eater/ it is am(li$ied and regenerated at the other
end# The re(eater does not isolate one segment $rom the other/ i$ there is a
collision on one segment/ it is regenerated on the other segment# There$ore/ the
t!o segments $orm a single LAN and it is trans(arent to rest o$ the s*stem#
A re(eater connects di$$erent segments o$ a LAN
A re(eater $or!ards e%er* $rame it recei%es
A re(eater is a regenerator/ not an am(li$ier
It can )e used to create a single e:tended LAN
Figure 2.+0 0e(eater connecting t!o LAN segments
1. :u*s
"# Au) is a generic term/ )ut commonl* re$ers to a multi(ort re(eater#
&# It can )e used to create multi(le le%els o$ hierarch* o$ stations#
-# The stations connect to the hu) !ith 0M-12 connector ha%ing ma:imum segment
length is ",, meters# This t*(e o$ interconnected set o$ stations is eas* to maintain
and diagnose#
4. Figure &#-8 sho!s ho! se%eral hu)s can )e connected in a hierarchical manner to
reali=e a single LAN o$ )igger si=e !ith a large num)er o$ nodes#
Figure 2.+1 Au) as a multi-(ort re(eater can )e connected in a hierarchical manner to
$orm a single LAN !ith man* nodes
2. 9ridges
"# The de%ice that can )e used to interconnect t!o se(arate LANs is kno!n as a
)ridge#
&# It is commonl* used to connect t!o similar or dissimilar LANs as sho!n in
Fig#&#1,#
-# The )ridge o(erates in data-link la*er and that is !h* it is called le%el-& rela*
!ith re$erence to the 4SI model#
1# It links similar or dissimilar LANs/ designed to store and $or!ard $rames/ it is
(rotocol inde(endent and trans(arent to the end stations#
Ad)ntges
higher relia)ilit*
higher (er$ormance
securit*
con%enience
Larger geogra(hic co%erage#
Be$ !etures o! *ridge re
A )ridge o(erates )oth in (h*sical and data-link la*er
A )ridge uses a ta)le $or $iltering.routing
A )ridge does not change the (h*sical 6MAC7 addresses in a $rame
T$'es o! *ridges8
&#" Trans(arent ridges
&#& Source routing )ridges
Figure 2.,2 A )ridge connecting t!o se(arate LANs
2.1. Trans(arent ridges
"# It is (roduced as an e:tension o$ IEEE +,&#" and a((lica)le to all IEEE +,&
LANs/ is kno!n as trans(arent )ridge#
&# The trans(arent )ridge uses t!o (rocesses kno!n as )ridge $or!arding and )ridge
learning#
-# I$ the destination address is (resent in the $or!arding data)ase alread* created/
the (acket is $or!arded to the (ort num)er to !hich the destination host is
attached#
1# I$ it is not (resent/ $or!arding is done on all (arts 6$looding7# This (rocess is
kno!n as )ridge $or!arding#
Ne* $eatures o$ a trans(arent )ridge are?
The stations are una!are o$ the (resence o$ a trans(arent )ridge
0econ$iguration o$ the )ridge is not necessar*D it can )e added.remo%ed !ithout
)eing noticed#
It (er$orms t!o $unctions?
6a7 For!arding o$ $rames
6)7 Learning to create the $or!arding ta)le
) ridge For!arding
asic $unctions o$ the )ridge $or!arding are mentioned )elo!?
Discard the $rame i$ source and destination addresses are same
For!ard the $rame i$ the source and destination addresses are di$$erent and
destination address is (resent in the ta)le#
Ese $looding i$ destination address is not (resent in the ta)le#
Figure 2.,1 ridge $or!arding
*) ridge Learning
At the time o$ installation o$ a trans(arent )ridge/ the data)ase/ in the $orm o$ a
ta)le/ is em(t*#
As a (acket is encountered/ the )ridge checks its source address and )uild u( a
ta)le )* associating a source address !ith a (ort address to !hich it is connected#
The $lo!chart o$ Fig#&#1& e:(lains the learning (rocess# The ta)le )uilding u(
o(eration is illustrated in Fig# &#1-#
Figure 2.,2 ridge learning
Figure 2.,+ Creation o$ a )ridge-$or!arding ta)le
4'nning Tree
"# As redundanc* creates loo( (ro)lem in the s*stem/ it is %er* undesira)le#
&# To (re%ent loo( (ro)lem and (ro(er !orking o$ the $or!arding and learning (rocesses/
there must )e onl* one (ath )et!een an* (air o$ )ridges and LANs )et!een an* t!o
segments in the entire )ridged LAN#
-# The IEEE s(eci$ication re'uires that the )ridges use a s(ecial to(olog*# Such a
to(olog* is kno!n as s(anning tree 6a gra(h !here there is no loo(7 to(olog*#
1# The methodolog* $or setting u( a s(anning tree is kno!n as s(anning tree algorithm/
!hich creates a tree out o$ a gra(h;
Without changing the (h*sical to(olog*/ a logical to(olog* is created that o%erla* on the
(h*sical one )* using the $ollo!ing ste(s?
Select a )ridge as 0oot-)ridge/ !hich has the smallest ID#
Select 0oot (orts $or all the )ridges/ e:ce(t $or the root )ridge/ !hich has least-
cost (ath 6sa* minimum num)er o$ ho(s7 to the root )ridge#
Choose a Designated )ridge/ !hich has least-cost (ath to the 0oot-)ridge/ in each
LAN#
Select a (ort as designated (ort that gi%es least-cost (ath $rom the designated
)ridge to the 0oot )ridge#
Mark the designated (ort and the root (orts as $or!arding (orts and the 0emaining
ones as )locking (orts#
Figure 2.,, S(anning tree o$ a net!ork o$ )ridges
2.2. Source 0outing ridges
"# The second a((roach/ kno!n as source routing/ !here the routing o(eration is
(er$ormed )* the source host and the $rame s(eci$ies !hich route the $rame is to
$ollo!#
&# A host can disco%er a route )* sending a disco%er* $rameC !hich s(reads through the
entire net!ork using all (ossi)le (aths to the destination#
-# Each $rame graduall* gathers addresses as it goes# The destination res(onds to each
$rame and the source host chooses an a((ro(riate route $rom these res(onses#
1# For e:am(le/ a route !ith minimum ho(-count can )e chosen#
2# Whereas trans(arent )ridges do not modi$* a $rame/ a source routing )ridge adds a
routing in$ormation $ield to the $rame#
3# Source routing a((roach (ro%ides a shortest (ath at the cost o$ the (roli$eration o$
disco%er* $rames/ !hich can (ut a serious e:tra )urden on the net!ork#
Figure 2.,- Source routing $rame
+. 43itches
A s!itch is essentiall* a $ast )ridge ha%ing additional so(histication that allo!s $aster
(rocessing o$ $rames# Some o$ im(ortant $unctionalities are?
>orts are (ro%ided !ith )u$$er
S!itch maintains a director*? Xaddress - (ortX
Each $rame is $or!arded a$ter e:amining the Xaddress and $or!arded to the
(ro(er (ortX
Three (ossi)le $or!arding a((roaches? Cut-through/ Collision-$ree and Full*-)u$$ered as
)rie$l* e:(lained )elo!#
Cut-through? A s!itch $or!ards a $rame immediatel* a$ter recei%ing the destination
address# As a conse'uence/ the s!itch $or!ards the $rame !ithout collision and error
detection#
Collision-!ree? In this case/ the s!itch $or!ards the $rame a$ter recei%ing 31 )*tes/ !hich
allo!s detection o$ collision# Ao!e%er/ error detection is not (ossi)le )ecause s!itch is
*et to recei%e the entire $rame#
Full$ *u!!ered? In this case/ the s!itch $or!ards the $rame onl* a$ter recei%ing the entire
$rame# So/ the s!itch can detect )oth collision and error $ree $rames are $or!arded#
Com'rison *et3een s3itch nd hu*
"# oth can )e used to reali=e (h*sical star to(olog*/ the hu)s !orks like a logical
)us/ )ecause the same signal is re(eated on all the (orts#
&# S!itch $unctions like a logical star !ith the (ossi)ilit* o$ the communication o$
se(arate signals )et!een an* (air o$ (ort lines#
-# As a conse'uence/ all the (orts o$ a hu) )elong to the same collision domain and
in case o$ a s!itch each (ort o(erates on se(arate collision domain#
1# Moreo%er/ in case o$ a hu)/ the )and!idth is shared )* all the stations connected
to all the (orts#
2# 4n the other hand/ in case o$ a s!itch/ each (ort has dedicated )and!idth#
There$ore/ s!itches can )e used to increase the )and!idth o$ a hu)-)ased net!ork
)* re(lacing the hu)s )* s!itches#
Figure 2.,. Di$$erence )et!een a s!itch and a )ridge
,. &outers
"# A router is considered as a la*er-- rela* that o(erates in the net!ork la*er that is it
acts on net!ork la*er $rames.
&# It can )e used to link t!o dissimilar LANs. A router isolates LANs in to su)nets to
manage and control net!ork tra$$ic#
-# Ao!e%er/ unlike )ridges it is not trans(arent to end stations# A schematic diagram o$
the router is sho!n on Fig#&#15#
1# A router has $our )asic com(onents? In(ut (orts/ out(ut (orts/ the routing (rocessor
and the s!itching $a)ric#
The $unctions o$ the $our com(onents are )rie$l* mentioned )elo!#
In(ut (ort (er$orms (h*sical and data-link la*er $unctions o$ the router# The (orts are
also (ro%ided !ith )u$$er to hold the (acket )e$ore $or!arding to the s!itching $a)ric#
4ut(ut (orts (er$orm the same $unctions as the in(ut (orts/ )ut in the re%erse order#
The routing (rocessor (er$orms the $unction o$ the net!ork la*er# The (rocess
in%ol%es ta)le looku(#
The s!itching $a)ric mo%es the (acket $rom the in(ut 'ueue to the out(ut 'ueue )*
using s(eciali=ed mechanisms# The s!itching $a)ric is reali=ed !ith the hel( o$
multistage interconnection net!orks#
Figure 2.,/ Schematic diagram o$ a router
-. Gte3$s
"# A gate!a* !orks a)o%e the net!ork la*er#
&# As a conse'uence/ it is kno!n as a La*er-5 rela*#
-# The a((lication le%el gate!a*s can look into the content a((lication la*er (ackets
such as email )e$ore $or!arding it to the other side#
1# This (ro(ert* has made it suita)le $or use in Fire!alls#