Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 1

Developing A Cross-cultural Approach to

School Leadership and Management

Perry Berkowitz, Jian Gao and Mei He

The College of Saint Rose

Lee Bordick

The College of Saint Rose and the Lansingburgh Central School District

Jim Butterworth

The College of Saint Rose and the New York State Department of Education

Abstract
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 2

American pubic school education leaders have been on notice ever since the Reagan
administration’s 1983 release of the incendiary document A Nation at Risk (Owens, 2004, p. 44).
It described the U.S. schools “as being not very well organized and run …” (Owens, p. 45).
Despite significant evidence to the contrary, the American public came to believe that the
education leadership in this country had failed and that public schools were in a crisis and that
due to this fact the nation was in peril. The focus at that time had been upon international
examinations of U.S. students’ work at various grade levels in literacy, the sciences, and
mathematics.
Against this backdrop the standards movement came into full swing and has evolved ever
since. An evolution from Goals 2000 (Bush 1 and Clinton) to the No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) Act (Bush 2) has moved the federal government from acting as advisor to becoming
intervener. The performance of public school children in the United States has been and
continues to be measured against the performance of school children around the globe.
The implications of these global comparisons are clear. Education in the United States
exists within an international setting. Accordingly, educators must learn to “think globally and
act locally” as the popular maxim suggests. Accordingly, education leadership programs at the
pre-service and in-service levels ought to be viewed in an international context. At the College
of Saint Rose School of Education, we have begun to do just that. In the fall of 2003 the
Education Leadership and Administration department admitted the first of our international
students, who had been awarded a two-year fellowship to study with us by the Ford Foundation
International Fellowship Program (IFP) based in Beijing, China. Six months later (January
2004) the department admitted a second IFP student. Both students came to the program from
the western rural regions of China.
The May 2000 issue of School Leadership and Management, a British publication, was
devoted to the justification of a cross-cultural comparative approach to school leadership and
management. The collaborative research of Clive Dimmock and Allan Walker (2000)
(Department of Educational Administration and Policy, Chinese University of Hong Kong) and
the work of Cheng Yin Cheng (2000) were featured.
One purpose of this paper is to review the research (some of which is cited above) that
emphasizes the comparative advantages of understanding the situational and contextual factors in
cross-cultural approaches to school leadership and management. The second purpose is to look at
the cross-cultural experiences gained at The College of Saint Rose as a result of work with two
students from the IFP program of the Ford Foundation; that is to say a case study comparing the
College of Saint Rose’s Education Leadership and Administration program’s current
international experiences to the research.
The review of the literature and the experiences of students, faculty and others align. The
paper concludes with strong recommendations calling for the development of cross-cultural
studies programs at schools of education which prepare education leaders.
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 3

Background

The November 2004 issue of the Phi Delta Kappan, a professional education journal, was

devoted to international education. In that issue Sharon Lyn Kagan and Vivien Stewart, serving

as guest editors, quoted U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell, U.S. Secretary of Education Rod

Paige, and CBS News Correspondent Morley Safer, Co-editor of “60 Minutes,” to make their

case for the importance of international education. In their article, Colin Powell argued that

every young person must be required to learn about world cultures and languages in order for

those young persons to be able to solve the problems they will inherit. Morley Safer suggested

that as much as the United States consists of a widely diverse population in its own right, the

country is remarkably inward looking. Safer warns, “without an educational and media

establishment that takes on the responsibility of teaching and informing and respecting …

foreign cultures, this country could become a paranoid and parochial suburb of a vital global

village” (cited in Kagan & Stewart, p. 195).

Kagan and Stewart assert that the implications of “increasing global interdependence, though

a dominant feature of our age, has, until recently, been a neglected aspect of American Education

reform” (p. 195).

Beyond the effects of globalization of world economies and the need for our students to learn

about other cultures, it has been universally acknowledged that we have entered the Information

Age. The success of our students depends on their ability to travel on the global international

information highway. Bill Gates (1995), a pioneer software developer and visionary whose

name has largely become synonymous with this age, made reference in his book, The Road
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 4

Ahead, to the information superhighway, a term “popularized by then-senator Al Gore, whose

father sponsored the 1956 Federal Aid Highway Act” (p. 5).

Gates notes that:

The highway metaphor isn’t quite right though. The phrase suggests landscape and
geography, a distance between points, and embodies the implication that you have to
travel from one place to another. In fact, one of the most remarkable aspects of this new
communication technology is that it will eliminate distance. It won’t matter if someone
you’re contacting is in the next room or on another continent, because this highly
mediated network will be unconstrained by miles and kilometers. (pp. 5-6).

Additionally we have much to learn from our international education leaders about the

recruitment, training, and retention of teachers (and administrators) in our schools. It is arrogant

and shortsighted for us to continue to study best practices in education without widening our

view beyond our shores. For example, Wong, Britton and Ganser (2005) have taken a look at

new teacher induction in five countries: Switzerland, Japan, France, New Zealand, and China

(Shanghai). When comparing what they saw in those countries to the programs in the United

States concluded that the United States has much to learn about systematic structured induction

programs for new teachers to replace the irregular minimal programs that prevail.

Clive Dimmock and Alan Walker (2000a), at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, have

done extensive work in the development of an international approach to school leadership and

management. The international journal, School Leadership and Management, devoted a special

issue to the topic. In justifying such an approach to school leadership, Dimmock and Walker

advance three arguments. One, that the field of education leadership and management has been

dominated by Anglo-American paradigms and as such is limiting and ethnocentric. In their

experience the paradigm does not necessarily transfer seamlessly to other parts of the world,
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 5

particularly in Asia. They argue that societal culture, although not the only mediating influence

affecting educational management is certainly a significant mediating factor. Such influence is

recognized in other fields. “International business management and cross-cultural psychology,

for example, have both acknowledged the importance of societal culture for more than 20 years”

(2000a, p.138). The work of Collins and Porras (2003), Deal and Peterson (1999), Friedman

(2000), Ouchi (1981) and Schein (1997) among many others substantiate this observation.

Dimmock and Walker note that societal culture has not had a significant influence in the study of

educational management. They argue that this omission needs to be addressed (2000a).

Secondly, they see cross-cultural analysis as a potentially powerful foundation having the

potential to develop a comparative and international studies branch of educational leadership,

management and policy study (2000b).

Third of all, they see schools as the most important part of educational systems. There is

wide international acceptance of the need for school-based management and accordingly,

education leadership and management programs focus a significant amount of their attention on

the schoolhouse. They raise the warning that “it is a mistake for school-based studies to

approach leadership and management in a vacuum, as though they were disconnected from the

core business of teaching, learning and curriculum” (2000a, p. 138).

The International Confederation of Principals (ICP) was formed in 1990 to foster “the

exchange of people and professional publications among the constituent groups and encourage

participation in meetings and conferences across national boundaries” (ICP Online). The

Confederation’s membership page found on its website, ICP Online, states the following:

THE ICP is a global association of school leadership organisations. It has over 30

members, made up of school leadership associations. Each member is itself a major
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 6

organisation that supports the professional development and work of school leaders. The
ICP represents over 135,000 school leaders across five continents and, as such,
commands a unique global position as a major voice for school education. The ICP is
non-political and non-sectarian.The ICP Constitution has the following major goals and
actively seeks additional members who share the same commitment to school education,
and support of those who lead it. The ICP seeks to:
1. Encourage closer relationships between school leaders of all nations;
2. Promote and enhance the image and professionalism of school leaders;
3. Promote the exchange of people and professional publications among the constituent
groups and encourage participation in meetings and conferences across national
boundaries;
4. Foster school curricula that encourages international understanding and goodwill, and
a respect for the human rights and dignity across all races and cultures;
5. Promote the right and responsibilities of school leaders, and also their professional
organisations, and the material and ethical interests of the education profession;
6. Promote and encourage equal opportunities for all young persons to learn and develop
to their fullest potential in achieving a respectable and productive quality of life; and,
7. Develop a program of activities consistent with the purposes of the organisation. (ICP
Online).

The ICP organization holds international conventions biennially. Since 1993, they have been

held in Switzerland (1993), Australia (1995), United States (1997), Finland (1999) Korea (2001)

and Scotland (2003). The next meeting is scheduled in New South Wales at the University of

Wollongong, February 18-19, 2005. Additionally they have annual Council Meetings that have

been held in Japan, the Netherlands, South Africa, Israel, Kenya, and Taiwan (ICP Online). This

is a cross-cultural education leadership endeavor created by an association of school leaders

worldwide. The very fact that such an organization was inaugurated by practitioners and has

been thriving for more than a decade lends credence to the Dimmock and Walker position cited

earlier, namely that a comparative and international studies branch of educational leadership,

management and policy study should be developed (Dimmock and Walker, 2000b).
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 7

Purpose

In the fall of 2003 the College of Saint Rose (CSR) admitted an international student who

had been awarded a two-year fellowship to study within the United States by the Ford

Foundation International Fellowship Program (IFP) based in Beijing, China. “The Institute of

International Education (IIE), a Ford Foundation partner, administers the program in its New

York City headquarters. The IFP was launched in 2000 with a $280 million grant from the Ford

Foundation, the largest in its history for a single program. Through 2012, IFP expects to fund

studies towards a master's, doctoral or other post-graduate degree for over 3,000 fellows from 22

countries and territories in Africa, Asia, and Latin America” ( see http://www.fordifp.net). The

IFP Fellows Education Groups are divided into different language groups: English, Portuguese,

Spanish, French and Russian. The countries represented span the globe. They include China,

Chile, South Africa, Tanzania, Brazil, Guatemala, Indonesia, Mexico and Peru among others.

The IFP website states that:

To ensure that Fellows are drawn from diverse backgrounds, IFP actively seeks
candidates from social groups and communities that lack systematic access to higher
education. IFP’s New York-based secretariat collaborates closely with partner
organizations in 22 countries and territories highlighted on the map below. These groups
supervise all recruitment and selection activities, and help ensure that the program’s goals
and implementation are grounded in local realities and reflect local needs. (Ford
Foundation International Fellowship Program).

J.G., the IFP student, upon arrival at The College of Saint Rose was assigned an advisor,

allowed to begin the program with a reduced load to accommodate language difficulties, and

provided one-on-one assistance in the college writing center. It was made clear from the outset

in discussions between Mr. G. and his advisor that the students in the Education Leadership

program and Mr. G. would have much to learn from each other. Mr. G. met that assertion with
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 8

some surprise. It was his impression that he was to learn about education leadership and

administration from his professors and that his learning would not be sufficiently interactive,

either with professors or fellow students, for him to be both learner and teacher. At first Mr. G.

was tentative about the idea. But when it was made clear that the purpose in admitting him to the

program was in part to seek a comparative cross-cultural understanding of educational

leadership, and that in some respects cross-cultural learning was already embedded in the Saint

Rose program, he seemed more enthusiastic about the prospect.

In less than three months, Mr. G. communicated this purpose and his enthusiasm for the

process in which he had been engaged to his contacts at the Beijing offices of the IFP. The

response from Beijing was that the Saint Rose program would be just right for another IFP

fellowship student, Ms. M.H. Accordingly, the College of Saint Rose Education Leadership and

Administration Department was asked to admit Ms. H. mid year. The college agreed. Having

her enter the program at the beginning of the second semester, January 2004, created an overlap

of the two students’ programs that proved to be mutually beneficial.

Both students, J.G. and M. H., were from the southwestern regions of China. J.G. had been a

teacher and school administrator in various regions of his Province. M. H. had been an English

teacher in a very remote impoverished area in the province’s more mountainous region. Both

students grew up having very different cultural experiences. For example, they each spoke

languages other than Mandarin, the principal language of their people. Their histories (and life

stories) were all at once extraordinarily similar and extraordinarily different. Given the above,

the cross-cultural learning possibilities were enhanced by having both students in the program

simultaneously.
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 9

Setting

As described in its website, the College of Saint Rose is a comprehensive college of more

than 4,500 students in which teaching is the first priority. Located in the heart of Albany, New

York State’s Capital City, the College is a private, independent, coeducational college. The

Educational Leadership and Administration program provides training for students interested in

pursuing the New York State School Building Leader and/or School District Leader certificates.

Students may obtain a master’s degree in Education Leadership and Administration or a post-

master Certificate of Advanced Study in Leadership and Administration. Approximately 45

students per year complete the program in Albany, NY and approximately 175 students per year

complete the program in New York City and the surrounding area. The latter group’s program is

coordinated by the Center for Integrated Teacher Education (Center for Integrated Teacher

Education).

Participants

In order to gain a better understanding of the cross-cultural impact of the international

students described in the preceding section, several students and faculty members were

consulted. Mr. G. and Ms. H. were asked to identify students and others connected to the CSR

Educational Leadership program who, in their opinion, had been significant contacts and who

they believed were impacted by that contact. Each submitted a list of seven to ten names.

Approximately twenty persons including student colleagues, faculty and field administrator

contacts were consulted, most via email. They were ask to describe ways in which their thinking
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 10

about education in general, and about education leadership in particular, had been affected by

contact with Mr. G. or Ms. H. Ten of those responded with answers to the questions. Most

responded via email, and some through personal contact with the principal author of this paper.

Program

The CSR Educational Leadership and Administration Program includes a core of five

required courses. The first course students must take is the Introduction to Education Leadership

and Administration course. The course is designed to provide students with a broad overview of

administrative and organizational theories as they relate to the educational environment. The

environment, although primarily focused on schools and schooling in New York State also

reflects thinking at the national and international levels. Owens textbook Organizational

Behavior in Education: Instructional Leadership and School Reform (2004), the principal

required text in the introduction course, describes the work of W. Edwards Deming and his

impact on international thinking regarding quality control. Although educated in the United

States, Deming’s greatest contributions to the field were accomplished by the translation of his

work into the Japanese manufacturing culture. The Owens textbook looks at Ouchi’s Theory Z,

which has been described as the Japanese management style, in conjunction with American

social psychologist Douglas McGregor’s Theory X Theory Y.

The works of M. Fullan (2001) at the University of Toronto, P. Friere (1970) from Brazil, and

K. Matsushita (1984), founder of Panasonic, are studied in depth in other core courses. These

studies are intended to enable students in the CSR program to establish a broader world-view

than they might ordinarily acquire in a more parochial and ethnocentric program. M. Wheatley’s

work (1992) describing the “new science” of leadership in a biological systems context adds to
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 11

the development of a broader and more flexible world view for the CSR Educational Leadership

students.

Through studies of the work of Deal (1999), Collins and Porras (2003), Fullan (2001) and

Leithwood (2000), and Owens (2004), the CSR Educational Leadership students develop a

strong sense of the importance of the understanding of the culture of the schools. This

understanding appears to be critical to the success of the school building and school district

leader, regardless of the state, region, or for that matter, the country in which that leader works.

The students in the College of Saint Rose Education Leadership program study the works

cited above and, in small groups discussions, reflective papers and other assignments- written

and oral, are expected to understand the implications of international perspectives in education

leadership. These writings inform their practice as future school leaders. The instructors in the

program engage interactively with the students and accordingly, develop a significant

understanding of effects of this work.

Although quite open-ended and non-scientific (no formal data collection or response coding

was done), the authors of this paper could readily see that the impact of J.G. and M.H. on

discussions and other group activities and student writings had been significant and positive. For

example, a reflective paper, in which students report the impact of course activities and course

assignments, is a required capstone activity. Significantly, comments about the eye-opening and

positive impact of J.G.’s and M.H’s larger worldview and their more global education

perspective were emphasized in more than several of the students’ papers over the past year and

a half. Students had come to know Mr. G. and Ms. H both inside and outside of classes.

Conversations that began in class were reported to have continued outside of class. Additionally,
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 12

student reflective writing in other courses, as reported to the authors of this paper by the

instructors of those classes, corroborated the impact. Given that most of the data are anecdotal, it

is not possible in this paper to go into great detail. Nevertheless, it is clear that the interactive

and dynamic way classes are taught at The College of Saint Rose, the intentionality of the

international curriculum, and the willingness of J.G. and M.H. to engage in dialogue,

strengthened their impact on other students.

Analysis

As described above, the principal author, who also is advisor to Mr. G. and Ms. H., reviewed

reflective writings obtained in courses taught by the author and by other faculty (two of whom

are listed as co-authors of this paper). In addition, the principal author surveyed, as cited in the

sections above labeled “participants” and “program” respectively, sought information from

faculty, education leadership students and administrators who had been identified as having

significant contact with J.G. and M. H.

Respondents were asked to describe the extent of their contact, the ways in which that

contact had impacted each respondent, and in what ways the respondent felt that he or she had

had impact on the thinking of J.G. and M.H. A preliminary abstract of this paper was provided to

the respondents so that they understood the purposes of the paper and the setting in which the

paper would be presented.

Although the data were not coded and therefore the information was strictly anecdotal, the

impact of the international students on students from the U.S. appeared to be significant and

positive.
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 13

Results

Among the responses one in particular seemed to summarize the overall impact that J.G. and

M. H. have had on their classmates. A classmate of both J.G. and M.E wrote the following

response. It was clearly the most descriptive (and lengthy):

In many ways J.G. and M. H. helped us to learn more about ourselves when they told us
about their schools and villages. J.G. and M.H. shared the contrasts between schooling in
the US and China as they explained the role of government, the financing of schools, and
the expectations for teacher and student performance. J.G.’s explanations of the process
of rank ordering of schools and the teacher transfer process seemed empirical and
foreign, but as we delved more into the contrasts of urban and suburban US schools, I
began to see similarities worth pondering. School funding and teacher salaries were also
points of interest. (K. Oboyski-Butler personal communication, January 4, 2005)

The same student commented about a school board meeting attended by the principal author,

J.G. and M.H. as follows:

What happened as coincidence at a school board meeting also influenced my thinking

about our schools and civic roles. The school board meeting J.G. and M.H. attended was
an unusually contentious one with a parent speaking at the initial public comment session
about a negative issue in one of our schools. The diverse board comments stirred by the
parent concern were uncharacteristically spirited. Of all times for international visitors to
be in the audience! (It is the only time I remember the board president ever using his
gavel.) After the spirited board discussion, our visitors were introduced. Dr. B., J.G. and
M.H.’s professor, approached the microphone at what could have been a very
uncomfortable time. Instead, in his introduction he said how fortunate we were to be able
to share our diverse viewpoints and to have such spirited discussions. He turned the
situation into an appreciation in civics and responsibility. As challenging as contentious
discussions might be in the future, because of our experiences with J.G. and M.H., I will
always appreciate that we have the freedom and responsibility to hold those discussions.
(K. Oboyski-Butler personal communication, January 4, 2005)

Ms. Oboyski-Butler continues:

Personally and professionally, J.G. and M.H.’s willingness to apply for the fellowship to
study abroad (and) leave their families and the familiarity of their homeland deeply
affected me. They are passionate educators who gave much of themselves to come to the
US to study. J.G. linked our government’s NCLB to his country’s initiative in bringing
electricity to every village with “No Village Left Behind.” M.H.’s explanation of her
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 14

father’s travels from work in the city to visit the family in the village or the conditions in
her school and village caused me to appreciate even more the lengths she was willing to
take to learn and grow. I cannot imagine how much M.H. missed her daughter or how
J.G. managed to make sense of some of the class discussions. I respect them deeply as
educators and as learners. (K. Oboyski-Butler personal communication, January 4, 2005)

Other students also commented about the strong emotional and intellectual impact J.G. and

M.H. had on them. Clearly the level of sacrifice that has been required of these students in order

for them to pursue their studies in the United States was beyond the imagination of the students

at The College of Saint Rose. In addition J.G. and M.H. had been very willing to candidly share

the perspectives and the issues they experienced in China and were effective in juxtaposing those

perspectives with the issues and the topics raised in their classes.

M.H. wrote:

In the classroom I exchange ideas with my American classmates. We are curious

about each other. We talk about our (respective) students, our work mates, our
salaries, even our principals. We are in a very comfortable climate. When I told
them that the smallest class I taught was 57 students, it shocked them to death.
And they told me the average class here is 20. I envied them from the bottom of
my heart. (M. H. personal communication, August 12, 2004).

J.G., who hopes to further his studies at the postmasters level, wrote:

In July 2004, I attended a training program for Leadership for Social Justice at the School
for International Training, and shared my study with IFP fellows, who also came from
various countries and were currently studying education or relevant majors in the USA.
Again, I confirmed my belief that education is a global issue; a global collaboration and
exchange of experiences and lessons are crucial for all countries all over the world.

I decided to pursue further studies in educational administration and policy studies to

benefit my future work. In my study, I will focus on studies of comparative education in
different countries and work to develop a cross-cultural vision as an educational
administrator and leader. I plan to widely absorb experiences in education development
and reform from the nations worldwide, and also share my experience and studies with
the students from other countries. After graduation, I would like to personally contribute
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 15

to the educational reform campaign in my hometown. (J.G. personal communication,

January 7, 2005).

My study at The College of Saint Rose in educational administration has greatly

broadened my horizons and enhanced my understanding in the educational field.
Furthermore it has given me a new lens to examine the educational situation in China. (J.
G. personal communication, January 24, 2005).

Conclusions and Recommendations

There is no doubt that cross-cultural education leadership studies add an important dimension

to students’ learning when students from other cultures are enabled through close, prolonged

contact to deeply understand one another. Similarities and contrasts in worldview, pedagogy,

methodology, and enhanced abilities to immerse ones thoughts in another’s culture and to test

ones values in a global context are invaluable. The very limited experience in cross-cultural

learning enjoyed by students at The College of Saint Rose Education Leadership and

Administration has demonstrated the high potential for significant increased learning were this

experience to be formalized and continued.

What appears to be most significant is the emotional and intellectual impact experienced by

all students: those from the US and those from western China. What is notable is that the

students, as a result of their contact with J.G. and M. H., appear to more readily appreciate

diverse opinions, have greater appreciation of the sacrifices often needed to pursue education,

and have a better understanding of the significance of the role of government in education.

These student experiences, albeit on a very small scale, were consistent with the literature

reviewed in this paper, particularly the work of Dimmock and Walker, and Cheng. That is to say,

that the students have come to recognize the limitations of an ethnocentric Anglo-American

paradigm on their studies. They see that broad understanding of culture does in fact mediate
 Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH TO SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Page 16

ones understanding of one’s own culture. (2000a). The students also see the need to connect

school-based leadership studies to international studies and understanding. (Dimmock and

Walker, 2000b).

Accordingly, the authors of this paper heartily recommend that more colleges’ education

leadership programs explore international learning opportunities for their students and encourage

and provide easier access to international students to enable them to gain entry to the programs

they currently offer. Additionally, colleges should see cross-cultural analysis as a potentially

powerful foundation having the potential to develop a comparative and international studies

branch of educational leadership, management and policy study (Dimmock and Walker, 2000b).

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