Policing:ContinuityandChange

Introduction:DevelopmentoftheInternationalPoliceExecutiveSymposium
Theleadershipofanyorganizationmustfromtimetotimereflectonwhereithasbeenandwhereitisgoingifitis
toremainvital.The23
rd
AnnualMeeting,titledGlobalIssuesinContemporaryPolicing,providedsuchan
opportunity.SinceitsfoundingbyDilipDasin1994,IPEShaschangedinregardtothenumberofmeeting
participants,theformatsandcompositionoftheprograms,andthecharacteristicsofthepresenters,butthegoals
andstructureofIPEShavenotchangeddramatically.Thefirstsymposium,heldinGeneva,Switzerlandin1994,
hadlessthan20participants,andtheywerealmostentirelyhighlevelpoliceandgovernmentofficials.Onlyafew
ofthoseattendingwereacademicsorwomen.Gradually,thetopicscoveredinthesymposiumsbroadenedand
thecharacteristicsoftheparticipantschangeddramatically,withacademics,women,andrankandfilepolice
officersparticipatinginthemeetings.
Duringthenext20years,thesymposiafollowedthesameformatintermsofstructure,butthecontentofthe
presentationsandbackgroundsoftheparticipantschangeddramatically.Thefirsttensymposiafocusedonasingle
theme.Thesethemesincludedcommunitypolicing,internationalcooperation,trafficpolicing,policingcrowds
andpublicdemonstrations,corruption,traffickingofwomenandchildren,terrorism,policeeducationandtraining
andpolicingwithoutborders.However,asnewandmorecomplextypesofcrimesuchascybercrime,financial
crime,andissuespertainingtowomenandminoritiesinpolicingemerged,thethemesofthesymposiatendedto
becomemorediversified.Forexample,someformsofcrimesuchastheft,murder,robbery,prostitutionand
fraudweremattersforpoliceconcernforcenturies,butwhenothercrimessuchasthosecommittedonthe
internet,childpornography,andvariousformsoffinancialcrimesbecamewidespread,policeadministrators
realizedthatsomeoftheoldmethodsusedtoinvestigateandpreventcrimewouldnolongersuffice.Whilethe
natureofpoliceworkmayhavenotchanged,thetypesoftrainingandskillsneededtobeeffectivechanged
tremendously.Inaddition,therehasbeenagrowingrealizationthat,inourglobalsociety,theleadersofthe
componentsofthejusticesystemmustreachoutforhelpfromtheleadersofotherprivateandpublicagencies
andinstitutions.Whilethoseemployedinsuchagenciesmaynotbedirectlyconnectedtothejusticesystem,
thoseinvolvedinhighereducationwhoaretrainingpoliceinspecializedtopicareas,researcherswhoprovide
valuableinformationontheeffectivenessofpolicepractices,andevensocialserviceagenciespersonnelwho
workwithcrimevictimsandabusedwomenandchildren,canmakestrongcontributionstoeffectivepolicework.
Thekeynotespeeches,papers,androundtablepresentationsoftheIPESmeeting2013inBudapestreflected
theissuesandchallengesofpolicinginourcontemporaryglobalsociety.Morethan110persons,representing
40countries,participated.Thechangesinthecharacteristicsoftheattendeesarereflectedinthefactthathalfof
thosewhoparticipatedwereacademics,andapproximatelyonefourthoftheparticipantswerewomenwhowere
eitheracademicsorpoliceandotherjusticeagencypractitioners.Althoughthestructureofthesymposiumwas
similartotheothersymposia,andinvolvedrequiredattendanceatallsessionsandlongworkinghours,the
topicscoveredincludedmostofthecurrentissuespertainingtopoliceworkandevenseveraltopicsspecifically
relatingtocorrectionsandthejudicialcomponentofthejusticesystem.
ThethemeoftheBudapestsymposiumwasGlobalIssuesinContemporaryPolicing.Theseveralsubthemes
addressedduringthemeeting,includingcybercrime,corruption,terrorism,minorities,womeninpolicing,victims
ofcrime,specializationinpolicing,andtheadministrationofpoliceagencies,allfocusedtosomedegreeonpolice
andacademicscollaborationinresearch,training,andprogramimplementation.
Corruption:ACriticalIssue
Hetzer(2012:218)notesthatthereisnorecognizedlegaldefinitionofcorruptionandthatcorruptionhasbeen
definedfromvariousperspectives,includingmoral,ethical,political,economic,regulatoryandcriminological.He
contendsthat,Inprinciple,corruptionisasituationinwhichapersonresponsibleforperformingcertainduties
pursuesimproperorunfairadvantagesforactionsoromissionsintheperformanceofthoseduties.Healso
believesthatcorruptionisamajorreasonforinsufficientdevelopmentofacountryandjeopardizesthe
foundationofanydemocraticcountry(217).Thekeynoteaddress,titledCorruption,deliveredbyMartinKreutner,
DeanoftheInternationalAntiCorruptionAcademy,focusedonanticorruptioneffortstocombatcorruption
engagedinbyTheEuropeanPartnerAgainstCorruption(EPAC)andtheEuropeanContactPointNetworkAgainst
Corruption(EACN).Thesegroups,alongwithotherauthoritiesthroughoutEurope,cooperatetodevelopcommon
standardsforanticorruptionmeasures.EPAC/EACN(2012:8)developedtheframeworkforanticorruption
agenciesintheCouncilofEurope,EuropeanUnionMemberStates,EuropeanAntiFraudOffice,Europoland
Eurojusttoprovideaplatformforpractitionerstoexchangeexpertiseandinformation,assisteachother,and
cooperateacrossnationalborders,bothonapracticalandprofessionallevel.Referringtoasurveycompleted
bytheInternationalAntiCorruptionAcademy(IACA),Kreutner(2013)notedthattheperceptionamongthe
majorityofthecitizensisthatcorruptionhasincreasedduringrecentyearsandtheworstoffendersarepolitical
officials,thepolice,corporateandbusinessleadersandotherpublicofficials.Inreferencetothoseorganizations
investigatingcorruption,Kreutner(2013)notedthat,inordertobesuccessful,theseagenciesmusthave
independencethatisfreefromanypoliticalinterference,adequateresources,personnelwiththeexpertiseto
carryouttheinvestigativeactivities,transparenciesinthestructureandmechanismsusedinthecorruption
investigationsandtheabilitytocooperatewiththemediaandthecivilsociety.(Kreutner,2013).Mills,(2012)and
DobovsekandMastnak(2012)emphasizetheimportanceoftheexistenceofafreemassmediacommunications
networkthatisnotpoliticallyoreconomicallyattachedinthenationalandinternationeffortstocombat
corruption.Mills(2012)notesthat,incountriesinwhichthegovernmentiseithercorruptorweak,themeasures
usedtosilencetheinvestigationsofreporterscanbethreatsofphysicalviolenceandevendeath.Mills(2012:207)
contendsthat,Onvirtuallyeverycontinent,journalistswhoreportoncorruptionandorganizedcrimeface
obstacles.AcrossAsia,Africa,andLatinAmerica,afavoredtoolusedtosilencereportersunveilingcorruptionis
theuseofantiquatedcriminaldefamationlaws.DobovsekandMastnak,(2012)notethatinsomecountries,
particularlythoseinastateofeconomicdevelopment,boththeeconomicsectorandthepoliticalsectormay
becomedependentonorganizedcrime,resultinginwidespreadcorruptioninthosecountries.Needlesstosay,
investigativereportingoncorruption,whichisverysimilarinthemethodsandproceduresfollowedasthoseused
incriminalinvestigations,mustbefreefrompoliticalandeconomicinfluenceifitistobesuccessful.They
contendthatsuchinvestigationsbythemediaarenotlikelytohavemuchsuccessincountriesthatarenot
democratic.Researchoncitizensperceivedcorruptionamongthepolicerevealedthatthereseemedtobea
directcorrelationbetweenthestabilityofthegovernmentandtheeconomicsystemandtheamountof
corruption.Forexample,itwasfoundthat,inmanyoftheEasternEuropeancountriesthatadoptedademocratic
formofgovernmentafterbeingseparatedfromtheSovietUnion,theamountofcorruptionactuallyincreased
untiltheirgovernmentsandeconomicsystemshadachancetostabilize.(SeeDasandMarenin,2000:Policingin
NewDemocracies.)Thisfindingseemstobeconfirmedinthecomparativestudyoftheperceptionofcorruption
amongthepolicebythecitizensofAustria,Kazakhstan,andSerbia.(Edelbacher,SimonovicandNurgaliyev,
2013).InAustria,acountrywithastablegovernmentandeconomy,thepeopletendedtotrustthepoliceand
believedthatcorruptpoliceofficerswouldbeadequatelydisciplinedbytheirsuperiors,whileinSerbiaand
Kazakhstan,twocountriesthathavedemocraticgovernmentsandeconomiesthatarestilldeveloping,thetrustof
policeandthebeliefthatpolicewhoengagedincorruptionandotherformsofdeviancywouldbeadequately
disciplinedbytheirsuperiorswasmuchlower.
LobnikarandMesko(2013)contendthatcorruptpoliceofficersaremade,notborn.Inordertounderstand
corruptionoralackofcorruptionamongthepolice,itisnecessarytounderstandthecultureofthecountry,the
politicalsystem,andtheorganizationalstructureofthepoliceagency.InastudybyLobnikerandMesko,police
officersweregivenaquestionnaireinwhichtheywereaskedtoevaluatetheseriousnessofactsengagedinby
policethatappearedtobedeviant.Inaddition,theywereaskedtorecommendtheformofdisciplinethatshould
beusedforofficerswhohadbeencaughtengaginginaspecificdeviantact.Onthebasisoftheirfindings,the
authorsconcludedthatajustdisciplinarypolicyatalllevelsmustbefollowedtoenhancetheintegrityofthe
policeorganization.Almosthalfoftheofficersbelievedthedisciplinegiventosuperiorofficerswastoolowand
theofficersinthestudyreportedthatinsomecasesnoactionatallwastakentodisciplinethehigherranking
officerswhoengagedindeviantbehavior.Theresearcherssuggestedthatopeningupthedisciplinarypoliciesto
thepublicmaybeonewaytohelpbuildtrustinthepolicebythecitizenry.
Otherpresentations(Shikwambana,2013;HaefaeleandHesselink,2013;Albrecht,2013;andStoryWhyte.2013)
reaffirmedthefindingsofmuchofthepriorresearchcompletedonpolicecorruptionanddeviancethat
corruptionwithinthepolicedepartmentsexistsbecausetheyfunctionwithinacultureinwhichcorruptionisthe
norm,thecodeofsilenceadheredtobypoliceofficersprohibitsthenoncorruptofficersfromexposingthe
devianceoftheirfellowofficers,andtheleadershipwithinthepoliceorganizationissoweakorcorrupt,thateven
iftheofficerswhoarecorruptareexposed,exceptinextremecases,thepunishmentwillnotlikelybesevere
enoughtodeterthecorruptofficer.(Shikwambana(2013)andHaefaeleandHesselink(2013)notethatcriminal
behaviorbythepoliceagainstwomeninSouthAfricawhoareunderpolicesupervision,whilewidespread,often
goesunnoticedandtheoffendersarerarelypunished.Inasurveyofsuchwomen,thelargemajorityclaimedto
haveeitherwitnessedorpersonallyexperiencedwhileincustodysuchpolicebrutalityaswomenbeingraped,
inapprokpriatelytouchedorbeaten,swornatbythepolice,orofferedbribesbythepoliceinexchangeforsexual
favors.Theirmainreasonfornotbringingthedeviantbehaviortotheattentionoftheauthoritieswasthefearof
beingvictimizedinthefuture.WhileemphasizingthatSouthAfricanPoliceingeneralarenotcorrupt,the
researchersobservedthattraditionalvaluesoftheSouthAfricanculture,inwhichagenderbasedviolenceexists,
aswellasthegeneraldisrespectforlawandorderofmanypoliceofficers,poortrainingofthepolice,andin
generalnegligentpolicemanagementareallreasonswhyitwilltakesometimebeforethesituationwillchange.
WhenSouthAfricagaineditsindependence,therewasaneedforaquickturnoverinpolicepersonnel.Many
policeofficerswithseriouscriminalrecordswerehired,nepotismwasprevalent,andthestandardsforentrance
andthepayreceivedbythenewrecruitswerelow.Therehasbeenagradualimprovementinthemethodsused
toscreennewrecruitsaswellasinthetrainingandsalariesofficersreceive.However,thetransformationofthe
policeisstillinastateoftransition.
Eterno(2013),usingseveralresearchmethodologies,includingsurveys,secondarydataanalysis,andcasestudies,
concludedthatthedrasticdecreaseinIndexcrimesinNewYork,asreportedbytheNewYorkPoliceDepartment,
whileattributedtotheeffectivenessoftheCOMPASTATorganizationalmodel,inactualitycanpartiallybe
explainedbythemanipulationofthereportsoffelonycrimesbypoliceadministrators.Basedonseveralsources
ofdatagatheredfromthoseoutsidetheNYPD,EternocontentedthatthepressuretoshowthatCOMPSTATis
effectiveledtoakindofconditioningamongpoliceofficerstoreportmanyfelonycrimesasmisdemeanor
crimes.Thiswidespreadpracticeleadstoadrasticreductionoffelonycrimesreported.Thisprolongeddecrease
inseriouscrimescanjustifyadministrativedecisions,suchasreducingthenumberofpoliceofficersontheforce.
However,EternopointedoutthatresearchstatisticsfortheperiodduringwhichCOMPSTATwasimplemented
revealsthat,whilethenumberofsuspectsstoppedbythepoliceinNewYorkincreasedsignificantlyduringthis
timeperiod,thenumberoffelonycrimesreporteddeclinedsignificantlyduringthissameperiod,thusaddingmore
evidenceofamanipulationofcrimestatistics.Theresearcheralsosurveyedretiredpoliceadministrators
(Captainsandabove),comparingthosewhoretiredbeforeCOMPSTATwiththosewhoretiredafterCOMPSTAT
wasimplemented.Forthosewhowereawareofthemanipulationpractices,itwasfoundthatlessthan1/3ofthe
officersclaimedtheyfeltpressuredtomakenumberslookbetter,changedwordstodowngradethereport,ordid
nottakereportswhentheyshouldhave,whilemorethanhalfofthosewhoretiredafterCOMPSTATwas
implementedclaimedthattheywerepressuredtochangewordstomadethenumberslookbetterordowngraded
theoffense,andalmosthalfclaimedtheydidnottakereportswhentheyshouldhave.(Eterno,2013)Finally,more
thanoftheretiredofficersreportedthatthesepracticeswereunethical.Inconclusion,Eternobelievedthat,
withmorecooperationbetweenthepoliceadministrationandoutsideresearchers,withresearchershavingaccess
topolicedata,thedisclosureofinformationtothepublicwilleventuallycreateanatmosphereinwhichthepublic
willbecomelessdistrustfulofthepolice.
PoliceEducation,TrainingandLeadership
Severalspeakersaddressedtheneedforaninternationalfocusinthetrainingofpoliceofficersand
administrators.CordnerandShain(2011,281)notethat,Policeeducationandtrainingexpandedallaround
theworldduringthetwentiethcenturyandwereseenasthecornerstonesofpoliceprofessionalismand
modernization.Inthe21
st
century,thoseresponsibleforpoliceeducationandtrainingmustrecognizetheneed
tochangethenatureofpolicetraininginordertorespondtothechallengespresentedtothepoliceinaglobal
society.CordnerandShain(2011:28182)notethatpolicetrainersflyaroundtheworldtodelivertheir
courses.OrganizationslikeInterpol,Europol,theU.S.InternationalCriminalInvestigativeTrainingAssistance
Program(ICITAP)andtheInternationalAssociationofChiefsofPolice(IACP)playagrowingroleintheprovision
oftraining,andtrainingcontentfocusesmoreandmoreonglobalissuessuchasinternationalcrime.
Boda(2013)notedthatpolicinginthefuturemustbridgethegapbetweendomesticpolicingandinternational
policing.HenotedthatWemustlearnfromeachotherregardinghowtousethemostadvancedequipment
andtrainingandlegalstandardstofightallformsofinternationalcrimeandcorruption.InHungary,
internationalspecializedcrimeandcorruptionpreventionunitswerecreated.(Keynoteaddress)
TheInternationalLawEnforcementAcademy(ILEA),locatedinBudapest.andthreeotheracademieslocatedin
othercountrieswerestartedunderaU.S.StateDepartmentinitiativeinthelate20
th
century.Inaprogram
modeledaftertheFBITrainingCenterinQuantico,policeofficersfromvariouscountriescompletesevenweeks
ofbasictraining.Therearealso30to35specializedcoursesofferedduringtheyearconsistingoftwoweeks
duration.Variouscooperativeinternationaltrainingacademieshavebeenestablishedinmanypartsofthe
world.Forexample,theMiddleEuropeanPoliceAcademywascreatedinthelate1990s.Lawenforcement
leadersfromvariousmiddleEuropeancountriesengageinatwotothreemonthstrainingcourseandafter
returningtotheirnativecountry,theselawenforcementleaderspassontheinformationgainedtootherpolice
officersintheiragencies.(Kratcoski,2007:18).
ModelsforPoliceOrganization
Whilethecurrenttrendinpoliceeducationandtrainingistoprepareofficerstosolvepolicingproblemsthat
haveinternationalsocietalimplications,thesimplefactremainsthatthevastmajorityofpoliceofficers
throughouttheworldservetheirlocalcommunities.Somepoliceofficersmayworkinajurisdictionthatcovers
afewsquaremileswithafewhundredpeoplebeingserved,whileinotherjurisdictionsthousandsofofficers
coverhundredsofsquaremileswithmillionsofpeoplebeingserved.Nevertheless,thefocusisstillon
domesticpolicematters.Withtheselargedifferencesinthecommunitiesserved,perhapsthereisnotone
organizationalmodelthatcanbeadaptedtobestservetheneedsofallcommunities.Often,theorganizational
modelfollowedbyaspecificpolicedepartmentisnottheresultofcarefulplanningandresearchonwhatworks.
Rather,themissionandgoalsofaparticularpolicedepartmentareoftendeterminedbypolitical,socialand
economicfactorsinthecommunity.Incertaincountriesthroughouttheworld,themissionofthepoliceisto
protectthestate,whileinothercountriesthemissionofthepoliceistoserveandprotectthecitizensofthe
community.Themissionandgoalsofthepolicechangeasaresultofchangesinpoliticalthought,changesinthe
lawsandchangingsentimentsofthepublic.Asmissionsandgoalschange,thetypeofleadership,
organizationalstructure,recruitmentandtrainingofpersonnelandoperatingprocedureswillchangetoreflect
thenewgoalsoftheorganization.Forexample,intheUnitedStatesthemissionsandgoalsoflargecitypolice
organizationshavechangedseveraltimes.Aslargecitiesbegantoestablishpolicedepartmentsinthemid19
th

century,thehiringofpoliceofficerswaspredominatelybasedonpoliticalpatronage.Therewerefew
requirementsregardingeducationandtraining,andcorruptionatalllevelswaswidespread.Howevertherewas
anemphasisonservicetothecommunityand,sincethepatrolofficerswerenormallyassignedtoworkinthe
neighborhoodsinwhichtheylived,thecommunicationbetweenofficersandresidentswasgenerallypositive.
Thenegativereactiontothepoliticalcorruptionandpatronagebythepressandseveralreformgroupsresulted
inthepolicereformmovementofthefirstpartofthe20
th
century.Thosebackingpolicereformattemptedto
removethepatronageandestablishpoliceorganizationsthathadstandardsforemploymentbasedon
educationandtraining.Thenewformallystructuredprofessionalpolicedepartmentswereorientatedmoreto
crimecontrolthanservice.(SeeKratcoskiandKempf,l995,PoliceReform,EncyclopediaofPoliceScience.Ed.2,
GarlandPublishing:60914).Inthe1960sand70s,thecivilrightsmovement,protestsagainsttheVietnamWar
andotherfactorscreatedademandforatypeofpolicingthatwouldbemoreresponsivetotheneedsofthe
citizenry.Thisresultedinchangesinthemissionsandgoalsaswellaschangesintheorganizationalstructures
ofpolicedepartments.Thissocallednewapproachtopolicing,popularizedbyacademics,waslabeled
communitypolicingandgenerallycalledforadecentralizationofthestructure,lessspecialization,more
decisionmakingpowerforthestreetofficersandmoreinteractionandcommunicationswiththecitizenry
(Kratcoski,l995;Mastrofski,1992;Trojanowicz,1990).
Atthepresenttime,political,economic,socialandeventechnologicalfactorscontinuetoinfluencethewaythe
leadershipofpoliceorganizationsrespondstothedemandsforstrictcrimecontrolandthedemandsforthe
policetobemoreresponsivetotheneedsofthecommunity.However,regardlessofthedifferencesinbeliefs
onwhatshouldbethemissionandgoalsofpoliceorganizations,theyallagreethatpoliceshouldhavehigh
standardsforrecruitmentandthatthecandidatesshouldbeeducatedandwelltrainedandbefreefrom
politicalandcriminalinfluences.TheCOMPSTATmodelwasfirstappliedinNewYorkCityandrapidlydeveloped
inmanyothercitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates.Ittriestocombinethecriticalelementsfoundinthe
traditional,centralized,bureaucraticpoliceorganizationalmodelwiththecriticalelementsofthedecentralized
communitypolicingmodel.Itisamultifacetedapproachtoreducingcrime,maximizingtheeffectivenessof
personnelandresourceswhilealsoaddressingqualityoflifematters.InNewYorkCity,adecentralized
managementmodelhasbeenadopted.Highlevelpoliceexecutivesfromthecentralheadquartersmeetwith
localprecinctcommanderstodiscussproblemsanddevelopstrategiestotrytosolvetheseproblems.The
precinctcommandershavetheauthoritytomakedecisionsonhowtoaddresstheproblemsexistinginthe
precinctstheycommand(Wikipedia,accessedFe.11,2014).
Itshouldbenotedthatanyonepoliceorganizationalandmanagementmodelisnotinherentlysuperiorto
another.Toooften,inanattempttoimplementamodelthatappearstobeeffectiveinanothercity,police
departmentmayattempttoputinplaceamodelthatiseithernotcomparabletothecultureandtraditionsof
thepeopleorforwhichtheresourcestoimplementitproperlyarenotavailable.Inaddition,itshouldbe
notedthat,regardlessoftheparticularenvironmentinwhichpoliceofficerswork,theessenceofthejobisthe
sameallovertheworld.
IninterviewofMalHyde,SouthAustraliaPoliceCommissioner,completedbyDavidBaker(2011:7)itwas
notedthat,Policingisaprofessionwheresomethingschangeandsomethingsremainthesame.Thedynamics
ofpolicing,theproblemofpolicing,theartofpolicing,andwhatpolicingisallaboutdontchangebecauseitisa
mixtureofthebehaviorofpeople(innatehumanbehaviorthatmightvarybecauseofdifferentcultures)and
thenalsothewayauthorityinterplayswiththatbehavior.Theessenceofwhatpolicingisallabout;nowthat
doesntchange.Itisthesametodayasitwas20yearsagoor30yearsago.CommissionerHydegoesontonote
thatthedetails,crimeproblems,technologicalmethods,andstrategiesusedtoinvestigatecrimesmaychange,
butthedynamicsofpolicingdonotchange.
RoccoDeBenedetto(2013)notedthatpoliceorganizationsthroughouttheworldareexperiencingreductionsin
personnel,funding,andotherresources,whilethetasksofpolicingareexpandingandthepoliticalpowers,as
wellasthepublic,aredemandingmorefromthepoliceintermsofserviceandsafety.Thus,theseorganizations
areforcedtodevelopnewmanagementmodelstoimproveandassesstheirperformance.Herecommendsa
managementmodelthatwasinitiallydevelopedforprivatecorporations,butcanbeadaptedbypublicagencies
suchasthepolice.
Thekeyperformancemetricsoftheplanincludemeasuringpoliceperformancethroughquantifiableoutcomes
andholdingagenciesaccountable.Henotesthatperformancemeasurementisanongoingprocessthatinvolves
systematiceffortstoestablishingdesiredoutcomes,settingperformancestandards,andcollecting,analyzing
andreportingondatausedtoimprovebothindividualandcollectiveperformance.DeBenedettoemphasized
thattheinstrumentsusedtomeasurepoliceperformanceinthepast,suchasnumberofarrests,response
times,andclearanceratesarenolongeradequate.Instead,heofferedacomprehensive,multidimensional
measurementsystem.Thedimensionsofthismodelincludetheextenttowhich:
Crimeandvictimizationisreduced;
Offendersareheldaccountable;
Fearofcrimeisreducedandsecurityisenhanced;
Safetyandorderinpublicplacesisenhanced;
Policeforceisusedsparinglyandfairly;and
Citizensatisfactionisenhanced.(DeBenedetto,2013:Slide11)
Themodelrecommendedcanalsobeusefulindeterminingthehealthordysfunctionofanorganizationandin
assessingsuchmattersaspolicemisconduct,abusivebehaviorandfailuretoperformrequiredduties.
(DeBenetetto,2013,Slide13)
SpecializationinPoliceEducation,TrainingandLeadership
Asecondsubthemewasthespecializationofpolicework.Severalpapersandtwoexcellentroundtablediscussions
(PoliceRoundtableAnthonyBatts,JozsefBoda,DilipK.Das,MaximillianEdelbacher,JohnEterno,OddBerner
Malme,KateStoreyWhyte,ToddWusterewald).(AmokRoundtableJayCorzine,LynnHuffCorzine,OddBerner
Malme,MaryShenouda,MichaelWilds,ToddWustewald)focusedonpoliceleadership,respondingtomass
murdersituations,andotherareasofpoliceworkrequiringspecializedtrainingandexpertize.Thepresentations
includedidentifyingpotentialmassmurderersandrespondingtomassmurdersituations,preparingfornatural
disasters,includingearthquakes,floodsandtsunamis,andmanmadedisasters,suchasnuclearpowerplant
breakdownsandthecollapseofthefinancialsystemofacountry.
Lepardetal.(2013)notedthattheinvestigationsofserialmurderarethemostdifficulttoconductandrequirethe
officerstohavespecializedtrainingandskillsforvariousreasons.Theabsenceofbodies,murdersites,physical
evidence,andareliablechronologymakeitdifficulttodetermineifamissingpersonreportshouldevenrequirea
murderinvestigation.Generally,ifamissingpersoninvestigationbythepoliceisstarted,itwillcontinueasa
missingpersoninvestigationEvenafterrecognizingthepossibilityofaserialmurderbeingresponsibleinthe
missingpersoncase(Lepardetal.,2013).
Policedecisionsfordeterminingiftherewillbeaninvestigationforamissingpersonandthestrategiesfor
investigationswilldiffer,dependingonanumberoffactors.Iftherearenobodiesandnoreportsonmissing
persons,noinvestigationiscompleted.Thereisconsiderableevidencethatalargenumberofmissingpersons,
andpossiblyvictimsofserialkillersareneverrecordedandinvestigated(Lepardetal.(2013).Amissingperson
investigationisstartedwhenthereisareportfiledwiththepolice,butifapersonordeadbodyisnotfound.the
casecontinuesasamissingpersoninvestigation.However,ifanumberofmissingpersonreportsarefiledand
thereappearstobesomecommoncharacteristicsassociatedwiththedisappearancesofthepersons,the
investigationtendstoshifttowardacaseofaserialmurdererandifdeadbodiesarelocated,thefocusand
strategiesoftheinvestigationshiftentirelytoamurdercase(Lepard,etal.,2013).
MassMurderers
Thecharacteristicsofmassmurdersituationsarequitedifferentthanserialkillingsituationandgenerallycallfor
anentirelydifferentresponse.Corzine,L.(2013.Slide1)indicatesthat,whilethereareseveraldifferent
definitionsofmassmurder,itinvolvesthekillingofseveralpeoplebyoneormoreoffendersduringashorttime
span,generallywithinafewhoursorless,withinonelocationorwithinashortdistancefromtheoriginal
murders.Shegoesontoexplainthatthetermsspreemurderandbifurcatedmassmurderareoftenusedto
designatethosemassmurdereventsthathappenedatmorethanonelocation(Corzine,L.(2013Slide6).
Corzine,J.2013)indicatedthat,whilemostsensationalmassmurderincidentsarewellcoveredbythemass
media,withthecharacteristicsofthemurder/sandvictimsrecordedbythemediaaswellasthecriminaljustice
investigationagencies,numerouscasesofmassmurdermayreceivelittleattention.TheNationalIncidentBased
ReportingSystemdevelopedbytheU.S.FederalBureauofInvestigation,whilehavinglimitations(lessthan1/3of
theU.S.isincluded,codingerrorsandmissinginformation),neverthelessisthemostcomprehensiveandreliable
sourceofinformationonmassmurders.Thedatacollectedinthisreportingsystemincludesinformationonthe
incident,includingweaponsused,locations,andgenerallyoneisabletodetermineifavictimoffender
relationshipexistedpriortothemassmurderincident(Corzine,J.,2013,Slide7).MichaelWildssummarizedthe
statisticsandresearchcompletedonmassmurdersintheUSA.Henotedthatthemostlikelylocationsformass
murdertooccurarestores,malls,restaurants,government,andhousesofworship,with50%ofthemassmurders
incidentsbeingatworkplacesorschools.Also,from1982tothepresenttherewerealmostasmanywoundedas
killed(Wilds,2013,Slide3).Wuestewald(2013)referredtotypologiesdevelopedbyFoxandLevinandHolmes
toillustratethetypesofmassmurdersandthepossiblemotivationstheymayhavetokill.Shenotedthatthe
motivationforthosewhokillatschoolcouldfitintoanumberofcategories,includingfrustration,socialisolation,
lossofanintimatefriend,revenge,power,loyaltytoaleader,profit,terrorism,sexualfactors,andexecution(Slide
25).Inaddition,manystudentsdonotseemtofitintoanyoftheprofilesmentionedaboveandtheirmotivations
areunexplained(Slide27).
Psychologists,behavioralscientists,andcriminaljusticeinvestigatorseffortstopredictthelikelihoodofamass
murderincidenthavegenerallynotbeensuccessful.Perhapsthemostattentionhasbeengiventoschool
shootingsresultinginmassmurder.Generally,theinformationontheincidentspertainingtomotive,sourceof
theweaponused,andoffender/svictim/srelationshipiscollectedafterthefactandevenherethemotiveisoften
difficulttoascertain,sincetheoffenderiseitherkilledbythepoliceordiesfromaselfinflictedwound.Several
typologiesofmassmurderersincludethosewhohaveaspecifictargetandthosewhosekillingisrandom,those
whokillforrevenge,andthosewhomaybementallyill.Eveninthosecasesinwhichitappearsthereisnospecific
target,perhapsthevictimsmayhavejustbeeninthewayofthemurdererwhohadoneormorespecifictargetsin
mind.Inthecoveragebythemassmediaaswellasinthelawenforcementinvestigationsconductedbythepolice,
thecharacteristicsofthosevictimswhowereinjuredduringtheincidentgenerallydonotreceiveagreatdealof
attention.Forexample,intheschoolshootingsthatoccurredintheU.S.between20102013inwhichtwoormore
peoplewerekilledtherewerealsovictimsinjured(shot,stabbed,beaten)inalmost60%oftheincidents.(Listof
SchoolShootingsintheUnitedStates,Takenfrominternet,Feb10,2014Http://enwikipedia.org).Insummary,
considerablymoreresearchisneededbeforecriminaljusticeagenciescansaywithconfidencethattheycan
predictandpreventmassmurder.

PreventionofMassMurderinSchoolsandPublicPlaces
Aspreviouslynotedinthispaper,thevastmajorityofmassmurderersthatoccurredintheUnitedStates,
happenedintheworkplaces,shoppingmalls,governmentbuildings,placesofworshipandinschools.The
preventionstrategiesfollowedbyeachofthesetypesofinstitutionshasvarieddependingonthetypeof
institution.Thesecurityinspecifictypesofgovernmentbuildings,suchascourthouses,placesthathousecity,
stateorfederalworkershavebeenenhancedconsiderable.Generally,theestablishmentofnewsecuritymeasures
inprivateestablishmentssuchasofficebuildings,placesofworshipandshoppingcentershasbeenpiecemeal
dependingonthesuchfactorsasthesizeoftheestablishment,potentialforamassmurderersituationto
developandtheabilitytopayforthenewsecurityprograms.Ontheotherhand,theadministrationsofschools
throughouttheUnitedStateshashaveinstitutedmanynewschoolsecuritymeasurestoagainstschoolviolence
andparticularlyschoolshootings.
Inastudyofschoolsecurityprograms(Kratcoski,Edelbacher,Graff,2010)inwhichtheschoolsecurityinthe
UnitedStateswascomparedwiththatofAustriaitwasfoundthattheschoolsecuritymeasuresadaptedinthe
U.S.variedconsiderably.However,thestrategiesandprogramsadoptedtendedtoinclude:
Zerotolerancepolicies;
Cooperativeplanningdevelopedbyadministrators,teachingstaff,thelocalpoliceandcommunity
residents;
Enhancementofexistingcommunicationssystems;
Improvementsinphysicalsecuritymeasures,includinglighting,installingvideocameras,locking
entrancedoorsduringschoolhours,requiringstaffandstudentstowearidentificationtagsandinsome
casesusingmetaldetectorscreens;
Enhancingsecurityatspecialeventssuchassportingeventsandmusicalconcerts;
Coordinatingintelligencegatheringandattemptingtoidentifythoseyouthwhomaybeahighriskfor
becomingviolence;
Providingspecialtrainingforthestaffandstudentsforhowtorespondtobombthreats,school
shootingsandnaturaldisastersthatmightoccuronschoolgrounds;and
Havingpoliceofficers(StudentResourceOfficers)intheschoolsonaregularschedule.(204)
InAustria,thethreatofviolenceandmassmurderintheschoolsisminimalcomparedtomanyoftheschoolsin
theUnitedStates.However,thegrowingconcernhasresultedinthemembersofthenationalgovernmentto
acknowledgethataproblemexistedandtheytookactionintheformofnewlegislationthatprovisedfora
nationwidestrategyfocusedonpreventionofschoolviolence.Thislegislationconsistedof:
Providinginformationtothepubliconcausesogschoolviolence;
Networkingandcooperatingwithteachers,parents,schoolofficials,medicalstaff,thepoliceand
academicresearchers;
Institutingpreventionandinterventionprogramsintheschoolsthatincludedthepublic,parents,
teachers;and
Completingsystematicdocumentationandevaluationofthegeneralstrategyplanandprovidingfeed
back.(210211)
PoliceResponsetoCatastrophes,includingTerrorismandNaturalDisasters
ResearchcompletedbyMinoruYokoyama(2013)revealedthatJapanhadputinplaceacomprehensiveplanfor
respondingtocrisissituations.Thefollowingstepsweretakensoonaftertheearthquakeandtsunamieoccurred
inJapaninMarch,2011.thecommandsystemprescribedundertheBasicLawonDisasterCountermeasureswas
immediatelyputintooperation.Theactionstakenincluded:
1.Theumbrellaplanofthenationalgovernmentauthorizedtheresponsefromanumberofpoliceagenciestothe
disasterarea.Inaddition,thePrimeMinisterandotherhighlevelgovernmentofficialsbecamedirectlyinvolvedin
rescueefforts;
2.ThePrimeMinisterusedthemassmediatoappealtothepublictoremaincalmandnottopanic;
3.Theprivatesectorengagedinanumberofreliefactivities.Forexample,theInterpreffectualEmergencyRescue
Unitwasemployed.Inaddition,volunteersservedasfirefighters,emergencyvehicledrivers,assistedthepoliceby
patrollingevacuatedareas,providedmedicalandfoodsuppliestothoseaffectedbytheearthquakeandtsunami.
4.Theriotsquadwasdispatchedtothedamagedareastomaintainpublicorder;
5.Thepoliceandotherrescueunitsestablishedgoodcommunicationswiththemassmediaagenciestotheextent
thatthesecommunicationnetworkswereveryhelpfulinrescueandreliefactivities;
6.Thepolice,medicalteamsandfirefightersunitscoordinatedtheireffortstoassurethatfood,clothing,water,
electricpowerandmedicalsupplieswerebroughttothoseinneedasquicklyaspossible;
7.PowerunitsfromotherpartsofJapannothitbytheearthquakewerebroughtintoassistthepolicestationedin
themosthardhitareas;and
8;Datawasimmediatelycollected,analyzedandtheinformationwasfeedbacktothoseagenciesthatcouldfind
theinformationhelpfulintherescueefforts.(210)

Theroleofthemassmediawasdiscussedintermsofhowitofteninhibitsorinterfereswiththeeffortsofthe
specializedsafetyunitstocontrolthedisastersituationaswellashowthemassmediaoftenmakespositive
contributionstoanunderstandingofthecausesformanmadedisasters,asincaseswhereinvestigative
reportersuncoverextensivecorruptioningovernmentthatthreatensthesecurityofthatnation.
Minorities,WomeninPolicingandVictimsofCrime
AmajorthemethatdevelopedduringtheIPESconferenceinBudapest,Hungaryfocusedonminorities,womenin
policing,andassistingvictimsofcrime.ThekeynoteaddressonPolicingMulticulturalProblemsandthe
presentationsthatfocusedonpoliceminoritygrouprelationsmadeusmoreawareofhowofficersculture,
additutesvalues,andpersonalexperiencescanaffecttheirperceptionsofpeoplefromothercultures,victimsof
crimeandracesandhowthecultureandvaluesofminoritygroupscanaffecthowthepoliceareperceivedby
them.Thisisatopicareathatclearlydemonstratedthecontributionsoftheacademics.Thefindingsfrom
researchandacademicsassistanceinthetrainingofthepoliceonhumanrelationstopicshavehadasignificant
effectinchangingthewaythepolicerespondtovictimsofcrime,particularlyviolentcrimesagainstwomenand
children,andevenhaveledtopolicedevelopingspecializedunitstoworkwiththesevictims.Theimportanceof
collaborationandcooperationofthepolicewithserviceagenciessuchasvictimservices,batteredwomenshelters,
andchildrenservicesagenciesisreadilyacknowledgedbymostpoliceadministrators.
Taylor,Cowan,DoyleandLea(2013)revealedthatthosepoliceadministratorsresponsiblefortheplanningand
implementationofspecializedpolicetrainingpertainingtosexualviolenceoftencommitoneormoreerrorsbynot
takingintoaccounthowtheresponsetosexualviolencemaybedrivenbytheresourcesavailable,the
organizationalstructureandinparticulartheculture,valuesandattitudesoftheofficers.Theauthorsnotethat
theresearchonpolicetraining,sexcrimeinvestigationsandthemanagementofproceduresforrespondingtosex
crimesisoftenadhoc,notbasedonpolicyandinconsistent(slide9).Inaddition,regardlessofthespecialized
trainingtheyreceivedonsexcrimesandvictimsofsexcrimes,theparticularresponsetothecrimeismoreoften
basedontheirattitudesthanonpoliciesandofficialprocedures.(slide10).Theauthorsrecommendsomeformof
systematicassessmentbeusedintherecruitmentandselectionofpoliceofficers.Whilemanydepartmentsmay
usesomeformofassessmentofpoliceofficerattitudes,itisgenerallynotanintegralpartoftheselection
decisionaswellasanongoingprocessfollowedinthesupervisionandmanagementofpoliceofficers.The
authorsacknowledgethatpoliceadministratorsandprosecutorsaregenerallybecomingmoreawareofthe
researchcompletedontheimportanceofattitudesinthedecisionmakingofthepolice,andmanypolice
organizations,includingtheVictoriaPoliceinAustraliaareusingtheseresearchfindingstoimproveonthe
selectionsandtrainingofofficers.
SeveralofthepresentersattheIPESconferenceinBudapest(2013)reflectedonthelowproportionofwomen
andminoritiesinpoliceforcesthroughouttheworld.Thereasonsfortheimbalanceintheratioofmenand
womeninthepoliceforcesarestillnotcompletelyunderstood.
Perrott(2013)suggestedthatthequestionisstillopenregardingtheextentminoritiesandwomenaretreated
fairlyandequallyintherecruitmentofpoliceintotheCanadianPoliceforces.Thegoalsofrecruitingminoritiesand
womenresultingfromtheCivilRightsMovementofthe1960sanddesiretoimprovepoliceservicesandenhance
relationships(slide2)appearsnottohavebeemmetsincewomenandvisibleminoritiesarestill
underrepresentedinmostpolicedepartmentsinCanada(slide56).Inaddition,moreresearchisneededto
determineifminoritiesandwomenarebeinggivenequaltreatmentinregardtoassignments,promotionsand
relationshipswithinthepoliceorganizations.Heconcludedthatmanyquestionsrelatedtoworkplace
harassment,tensionwiththeorganizationsanddiscriminatorypracticeswiththepublicneedtoreceivemore
attentionandareareasinwhichthepoliceandtheacademicscancollaborateinresearch.
Somepolicedepartmentswhohaverecognizedthismatterasbeingaproblem,haveadoptedmanagement
strategiesdevelopedforbusinesscorporationsforrecruitingwomenandminoritiesintopolicework.
Linn(2013)illustratedhownewinitiativesonthenational,stateandlocallevelsresultedinsomeverypositives
programstoassistvictimsofsextraffickinginBrooklyn,NewYork.Shenotedthatalthoughthefederalandstate
lawsonsexualtraffickingaresomewhatdifferentinterminologyandscope,theyareneverthelesscompatablein
thattheessenceofthelawsinvolvementtherecruitment,harboring,transportation,provisionorobtaininga
personforthepurposeofacommercialsexact.Thecommercialsexactcanbeinducedbyforce,fraudorcoercion,
orinthecaseofminors,thepersonhasnotattained18yearsofage.(TraffickingVictimsProtectionAct,22,USC&
7102;CFR&214.11(2).Inthepast,themajorinitiativesbyfederal,stateandlocalgovernmentshavefocusedon
thepreventionorcurtailingofsexcrimesthroughlegislation,interagencytaskforcesandspecializedtrainingfor
thepolice.However,thefocushasgraduallychangedasaresultoffederalinitiativessuchastheTrafficking
VictimsProtectionReauthorizationActof2013andvariousstateandlocalinitiativesdesignedtoprotectandassist
victimsofsexcrimes.TheTraffickingVictimsProtectionAct,renewedcriticalfederalantitraffickingprograms,
providedresourcesforhumantraffickingvictims,grantsnewtoolsfortheprosecutionofhumantraffickersand
enhancedtheopportunitiestoformpartnershipstocurtailhumantraffickingwiththosecountriesinwhichhuman
traffickingismostprelevant.(slide6).Locally,thecityofNewYork(Linn2013)hasinstitutednewinitiativesto
combatsexcrimesandtoassistvictimsofhumantraffickingforthepurposeofengaginginsexcrimes.The2013
SafeHarborLawprovidedheresourcesfortheofficeofthedistrictattorneyofKingsColony,Brooklyn
toinitiateapublicinformationcampaignonpreventinghumantrafficking;
provideforspecialtrainingforlawsenforcementofficers;
provideforreliefservicestovictimsofhumantrafficking,and
providedtheresourcestoenablethepolicetorigidlyenforcethelawsforthosewhoengageinhuman
trafficking,especiallyifthevictimisundertheageof18.(slide8).
TheresearchcompletedbyBarrow(2013)focusedontheextent,ifanyurbanminorityyouthperceived
themselvesasbeingvictimsofpolicepracticesinsuchareasasbeingharassed,discourteouslytreated,verbally
abused,notprovidedwithassistancewhenneededandbeingthevictimofexcessiveforce.(3)Usingaqualitative
researchdesign,thatisfacetofaceinterviewstheresearcherfoundthattheyouthinterviewedhadbothpositive
andnegativeattitudestowardthepolice.Forexample,severalyouthindicatedthatthepolicewereresponsivein
timeofneedandhelpedthecommunity,butthattheyalsowitnessednegativeattitudesanddisrespectfromthe
police.Itwasalsomentionedthattheresponsetimetoacallforservicewasoftenveryslowandsomeyouth
complainedofbeingconstantlystoppedandsearchedbythepolice.Theseyouthindicatedthattheywere
constantlyafraidofdoinganythingwrongandthattheydressedinclothingthatwouldattractpoliceattention.
Eventhoughtheywouldhavepreferredotherstylesofclothing.(1112).Sheconcludedthattheyouthwelcomed
morepolicepresenceintheneighborhoodbecausetheywereneededtomaintainsocialcontrol,but
recommendedthatthepolicebecomemoreproactiveandfairintheiradministrationoflawenforcement(21).

Anothersubthemeofthesymposiumpertainedtoterrorism.Thekeynoteaddressonthissubject,titledIssueson
CrimeandTerrorism,wasdevotedtothemethodsusedtocombatterroristorganizations.Thiswasfollowedby
speakerswhodemonstratedmodelsforidentifyingthoseindividualsandgroupswhowerevulnerabletoaccepting
violentextremismasamethodtoaddressrealorperceivedtransgressionsagainstthem.Itwasnotedthatall
countrieshavesomeinternal(domestic)terroristorganizationsandleftandrightwingextremistgroupswhose
solepurposeistocauseconfusionorfearandtoconvincethepublicthatthegovernmentcannotprotectthe
citizensandguaranteetheirsecurity.Someinternalandexternalterroristorganizationsdonotadheretoany
politicalideology,andthesearethemostdifficulttodealwith,intermsofdeterminingtheirmotivationsand
predictingtheirbehavior.InthepresentationontheHungarianorganizationdevelopedtocombatbothinternal
andexternalterrorism,itwasemphasizedthatmaintainingcommunicationsandinformationexchangesfromlaw
enforcementagenciesthroughouttheworldiscriticalincombattingterroristorganizations.Thedevelopmentof
internationallawsandlegalagreementsmustbeahighpriorityforallcountriesthathaveconcernsabout
internationalterroristorganizationsthatusetheircountryasabaseofoperationsorasapassthroughcountry.
ThesubthemeofCybercrimeandGlobalSecuritywasintroducedbytheHeadofGOVCERT,theorganization
establishedinHungarytoprovideinternetsecurity,inhisaddresstitledCyberSecurity.Thiswasfollowedby
severalpresentationsrelatingtotypesofcybercrimes,thedifficultyincontrollingtheeffectsofcybercrimeon
worldwidesecurity,andnarrowertopics,includingtheactivitiesofhotelgamingestablishments.Itwasconcluded
thatthetechniquesusedtocombatcybercrimeareconstantlyimproving,butcybercrimeorganizationsareso
entwinedwithlegitimatebusinesses,organizedcrime,andterroristorganizations,andarebecomingso
sophisticatedintheirtechniquesthatitisverydifficulttoestablishappropriatecontrolmechanisms.
Usingthesocialnetworktoidentifypotentialterroristindividualsandgroupscanbeausefultool,asdemonstrated
inthepresentationthatdescribedtherationalchoicemodelforthepreventionofterrorism.Theissuesrelatedto
violationofprivacyandthepotentialforprofilinginnocentindividualswerealsodiscussed.
Anothersubthemeestablishedwascorruption.Inthekeynotespeech,titledCorruption,andinseveral
presentations,thepervasivenessofcorruption,whereitismostlikelytooccur,andmodelstoreduceandcontrol
corruption,werepresented.Itwasnotedthatcorruptionpermeatesallfacetsofsociety,business,government,
andpublicserviceagencies.
AspecialfeatureoftheBudapest2013Symposiumwastheroundtablepresentationsoninterviewsofpolice,
judges,andcorrectionsleaders.Apositivepointregardingtheseroundtablesessionsisthattheytendedtoshow
howthecomponentsofthejusticesystemareinterrelatedandthat,regardlessofthepositionoftheperson
interviewed,whetherapolicechief,judge,orcorrectionsadministrator,theymustcooperatewitheachother.
Theseinterviewsrepresentanethnographicorcasestudyapproachtoresearch.Itwasconcludedbythe
roundtablediscussantsthatthereisvalueinknowinghowleadersinjusticeoccupationsprogressedthroughout
theircareers.Theindepthinformationobtainedintheinterviewspertainingtotheirmotivationsforenteringthe
field,theirmajorchallengesandsetbacks,aswellasthecurrentproblemstheyface,cannotbeobtainedby
readingabookoncareersincriminaljustice.Therewassomediscussionabouttheusefulnessofthematerialin
theinterviewbooks,particularlyforstudents,andtheneedformorestructure,aswellastheneedforasummary
chapterthattiesalloftheinterviewspresentedinthebooktogether.

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