Vlomobility A critical

analysis of planning and space

TILL KOGLIN | DOCTORAL DISSERTATION | BULLETIN 284 | LUND UNIVERSITY
Lund University
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Technology and Society
ISBN 978-91-7473-623-6
ISSN 1653-1930
T
he purpose of this doctoral study is to bring a spatial dimension into the
research on urban mobilities and connect the spatial dimension to the
marginalisation of cyclists in urban space. This is been done by exploring
the role of urban bicycling and transport planning. The theoretical frame of
space, mobilities and power is used for analysing that role through case stu-
dies in two Scandinavian cities, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Urban bicycling
is a good example of showing the relation between space and mobilities,
since cyclists often suffer from marginalised space in cities around the world.
The philosophical foundation of the thesis is in critical realism and critical
theory. For background data, observations and document studies have been
conducted in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The main data collection for this
thesis was done both qualitatively, in the form of interviews with planners
and politicians, and quantitatively, in the form of survey studies among the
citizens of Copenhagen and Stockholm. The data is analysed with the help of
the theoretical framework that builds on mobility studies, spatial theory by
Lefebvre, and Harvey and power theories deriving mainly from Lukes three
dimensions of power. The materialisation of power relations is analysed with
the example of modern planning in Sweden and Denmark. Overall this thesis
manages to show how cycling as a mode of transport is marginalised in urban
space, and that urban space wars between cyclists and car drivers and among
cyclists are fought in Copenhagen as well as in Stockholm. The conclusion is
that different factors, such as the economic situations in Denmark and Sweden,
have affected urban and transport planning and thus have created two very
different transport systems, where cycling plays a large role (Copenhagen)
and a smaller role (Stockholm). Nevertheless, this thesis shows that even in
cities that are very good for cycling, like Copenhagen, the motorised modes of
transport create many problems and are still dominating urban space.
P
r
i
n
t
e
d

b
y

M
e
d
i
a
-
T
r
y
c
k
,

L
u
n
d

2
0
1
3
,

S
w
e
d
e
n
T
I
L
L

K
O
G
L
I
N


V

l
o
m
o
b
i
l
i
t
y

A

c
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

a
n
a
l
y
s
i
s

o
f

p
l
a
n
n
i
n
g

a
n
d

s
p
a
c
e
284


V l o m o b i l i t y - A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f
p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e











D O C T O R A L D I S S E R T A T I O N
b y d u e p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g , L u n d U n i v e r s i t y , S w e d e n .
T o b e d e f e n d e d a t t h e F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g , J o h n E r i c s s o n s v g 1 , i n a u d i t o r i u m V : B i n
L u n d . F r i d a y t h e 2 0
t h
o f S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 3 a t 1 0 a m .

F a c u l t y o p p o n e n t
P r o f e s s o r S v e n K e s s e l r i n g , A a l b o r g U n i v e r s i t y , A a l b o r g , D e n m a r k



Vlomobility - A critical analysis of
planning and space











DOCTORAL DISSERTATION
by due permission of the Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, Sweden.
To be defended at the Faculty of Engineering, John Ericssons vg 1, in auditorium V:B in
Lund. Friday the 20
th
of September 2013 at 10 am.

Faculty opponent
Professor Sven Kesselring, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

1

Organization
LUND UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Technology and Society
Transport and Roads
Box 118
SE-221 00 LUND
Document name
DOCTORAL DISSERTATION
Date of issue
2013-09-20
Author(s)
Till Koglin
Sponsoring organization
Vinnova, SKL, Trafikverket
Title and subtitle
Vlomobility A critical analysis of planning and space
Abstract
The purpose of this doctoral study is to bring a spatial dimension into the research on urban mobilities and connect
the spatial dimension to the marginalisation of cyclists in urban space. This is been done by exploring the role of urban
bicycling and transport planning. The theoretical frame of space, mobilities and power is used for analysing that role
through case studies in two Scandinavian cities, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Urban bicycling is a good example of
showing the relation between space and mobilities, since cyclists often suffer from marginalised space in cities around
the world. The philosophical foundation of the thesis is in critical realism and critical theory. For background data,
observations and document studies have been conducted in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The main data collection for
this thesis was done both qualitatively, in the form of interviews with planners and politicians, and quantitatively, in
the form of survey studies among the citizens of Copenhagen and Stockholm. The data is analysed with the help of the
theoretical framework that builds on mobility studies, spatial theory by Lefebvre, and Harvey and power theories
deriving mainly from Lukes three dimensions of power. The materialisation of power relations is analysed with the
example of modern planning in Sweden and Denmark. Overall this thesis manages to show how cycling as a mode of
transport is marginalised in urban space, and that urban space wars between cyclists and car drivers and among cyclists
are fought in Copenhagen as well as in Stockholm. The conclusion is that different factors, such as the economic
situations in Denmark and Sweden, have affected urban and transport planning and thus have created two very
different transport systems, where cycling plays a large role (Copenhagen) and a smaller role (Stockholm).
Nevertheless, this thesis shows that even in cities that are very good for cycling, like Copenhagen, the motorised modes
of transport create many problems and are still dominating urban space.
Key words: Vlomobility, mobility, planning, space, power relations, urban cycling
Classification system and/or index terms (if any)
Supplementary bibliographical information Language: English
ISSN and key title: 1653-1930 Bulletin Lund University, Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Technology and Society, 284
ISBN:
978-91-7473-623-6
(Print)
978-91-7473-624-3 (PDF)
Recipients notes Number of pages: 244 Price:
Security classification


Signature Date
2013/07/30

O r g a n i z a t i o n
L U N D U N I V E R S I T Y
F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g
D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d S o c i e t y
T r a n s p o r t a n d R o a d s
B o x 1 1 8
S E - 2 2 1 0 0 L U N D
D o c u m e n t n a m e
D O C T O R A L D I S S E R T A T I O N
D a t e o f i s s u e
2 0 1 3 - 0 9 - 2 0
A u t h o r ( s )
T i l l K o g l i n
S p o n s o r i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n
V i n n o v a , S K L , T r a f i k v e r k e t
T i t l e a n d s u b t i t l e
V l o m o b i l i t y A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e
A b s t r a c t
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s d o c t o r a l s t u d y i s t o b r i n g a s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n i n t o t h e r e s e a r c h o n u r b a n m o b i l i t i e s a n d c o n n e c t
t h e s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n t o t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n s p a c e . T h i s i s b e e n d o n e b y e x p l o r i n g t h e r o l e o f u r b a n
b i c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e o f s p a c e , m o b i l i t i e s a n d p o w e r i s u s e d f o r a n a l y s i n g t h a t r o l e
t h r o u g h c a s e s t u d i e s i n t w o S c a n d i n a v i a n c i t i e s , C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . U r b a n b i c y c l i n g i s a g o o d e x a m p l e o f
s h o w i n g t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t i e s , s i n c e c y c l i s t s o f t e n s u f f e r f r o m m a r g i n a l i s e d s p a c e i n c i t i e s a r o u n d
t h e w o r l d . T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e t h e s i s i s i n c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y . F o r b a c k g r o u n d d a t a ,
o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e m a i n d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r
t h i s t h e s i s w a s d o n e b o t h q u a l i t a t i v e l y , i n t h e f o r m o f i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s , a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , i n
t h e f o r m o f s u r v e y s t u d i e s a m o n g t h e c i t i z e n s o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h e d a t a i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k t h a t b u i l d s o n m o b i l i t y s t u d i e s , s p a t i a l t h e o r y b y L e f e b v r e , a n d H a r v e y a n d p o w e r t h e o r i e s
d e r i v i n g m a i n l y f r o m L u k e s t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r . T h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e
e x a m p l e o f m o d e r n p l a n n i n g i n S w e d e n a n d D e n m a r k . O v e r a l l t h i s t h e s i s m a n a g e s t o s h o w h o w c y c l i n g a s a m o d e o f
t r a n s p o r t i s m a r g i n a l i s e d i n u r b a n s p a c e , a n d t h a t u r b a n s p a c e w a r s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d c a r d r i v e r s a n d a m o n g c y c l i s t s
a r e f o u g h t i n C o p e n h a g e n a s w e l l a s i n S t o c k h o l m . T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s , s u c h a s t h e e c o n o m i c
s i t u a t i o n s i n D e n m a r k a n d S w e d e n , h a v e a f f e c t e d u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t h u s h a v e c r e a t e d t w o v e r y
d i f f e r e n t t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , w h e r e c y c l i n g p l a y s a l a r g e r o l e ( C o p e n h a g e n ) a n d a s m a l l e r r o l e ( S t o c k h o l m ) .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s t h e s i s s h o w s t h a t e v e n i n c i t i e s t h a t a r e v e r y g o o d f o r c y c l i n g , l i k e C o p e n h a g e n , t h e m o t o r i s e d m o d e s
o f t r a n s p o r t c r e a t e m a n y p r o b l e m s a n d a r e s t i l l d o m i n a t i n g u r b a n s p a c e .
K e y w o r d s : V l o m o b i l i t y , m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g , s p a c e , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , u r b a n c y c l i n g
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m a n d / o r i n d e x t e r m s ( i f a n y )
S u p p l e m e n t a r y b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n L a n g u a g e : E n g l i s h
I S S N a n d k e y t i t l e : 1 6 5 3 - 1 9 3 0 B u l l e t i n L u n d U n i v e r s i t y , F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g ,
D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d S o c i e t y , 2 8 4
I S B N :
9 7 8 - 9 1 - 7 4 7 3 - 6 2 3 - 6
( P r i n t )
9 7 8 - 9 1 - 7 4 7 3 - 6 2 4 - 3 ( P D F )
R e c i p i e n t s n o t e s N u m b e r o f p a g e s : 2 4 4 P r i c e :
S e c u r i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n


S i g n a t u r e D a t e
2 0 1 3 / 0 7 / 3 0
2


V l o m o b i l i t y - A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f
p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e



T i l l K o g l i n
















Vlomobility - A critical analysis of
planning and space



Till Koglin














3
4







C o p y r i g h t T i l l K o g l i n
C o v e r P h o t o : C h r i s t i a n s h a v n , C o p e n h a g e n , p h o t o t a k e n b y T i l l K o g l i n

L u n d U n i v e r s i t y
F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g
D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d S o c i e t y
B u l l e t i n : 2 8 4
I S B N 9 7 8 - 9 1 - 7 4 7 3 - 6 2 3 - 6 ( P r i n t ) , 9 7 8 - 9 1 - 7 4 7 3 - 6 2 4 - 3 ( P D F )
I S S N 1 6 5 3 - 1 9 3 0

P r i n t e d i n S w e d e n b y M e d i a - T r y c k , L u n d U n i v e r s i t y
L u n d 2 0 1 3


A p a r t o f F T I ( t h e P a c k a g i n g a n d
N e w s p a p e r C o l l e c t i o n S e r v i c e )







Copyright Till Koglin
Cover Photo: Christianshavn, Copenhagen, photo taken by Till Koglin

Lund University
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Technology and Society
Bulletin: 284
ISBN 978-91-7473-623-6 (Print), 978-91-7473-624-3 (PDF)
ISSN 1653-1930

Printed in Sweden by Media-Tryck, Lund University
Lund 2013


Apart of FTI (thePackagingand
Newspaper CollectionService)
5


Contents

Acknowledgements 9
Summary 11
Sammanfattning 16
Zusammenfassung 21
Preface Cycling and the materialisation of inequalities 27
1 Introduction: Cycling, mobility and research 30
2 Research design a story about methods 40
2.1 Excursion to the philosophy of science the methodological foundation 43
2.2 Background information observations and document studies 48
2.3 Interview studies 51
2.4 Survey studies 56
2.5 The combination of methods 58
3 Mobility and vlomobility framing the dissertation 61
4 Power, space and space wars the theoretical outline 70
4.1 Power theoretical concepts and ideas 71
4.2 Space and space wars 80
5 The materialisation of power relations in urban mobility 86
6 Introduction to the cases: Stockholm and Copenhagen 99
7 Vlomobility, planning and politics The practitioners view 106
7.1 Spatial, economic, cultural and historical aspects the third dimension of power
and the political economy of mobile spaces 107
7.2 Organisational aspects 114
7.3 The politics of planning practise 122


C o n t e n t s

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s 9
S u m m a r y 1 1
S a m m a n f a t t n i n g 1 6
Z u s a m m e n f a s s u n g 2 1
P r e f a c e C y c l i n g a n d t h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f i n e q u a l i t i e s 2 7
1 I n t r o d u c t i o n : C y c l i n g , m o b i l i t y a n d r e s e a r c h 3 0
2 R e s e a r c h d e s i g n a s t o r y a b o u t m e t h o d s 4 0
2 . 1 E x c u r s i o n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n 4 3
2 . 2 B a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s 4 8
2 . 3 I n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s 5 1
2 . 4 S u r v e y s t u d i e s 5 6
2 . 5 T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e t h o d s 5 8
3 M o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y f r a m i n g t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n 6 1
4 P o w e r , s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e 7 0
4 . 1 P o w e r t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s a n d i d e a s 7 1
4 . 2 S p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s 8 0
5 T h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n m o b i l i t y 8 6
6 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e c a s e s : S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n 9 9
7 V l o m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s T h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s v i e w 1 0 6
7 . 1 S p a t i a l , e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r
a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f m o b i l e s p a c e s 1 0 7
7 . 2 O r g a n i s a t i o n a l a s p e c t s 1 1 4
7 . 3 T h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e 1 2 2
6


7 . 4 P l a n n i n g , p o l i t i c s a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m 1 3 0
8 M o b i l i t y a n d c y c l i n g T h e c y c l i s t s v i e w 1 3 4
8 . 1 C y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a q u e s t i o n o f m o b i l i t y a n d s p a c e 1 3 6
9 C y c l i s t s , p l a n n e r s , o b s e r v a t i o n s 1 5 8
1 0 C o n c l u s i o n s 1 6 4
E p i l o g u e C h a n g e s i n t w o c i t i e s 1 7 0
R e f e r e n c e s 1 7 2
A p p e n d i x 1 I n t e r v i e w G u i d e s 1 9 1
A p p e n d i x 2 S u r v e y s f o r C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m 1 9 9
A p p e n d i x 3 B a c k g r o u n d d a t a f r o m t h e s u r v e y f o r C o p e n h a g e n 2 2 8
A p p e n d i x 4 B a c k g r o u n d d a t a f r o m t h e s u r v e y f o r S t o c k h o l m 2 3 2
A p p e n d i x 5 R e s u l t s f r o m C h i 2 t e s t 2 3 6
A p p e n d i x 6 R e s u l t s f r o m t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t 2 3 9
A p p e n d i x 7 F r e q u e n c i e s a n d p e r c e n t a g e f o r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t t h a t c r e a t e p r o b l e m s f o r
c y c l i s t s 2 4 1





7.4 Planning, politics and the differences between Copenhagen and Stockholm 130
8 Mobility and cycling The cyclists view 134
8.1 Cycling in Stockholm and Copenhagen a question of mobility and space 136
9 Cyclists, planners, observations 158
10 Conclusions 164
Epilogue Changes in two cities 170
References 172
Appendix 1 Interview Guides 191
Appendix 2 Surveys for Copenhagen and Stockholm 199
Appendix 3 Background data from the survey for Copenhagen 228
Appendix 4 Background data from the survey for Stockholm 232
Appendix 5 Results from Chi 2 test 236
Appendix 6 Results from the Mann-Whitney test 239
Appendix 7 Frequencies and percentage for modes of transport that create problems for
cyclists 241



7






8
9
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s
T h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s i s g r o u n d e d i n t h e p r o j e c t c a l l e d H A S T A ( S u s t a i n a b l e a n d
a t t r a c t i v e c i t y ) a n d w a s f i n a n c e d b y T h e S w e d i s h G o v e r n m e n t a l A g e n c y f o r
I n n o v a t i o n S y s t e m s ( V I N N O V A ) , t h e S w e d i s h A s s o c i a t i o n o f L o c a l
A u t h o r i t i e s a n d R e g i o n s ( S K L ) a n d t h e S w e d i s h R o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
( V g v e r k e t s S k y l t f o n d ) . T h e p r o j e c t i s b a s e d a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y
a n d S o c i e t y , T r a n s p o r t a n d R o a d s a t L u n d U n i v e r s i t y . I w i s h t o t h a n k m y
s u p e r v i s o r s s e S v e n s s o n , J a m i l K h a n a n d M a l e n e F r e u d e n d a l - P e d e r s e n w h o
h a v e h e l p e d m e t r e m e n d o u s l y t h r o u g h o u t m y s t u d i e s , h a v e c r i t i c i s e d m e , p u t
m y w o r k i n d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d h a v e p u s h e d m e t o c o m p l e t e t h i s P h D . I
a l s o w a n t t o t h a n k T h o m a s S i c k N i e l s e n f r o m D T U w h o w a s a g r e a t h e l p a n d
s u p p o r t f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e s u r v e y d a t a a n d A n n a L i n d g r e n f o r h e r h e l p
w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a . M o r e o v e r , s p e c i a l t h a n k s h a v e t o g o t o a l l
i n t e r v i e w p e r s o n s f o r t h e i r t i m e a n d t h e i r i n p u t . A s p e c i a l t h a n k h a s t o g o t o
K a r o l i n a I s a k s s o n f r o m V T I f o r h e r i n p u t , c o m m e n t s a n d c r i t i c i s m o f t h e
t h e s i s d u r i n g t h e f i n a l s e m i n a r .
F u r t h e r , I w a n t t o t h a n k a l l m y c o l l e a g u e s a t T r a n s p o r t a n d R o a d s f o r g o o d
a n d b a d t i m e s a n d m u c h f u n . E s p e c i a l l y I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k A n d r s V r h e l y i ,
w h o w a s m y f i r s t s u p e r v i s o r , f o r h i s s u p p o r t a t t h e o u t s e t o f m y t h e s i s , f o r
m u c h f u n a t T r a n s p o r t f o r u m a n d f o r t h e c o n s t a n t s u p p l y o f c h o c o l a t e s a n d
c a n d i e s ; D a v i d L i n d e l w , w h o t o o k t h e t i m e t o w r i t e t h e p r o t o c o l d u r i n g m y
f i n a l s e m i n a r a n d w h o m I a l w a y s c o u l d b o t h e r i n h i s o f f i c e f o r n o p a r t i c u l a r
r e a s o n , M i a S i n c l a i r , w h o w a s a l w a y s t h e r e t o h e l p w i t h p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r s n o
m a t t e r h o w s t u p i d t h e q u e s t i o n w a s , A n d r e a s P e r s s o n a n d E b b e P a r h a m i f a r f o r
a l l t h e t a l k a b o u t f o o t b a l l ( H e j a B V B ! ) a n d a l l m y f e l l o w P h D s t u d e n t s ( a n d
o t h e r s ) f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t .
I a l s o w a n t t o t h a n k m y f o r m e r c o l l e a g u e C h a r l o t t e W a h l f o r b e i n g m y
m u d d e r , c o l l e a g u e s G u y B a e t e n , A n d e r s L u n d H a n s e n a n d H e n r i k G u t z o n
L a r s e n f r o m t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f H u m a n G e o g r a p h y f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t , v e r y
i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n s a n d t h e n i c e t i m e s w e h a d a t t h e g e o g r a p h y c o n f e r e n c e s
a n d a t s e v e r a l s e m i n a r s , a n d C a r i n a L i s t e r b o r n f o r h e r s u p p o r t o f m y i d e a s f o r
9
Acknowledgements
This doctoral thesis is grounded in the project called HASTA (Sustainable and
attractive city) and was financed by The Swedish Governmental Agency for
Innovation Systems (VINNOVA), the Swedish Association of Local
Authorities and Regions (SKL) and the Swedish Road Administration
(Vgverkets Skyltfond). The project is based at the Department of Technology
and Society, Transport and Roads at Lund University. I wish to thank my
supervisors se Svensson, Jamil Khan and Malene Freudendal-Pedersen who
have helped me tremendously throughout my studies, have criticised me, put
my work in different perspectives and have pushed me to complete this PhD. I
also want to thank Thomas Sick Nielsen from DTU who was a great help and
support for the collection of the survey data and Anna Lindgren for her help
with the analysis of the data. Moreover, special thanks have to go to all
interview persons for their time and their input. A special thank has to go to
Karolina Isaksson from VTI for her input, comments and criticism of the
thesis during the final seminar.
Further, I want to thank all my colleagues at Transport and Roads for good
and bad times and much fun. Especially I would like to thank Andrs Vrhelyi,
who was my first supervisor, for his support at the outset of my thesis, for
much fun at Transportforum and for the constant supply of chocolates and
candies; David Lindelw, who took the time to write the protocol during my
final seminar and whom I always could bother in his office for no particular
reason, Mia Sinclair, who was always there to help with practical matters no
matter how stupid the question was, Andreas Persson and Ebbe Parhamifar for
all the talk about football (Heja BVB!) and all my fellow PhD students (and
others) for their support.
I also want to thank my former colleague Charlotte Wahl for being my
mudder, colleagues Guy Baeten, Anders Lund Hansen and Henrik Gutzon
Larsen from the Department of Human Geography for their support, very
interesting discussions and the nice times we had at the geography conferences
and at several seminars, and Carina Listerborn for her support of my ideas for
9

10
future research. Furthermore, I would like to thank Ric Fisher for improving
my English and Julia Krakow for improving my German in the German
summary. If I have forgotten somebody: I thank you now!
At the end there is only one more person to thank. And that is my wonderful,
supportive, amazing wife Therese! Thank you for always believing in me,
for supporting me through all my ups and downs, and for being on my side
though it was not always easy. Thank you for everything and all your love!


1 0
f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k R i c F i s h e r f o r i m p r o v i n g
m y E n g l i s h a n d J u l i a K r a k o w f o r i m p r o v i n g m y G e r m a n i n t h e G e r m a n
s u m m a r y . I f I h a v e f o r g o t t e n s o m e b o d y : I t h a n k y o u n o w !
A t t h e e n d t h e r e i s o n l y o n e m o r e p e r s o n t o t h a n k . A n d t h a t i s m y w o n d e r f u l ,
s u p p o r t i v e , a m a z i n g w i f e T h e r e s e ! T h a n k y o u f o r a l w a y s b e l i e v i n g i n m e ,
f o r s u p p o r t i n g m e t h r o u g h a l l m y u p s a n d d o w n s , a n d f o r b e i n g o n m y s i d e
t h o u g h i t w a s n o t a l w a y s e a s y . T h a n k y o u f o r e v e r y t h i n g a n d a l l y o u r l o v e !

1 0

1 1
S u m m a r y
T r a n s p o r t h a s b e e n a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o d a y s s o c i e t i e s . T o
m o v e b o t h p e o p l e a n d g o o d s i s i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , u r b a n , r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l a n d g l o b a l , h a s p r o g r e s s e d r a p i d l y
s i n c e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e s t e a m e n g i n e . H o w e v e r , t r a n s p o r t i s n o t o n l y a
s o u r c e o f w e a l t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . I n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a l s o
c r e a t e s s o c i a l e x c l u s i o n , a n d b o t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d a i r t r a f f i c c r e a t e m a n y
e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s g l o b a l l y a n d l o c a l l y . O n e p a r t o f m o b i l i t y a n d
t r a n s p o r t i s c y c l i n g . C y c l i n g i s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t q u i t e o f t e n m a r g i n a l i s e d i n
u r b a n s p a c e ( e . g . K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 a n d E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . T h i s t h e s i s i s a b o u t
u r b a n c y c l i n g , m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e , a n d w h a t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e b u i l t
i n t o t h e u r b a n s p a c e o r h a v e c r e a t e d t h e u r b a n s p a c e . U r b a n c y c l i n g a n d
m o b i l i t y a r e s e e n a s a n a p p r o a c h t o v i s u a l i s i n g i n j u s t i c e a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n
t h e c i t y t h r o u g h c a s e s t u d i e s i n C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k a n d S t o c k h o l m ,
S w e d e n . F u r t h e r , t h e i n t e n t i o n i s t o m a k e a c o n n e c t i o n t o s p a c e a n d t h e
m a t e r i a l i t i e s t h a t a f f e c t p e o p l e s m o v e m e n t s i n a n u r b a n c o n t e x t .
M o r e o v e r , t r a n s p o r t a l s o h a s a s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l s i d e t o i t . T h r o u g h t h e
m o b i l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e o n e c a n a d d t h e s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n t o t r a n s p o r t r e s e a r c h ,
w h i c h i s i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s t h e s i s . T h e s h i f t i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s f r o m a n a l y s i n g
s o c i e t i e s t o a n a l y s i n g m o b i l i t i e s w a s f i r s t i n i t i a t e d b y J o h n U r r y i n h i s b o o k
S o c i o l o g y b e y o n d S o c i e t i e s : M o b i l i t i e s f o r t h e T w e n t y - F i r s t C e n t u r y f r o m 2 0 0 0 .
U r r y a l s o i n t r o d u c e d t h e m o b i l i t y p a r a d i g m , m e a n i n g t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e s s h i f t
m o r e f r o m r e s e a r c h o n s o c i e t i e s t o r e s e a r c h o n m o b i l i t i e s ( U r r y 2 0 0 7 ) .
M o b i l i t y o r t h e f i e l d o f m o b i l i t i e s i n c l u d e s m o r e t h a n j u s t t h e m o v e m e n t f r o m
A t o B . I t i n c l u d e s a l s o t h e s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s o f
m o v e m e n t s a n d o f t r a n s p o r t s . T h i s t h e s i s f o c u s e s o n t h o s e a s p e c t s o f m o b i l i t y ,
c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t .
T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e m e t h o d s u s e d f o r t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h
i s i n t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e , w h i c h i s
c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y , i n o r d e r t o u s e m e t h o d s s u i t e d f o r a c r i t i c a l
a n a l y s i s o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m

11
Summary
Transport has been at the heart of the development of todays societies. To
move both people and goods is increasingly important, and the development of
transport systems, urban, regional, national and global, has progressed rapidly
since the invention of the steam engine. However, transport is not only a
source of wealth and development. Infrastructure for motorised traffic also
creates social exclusion, and both motorised traffic and air traffic create many
environmental problems globally and locally. One part of mobility and
transport is cycling. Cycling is a mode of transport quite often marginalised in
urban space (e.g. Khayesi et al. 2010 and Emanuel 2012). This thesis is about
urban cycling, mobility, planning and space, and what power relations are built
into the urban space or have created the urban space. Urban cycling and
mobility are seen as an approach to visualising injustice and power relations in
the city through case studies in Copenhagen, Denmark and Stockholm,
Sweden. Further, the intention is to make a connection to space and the
materialities that affect peoples movements in an urban context.
Moreover, transport also has a social and cultural side to it. Through the
mobility perspective one can add the social dimension to transport research,
which is important in this thesis. The shift in social sciences from analysing
societies to analysing mobilities was first initiated by John Urry in his book
Sociology beyond Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First Century from 2000.
Urry also introduced the mobility paradigm, meaning that social sciences shift
more from research on societies to research on mobilities (Urry 2007).
Mobility or the field of mobilities includes more than just the movement from
A to B. It includes also the social, cultural, political and economic aspects of
movements and of transports. This thesis focuses on those aspects of mobility,
cycling and transport.
The starting point of the methods used for the data collection for this research
is in the methodological considerations and the philosophy of science, which is
critical realism and critical theory, in order to use methods suited for a critical
analysis of the transport systems, planning processes and cycling in Stockholm
1 1

12
and Copenhagen. The first step was to cycle in the two cities in order to get a
feeling and better understanding of the infrastructure and the situations for
their cyclists. Further, different documents have been studied in order to
prepare for the interviews, which are the next step in the data collection, and
also after the interviews, due to the fact that some interviewees recommended
or mentioned some reports, policy or plan documents. The document studies
should be seen as an empirical contribution to the data from the interviews,
concerning facts about bicycle planning in Copenhagen and Stockholm. Thus,
the next part of the data collection was interviews with planners and politicians
in Stockholm and Copenhagen. Furthermore, two survey studies have been
conducted (one in Copenhagen and one in Stockholm) in order to collect data
about cyclists experience of cycling, the transport system and the infrastructure
of cycling in the two cities.
The collected data is analysed with the theoretical framework developed in
Chapters 3 and 4, i.e. with the help of the power, space and mobility theories.
Chapter 3 frames the thesis theoretically within the field of mobility and
vlomobility in order to create a better understanding of the theoretical
perspectives used in this dissertation. Research about mobility and vlomobility
is an important aspect in this framing. Mobility and vlomobility are
significant aspects when analysing transport systems and planning, which is
why the field of mobility is used to frame this thesis theoretically. This is also
the starting point for the analysis in this thesis. From this chapter, the next step
is to go deeper into the notions of power and space, important for mobility but
not particularly dealt with in connection to each other and to mobility
research.
Due to the fact that this thesis deals with people moving in urban areas,
transport planning and power relations, power perspectives, the notion of space
and space wars are all of interest for the analysis of cycling, urban mobility and
transport planning. Those aspects are handled in Chapter 4. The notions of
power and space are central when dealing with movements in cities, due to the
fact that power relations are created through space and do create space wars.
Because urban mobility and vlomobility are set in space (urban spaces in the
case of this thesis), space has to be dealt with in order to develop an
understanding of where conflicts occur and how space is produced through
mobility and through social relations. Here I draw on Lefebvres theories on
the production of space (1991 [1974]) and connect that to his concept of the
right to the city (1996). Conflicts between the different modes of transport can

1 2
a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e f i r s t s t e p w a s t o c y c l e i n t h e t w o c i t i e s i n o r d e r t o g e t a
f e e l i n g a n d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n s f o r
t h e i r c y c l i s t s . F u r t h e r , d i f f e r e n t d o c u m e n t s h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d i n o r d e r t o
p r e p a r e f o r t h e i n t e r v i e w s , w h i c h a r e t h e n e x t s t e p i n t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , a n d
a l s o a f t e r t h e i n t e r v i e w s , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t s o m e i n t e r v i e w e e s r e c o m m e n d e d
o r m e n t i o n e d s o m e r e p o r t s , p o l i c y o r p l a n d o c u m e n t s . T h e d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s
s h o u l d b e s e e n a s a n e m p i r i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s ,
c o n c e r n i n g f a c t s a b o u t b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h u s ,
t h e n e x t p a r t o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n w a s i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s
i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t w o s u r v e y s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n
c o n d u c t e d ( o n e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d o n e i n S t o c k h o l m ) i n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t d a t a
a b o u t c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e o f c y c l i n g , t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m a n d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
o f c y c l i n g i n t h e t w o c i t i e s .
T h e c o l l e c t e d d a t a i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k d e v e l o p e d i n
C h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 , i . e . w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e p o w e r , s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t y t h e o r i e s .
C h a p t e r 3 f r a m e s t h e t h e s i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f m o b i l i t y a n d
v l o m o b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e s u s e d i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . R e s e a r c h a b o u t m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y
i s a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t i n t h i s f r a m i n g . M o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y a r e
s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s w h e n a n a l y s i n g t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s a n d p l a n n i n g , w h i c h i s
w h y t h e f i e l d o f m o b i l i t y i s u s e d t o f r a m e t h i s t h e s i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y . T h i s i s a l s o
t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s t h e s i s . F r o m t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e n e x t s t e p
i s t o g o d e e p e r i n t o t h e n o t i o n s o f p o w e r a n d s p a c e , i m p o r t a n t f o r m o b i l i t y b u t
n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y d e a l t w i t h i n c o n n e c t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t o m o b i l i t y
r e s e a r c h .
D u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s t h e s i s d e a l s w i t h p e o p l e m o v i n g i n u r b a n a r e a s ,
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , p o w e r p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e n o t i o n o f s p a c e
a n d s p a c e w a r s a r e a l l o f i n t e r e s t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f c y c l i n g , u r b a n m o b i l i t y a n d
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h o s e a s p e c t s a r e h a n d l e d i n C h a p t e r 4 . T h e n o t i o n s o f
p o w e r a n d s p a c e a r e c e n t r a l w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h m o v e m e n t s i n c i t i e s , d u e t o t h e
f a c t t h a t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e c r e a t e d t h r o u g h s p a c e a n d d o c r e a t e s p a c e w a r s .
B e c a u s e u r b a n m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y a r e s e t i n s p a c e ( u r b a n s p a c e s i n t h e
c a s e o f t h i s t h e s i s ) , s p a c e h a s t o b e d e a l t w i t h i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h e r e c o n f l i c t s o c c u r a n d h o w s p a c e i s p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h
m o b i l i t y a n d t h r o u g h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . H e r e I d r a w o n L e f e b v r e s t h e o r i e s o n
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) a n d c o n n e c t t h a t t o h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e
r i g h t t o t h e c i t y ( 1 9 9 6 ) . C o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t c a n
1 2

1 3
a l s o b e s e e n i n t h e l i g h t o f u r b a n s p a c e w a r s , a c o n c e p t d e v e l o p e d b y Z y g m u n t
B a u m a n ( 1 9 9 8 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d u r b a n s p a c e w a r s h a s
t o d o w i t h p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n c i t i e s a n d u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s a n d
t h e r e f o r e a l s o w i t h u r b a n b i c y c l i n g . I n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e s u c h p o w e r r e l a t i o n s ,
C h a p t e r 4 d e v e l o p s a t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
i n c o n n e c t i o n t o s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s . T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e c o m e s f r o m
d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . I u s e t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r d e v e l o p e d b y L u k e s
( 2 0 0 5 ) a n d c o n n e c t h i s v i e w t o L e f e b v r e . C h a p t e r 4 d e f i n e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
o u t l i n e o f p o w e r , s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s f o r t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . I t c o n n e c t s
m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h w i t h r e s e a r c h o n p o w e r a n d s p a c e i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s t h e s i s .
C h a p t e r 5 e x p l o r e s h o w p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f s p a c e a r e
m a t e r i a l i s e d i n u r b a n s p a c e , a n d w h a t h a s a f f e c t e d a n d s h a p e d m o d e r n u r b a n
t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n b u i l t i n t o o u r
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e i n d u s t r y a n d
i n d u s t r i e s c o n n e c t e d t o t h i s b r a n c h h a v e h a d a t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t
a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g a r o u n d t h e g l o b e . I n t h i s c h a p t e r I g i v e e x a m p l e s f r o m
S w e d e n , w h e r e I s h o w h o w t h i s h a s h a p p e n e d w i t h t h e e n t r a n c e o f m o d e r n i s m
i n t o u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d h o w t h a t s t i l l a f f e c t s p l a n n i n g t o d a y . I
a l s o c o n n e c t t h i s t o L e f e b v r e s c o n c e p t o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y a n d t r y t o
d e v e l o p a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w a n d w h y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s s h a p e d t o d a y
w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e o f t h i s t h e s i s . T h e f o c a l p o i n t i n t h i s
a n a l y s i s o f t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s i s m o d e r n i s m a n d h o w i t h a s a f f e c t e d u r b a n s p a c e .
E x a m p l e s a r e u s e d f r o m S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n t o s h o w t h e i m p a c t o f
m o d e r n i s m o n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . M o r e o v e r , t h e t r a f f i c s a f e t y a n d
p l a n n i n g g u i d e l i n e s S C A F T , d e v e l o p e d i n S w e d e n i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t r a f f i c
s a f e t y , a r e a l s o a n e x a m p l e o f h o w t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f u r b a n s p a c e h a v e l e d
t o t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s a n d a f o c u s o n m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t .
T h r o u g h t h o s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s h a v e b e e n b u i l t
i n t o t h e u r b a n s p a c e a n d p r o d u c e d s p a c e s o f m o b i l i t y t h a t p r i o r i t i s e m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c . T h o s e s p a c e s a l s o p r o d u c e u r b a n s p a c e w a r s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t r o a d
u s e r s a n d a f f e c t p l a n n i n g e v e n t o d a y . I t i s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s
t h a t h a v e a n i m p a c t o n p l a n n i n g . H e r e L u k e s t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r i s a
g o o d a n a l y t i c a l t o o l t o e x p l o r e t h o s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s .
T h e c a s e s i t e s f o r t h i s t h e s i s , S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n , a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n
C h a p t e r 6 . T h i s c h a p t e r e x p l a i n s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t ,
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d p l a n n i n g . M o r e o v e r , i t e x p l a i n s w h y C o p e n h a g e n s b i c y c l e

13
also be seen in the light of urban space wars, a concept developed by Zygmunt
Bauman (1998). Moreover, the production of space and urban space wars has
to do with power and power relations in cities and urban transport systems and
therefore also with urban bicycling. In order to analyse such power relations,
Chapter 4 develops a theoretical understanding of power and power relations
in connection to space and space wars. This theoretical knowledge comes from
different perspectives. I use the three dimensions of power developed by Lukes
(2005) and connect his view to Lefebvre. Chapter 4 defines the theoretical
outline of power, space and space wars for this doctoral thesis. It connects
mobility research with research on power and space in order to develop a
theoretical frame for the analysis in this thesis.
Chapter 5 explores how power relations and the productions of space are
materialised in urban space, and what has affected and shaped modern urban
transport and urban planning. Power relations have been built into our
infrastructure, and the political economy of the automobile industry and
industries connected to this branch have had a tremendous impact on transport
and urban planning around the globe. In this chapter I give examples from
Sweden, where I show how this has happened with the entrance of modernism
into urban and transport planning and how that still affects planning today. I
also connect this to Lefebvres concept of the right to the city and try to
develop a better understanding of how and why infrastructure is shaped today
with the help of the theoretical outline of this thesis. The focal point in this
analysis of the materialities is modernism and how it has affected urban space.
Examples are used from Stockholm and Copenhagen to show the impact of
modernism on urban and transport planning. Moreover, the traffic safety and
planning guidelines SCAFT, developed in Sweden in order to increase traffic
safety, are also an example of how the transformations of urban space have led
to the marginalisation of cyclists and a focus on motorised modes of transport.
Through those transformations, power relations and structures have been built
into the urban space and produced spaces of mobility that prioritise motorised
traffic. Those spaces also produce urban space wars between the different road
users and affect planning even today. It is, among other things, those structures
that have an impact on planning. Here Lukes third dimension of power is a
good analytical tool to explore those power relations and structures.
The case sites for this thesis, Stockholm and Copenhagen, are introduced in
Chapter 6. This chapter explains the differences in the modal split,
infrastructure and planning. Moreover, it explains why Copenhagens bicycle
1 3

14
infrastructure is better than Stockholms and how the two cities have developed
their infrastructure. The infrastructure for cycling is much better in
Copenhagen than it is in Stockholm; for example there are better solutions for
prioritising cyclists at crossroads, and better bicycle tracks. This chapter also
serves as a background for Chapter 7, where the empirical material from the
interviews in both Stockholm and Copenhagen is analysed. The data collection
through the interviews helped create a deeper understanding of how the two
cities have been planned and are planned today. Moreover, relations and
structures were uncovered that affected the planning and the outcome of
planning and policy decisions, both at a political level and at an administrative
level. Additionally, through the analysis of the power relations in urban space,
one can see what influenced and still influences the planning and the politics of
mobility and transport in Copenhagen and Stockholm. From that analysis the
question of how cyclists in both cities experience cycling, traffic and the
planning for cyclists arises. Planning is very differently organised in the two
cities and historical, economic, cultural and political factors have influenced
the planning processes and the outcome of transport and urban planning. One
major aspect, for example, is that Copenhagen, after World War Two, did not
have the financial means to rebuild the city according to the modernistic ideal,
i.e. highway investments etc., nor could Copenhagen finance the development
of a subway. Thus, planning for cycling was a very important aspect in
transport planning after the Second World War. Stockholm on the other hand
had better financial means and did invest in highways and a subway. Moreover,
the fact that Sweden has a car industry and Denmark does not also affects
transport planning.
In Chapter 8 the cyclists experience is analysed from data collected through
survey studies in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The focus of the analysis of the
survey data is on the differences and similarities between cyclists in Stockholm
and Copenhagen. This is analysed with the Chi2 test, the Mann-Whitney test
and by analysing the frequencies of the answers. The result of this analysis is
that cyclists in both cities see problems with motorised traffic and other
cyclists. Overall the cyclists in Copenhagen have a more positive view on
planning, infrastructure etc. than do cyclists in Stockholm. It becomes clear
through the analysis of the survey data that there are power relations at work in
both cities, and that urban space wars between cyclists and other road users are
a problem. With a starting point in the analyses of the qualitative data
(interviews and observations) and the quantitative data (surveys), Chapter 9

1 4
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s b e t t e r t h a n S t o c k h o l m s a n d h o w t h e t w o c i t i e s h a v e d e v e l o p e d
t h e i r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i n g i s m u c h b e t t e r i n
C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i t i s i n S t o c k h o l m ; f o r e x a m p l e t h e r e a r e b e t t e r s o l u t i o n s f o r
p r i o r i t i s i n g c y c l i s t s a t c r o s s r o a d s , a n d b e t t e r b i c y c l e t r a c k s . T h i s c h a p t e r a l s o
s e r v e s a s a b a c k g r o u n d f o r C h a p t e r 7 , w h e r e t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e
i n t e r v i e w s i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n i s a n a l y s e d . T h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n
t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v i e w s h e l p e d c r e a t e a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w t h e t w o
c i t i e s h a v e b e e n p l a n n e d a n d a r e p l a n n e d t o d a y . M o r e o v e r , r e l a t i o n s a n d
s t r u c t u r e s w e r e u n c o v e r e d t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f
p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s , b o t h a t a p o l i t i c a l l e v e l a n d a t a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
l e v e l . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h r o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e ,
o n e c a n s e e w h a t i n f l u e n c e d a n d s t i l l i n f l u e n c e s t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f
m o b i l i t y a n d t r a n s p o r t i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . F r o m t h a t a n a l y s i s t h e
q u e s t i o n o f h o w c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s e x p e r i e n c e c y c l i n g , t r a f f i c a n d t h e
p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a r i s e s . P l a n n i n g i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y o r g a n i s e d i n t h e t w o
c i t i e s a n d h i s t o r i c a l , e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s h a v e i n f l u e n c e d
t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g . O n e
m a j o r a s p e c t , f o r e x a m p l e , i s t h a t C o p e n h a g e n , a f t e r W o r l d W a r T w o , d i d n o t
h a v e t h e f i n a n c i a l m e a n s t o r e b u i l d t h e c i t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o d e r n i s t i c i d e a l ,
i . e . h i g h w a y i n v e s t m e n t s e t c . , n o r c o u l d C o p e n h a g e n f i n a n c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
o f a s u b w a y . T h u s , p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g w a s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t i n
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r . S t o c k h o l m o n t h e o t h e r h a n d
h a d b e t t e r f i n a n c i a l m e a n s a n d d i d i n v e s t i n h i g h w a y s a n d a s u b w a y . M o r e o v e r ,
t h e f a c t t h a t S w e d e n h a s a c a r i n d u s t r y a n d D e n m a r k d o e s n o t a l s o a f f e c t s
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g .
I n C h a p t e r 8 t h e c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e i s a n a l y s e d f r o m d a t a c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h
s u r v e y s t u d i e s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e f o c u s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e
s u r v e y d a t a i s o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m
a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e C h i 2 t e s t , t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t
a n d b y a n a l y s i n g t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e a n s w e r s . T h e r e s u l t o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s
t h a t c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s s e e p r o b l e m s w i t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d o t h e r
c y c l i s t s . O v e r a l l t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n h a v e a m o r e p o s i t i v e v i e w o n
p l a n n i n g , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e e t c . t h a n d o c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m . I t b e c o m e s c l e a r
t h r o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y d a t a t h a t t h e r e a r e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a t w o r k i n
b o t h c i t i e s , a n d t h a t u r b a n s p a c e w a r s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d o t h e r r o a d u s e r s a r e
a p r o b l e m . W i t h a s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a
( i n t e r v i e w s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s ) a n d t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a ( s u r v e y s ) , C h a p t e r 9
1 4

1 5
b r i n g s t h e t w o t o g e t h e r i n a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e v i e w s o f
p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s a n d t h e u s e r s o f t h e u r b a n s p a c e s o f m o b i l i t y , i n t h i s
c a s e , t h e c y c l i s t s . I t s e e m s t h a t p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s h a v e o n e v i e w o f t h e
o u t c o m e o f t h e i r d e c i s i o n s , w h i c h m i g h t n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f
t h e c y c l i s t s a n d t o t h e m o d a l s p l i t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h a t m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c s t i l l
c r e a t e s t h e m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n , a c i t y t h a t p r i o r i t i s e s
c y c l i n g . M o r e o v e r , c o n n e c t i o n s a r e m a d e t o p r e v i o u s a n a l y s e s i n t h i s t h e s i s
c o n c e r n i n g a u t o m o b i l i t y , p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , m o d e r n i s m a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d u r b a n c y c l i n g . N e i t h e r c i t y h a s r e a l l y m a n a g e d t o b r e a k f r e e
f r o m m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d c r e a t e a t r u l y s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m .
T h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d t h e r e s e a r c h d o n e i n t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s
a r e c o n c l u d e d i n C h a p t e r 1 0 . T h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s h a s d e a l t w i t h t h e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i n g i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s . U r b a n
c y c l i n g , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , p e o p l e s m o b i l i t y a n d u r b a n s p a c e a r e a l l
i n t e r r e l a t e d , a s t h i s t h e s i s s h o w s . I n t h i s t h e s i s I h a v e u s e d t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g
m o b i l i t y , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s p a c e i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t o d a y s d o m i n a n c e o f
m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n
s p a c e s . T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n w a s f o l l o w e d b y e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h i n
C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k a n d S t o c k h o l m , S w e d e n , w h e r e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h
p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d a n d s u r v e y s o f t h e r e s i d e n t s o f
t h e t w o c i t i e s h a v e b e e n a n a l y s e d . M o r e o v e r , I h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h e i m p o r t a n t
f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i n m a n y c i t i e s t o d a y . T h o s e f a c t o r s
a r e , a m o n g o t h e r s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o d e r n i s m a n d , a l o n g w i t h i t , a w a y o f
p e r f o r m i n g t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g t h a t f o c u s e d a n d t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e s t i l l f o c u s e s
o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h i s i s a l s o c o n n e c t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e F o r d i s t
p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s a l s o
c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e o f m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d v i c e v e r s a .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n h a s b e e n a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t o n t h e p o l i t i c a l
e c o n o m y , t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e s p a c e o f m o b i l i t y a n d t h e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n a n u r b a n c o n t e x t .


15
brings the two together in an analysis of the differences between the views of
planners and politicians and the users of the urban spaces of mobility, in this
case, the cyclists. It seems that planners and politicians have one view of the
outcome of their decisions, which might not correspond to the experience of
the cyclists and to the modal split. For example, that motorised traffic still
creates the most problems for cyclists in Copenhagen, a city that prioritises
cycling. Moreover, connections are made to previous analyses in this thesis
concerning automobility, political economy, modernism and power relations
in urban space and urban cycling. Neither city has really managed to break free
from motorised traffic and create a truly sustainable transport system.
The results from the data analysis and the research done in this doctoral thesis
are concluded in Chapter 10. This doctoral thesis has dealt with the
marginalisation of cycling in urban space and urban transport systems. Urban
cycling, transport planning, peoples mobility and urban space are all
interrelated, as this thesis shows. In this thesis I have used theories concerning
mobility, power relations and space in order to explain todays dominance of
motorised modes of transport and the marginalisation of cyclists in urban
spaces. This theoretical discussion was followed by empirical research in
Copenhagen, Denmark and Stockholm, Sweden, where interviews with
planners and politicians have been conducted and surveys of the residents of
the two cities have been analysed. Moreover, I have described the important
factors that contribute to the development of todays transport infrastructure
and the outcome of planning for cyclists in many cities today. Those factors
are, among others, the development of modernism and, along with it, a way of
performing transport planning that focused and to a certain degree still focuses
on motorised traffic. This is also connected to the development of the Fordist
production of cars. The influence of economic, social and cultural aspects also
contributes to the increased use of motorised modes of transport and vice versa.
In other words, this dissertation has been a research project on the political
economy, the power relations and the space of mobility and the
marginalisation of cyclists in an urban context.

1 5

16
Sammanfattning
Transporter och trafik r, och har varit, en viktig drivkraft fr utvecklingen av
dagens samhllen. Att frflytta mnniskor och varor blir allt viktigare, och
utvecklingen av transportsystem, bde urbant, regionalt, nationellt och globalt,
har gtt snabbt sedan ngmaskinen uppfanns. Transporter r dock inte bara en
klla till vlstnd och utveckling. Infrastruktur fr motoriserad trafik skapar
social exkludering, och bde motoriserad vgtrafik och flygtrafik skapar mnga
miljproblem svl globalt som lokalt. Cykling r en del av mobilitet och
transporter. Cykling r ett transportstt som frhllandevis ofta marginaliseras i
stadsrummet (t.ex. Khayesi et al. 2010 och Emanuel 2012). Denna avhandling
handlar om cykling i staden, mobilitet, planering och rum, och de
maktrelationer som byggs in i stadsrummet eller som har skapat stadsrummet.
Genom att studera mobilitet och cykling i Kpenhamn, Danmark, och
Stockholm, Sverige, avser denna avhandling att visualisera orttvisor och
maktfrhllanden i staden. Vidare r avsikten att gra en koppling till rummet
och de materialiteter som pverkar mnniskors mobilitet i en urban kontext.
Trafik ocks en social och kulturell sida. Genom ett mobilitetsperspektiv kan
man lgga till den sociala dimensionen till transport- och trafikforskningen,
vilket r en viktig aspekt i denna avhandling. Frskjutningen i
samhllsvetenskap frn att analysera samhllen till att analysera mobilitet
introducerades fr frsta gngen av John Urry i sin bok Sociology beyond
Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First Century frn 2000. Urry introducerade
ocks det s kallade mobilitetsparadigmet, vilket innebr att
samhllsvetenskaplig forskning frskjuts frn forskning om samhllen till
forskning om mobilitet (Urry 2007). Mobilitet och forskningsomrden
rrande mobiliteter innehller dock betydligt mer n bara frflyttning frn A
till B. Den innehller ocks de sociala, kulturella, politiska och ekonomiska
aspekterna av frflyttningar och trafik. Denna avhandling fokuserar p dessa
aspekter av mobilitet, cykling och trafik.
Utgngspunkten fr val av metoder fr datainsamlingen i denna avhandling
grundas i vervganden i kritisk realism och kritisk teori. Detta fr att kunna

1 6
S a m m a n f a t t n i n g
T r a n s p o r t e r o c h t r a f i k r , o c h h a r v a r i t , e n v i k t i g d r i v k r a f t f r u t v e c k l i n g e n a v
d a g e n s s a m h l l e n . A t t f r f l y t t a m n n i s k o r o c h v a r o r b l i r a l l t v i k t i g a r e , o c h
u t v e c k l i n g e n a v t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , b d e u r b a n t , r e g i o n a l t , n a t i o n e l l t o c h g l o b a l t ,
h a r g t t s n a b b t s e d a n n g m a s k i n e n u p p f a n n s . T r a n s p o r t e r r d o c k i n t e b a r a e n
k l l a t i l l v l s t n d o c h u t v e c k l i n g . I n f r a s t r u k t u r f r m o t o r i s e r a d t r a f i k s k a p a r
s o c i a l e x k l u d e r i n g , o c h b d e m o t o r i s e r a d v g t r a f i k o c h f l y g t r a f i k s k a p a r m n g a
m i l j p r o b l e m s v l g l o b a l t s o m l o k a l t . C y k l i n g r e n d e l a v m o b i l i t e t o c h
t r a n s p o r t e r . C y k l i n g r e t t t r a n s p o r t s t t s o m f r h l l a n d e v i s o f t a m a r g i n a l i s e r a s i
s t a d s r u m m e t ( t . e x . K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 o c h E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . D e n n a a v h a n d l i n g
h a n d l a r o m c y k l i n g i s t a d e n , m o b i l i t e t , p l a n e r i n g o c h r u m , o c h d e
m a k t r e l a t i o n e r s o m b y g g s i n i s t a d s r u m m e t e l l e r s o m h a r s k a p a t s t a d s r u m m e t .
G e n o m a t t s t u d e r a m o b i l i t e t o c h c y k l i n g i K p e n h a m n , D a n m a r k , o c h
S t o c k h o l m , S v e r i g e , a v s e r d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g a t t v i s u a l i s e r a o r t t v i s o r o c h
m a k t f r h l l a n d e n i s t a d e n . V i d a r e r a v s i k t e n a t t g r a e n k o p p l i n g t i l l r u m m e t
o c h d e m a t e r i a l i t e t e r s o m p v e r k a r m n n i s k o r s m o b i l i t e t i e n u r b a n k o n t e x t .
T r a f i k o c k s e n s o c i a l o c h k u l t u r e l l s i d a . G e n o m e t t m o b i l i t e t s p e r s p e k t i v k a n
m a n l g g a t i l l d e n s o c i a l a d i m e n s i o n e n t i l l t r a n s p o r t - o c h t r a f i k f o r s k n i n g e n ,
v i l k e t r e n v i k t i g a s p e k t i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g . F r s k j u t n i n g e n i
s a m h l l s v e t e n s k a p f r n a t t a n a l y s e r a s a m h l l e n t i l l a t t a n a l y s e r a m o b i l i t e t
i n t r o d u c e r a d e s f r f r s t a g n g e n a v J o h n U r r y i s i n b o k S o c i o l o g y b e y o n d
S o c i e t i e s : M o b i l i t i e s f o r t h e T w e n t y - F i r s t C e n t u r y f r n 2 0 0 0 . U r r y i n t r o d u c e r a d e
o c k s d e t s k a l l a d e m o b i l i t e t s p a r a d i g m e t , v i l k e t i n n e b r a t t
s a m h l l s v e t e n s k a p l i g f o r s k n i n g f r s k j u t s f r n f o r s k n i n g o m s a m h l l e n t i l l
f o r s k n i n g o m m o b i l i t e t ( U r r y 2 0 0 7 ) . M o b i l i t e t o c h f o r s k n i n g s o m r d e n
r r a n d e m o b i l i t e t e r i n n e h l l e r d o c k b e t y d l i g t m e r n b a r a f r f l y t t n i n g f r n A
t i l l B . D e n i n n e h l l e r o c k s d e s o c i a l a , k u l t u r e l l a , p o l i t i s k a o c h e k o n o m i s k a
a s p e k t e r n a a v f r f l y t t n i n g a r o c h t r a f i k . D e n n a a v h a n d l i n g f o k u s e r a r p d e s s a
a s p e k t e r a v m o b i l i t e t , c y k l i n g o c h t r a f i k .
U t g n g s p u n k t e n f r v a l a v m e t o d e r f r d a t a i n s a m l i n g e n i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g
g r u n d a s i v e r v g a n d e n i k r i t i s k r e a l i s m o c h k r i t i s k t e o r i . D e t t a f r a t t k u n n a
1 6

1 7
a n v n d a m e t o d e r s o m l m p a r s i g f r e n k r i t i s k a n a l y s a v t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m ,
p l a n e r i n g s p r o c e s s e r o c h c y k l i n g i S t o c k h o l m o c h K p e n h a m n . D e t f r s t a s t e g e t
i d a t a i n s a m l i n g e n v a r a t t s j l v c y k l a r u n t i d e b d a s t d e r n a f r a t t f e n k n s l a
f r o c h b t t r e f r s t e l s e f r i n f r a s t r u k t u r e n o c h s i t u a t i o n e n f r c y k l i s t e r n a i d e
b d a s t d e r n a . V i d a r e h a r o l i k a d o k u m e n t s t u d e r a t s i s y f t e a t t f r b e r e d a
i n t e r v j u e r n a , s o m v a r n s t a s t e g i d a t a i n s a m l i n g e n . v e n e f t e r i n t e r v j u e r n a h a r
d o k u m e n t s t u d e r a t s d v i s s a i n t e r v j u a d e p e r s o n e r r e k o m m e n d e r a d e e l l e r
n m n d e o l i k a r a p p o r t e r , p o l i t i s k a d o k u m e n t e l l e r p l a n e r i n g s h a n d l i n g a r . D e s s a
d o k u m e n t s t u d i e r b r s e s s o m e m p i r i s k t b i d r a g t i l l i n t e r v j u d a t a , g l l a n d e f a k t a
o m c y k e l p l a n e r i n g i K p e n h a m n o c h S t o c k h o l m . N s t a s t e g i d a t a i n s a m l i n g e n
v a r i n t e r v j u e r m e d p l a n e r a r e o c h p o l i t i k e r i S t o c k h o l m o c h K p e n h a m n .
V i d a r e h a r t v e n k t s t u d i e r g e n o m f r t s ( e n i K p e n h a m n o c h e n i S t o c k h o l m )
f r a t t s a m l a i n d a t a o m c y k l i s t e r n a s u p p l e v e l s e a v c y k l i n g e n , t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m e t
o c h c y k e l i n f r a s t r u k t u r e n i d e t v s t d e r n a .
I n s a m l a d d a t a a n a l y s e r a d e s m e d d e t t e o r e t i s k a r a m v e r k s o m u t v e c k l a d e s i
k a p i t e l 3 o c h 4 , d e t v i l l s g a m e d h j l p a v m a k t t e o r i e r , r u m s l i g a t e o r i e r o c h
m o b i l i t e t s t e o r i e r . K a p i t e l 3 b i l d a r m o b i l i t e t s r a m v e r k e t f r a v h a n d l i n g e n o c h
g r u n d a r s i g t e o r e t i s k t i n o m o m r d e t m o b i l i t e t o c h v l o m o b i l i t e t i s y f t e a t t
s k a p a e n b t t r e f r s t e l s e f r d e t e o r e t i s k a p e r s p e k t i v s o m a n v n d s i d e n n a
a v h a n d l i n g . F o r s k n i n g o m m o b i l i t e t o c h v l o m o b i l i t e t r v i k t i g a a s p e k t e r i
d e n n a p r o c e s s . M o b i l i t e t o c h v l o m o b i l i t e t r v i k t i g a a s p e k t e r n r m a n
a n a l y s e r a r t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m o c h p l a n e r i n g , v i l k e t r a n l e d n i n g e n t i l l a t t o m r d e t
m o b i l i t e t a n v n d s f r a t t s k a p a d e n t e o r e t i s k a r a m e n i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g o c h r
u t g n g s p u n k t e n f r a n a l y s e r n a a v d e t e m p i r i s k a m a t e r i a l e t . I k a p i t e l 3 f r s
o c k s e n f r d j u p a d d i s k u s s i o n a v b e g r e p p e n m a k t o c h r u m ; b e g r e p p s o m r
v i k t i g t a f r m o b i l i t e t m e n s o m h r i n t e d i s k u t e r a s m e d a v s e e n d e p k o p p l i n g e n
d e m e m e l l a n e l l e r t i l l f o r s k n i n g e n o m m o b i l i t e t .
D a v h a n d l i n g e n h a n d l a r o m h u r m n n i s k o r r r s i g i s t a d s o m r d e n ,
t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g o c h m a k t r e l a t i o n e r , r b e g r e p p e n m a k t p e r s p e k t i v , r u m o c h s
k a l l a d e s p a c e w a r s ( k a m p e n o m u t r y m m e i s t a d e n ) a v i n t r e s s e f r a n a l y s e n a v
c y k l i n g , m o b i l i t e t i s t d e r o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g . D e s s a a s p e k t e r h a n t e r a s i k a p i t e l
4 . D m a k t r e l a t i o n e r s k a p a s g e n o m r u m m e t o c h s k a p a r s p a c e w a r s r
b e g r e p p e n m a k t o c h r u m c e n t r a l a n r d e t h a n d l a r o m m o b i l i t e t i s t d e r .
E f t e r s o m m o b i l i t e t i s t d e r o c h v l o m o b i l i t e t s k e r i d e t f y s i s k a r u m m e t
( s t a d s r u m i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g ) , m s t e r u m m e t b e h a n d l a s i s y f t e a t t u t v e c k l a e n
f r s t e l s e f r v a r k o n f l i k t e r u p p s t r o c h h u r r u m m e t s k a p a s g e n o m m o b i l i t e t
o c h g e n o m s o c i a l a r e l a t i o n e r . H r a n v n d e r j a g m i g a v L e f e b v r e s t e o r i e r o m

17
anvnda metoder som lmpar sig fr en kritisk analys av transportsystem,
planeringsprocesser och cykling i Stockholm och Kpenhamn. Det frsta steget
i datainsamlingen var att sjlv cykla runt i de bda stderna fr att f en knsla
fr och bttre frstelse fr infrastrukturen och situationen fr cyklisterna i de
bda stderna. Vidare har olika dokument studerats i syfte att frbereda
intervjuerna, som var nsta steg i datainsamlingen. ven efter intervjuerna har
dokument studerats d vissa intervjuade personer rekommenderade eller
nmnde olika rapporter, politiska dokument eller planeringshandlingar. Dessa
dokumentstudier br ses som empiriskt bidrag till intervjudata, gllande fakta
om cykelplanering i Kpenhamn och Stockholm. Nsta steg i datainsamlingen
var intervjuer med planerare och politiker i Stockholm och Kpenhamn.
Vidare har tv enktstudier genomfrts (en i Kpenhamn och en i Stockholm)
fr att samla in data om cyklisternas upplevelse av cyklingen, transportsystemet
och cykelinfrastrukturen i de tv stderna.
Insamlad data analyserades med det teoretiska ramverk som utvecklades i
kapitel 3 och 4, det vill sga med hjlp av maktteorier, rumsliga teorier och
mobilitetsteorier. Kapitel 3 bildar mobilitetsramverket fr avhandlingen och
grundar sig teoretiskt inom omrdet mobilitet och vlomobilitet i syfte att
skapa en bttre frstelse fr de teoretiska perspektiv som anvnds i denna
avhandling. Forskning om mobilitet och vlomobilitet r viktiga aspekter i
denna process. Mobilitet och vlomobilitet r viktiga aspekter nr man
analyserar transportsystem och planering, vilket r anledningen till att omrdet
mobilitet anvnds fr att skapa den teoretiska ramen i denna avhandling och r
utgngspunkten fr analyserna av det empiriska materialet. I kapitel 3 frs
ocks en frdjupad diskussion av begreppen makt och rum; begrepp som r
viktigta fr mobilitet men som hr inte diskuteras med avseende p kopplingen
dem emellan eller till forskningen om mobilitet.
D avhandlingen handlar om hur mnniskor rr sig i stadsomrden,
trafikplanering och maktrelationer, r begreppen maktperspektiv, rum och s
kallade space wars (kampen om utrymme i staden) av intresse fr analysen av
cykling, mobilitet i stder och trafikplanering. Dessa aspekter hanteras i kapitel
4. D maktrelationer skapas genom rummet och skapar space wars r
begreppen makt och rum centrala nr det handlar om mobilitet i stder.
Eftersom mobilitet i stder och vlomobilitet sker i det fysiska rummet
(stadsrum i denna avhandling), mste rummet behandlas i syfte att utveckla en
frstelse fr var konflikter uppstr och hur rummet skapas genom mobilitet
och genom sociala relationer. Hr anvnder jag mig av Lefebvres teorier om
1 7

18
produktionen av rummet (1991 [1974]) och kopplar den till hans koncept om
rtten till staden (1996). Konflikter mellan de olika transportslagen kan ocks
ses i samband med space wars, ett koncept utvecklat av Zygmunt Bauman
(1998). Dessutom handlar produktionen av rummet och space wars om makt
och maktrelationer i stder och urbana transportsystem och drmed ven om
urban cykling. Fr att analysera sdana maktrelationer, utvecklas i kapitel 4 en
teoretisk frstelse av makt och maktrelationer i anslutning till rum och space
wars. Denna teoretiska kunskap kommer frn olika perspektiv. Jag anvnder de
tre dimensionerna av makt som utvecklades av Lukes (2005) och kopplar dessa
till Lefebvres teorier om rummet. I kapitel 4 definieras, fr denna avhandling,
den teoretiska ramen fr makt, rum och space wars. Hr kopplas forskning om
mobilitet med forskning om makt och rum fr att utveckla en teoretisk ram fr
analysen i denna avhandling.
I kapitel 5 undersks hur maktrelationer och produktionen av det urbana
rummet materialiseras i staden, vad som har pverkat och format modern
stadstrafik och stads- och trafikplanering. Maktrelationer har byggts in i vr
infrastruktur. Bilindustrins politiska ekonomi och industrier kopplade till
denna har haft en enorm inverkan p trafik- och stadsplanering runt om i
vrlden. I detta kapitel ger jag exempel frn Sverige, dr jag visar vad som hnt
i samband med introduktionen av modernismen i stads-och trafikplanering
samt hur detta pverkar planeringen n idag. Jag kopplar ocks detta till
Lefebvres begrepp om rtten till staden fr att p s stt frska utveckla en
bttre frstelse fr hur och varfr infrastrukturen r utformad som den r i
dag med hjlp av den teoretiska beskrivningen i denna avhandling. Modernism
r tyngdpunkten i denna analys av materialititer och hur det har pverkat
stadsrummet. Exempel anvnds frn Stockholm och Kpenhamn fr att visa
effekterna av modernism p stads-och trafikplanering. SCAFT, riktlinjer fr
planering som utvecklades i Sverige med syfte att ka trafikskerheten, r ocks
ett exempel p hur frndringarna av stadsrum har lett till marginalisering av
cyklister och kat fokus p biltrafiken. Genom dessa transformationer har
maktrelationer och strukturer blivit inbyggda i stadsrummet och skapar rum av
mobilitet som prioriterar motortrafik. Dessa rum skapar ocks space wars
mellan olika trafikanter och har en pverkan p planeringen n idag. Det r,
bland annat, dessa strukturer som pverkar planeringen. Hr r Lukes tredje
dimension av makt ett bra analytiskt verktyg fr att utforska maktrelationerna
och strukturerna i urbana rum.

1 8
p r o d u k t i o n e n a v r u m m e t ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) o c h k o p p l a r d e n t i l l h a n s k o n c e p t o m
r t t e n t i l l s t a d e n ( 1 9 9 6 ) . K o n f l i k t e r m e l l a n d e o l i k a t r a n s p o r t s l a g e n k a n o c k s
s e s i s a m b a n d m e d s p a c e w a r s , e t t k o n c e p t u t v e c k l a t a v Z y g m u n t B a u m a n
( 1 9 9 8 ) . D e s s u t o m h a n d l a r p r o d u k t i o n e n a v r u m m e t o c h s p a c e w a r s o m m a k t
o c h m a k t r e l a t i o n e r i s t d e r o c h u r b a n a t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m o c h d r m e d v e n o m
u r b a n c y k l i n g . F r a t t a n a l y s e r a s d a n a m a k t r e l a t i o n e r , u t v e c k l a s i k a p i t e l 4 e n
t e o r e t i s k f r s t e l s e a v m a k t o c h m a k t r e l a t i o n e r i a n s l u t n i n g t i l l r u m o c h s p a c e
w a r s . D e n n a t e o r e t i s k a k u n s k a p k o m m e r f r n o l i k a p e r s p e k t i v . J a g a n v n d e r d e
t r e d i m e n s i o n e r n a a v m a k t s o m u t v e c k l a d e s a v L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) o c h k o p p l a r d e s s a
t i l l L e f e b v r e s t e o r i e r o m r u m m e t . I k a p i t e l 4 d e f i n i e r a s , f r d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g ,
d e n t e o r e t i s k a r a m e n f r m a k t , r u m o c h s p a c e w a r s . H r k o p p l a s f o r s k n i n g o m
m o b i l i t e t m e d f o r s k n i n g o m m a k t o c h r u m f r a t t u t v e c k l a e n t e o r e t i s k r a m f r
a n a l y s e n i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g .
I k a p i t e l 5 u n d e r s k s h u r m a k t r e l a t i o n e r o c h p r o d u k t i o n e n a v d e t u r b a n a
r u m m e t m a t e r i a l i s e r a s i s t a d e n , v a d s o m h a r p v e r k a t o c h f o r m a t m o d e r n
s t a d s t r a f i k o c h s t a d s - o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g . M a k t r e l a t i o n e r h a r b y g g t s i n i v r
i n f r a s t r u k t u r . B i l i n d u s t r i n s p o l i t i s k a e k o n o m i o c h i n d u s t r i e r k o p p l a d e t i l l
d e n n a h a r h a f t e n e n o r m i n v e r k a n p t r a f i k - o c h s t a d s p l a n e r i n g r u n t o m i
v r l d e n . I d e t t a k a p i t e l g e r j a g e x e m p e l f r n S v e r i g e , d r j a g v i s a r v a d s o m h n t
i s a m b a n d m e d i n t r o d u k t i o n e n a v m o d e r n i s m e n i s t a d s - o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g
s a m t h u r d e t t a p v e r k a r p l a n e r i n g e n n i d a g . J a g k o p p l a r o c k s d e t t a t i l l
L e f e b v r e s b e g r e p p o m r t t e n t i l l s t a d e n f r a t t p s s t t f r s k a u t v e c k l a e n
b t t r e f r s t e l s e f r h u r o c h v a r f r i n f r a s t r u k t u r e n r u t f o r m a d s o m d e n r i
d a g m e d h j l p a v d e n t e o r e t i s k a b e s k r i v n i n g e n i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g . M o d e r n i s m
r t y n g d p u n k t e n i d e n n a a n a l y s a v m a t e r i a l i t i t e r o c h h u r d e t h a r p v e r k a t
s t a d s r u m m e t . E x e m p e l a n v n d s f r n S t o c k h o l m o c h K p e n h a m n f r a t t v i s a
e f f e k t e r n a a v m o d e r n i s m p s t a d s - o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g . S C A F T , r i k t l i n j e r f r
p l a n e r i n g s o m u t v e c k l a d e s i S v e r i g e m e d s y f t e a t t k a t r a f i k s k e r h e t e n , r o c k s
e t t e x e m p e l p h u r f r n d r i n g a r n a a v s t a d s r u m h a r l e t t t i l l m a r g i n a l i s e r i n g a v
c y k l i s t e r o c h k a t f o k u s p b i l t r a f i k e n . G e n o m d e s s a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e r h a r
m a k t r e l a t i o n e r o c h s t r u k t u r e r b l i v i t i n b y g g d a i s t a d s r u m m e t o c h s k a p a r r u m a v
m o b i l i t e t s o m p r i o r i t e r a r m o t o r t r a f i k . D e s s a r u m s k a p a r o c k s s p a c e w a r s
m e l l a n o l i k a t r a f i k a n t e r o c h h a r e n p v e r k a n p p l a n e r i n g e n n i d a g . D e t r ,
b l a n d a n n a t , d e s s a s t r u k t u r e r s o m p v e r k a r p l a n e r i n g e n . H r r L u k e s t r e d j e
d i m e n s i o n a v m a k t e t t b r a a n a l y t i s k t v e r k t y g f r a t t u t f o r s k a m a k t r e l a t i o n e r n a
o c h s t r u k t u r e r n a i u r b a n a r u m .
1 8

1 9
I k a p i t e l 6 i n t r o d u c e r a s f a l l s t u d i e r n a f r d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g , S t o c k h o l m o c h
K p e n h a m n . I d e t t a k a p i t e l d i s k u t e r a s m j l i g a f r k l a r i n g a r t i l l s k i l l n a d e r n a i
f r d m e d e l s v a l , i n f r a s t r u k t u r o c h p l a n e r i n g i d e b d a s t d e r n a . D e s s u t o m
d i s k u t e r a s v a r f r K p e n h a m n s c y k e l i n f r a s t r u k t u r u p p l e v s s o m s m y c k e t b t t r e
n S t o c k h o l m s o c h h u r i n f r a s t r u k t u r e n h a r u t v e c k l a t s i d e t v s t d e r n a .
E x e m p e l p v a r f r i n f r a s t r u k t u r e n f r c y k l i n g u p p l e v s s o m s m y c k e t b t t r e i
K p e n h a m n n i S t o c k h o l m , r b t t r e l s n i n g a r f r a t t p r i o r i t e r a c y k l i s t e r i
k o r s n i n g a r o c h b t t r e c y k e l v g a r . D e t t a k a p i t e l f u n g e r a r o c k s s o m e n
b a k g r u n d t i l l k a p i t e l 7 , d r d e t e m p i r i s k a m a t e r i a l e t f r n i n t e r v j u e r n a i b d e
S t o c k h o l m o c h K p e n h a m n a n a l y s e r a s . I n t e r v j u e r n a h a r b i d r a g i t t i l l a t t s k a p a
e n d j u p a r e f r s t e l s e f r h u r d e t v s t d e r n a h a r p l a n e r a t s o c h h u r p l a n e r i n g e n
s k e r i d a g . D e s s u t o m h a r r e l a t i o n e r o c h s t r u k t u r e r u p p t c k t s s o m p v e r k a t
p l a n e r i n g e n o c h r e s u l t a t e t a v p l a n e r i n g o c h p o l i t i s k a b e s l u t , b d e p p o l i t i s k
n i v o c h p a d m i n i s t r a t i v n i v . D r u t v e r k a n m a n , g e n o m a n a l y s a v
m a k t r e l a t i o n e r n a i s t a d s r u m m e t , s e v a d s o m p v e r k a t o c h f o r t f a r a n d e p v e r k a r
p l a n e r i n g e n o c h p o l i t i k e n a v m o b i l i t e t o c h t r a f i k i K p e n h a m n o c h
S t o c k h o l m . F r n d e n n a a n a l y s u p p s t r f r g a n o m v i l k a e r f a r e n h e t e r c y k l i s t e r i
b d a s t d e r n a h a r n r d e t g l l e r c y k l i n g , t r a f i k o c h c y k e l p l a n e r i n g . P l a n e r i n g e n
r m y c k e t a n n o r l u n d a o r g a n i s e r a d i d e t v s t d e r n a o c h h i s t o r i s k a , e k o n o m i s k a ,
k u l t u r e l l a o c h p o l i t i s k a f a k t o r e r h a r p v e r k a t p l a n e r i n g s p r o c e s s e r o c h r e s u l t a t e t
a v t r a f i k - o c h s t a d s p l a n e r i n g . E n v i k t i g a s p e k t r t i l l e x e m p e l a t t K p e n h a m n ,
e f t e r a n d r a v r l d s k r i g e t , i n t e h a d e d e e k o n o m i s k a m j l i g h e t e r n a a t t b y g g a o m
s t a d e n e n l i g t d e t m o d e r n i s t i s k a i d e a l e t , d v s . m e d i n v e s t e r i n g a r i
s t a d s m o t o r v g a r o c h t u n n e l b a n a o s v . S l e d e s f o r t s a t t e p l a n e r e r i n g e n f r
c y k e l t r a f i k , s o m v a r o c h r e n m y c k e t v i k t i g d e l i K p e n h a m n s t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g
v e n e f t e r a n d r a v r l d s k r i g e t . S t o c k h o l m d r e m o t h a d e b t t r e e k o n o m i s k a
r e s u r s e r o c h i n v e s t e r a d e i s t a d s m o t o r v g a r o c h t u n n e l b a n a . D e t f a k t u m a t t
D a n m a r k , t i l l s k i l l n a d f r n S v e r i g e , i n t e h a r e n e g e n b i l i n d u s t r i , h a r o c k s
p v e r k a r t r a n s p o r t p l a n e r i n g .
I k a p i t e l 8 a n a l y s e r a s c y k l i s t e r n a s u p p l e v e l s e r f r n d a t a s o m s a m l a t s i n g e n o m
e n k t s t u d i e r i S t o c k h o l m o c h K p e n h a m n . F o k u s f r a n a l y s e n a v e n k t d a t a r
o m d e t f i n n s s k i l l n a d e r o c h l i k h e t e r m e l l a n c y k l i s t e r s u p p l e v e l s e r i S t o c k h o l m
o c h K p e n h a m n . D e t t a a n a l y s e r a s m e d h j l p a v C h i 2 - t e s t , M a n n - W h i t n e y - t e s t
s a m t g e n o m a n a l y s a v s v a r s f r e k v e n s e r . E t t r e s u l t a t a v d e n n a a n a l y s r
e x e m p e l v i s a t t c y k l i s t e r i b d a s t d e r s e r p r o b l e m m e d m o t o r t r a f i k o c h a n d r a
c y k l i s t e r . S a m m a n f a t t n i n g s v i s v i s a r a n a l y s e r n a a t t c y k l i s t e r i K p e n h a m n h a r
e n m e r p o s i t i v s y n p p l a n e r i n g , i n f r a s t r u k t u r e t c . n v a d c y k l i s t e r i S t o c k h o l m

19
I kapitel 6 introduceras fallstudierna fr denna avhandling, Stockholm och
Kpenhamn. I detta kapitel diskuteras mjliga frklaringar till skillnaderna i
frdmedelsval, infrastruktur och planering i de bda stderna. Dessutom
diskuteras varfr Kpenhamns cykelinfrastruktur upplevs som s mycket bttre
n Stockholms och hur infrastrukturen har utvecklats i de tv stderna.
Exempel p varfr infrastrukturen fr cykling upplevs som s mycket bttre i
Kpenhamn n i Stockholm, r bttre lsningar fr att prioritera cyklister i
korsningar och bttre cykelvgar. Detta kapitel fungerar ocks som en
bakgrund till kapitel 7, dr det empiriska materialet frn intervjuerna i bde
Stockholm och Kpenhamn analyseras. Intervjuerna har bidragit till att skapa
en djupare frstelse fr hur de tv stderna har planerats och hur planeringen
sker idag. Dessutom har relationer och strukturer upptckts som pverkat
planeringen och resultatet av planering och politiska beslut, bde p politisk
niv och p administrativ niv. Drutver kan man, genom analys av
maktrelationerna i stadsrummet, se vad som pverkat och fortfarande pverkar
planeringen och politiken av mobilitet och trafik i Kpenhamn och
Stockholm. Frn denna analys uppstr frgan om vilka erfarenheter cyklister i
bda stderna har nr det gller cykling, trafik och cykelplanering. Planeringen
r mycket annorlunda organiserad i de tv stderna och historiska, ekonomiska,
kulturella och politiska faktorer har pverkat planeringsprocesser och resultatet
av trafik-och stadsplanering. En viktig aspekt r till exempel att Kpenhamn,
efter andra vrldskriget, inte hade de ekonomiska mjligheterna att bygga om
staden enligt det modernistiska idealet, dvs. med investeringar i
stadsmotorvgar och tunnelbana osv. Sledes fortsatte planereringen fr
cykeltrafik, som var och r en mycket viktig del i Kpenhamns trafikplanering
ven efter andra vrldskriget. Stockholm dremot hade bttre ekonomiska
resurser och investerade i stadsmotorvgar och tunnelbana. Det faktum att
Danmark, till skillnad frn Sverige, inte har en egen bilindustri, har ocks
pverkar transportplanering.
I kapitel 8 analyseras cyklisternas upplevelser frn data som samlats in genom
enktstudier i Stockholm och Kpenhamn. Fokus fr analysen av enktdata r
om det finns skillnader och likheter mellan cyklisters upplevelser i Stockholm
och Kpenhamn. Detta analyseras med hjlp av Chi2-test, Mann-Whitney-test
samt genom analys av svarsfrekvenser. Ett resultat av denna analys r
exempelvis att cyklister i bda stder ser problem med motortrafik och andra
cyklister. Sammanfattningsvis visar analyserna att cyklister i Kpenhamn har
en mer positiv syn p planering, infrastruktur etc. n vad cyklister i Stockholm
1 9

20
har. Analysen av enktdata visar ocks tydligt att det finns maktrelationer
mellan trafikanter i bda stderna och att space wars mellan cyklister och andra
trafikanter r ett problem. Med utgngspunkt i analyserna av kvalitativa data
(intervjuer och observationer) och kvantitativa data (enkter), knyts i kapitel 9
dessa analyser samman i en analys av skillnaderna mellan de synpunkter som
planerare och politiker har och som anvndare av stadsrum av mobilitet har,
d.v.s. i det hr fallet, cyklister. Det tycks som om planerare och politiker har en
uppfattning om resultatet av sina beslut, som kanske inte motsvarar
cyklisternas upplevelser eller frdmedelsfrdelningen i stderna. Till exempel r
det i Kpenhamn fortfarande motortrafiken som skapar strst problem fr
cyklister, allts i en stad som uttalat prioriterar cykling. I detta kapitel grs
dessutom en koppling till tidigare analyser i denna avhandling om
automobilitet, politisk ekonomi, modernism och maktrelationer i stadsrum och
stadscykling. Varken Kpenhamn eller Stockholm har lyckats bryta sig fri frn
motortrafikens dominans och skapa ett verkligt hllbart trafiksystem.
Resultaten frn analyser av data och den forskning som gjorts i denna
avhandling sammanfattas i kapitel 10. Denna avhandling handlar om
marginalisering av cykling i stadsrum och om urbana trafiksystem.
Avhandlingen visar att stadscykling, trafikplanering, mnniskors mobilitet och
stadsrummet r alla kopplade till varandra. I denna avhandling har jag anvnt
teorier kring mobilitet, maktrelationer och rum fr att frklara dagens
dominans av motortrafik och marginaliseringen av cyklister i stadsrum. Denna
teoretiska diskussion fljdes av empirisk forskning i Kpenhamn, Danmark
och Stockholm, Sverige, dr intervjuer med planerare och politiker har
genomfrts och underskningar av de boendes upplevelser av trafiken i de tv
stderna i form av enktstudier har analyserats. Vidare har jag beskrivit de
viktigaste faktorerna som bidragit till utvecklingen av dagens trafikinfrastruktur
och resultaten av cykelplanering i mnga stder idag. Dessa faktorer r bland
annat utvecklingen av modernism och, tillsammans med det, ett stt att
trafikplanera som fokuserade och i viss mn fortfarande fokuserar p
motortrafik. Detta r ocks kopplat till utvecklingen av den fordistiska
produktionen av bilar. Inverkan av ekonomiska, sociala och kulturella aspekter
bidrar ocks till den kade anvndningen av motortrafik och vice versa. Med
andra ord har avhandlingen varit ett forskningsprojekt om den politiska
ekonomin, maktrelationerna, rum fr mobilitet och marginalisering av
cyklister i en urban kontext.


2 0
h a r . A n a l y s e n a v e n k t d a t a v i s a r o c k s t y d l i g t a t t d e t f i n n s m a k t r e l a t i o n e r
m e l l a n t r a f i k a n t e r i b d a s t d e r n a o c h a t t s p a c e w a r s m e l l a n c y k l i s t e r o c h a n d r a
t r a f i k a n t e r r e t t p r o b l e m . M e d u t g n g s p u n k t i a n a l y s e r n a a v k v a l i t a t i v a d a t a
( i n t e r v j u e r o c h o b s e r v a t i o n e r ) o c h k v a n t i t a t i v a d a t a ( e n k t e r ) , k n y t s i k a p i t e l 9
d e s s a a n a l y s e r s a m m a n i e n a n a l y s a v s k i l l n a d e r n a m e l l a n d e s y n p u n k t e r s o m
p l a n e r a r e o c h p o l i t i k e r h a r o c h s o m a n v n d a r e a v s t a d s r u m a v m o b i l i t e t h a r ,
d . v . s . i d e t h r f a l l e t , c y k l i s t e r . D e t t y c k s s o m o m p l a n e r a r e o c h p o l i t i k e r h a r e n
u p p f a t t n i n g o m r e s u l t a t e t a v s i n a b e s l u t , s o m k a n s k e i n t e m o t s v a r a r
c y k l i s t e r n a s u p p l e v e l s e r e l l e r f r d m e d e l s f r d e l n i n g e n i s t d e r n a . T i l l e x e m p e l r
d e t i K p e n h a m n f o r t f a r a n d e m o t o r t r a f i k e n s o m s k a p a r s t r s t p r o b l e m f r
c y k l i s t e r , a l l t s i e n s t a d s o m u t t a l a t p r i o r i t e r a r c y k l i n g . I d e t t a k a p i t e l g r s
d e s s u t o m e n k o p p l i n g t i l l t i d i g a r e a n a l y s e r i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g o m
a u t o m o b i l i t e t , p o l i t i s k e k o n o m i , m o d e r n i s m o c h m a k t r e l a t i o n e r i s t a d s r u m o c h
s t a d s c y k l i n g . V a r k e n K p e n h a m n e l l e r S t o c k h o l m h a r l y c k a t s b r y t a s i g f r i f r n
m o t o r t r a f i k e n s d o m i n a n s o c h s k a p a e t t v e r k l i g t h l l b a r t t r a f i k s y s t e m .
R e s u l t a t e n f r n a n a l y s e r a v d a t a o c h d e n f o r s k n i n g s o m g j o r t s i d e n n a
a v h a n d l i n g s a m m a n f a t t a s i k a p i t e l 1 0 . D e n n a a v h a n d l i n g h a n d l a r o m
m a r g i n a l i s e r i n g a v c y k l i n g i s t a d s r u m o c h o m u r b a n a t r a f i k s y s t e m .
A v h a n d l i n g e n v i s a r a t t s t a d s c y k l i n g , t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g , m n n i s k o r s m o b i l i t e t o c h
s t a d s r u m m e t r a l l a k o p p l a d e t i l l v a r a n d r a . I d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g h a r j a g a n v n t
t e o r i e r k r i n g m o b i l i t e t , m a k t r e l a t i o n e r o c h r u m f r a t t f r k l a r a d a g e n s
d o m i n a n s a v m o t o r t r a f i k o c h m a r g i n a l i s e r i n g e n a v c y k l i s t e r i s t a d s r u m . D e n n a
t e o r e t i s k a d i s k u s s i o n f l j d e s a v e m p i r i s k f o r s k n i n g i K p e n h a m n , D a n m a r k
o c h S t o c k h o l m , S v e r i g e , d r i n t e r v j u e r m e d p l a n e r a r e o c h p o l i t i k e r h a r
g e n o m f r t s o c h u n d e r s k n i n g a r a v d e b o e n d e s u p p l e v e l s e r a v t r a f i k e n i d e t v
s t d e r n a i f o r m a v e n k t s t u d i e r h a r a n a l y s e r a t s . V i d a r e h a r j a g b e s k r i v i t d e
v i k t i g a s t e f a k t o r e r n a s o m b i d r a g i t t i l l u t v e c k l i n g e n a v d a g e n s t r a f i k i n f r a s t r u k t u r
o c h r e s u l t a t e n a v c y k e l p l a n e r i n g i m n g a s t d e r i d a g . D e s s a f a k t o r e r r b l a n d
a n n a t u t v e c k l i n g e n a v m o d e r n i s m o c h , t i l l s a m m a n s m e d d e t , e t t s t t a t t
t r a f i k p l a n e r a s o m f o k u s e r a d e o c h i v i s s m n f o r t f a r a n d e f o k u s e r a r p
m o t o r t r a f i k . D e t t a r o c k s k o p p l a t t i l l u t v e c k l i n g e n a v d e n f o r d i s t i s k a
p r o d u k t i o n e n a v b i l a r . I n v e r k a n a v e k o n o m i s k a , s o c i a l a o c h k u l t u r e l l a a s p e k t e r
b i d r a r o c k s t i l l d e n k a d e a n v n d n i n g e n a v m o t o r t r a f i k o c h v i c e v e r s a . M e d
a n d r a o r d h a r a v h a n d l i n g e n v a r i t e t t f o r s k n i n g s p r o j e k t o m d e n p o l i t i s k a
e k o n o m i n , m a k t r e l a t i o n e r n a , r u m f r m o b i l i t e t o c h m a r g i n a l i s e r i n g a v
c y k l i s t e r i e n u r b a n k o n t e x t .

2 0

2 1
Z u s a m m e n f a s s u n g
V e r k e h r u n d T r a n s p o r t e s i n d h u f i g i m Z e n t r u m d e r E n t w i c k l u n g d e r
h e u t i g e n G e s e l l s c h a f t e n g e w e s e n . S o w o h l d i e B e w e g u n g b z w . d i e B e f r d e r u n g
v o n M e n s c h e n a l s a u c h v o n G t e r n w i r d i m m e r w i c h t i g e r , u n d d i e
E n t w i c k l u n g v o n V e r k e h r s s y s t e m e n i n s t d t i s c h e n , r e g i o n a l e n , n a t i o n a l e n u n d
g l o b a l e n B e r e i c h e n i s t s e i t d e r E r f i n d u n g d e r D a m p f m a s c h i n e w e i t
f o r t g e s c h r i t t e n . V e r k e h r u n d T r a n s p o r t e s i n d a b e r n i c h t n u r e i n e Q u e l l e v o n
W o h l s t a n d u n d E n t w i c k l u n g . D i e I n f r a s t r u k t u r f r d e n m o t o r i s i e r t e n V e r k e h r
s c h a f f t a u c h s o z i a l e A u s g r e n z u n g , u n d d e r m o t o r i s i e r t e V e r k e h r w i e a u c h d e r
F l u g v e r k e h r s c h a f f e n v i e l e U m w e l t p r o b l e m e a u f g l o b a l e r u n d l o k a l e r E b e n e .
E i n T e i l d e r M o b i l i t t u n d d e s V e r k e h r s i s t d a s R a d f a h r e n . D a s F a h r r a d i s t e i n
T r a n s p o r t m i t t e l , d a s i m u r b a n e n R a u m o f t m a r g i n a l i s i e r t w u r d e u n d a u c h
h e u t e n o c h o f t m a r g i n a l i s i e r t w i r d . ( s i e h e z . B . K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 u n d
E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . D i e s e A b h a n d l u n g b e s c h f t i g t s i c h m i t u r b a n e m R a d f a h r e n ,
M o b i l i t t , P l a n u n g u n d R a u m , u n d w e l c h e F a k t o r e n d i e M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e i n
d e m u r b a n e n R a u m b e e i n f l u s s t h a b e n u n d w i e d i e s e i m s t d t i s c h e n R a u m
m a t e r e a l i s i e r t s i n d b z w . w u r d e n . S t d t i s c h e s R a d f a h r e n u n d M o b i l i t t s i n d h i e r
a l s B e i s p i e l e z u r V i s u a l i s i e r u n g v o n U n g e r e c h t i g k e i t u n d M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e n i n
d e r S t a d t d u r c h F a l l s t u d i e n i n K o p e n h a g e n , D n e m a r k , u n d S t o c k h o l m ,
S c h w e d e n , z u s e h e n . F e r n e r i s t b e a b s i c h t i g t , e i n e V e r b i n d u n g m i t d e m
s t d t i s c h e n R a u m u n d M a t e r i a l i t t e n , d i e d i e M o b i l i t t v o n P e r s o n e n i n e i n e m
s t d t i s c h e n U m f e l d b e e i n f l u s s e n , h e r z u s t e l l e n .
D a r b e r h i n a u s h a t V e r k e h r a u c h e i n e s o z i a l e u n d k u l t u r e l l e S e i t e D u r c h d i e
M o b i l i t t s p e r s p e k t i v e k a n n m a n d i e s o z i a l e D i m e n s i o n d e r V e r k e h r s f o r s c h u n g
h i n z u f g e n , w a s e i n w i c h t i g e r T e i l d i e s e r A b h a n d l u n g i s t . D e r W a n d e l i n d e n
S o z i a l w i s s e n s c h a f t e n , v o m A n a l y s e s c h w e r p u n k t d e r G e s e l l s c h a f t e n h i n z u r
M o b i l i t t w u r d e z u e r s t v o n J o h n U r r y i n s e i n e m B u c h S o c i o l o g y b e y o n d
S o c i e t i e s : M o b i l i t i e s f o r t h e T w e n t y - F i r s t C e n t u r y v o n 2 0 0 0 p r o k l a m i e r t . U r r y
f h r t e a u c h d a s M o b i l i t t s p a r a d i g m a e i n , w a s b e d e u t e t , d a s s s i c h d i e A n a l y s e n
i n d e n S o z i a l w i s s e n s c h a f t e n w e g v o m F o k u s d e r G e s e l l s c h a f t u n d h i n z u m
F o k u s d e r M o b i l i t t b e w e g e n s o l l t e n ( U r r y 2 0 0 7 ) . M o b i l i t t o d e r d e r B e r e i c h

21
Zusammenfassung
Verkehr und Transporte sind hufig im Zentrum der Entwicklung der
heutigen Gesellschaften gewesen. Sowohl die Bewegung bzw. die Befrderung
von Menschen als auch von Gtern wird immer wichtiger, und die
Entwicklung von Verkehrssystemen in stdtischen, regionalen, nationalen und
globalen Bereichen ist seit der Erfindung der Dampfmaschine weit
fortgeschritten. Verkehr und Transporte sind aber nicht nur eine Quelle von
Wohlstand und Entwicklung. Die Infrastruktur fr den motorisierten Verkehr
schafft auch soziale Ausgrenzung, und der motorisierte Verkehr wie auch der
Flugverkehr schaffen viele Umweltprobleme auf globaler und lokaler Ebene.
Ein Teil der Mobilitt und des Verkehrs ist das Radfahren. Das Fahrrad ist ein
Transportmittel, das im urbanen Raum oft marginalisiert wurde und auch
heute noch oft marginalisiert wird. (siehe z.B. Khayesi et al. 2010 und
Emanuel 2012). Diese Abhandlung beschftigt sich mit urbanem Radfahren,
Mobilitt, Planung und Raum, und welche Faktoren die Machtverhltnisse in
dem urbanen Raum beeinflusst haben und wie diese im stdtischen Raum
materealisiert sind bzw. wurden. Stdtisches Radfahren und Mobilitt sind hier
als Beispiele zur Visualisierung von Ungerechtigkeit und Machtverhltnissen in
der Stadt durch Fallstudien in Kopenhagen, Dnemark, und Stockholm,
Schweden, zu sehen. Ferner ist beabsichtigt, eine Verbindung mit dem
stdtischen Raum und Materialitten, die die Mobilitt von Personen in einem
stdtischen Umfeld beeinflussen, herzustellen.
Darber hinaus hat Verkehr auch eine soziale und kulturelle Seite Durch die
Mobilittsperspektive kann man die soziale Dimension der Verkehrsforschung
hinzufgen, was ein wichtiger Teil dieser Abhandlung ist. Der Wandel in den
Sozialwissenschaften, vom Analyseschwerpunkt der Gesellschaften hin zur
Mobilitt wurde zuerst von John Urry in seinem Buch Sociology beyond
Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First Century von 2000 proklamiert. Urry
fhrte auch das Mobilittsparadigma ein, was bedeutet, dass sich die Analysen
in den Sozialwissenschaften weg vom Fokus der Gesellschaft und hin zum
Fokus der Mobilitt bewegen sollten (Urry 2007). Mobilitt oder der Bereich
2 1

22
der Mobilitten umfasst mehr als nur die Befrderung von A nach B. Es
enthlt auch die sozialen, kulturellen, politischen und wirtschaftlichen Aspekte
der Befrderung bzw. des Verkehrs und des Transportwesens. Diese Arbeit
konzentriert sich auf diese Aspekte der Mobilitt, des Radfahrens und den
Verkehr.
Der Ausgangspunkt der Methoden, die fr die Datenerhebung fr diese
Forschung verwendet werden, liegt in den methodischen berlegungen und
der Philosophie der Wissenschaft. Fr diese Abhandlung grnden sich diese
berlegungen im kritischen Realismus und in der kritischen Theorie, um
Methoden, die fr eine kritische Analyse der Verkehrssysteme, der
Planungsprozesse und das Radfahren in Stockholm und Kopenhagen geeignet
sind, zu nutzen. Der erste Schritt bestand darin, in den beiden Stdten selbst
mit dem Fahrrad zu fahren, um ein Gefhl und ein besseres Verstndnis der
Infrastruktur und fr die Situationen der Radfahrer zu bekommen. Ferner
wurden verschiedene Dokumente studiert, um fr die Interviews, die der
nchste Schritt bei der Datenerhebung waren, vorbereitet zu sein. Einige
Dokumente wurden nach den Interviews studiert, da einige der Befragten
Berichte, Plne oder Policies empfohlen haben. Die Studien der Dokumente
sollten als empirischer Beitrag zu den Daten aus den Interviews und als Fakten
ber die Fahrradverkehrsplanung in Kopenhagen und Stockholm gesehen
werden. Der nchste Teil der Datenerhebung waren demnach die Interviews
mit Planern und Politikern in Stockholm und Kopenhagen. Darber hinaus
wurden zwei Umfragestudien durchgefhrt (eine in Kopenhagen und eine in
Stockholm), um Daten ber die Erfahrungen der Radfahrer, ber deren
Erlebnisse beim Radfahren, der Verkehrssysteme und der Infrastruktur fr das
Radfahren in den beiden Stdten zu sammeln.
Die Daten wurden mit Hilfe der theoretischen Rahmen in den Kapiteln 3 und
4, d. h. mit Hilfe von Theorien ber Macht, Raum und Mobilitt analysiert.
Kapitel 3 stellt den theoretischen Rahmen dieser Abhandlung im Bereich der
Mobilitt und s.g. Vlomobilitt dar, um ein besseres Verstndnis der
theoretischen Perspektiven in dieser Dissertation zu entwickeln. Die Forschung
ber Mobilitt und Vlomobilitt ist hier ein wichtiger Aspekt. Mobilitt und
Vlomobilitt sind wichtige Aspekte bei der Analyse von Verkehrssystemen
und Planung, weshalb der Bereich der Mobilitt in dieser Abhandlung
verwendet wird. Dies ist auch der Ausgangspunkt fr die Analyse. Diesem
Kapitel folgend ist der nchste Schritt tiefer in die Vorstellungen von Macht
und Raum, die fr die Mobilitt sehr wichtig sind, einzudringen. Die

2 2
d e r M o b i l i t t e n u m f a s s t m e h r a l s n u r d i e B e f r d e r u n g v o n A n a c h B . E s
e n t h l t a u c h d i e s o z i a l e n , k u l t u r e l l e n , p o l i t i s c h e n u n d w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e n A s p e k t e
d e r B e f r d e r u n g b z w . d e s V e r k e h r s u n d d e s T r a n s p o r t w e s e n s . D i e s e A r b e i t
k o n z e n t r i e r t s i c h a u f d i e s e A s p e k t e d e r M o b i l i t t , d e s R a d f a h r e n s u n d d e n
V e r k e h r .
D e r A u s g a n g s p u n k t d e r M e t h o d e n , d i e f r d i e D a t e n e r h e b u n g f r d i e s e
F o r s c h u n g v e r w e n d e t w e r d e n , l i e g t i n d e n m e t h o d i s c h e n b e r l e g u n g e n u n d
d e r P h i l o s o p h i e d e r W i s s e n s c h a f t . F r d i e s e A b h a n d l u n g g r n d e n s i c h d i e s e
b e r l e g u n g e n i m k r i t i s c h e n R e a l i s m u s u n d i n d e r k r i t i s c h e n T h e o r i e , u m
M e t h o d e n , d i e f r e i n e k r i t i s c h e A n a l y s e d e r V e r k e h r s s y s t e m e , d e r
P l a n u n g s p r o z e s s e u n d d a s R a d f a h r e n i n S t o c k h o l m u n d K o p e n h a g e n g e e i g n e t
s i n d , z u n u t z e n . D e r e r s t e S c h r i t t b e s t a n d d a r i n , i n d e n b e i d e n S t d t e n s e l b s t
m i t d e m F a h r r a d z u f a h r e n , u m e i n G e f h l u n d e i n b e s s e r e s V e r s t n d n i s d e r
I n f r a s t r u k t u r u n d f r d i e S i t u a t i o n e n d e r R a d f a h r e r z u b e k o m m e n . F e r n e r
w u r d e n v e r s c h i e d e n e D o k u m e n t e s t u d i e r t , u m f r d i e I n t e r v i e w s , d i e d e r
n c h s t e S c h r i t t b e i d e r D a t e n e r h e b u n g w a r e n , v o r b e r e i t e t z u s e i n . E i n i g e
D o k u m e n t e w u r d e n n a c h d e n I n t e r v i e w s s t u d i e r t , d a e i n i g e d e r B e f r a g t e n
B e r i c h t e , P l n e o d e r P o l i c i e s e m p f o h l e n h a b e n . D i e S t u d i e n d e r D o k u m e n t e
s o l l t e n a l s e m p i r i s c h e r B e i t r a g z u d e n D a t e n a u s d e n I n t e r v i e w s u n d a l s F a k t e n
b e r d i e F a h r r a d v e r k e h r s p l a n u n g i n K o p e n h a g e n u n d S t o c k h o l m g e s e h e n
w e r d e n . D e r n c h s t e T e i l d e r D a t e n e r h e b u n g w a r e n d e m n a c h d i e I n t e r v i e w s
m i t P l a n e r n u n d P o l i t i k e r n i n S t o c k h o l m u n d K o p e n h a g e n . D a r b e r h i n a u s
w u r d e n z w e i U m f r a g e s t u d i e n d u r c h g e f h r t ( e i n e i n K o p e n h a g e n u n d e i n e i n
S t o c k h o l m ) , u m D a t e n b e r d i e E r f a h r u n g e n d e r R a d f a h r e r , b e r d e r e n
E r l e b n i s s e b e i m R a d f a h r e n , d e r V e r k e h r s s y s t e m e u n d d e r I n f r a s t r u k t u r f r d a s
R a d f a h r e n i n d e n b e i d e n S t d t e n z u s a m m e l n .
D i e D a t e n w u r d e n m i t H i l f e d e r t h e o r e t i s c h e n R a h m e n i n d e n K a p i t e l n 3 u n d
4 , d . h . m i t H i l f e v o n T h e o r i e n b e r M a c h t , R a u m u n d M o b i l i t t a n a l y s i e r t .
K a p i t e l 3 s t e l l t d e n t h e o r e t i s c h e n R a h m e n d i e s e r A b h a n d l u n g i m B e r e i c h d e r
M o b i l i t t u n d s . g . V l o m o b i l i t t d a r , u m e i n b e s s e r e s V e r s t n d n i s d e r
t h e o r e t i s c h e n P e r s p e k t i v e n i n d i e s e r D i s s e r t a t i o n z u e n t w i c k e l n . D i e F o r s c h u n g
b e r M o b i l i t t u n d V l o m o b i l i t t i s t h i e r e i n w i c h t i g e r A s p e k t . M o b i l i t t u n d
V l o m o b i l i t t s i n d w i c h t i g e A s p e k t e b e i d e r A n a l y s e v o n V e r k e h r s s y s t e m e n
u n d P l a n u n g , w e s h a l b d e r B e r e i c h d e r M o b i l i t t i n d i e s e r A b h a n d l u n g
v e r w e n d e t w i r d . D i e s i s t a u c h d e r A u s g a n g s p u n k t f r d i e A n a l y s e . D i e s e m
K a p i t e l f o l g e n d i s t d e r n c h s t e S c h r i t t t i e f e r i n d i e V o r s t e l l u n g e n v o n M a c h t
u n d R a u m , d i e f r d i e M o b i l i t t s e h r w i c h t i g s i n d , e i n z u d r i n g e n . D i e
2 2

2 3
V e r b i n d u n g v o n M a c h t , R a u m u n d M o b i l i t t i s t s e h r w i c h t i g , i s t a b e r n i c h t
b e s o n d e r s v i e l i n d e r M o b i l i t t s f o r s c h u n g b e h a n d e l t w o r d e n .
A u f g r u n d d e r T a t s a c h e , d a s s s i c h d i e s e A b h a n d l u n g m i t M e n s c h e n , d i e s i c h i n
s t d t i s c h e n G e b i e t e n b e w e g e n , m i t V e r k e h r s p l a n u n g u n d m i t
M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e b e s c h f t i g t , s i n d M a c h t p e r s p e k t i v e n , d i e V o r s t e l l u n g v o n
R a u m u n d d a s K o n z e p t d e r s . g . S p a c e W a r s ( K o n f l i k t e b e r s t d t i s c h e R u m e
o d e r S t a d t r a u m k r i e g e ) v o n I n t e r e s s e f r d i e A n a l y s e d e s R a d f a h r e n s , d e r
u r b a n e n M o b i l i t t u n d d e r V e r k e h r s p l a n u n g . D i e s e A s p e k t e w e r d e n i n K a p i t e l
4 b e h a n d e l t . D i e t h e o r e t i s c h e n V o r s t e l l u n g e n v o n M a c h t u n d R a u m s i n d
z e n t r a l b e i m U m g a n g m i t B e f r d e r u n g v o n M e n s c h e n i n d e n S t d t e n , d a d i e
M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e d u r c h d e n R a u m p r o d u z i e r t w e r d e n u n d d a d u r c h S p a c e
W a r s e n t s t e h e n . D a u r b a n e M o b i l i t t u n d V l o m o b i l i t t i m m e r i n R u m e n
( s t d t i s c h e R u m e i m F a l l e d i e s e r A r b e i t ) e n t s t e h e n , i s t d i e r u m l i c h e
P e r s p e k t i v e v o n g r o e r B e d e u t u n g , u m e i n V e r s t n d n i s d a v o n z u e n t w i c k e l n ,
w o K o n f l i k t e a u f t r e t e n u n d w i e d i e s e R u m e d u r c h M o b i l i t t u n d d u r c h
s o z i a l e B e z i e h u n g e n h e r g e s t e l l t b z w . b e e i n f l u s s t w e r d e n . H i e r s t t z e i c h m i c h
a u f d i e T h e o r i e n b e r d i e P r o d u k t i o n v o n R a u m v o n L e f e b v r e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] )
u n d v e r b i n d e d i e s e m i t s e i n e m K o n z e p t v o n R e c h t a u f S t a d t ( 1 9 9 6 ) . K o n f l i k t e
z w i s c h e n d e n v e r s c h i e d e n e n V e r k e h r s t e i l n e h m e r n k n n e n a u c h i n B e z u g z u
d e n s t d t i s c h e n S p a c e W a r s , e i n K o n z e p t v o n Z y g m u n t B a u m a n ( 1 9 9 8 ) ,
g e s e h e n w e r d e n . D a r b e r h i n a u s h a t d i e P r o d u k t i o n v o n R a u m u n d S p a c e
W a r s m i t M a c h t u n d M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e n i n S t d t e n u n d s t d t i s c h e n
V e r k e h r s s y s t e m e n u n d d a m i t a u c h m i t s t d t i s c h e m R a d f a h r e n z u t u n . U m
s o l c h e M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e z u a n a l y s i e r e n , w i r d i n K a p i t e l 4 e i n t h e o r e t i s c h e s
V e r s t n d n i s v o n M a c h t u n d M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e n i n V e r b i n d u n g m i t R a u m u n d
S p a c e W a r s e n t w i c k e l t . D i e s e s t h e o r e t i s c h e W i s s e n k o m m t v o n
u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h e n P e r s p e k t i v e n . I n d i e s e r A r b e i t w u r d e n d i e d r e i D i m e n s i o n e n
d e r M a c h t , d i e v o n L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) e n t w i c k e l t w u r d e n v e r w e n d e t u n d m i t d e n
T h e o r i e n v o n L e f e b v r e v e r b u n d e n . K a p i t e l 4 d e f i n i e r t d e n t h e o r e t i s c h e n
b e r b l i c k b e r M a c h t , R a u m u n d S p a c e W a r s f r d i e s e D o k t o r a r b e i t . E s
v e r b i n d e t M o b i l i t t m i t d e r F o r s c h u n g z u M a c h t u n d R a u m , u m e i n e n
t h e o r e t i s c h e n R a h m e n f r d i e A n a l y s e i n d i e s e r A r b e i t z u e n t w i c k e l n .
K a p i t e l 5 u n t e r s u c h t , w i e d i e M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e u n d d i e P r o d u k t i o n e n v o n
R a u m i m u r b a n e n K o n t e x t m a t e r i a l i s i e r t w e r d e n , u n d w e l c h e B e d i n g u n g e n
w a s d i e m o d e r n e V e r k e h r s - u n d S t a d t p l a n u n g b e e i n f l u s s t u n d g e f o r m t h a b e n .
M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e w u r d e n i n u n s e r e I n f r a s t r u k t u r e i n g e b a u t u n d d i e p o l i t i s c h e
k o n o m i e d e r A u t o m o b i l i n d u s t r i e u n d I n d u s t r i e n , d i e m i t d i e s e r B r a n c h e i n

23
Verbindung von Macht, Raum und Mobilitt ist sehr wichtig, ist aber nicht
besonders viel in der Mobilittsforschung behandelt worden.
Aufgrund der Tatsache, dass sich diese Abhandlung mit Menschen, die sich in
stdtischen Gebieten bewegen, mit Verkehrsplanung und mit
Machtverhltnisse beschftigt, sind Machtperspektiven, die Vorstellung von
Raum und das Konzept der s.g. Space Wars (Konflikte ber stdtische Rume
oder Stadtraumkriege) von Interesse fr die Analyse des Radfahrens, der
urbanen Mobilitt und der Verkehrsplanung. Diese Aspekte werden in Kapitel
4 behandelt. Die theoretischen Vorstellungen von Macht und Raum sind
zentral beim Umgang mit Befrderung von Menschen in den Stdten, da die
Machtverhltnisse durch den Raum produziert werden und dadurch Space
Wars entstehen. Da urbane Mobilitt und Vlomobilitt immer in Rumen
(stdtische Rume im Falle dieser Arbeit) entstehen, ist die rumliche
Perspektive von groer Bedeutung, um ein Verstndnis davon zu entwickeln,
wo Konflikte auftreten und wie diese Rume durch Mobilitt und durch
soziale Beziehungen hergestellt bzw. beeinflusst werden. Hier sttze ich mich
auf die Theorien ber die Produktion von Raum von Lefebvre (1991 [1974])
und verbinde diese mit seinem Konzept von Recht auf Stadt (1996). Konflikte
zwischen den verschiedenen Verkehrsteilnehmern knnen auch in Bezug zu
den stdtischen Space Wars, ein Konzept von Zygmunt Bauman (1998),
gesehen werden. Darber hinaus hat die Produktion von Raum und Space
Wars mit Macht und Machtverhltnissen in Stdten und stdtischen
Verkehrssystemen und damit auch mit stdtischem Radfahren zu tun. Um
solche Machtverhltnisse zu analysieren, wird in Kapitel 4 ein theoretisches
Verstndnis von Macht und Machtverhltnissen in Verbindung mit Raum und
Space Wars entwickelt. Dieses theoretische Wissen kommt von
unterschiedlichen Perspektiven. In dieser Arbeit wurden die drei Dimensionen
der Macht, die von Lukes (2005) entwickelt wurden verwendet und mit den
Theorien von Lefebvre verbunden. Kapitel 4 definiert den theoretischen
berblick ber Macht, Raum und Space Wars fr diese Doktorarbeit. Es
verbindet Mobilitt mit der Forschung zu Macht und Raum, um einen
theoretischen Rahmen fr die Analyse in dieser Arbeit zu entwickeln.
Kapitel 5 untersucht, wie die Machtverhltnisse und die Produktionen von
Raum im urbanen Kontext materialisiert werden, und welche Bedingungen
was die moderne Verkehrs- und Stadtplanung beeinflusst und geformt haben.
Machtverhltnisse wurden in unsere Infrastruktur eingebaut und die politische
konomie der Automobilindustrie und Industrien, die mit dieser Branche in
2 3

24
Verbindung stehen, haben einen enormen Einfluss auf Verkehrs- und
Stadtplanung rund um den Globus. In diesem Kapitel prsentiere ich Beispiele
aus Schweden, wo gezeigt wird, wie dieser Einfluss mit dem Eintritt der
Moderne in Stadt- und Verkehrsplanung zusammenhngt und wie die Ideale
der Moderne immer noch Einfluss auf die Planung haben. Diese Beispiele
werden mit dem Konzept Recht auf Stadt von Lefebvre verknpft und es wird
versucht ein besseres Verstndnis, mit Hilfe der theoretischen Gliederung
dieser Arbeit zu entwickeln, wie und warum die Infrastruktur so geformt
wurde. Der Schwerpunkt in dieser Analyse der Materialitt ist Modernismus
und wie Modernismus im Verhltnis zum Stadtraum steht. Beispiele aus
Stockholm und Kopenhagen werden angefhrt, um die Auswirkungen der
Moderne auf Stadt- und Verkehrsplanung zu zeigen. Darber hinaus sind die
Verkehrssicherheit und Planungsvorgaben SCAFT, die in Schweden entwickelt
wurden, um die Verkehrssicherheit zu erhhen, auch ein Beispiel dafr, wie die
Transformationen des urbanen Raums zur Marginalisierung der Radfahrer und
zu einem Fokus auf motorisierten Verkehr gefhrt haben. Durch diese
Transformationen, Machtverhltnisse und Strukturen, die in den stdtischen
Raum eingebaut wurden, wurden die Rume der Mobilitt produziert, die den
motorisierten Verkehr priorisieren. Diese Rume produzieren auch stdtische
Space Wars zwischen den verschiedenen Verkehrsteilnehmern und wirken
noch heute auf die Planung ein. Es sind unter anderem diese Strukturen, die
einen Einfluss auf die Planung haben und diese knnen mit Hilfe von Lukes
dritter Dimension der Macht als analytisches Werkzeug erforscht werden.
Die Fallstudien fr diese Doktorarbeit sind Stockholm und Kopenhagen und
werden in Kapitel 6 vorgestellt. Dieses Kapitel erlutert die Unterschiede im
Modal Split, in der Infrastruktur und der Planung. Auerdem wird erklrt,
warum Kopenhagens Fahrrad-Infrastruktur besser als die von Stockholm ist
und wie sich die Infrastruktur der beiden Stdte entwickelt hat. Unter anderem
gibt es bessere Lsungen fr die Priorisierung der Radfahrer an Kreuzungen
und bessere Radwege. Dieses Kapitel dient auch als Hintergrund fr Kapitel 7,
in dem das empirische Material aus den Interviews in Stockholm und
Kopenhagen analysiert wird. Die Datenerhebung durch die Interviews dient
dazu ein fundierteres Verstndnis dafr zu entwickeln, wie die beiden Stdte
und deren Verkehrssysteme geplant wurden und heute geplant werden.
Darber hinaus werden durch die Analyse die Beziehungen und Strukturen
aufgedeckt, die die Planung und das Ergebnis der Planung und politische
Entscheidungen beeinflussen, sowohl auf politischer Ebene als auch auf

2 4
V e r b i n d u n g s t e h e n , h a b e n e i n e n e n o r m e n E i n f l u s s a u f V e r k e h r s - u n d
S t a d t p l a n u n g r u n d u m d e n G l o b u s . I n d i e s e m K a p i t e l p r s e n t i e r e i c h B e i s p i e l e
a u s S c h w e d e n , w o g e z e i g t w i r d , w i e d i e s e r E i n f l u s s m i t d e m E i n t r i t t d e r
M o d e r n e i n S t a d t - u n d V e r k e h r s p l a n u n g z u s a m m e n h n g t u n d w i e d i e I d e a l e
d e r M o d e r n e i m m e r n o c h E i n f l u s s a u f d i e P l a n u n g h a b e n . D i e s e B e i s p i e l e
w e r d e n m i t d e m K o n z e p t R e c h t a u f S t a d t v o n L e f e b v r e v e r k n p f t u n d e s w i r d
v e r s u c h t e i n b e s s e r e s V e r s t n d n i s , m i t H i l f e d e r t h e o r e t i s c h e n G l i e d e r u n g
d i e s e r A r b e i t z u e n t w i c k e l n , w i e u n d w a r u m d i e I n f r a s t r u k t u r s o g e f o r m t
w u r d e . D e r S c h w e r p u n k t i n d i e s e r A n a l y s e d e r M a t e r i a l i t t i s t M o d e r n i s m u s
u n d w i e M o d e r n i s m u s i m V e r h l t n i s z u m S t a d t r a u m s t e h t . B e i s p i e l e a u s
S t o c k h o l m u n d K o p e n h a g e n w e r d e n a n g e f h r t , u m d i e A u s w i r k u n g e n d e r
M o d e r n e a u f S t a d t - u n d V e r k e h r s p l a n u n g z u z e i g e n . D a r b e r h i n a u s s i n d d i e
V e r k e h r s s i c h e r h e i t u n d P l a n u n g s v o r g a b e n S C A F T , d i e i n S c h w e d e n e n t w i c k e l t
w u r d e n , u m d i e V e r k e h r s s i c h e r h e i t z u e r h h e n , a u c h e i n B e i s p i e l d a f r , w i e d i e
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n e n d e s u r b a n e n R a u m s z u r M a r g i n a l i s i e r u n g d e r R a d f a h r e r u n d
z u e i n e m F o k u s a u f m o t o r i s i e r t e n V e r k e h r g e f h r t h a b e n . D u r c h d i e s e
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n e n , M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e u n d S t r u k t u r e n , d i e i n d e n s t d t i s c h e n
R a u m e i n g e b a u t w u r d e n , w u r d e n d i e R u m e d e r M o b i l i t t p r o d u z i e r t , d i e d e n
m o t o r i s i e r t e n V e r k e h r p r i o r i s i e r e n . D i e s e R u m e p r o d u z i e r e n a u c h s t d t i s c h e
S p a c e W a r s z w i s c h e n d e n v e r s c h i e d e n e n V e r k e h r s t e i l n e h m e r n u n d w i r k e n
n o c h h e u t e a u f d i e P l a n u n g e i n . E s s i n d u n t e r a n d e r e m d i e s e S t r u k t u r e n , d i e
e i n e n E i n f l u s s a u f d i e P l a n u n g h a b e n u n d d i e s e k n n e n m i t H i l f e v o n L u k e s
d r i t t e r D i m e n s i o n d e r M a c h t a l s a n a l y t i s c h e s W e r k z e u g e r f o r s c h t w e r d e n .
D i e F a l l s t u d i e n f r d i e s e D o k t o r a r b e i t s i n d S t o c k h o l m u n d K o p e n h a g e n u n d
w e r d e n i n K a p i t e l 6 v o r g e s t e l l t . D i e s e s K a p i t e l e r l u t e r t d i e U n t e r s c h i e d e i m
M o d a l S p l i t , i n d e r I n f r a s t r u k t u r u n d d e r P l a n u n g . A u e r d e m w i r d e r k l r t ,
w a r u m K o p e n h a g e n s F a h r r a d - I n f r a s t r u k t u r b e s s e r a l s d i e v o n S t o c k h o l m i s t
u n d w i e s i c h d i e I n f r a s t r u k t u r d e r b e i d e n S t d t e e n t w i c k e l t h a t . U n t e r a n d e r e m
g i b t e s b e s s e r e L s u n g e n f r d i e P r i o r i s i e r u n g d e r R a d f a h r e r a n K r e u z u n g e n
u n d b e s s e r e R a d w e g e . D i e s e s K a p i t e l d i e n t a u c h a l s H i n t e r g r u n d f r K a p i t e l 7 ,
i n d e m d a s e m p i r i s c h e M a t e r i a l a u s d e n I n t e r v i e w s i n S t o c k h o l m u n d
K o p e n h a g e n a n a l y s i e r t w i r d . D i e D a t e n e r h e b u n g d u r c h d i e I n t e r v i e w s d i e n t
d a z u e i n f u n d i e r t e r e s V e r s t n d n i s d a f r z u e n t w i c k e l n , w i e d i e b e i d e n S t d t e
u n d d e r e n V e r k e h r s s y s t e m e g e p l a n t w u r d e n u n d h e u t e g e p l a n t w e r d e n .
D a r b e r h i n a u s w e r d e n d u r c h d i e A n a l y s e d i e B e z i e h u n g e n u n d S t r u k t u r e n
a u f g e d e c k t , d i e d i e P l a n u n g u n d d a s E r g e b n i s d e r P l a n u n g u n d p o l i t i s c h e
E n t s c h e i d u n g e n b e e i n f l u s s e n , s o w o h l a u f p o l i t i s c h e r E b e n e a l s a u c h a u f
2 4

2 5
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r E b e n e . Z u s t z l i c h w i r d d u r c h d i e A n a l y s e d e r
M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e i m u r b a n e n R a u m d e u t l i c h , w e l c h e A s p e k t e s i c h a u f d i e
P l a n u n g u n d d i e P o l i t i k d e r M o b i l i t t u n d d e s V e r k e h r s i n K o p e n h a g e n u n d
S t o c k h o l m a u s w i r k e n . A u s d i e s e r A n a l y s e g e h t d i e F r a g e h e r v o r , w e l c h e
S i c h t w e i s e d i e R a d f a h r e r i n b e i d e n S t d t e n a u f d a s R a d f a h r e n , d e n V e r k e h r
u n d d i e P l a n u n g f r d e n F a h r r a d v e r k e h r h a b e n . D i e P l a n u n g i s t i n d e n b e i d e n
S t d t e n s e h r u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h o r g a n i s i e r t u n d v e r s c h i e d e n e h i s t o r i s c h e ,
w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e , k u l t u r e l l e u n d p o l i t i s c h e F a k t o r e n h a b e n d i e P l a n u n g s p r o z e s s e
u n d d i e E r g e b n i s s e d e r V e r k e h r s - u n d S t a d t p l a n u n g b e e i n f l u s s t . E i n
w e s e n t l i c h e r A s p e k t i s t z u m B e i s p i e l , d a s s K o p e n h a g e n n a c h d e m Z w e i t e n
W e l t k r i e g n i c h t b e r d i e f i n a n z i e l l e n M i t t e l v e r f g t e , u m d i e S t a d t n a c h d e m
m o d e r n i s t i s c h e n I d e a l a u f z u b a u e n b z w . u m z u b a u e n . D a s b e d e u t e t e , d a s s k e i n e
M i t t e l f r I n v e s t i t i o n e n i n S t a d t a u t o b a h n e n o d e r U - B a h n e n u s w . v o r h a n d e n
w a r e n . S o w u r d e m i t d e r p r e i s w e r t e r e n A l t e r n a t i v e d e r P l a n u n g f r d a s
R a d f a h r e n f o r t g e s e t z t , w a s e i n s e h r w i c h t i g e r A s p e k t i n d e r V e r k e h r s p l a n u n g
n a c h d e m Z w e i t e n W e l t k r i e g i n K o p e n h a g e n w a r . S t o c k h o l m h i n g e g e n h a t t e
b e s s e r e f i n a n z i e l l e M i t t e l u n d h a t i n S t a d t a u t o b a h n e n u n d i n e i n U - B a h n n e t z
i n v e s t i e r e n k n n e n . A u c h d i e T a t s a c h e , d a s s S c h w e d e n e i n e A u t o - I n d u s t r i e h a t
u n d D n e m a r k n i c h t , h a t E i n f l u s s a u f d i e V e r k e h r s p l a n u n g g e h a b t .
I n K a p i t e l 8 w e r d e n d i e E r f a h r u n g e n d e r R a d f a h r e r i n K o p e n h a g e n u n d
S t o c k h o l m a n a l y s i e r t . D i e D a t e n f r d i e s e A n a l y s e k o m m e n v o n d e n
F r a g e b o g e n s t u d i e n i n S t o c k h o l m u n d K o p e n h a g e n . D e r S c h w e r p u n k t d e r
A n a l y s e d e r E r h e b u n g s d a t e n l i e g t a u f d e n U n t e r s c h i e d e n u n d
G e m e i n s a m k e i t e n z w i s c h e n R a d f a h r e r n i n S t o c k h o l m u n d K o p e n h a g e n . D i e s
w i r d m i t d e m C h i 2 T e s t , d e m M a n n - W h i t n e y - T e s t u n d d u r c h A n a l y s i e r e n d e r
F r e q u e n z e n d e r A n t w o r t e n a n a l y s i e r t . D a s E r g e b n i s d i e s e r A n a l y s e i s t , d a s s
R a d f a h r e r i n b e i d e n S t d t e n P r o b l e m e m i t d e m m o t o r i s i e r t e n V e r k e h r u n d
d e n a n d e r e n R a d f a h r e r e r l e b e n . I n s g e s a m t h a b e n d i e R a d f a h r e r i n K o p e n h a g e n
e i n e p o s i t i v e r e S i c h t a u f d i e P l a n u n g , I n f r a s t r u k t u r u s w . a l s e s d i e R a d f a h r e r i n
S t o c k h o l m h a b e n . D u r c h d i e A n a l y s e d e r E r h e b u n g s d a t e n w i r d d e u t l i c h , d a s s
i n b e i d e n S t d t e n M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e d a s E r l e b n i s d e s R a d f a h r e n s b e e i n f l u s s e n
u n d d a s s s t d t i s c h e S p a c e W a r s z w i s c h e n R a d f a h r e r n u n d a n d e r e n
V e r k e h r s t e i l n e h m e r n e i n P r o b l e m d a r s t e l l t e n . D i e E r g e b n i s s e d e r A n a l y s e d e r
q u a l i t a t i v e n D a t e n ( I n t e r v i e w s u n d B e o b a c h t u n g e n ) u n d d e r q u a n t i t a t i v e n
D a t e n ( U m f r a g e n ) w e r d e n i n K a p i t e l 9 b e i d e z u s a m m e n g e b r a c h t u n d i n e i n e r
A n a l y s e d e r U n t e r s c h i e d e z w i s c h e n d e n A n s i c h t e n v o n P l a n e r n u n d P o l i t i k e r n
u n d d e n N u t z e r n d e r S t a d t r u m e , i n d i e s e m F a l l w e r d e n d i e R a d f a h r e r e r k l r t .

25
administrativer Ebene. Zustzlich wird durch die Analyse der
Machtverhltnisse im urbanen Raum deutlich, welche Aspekte sich auf die
Planung und die Politik der Mobilitt und des Verkehrs in Kopenhagen und
Stockholm auswirken. Aus dieser Analyse geht die Frage hervor, welche
Sichtweise die Radfahrer in beiden Stdten auf das Radfahren, den Verkehr
und die Planung fr den Fahrradverkehr haben. Die Planung ist in den beiden
Stdten sehr unterschiedlich organisiert und verschiedene historische,
wirtschaftliche, kulturelle und politische Faktoren haben die Planungsprozesse
und die Ergebnisse der Verkehrs- und Stadtplanung beeinflusst. Ein
wesentlicher Aspekt ist zum Beispiel, dass Kopenhagen nach dem Zweiten
Weltkrieg nicht ber die finanziellen Mittel verfgte, um die Stadt nach dem
modernistischen Ideal aufzubauen bzw. umzubauen. Das bedeutete, dass keine
Mittel fr Investitionen in Stadtautobahnen oder U-Bahnen usw. vorhanden
waren. So wurde mit der preiswerteren Alternative der Planung fr das
Radfahren fortgesetzt, was ein sehr wichtiger Aspekt in der Verkehrsplanung
nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg in Kopenhagen war. Stockholm hingegen hatte
bessere finanzielle Mittel und hat in Stadtautobahnen und in ein U-Bahnnetz
investieren knnen. Auch die Tatsache, dass Schweden eine Auto-Industrie hat
und Dnemark nicht, hat Einfluss auf die Verkehrsplanung gehabt.
In Kapitel 8 werden die Erfahrungen der Radfahrer in Kopenhagen und
Stockholm analysiert. Die Daten fr diese Analyse kommen von den
Fragebogenstudien in Stockholm und Kopenhagen. Der Schwerpunkt der
Analyse der Erhebungsdaten liegt auf den Unterschieden und
Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen Radfahrern in Stockholm und Kopenhagen. Dies
wird mit dem Chi2 Test, dem Mann-Whitney-Test und durch Analysieren der
Frequenzen der Antworten analysiert. Das Ergebnis dieser Analyse ist, dass
Radfahrer in beiden Stdten Probleme mit dem motorisierten Verkehr und
den anderen Radfahrer erleben. Insgesamt haben die Radfahrer in Kopenhagen
eine positivere Sicht auf die Planung, Infrastruktur usw. als es die Radfahrer in
Stockholm haben. Durch die Analyse der Erhebungsdaten wird deutlich, dass
in beiden Stdten Machtverhltnisse das Erlebnis des Radfahrens beeinflussen
und dass stdtische Space Wars zwischen Radfahrern und anderen
Verkehrsteilnehmern ein Problem darstellten. Die Ergebnisse der Analyse der
qualitativen Daten (Interviews und Beobachtungen) und der quantitativen
Daten (Umfragen) werden in Kapitel 9 beide zusammen gebracht und in einer
Analyse der Unterschiede zwischen den Ansichten von Planern und Politikern
und den Nutzern der Stadtrume, in diesem Fall werden die Radfahrer erklrt.
2 5

26
Es scheint, dass Planer und Politiker einen Blick auf das Ergebnis ihrer
Entscheidungen haben, die nicht immer im Einklang mit den Erfahrungen der
Radfahrer und dem Modal Split steht. Zum Beispiel schafft der motorisierte
Verkehr noch immer die meisten Probleme fr Radfahrer auch in Kopenhagen,
eine Stadt, die das Radfahren priorisiert. Auerdem werden Verbindungen zu
vorherigen Analysen in dieser Abhandlung ber Automobilitt, politische
konomie, Modernismus und Machtverhltnissen im urbanen Raum und
stdtischen Radfahren hergestellt. Keine der beiden Stdte hat es wirklich
geschafft sich von dem motorisierten Verkehr zu lsen und ein wirklich
nachhaltiges Verkehrssystem zu gestalten.
Die Ergebnisse der Datenanalyse und der Forschung fr diese Doktorarbeit
werden in Kapitel 10, der Schlussfolgerung, abschlieend diskutiert. Diese
Doktorarbeit handelt von der Marginalisierung des Radfahrens im urbanen
Raum und in stdtischen Verkehrssystemen. Stdtisches Radfahren,
Verkehrsplanung, die Mobilitt der Menschen und der urbane Raum stehen
alle in Verbindung miteinander, was in dieser Abhandlung aufgezeigt wurde.
In dieser Arbeit wurden Theorien ber Mobilitt, Machtverhltnisse und
Raum, mit der heutigen Dominanz des motorisierten Verkehrs und der
Marginalisierung von Radfahrern in urbanen Rumen verbunden und erklrt.
Diese theoretische Diskussion wurde durch empirische Forschung in
Kopenhagen, Dnemark, und Stockholm, Schweden, untermauert. Auerdem
wurden die bedeutsamen Faktoren, die zur Entwicklung der heutigen
Verkehrsinfrastruktur und die zu den Ergebnissen der Planung fr das
Radfahren in vielen Stdten heute beitragen, beschrieben. Diese Faktoren sind
unter anderem die Entwicklung der Moderne bzw. des Modernismus und,
zugleich eine Verkehrsplanung, die darauf konzentriert war und bis zu einem
gewissen Grad immer noch darauf konzentriert ist, den motorisierten Verkehr
zu priorisieren. Dies kann auch auf die Entwicklung der fordistischen
Produktion von Autos zurckgefhrt werden. Der Einfluss der
wirtschaftlichen, sozialen und kulturellen Aspekte ist auch ein Beitrag zur
verstrkten Nutzung vom motorisierten Verkehr. Anders ausgedrckt ist diese
Dissertation ein Forschungsprojekt ber die politische konomie, die
Machtverhltnisse, den Raum der Mobilitt und die Marginalisierung der
Radfahrer im urbanen Kontext.


2 6
E s s c h e i n t , d a s s P l a n e r u n d P o l i t i k e r e i n e n B l i c k a u f d a s E r g e b n i s i h r e r
E n t s c h e i d u n g e n h a b e n , d i e n i c h t i m m e r i m E i n k l a n g m i t d e n E r f a h r u n g e n d e r
R a d f a h r e r u n d d e m M o d a l S p l i t s t e h t . Z u m B e i s p i e l s c h a f f t d e r m o t o r i s i e r t e
V e r k e h r n o c h i m m e r d i e m e i s t e n P r o b l e m e f r R a d f a h r e r a u c h i n K o p e n h a g e n ,
e i n e S t a d t , d i e d a s R a d f a h r e n p r i o r i s i e r t . A u e r d e m w e r d e n V e r b i n d u n g e n z u
v o r h e r i g e n A n a l y s e n i n d i e s e r A b h a n d l u n g b e r A u t o m o b i l i t t , p o l i t i s c h e
k o n o m i e , M o d e r n i s m u s u n d M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e n i m u r b a n e n R a u m u n d
s t d t i s c h e n R a d f a h r e n h e r g e s t e l l t . K e i n e d e r b e i d e n S t d t e h a t e s w i r k l i c h
g e s c h a f f t s i c h v o n d e m m o t o r i s i e r t e n V e r k e h r z u l s e n u n d e i n w i r k l i c h
n a c h h a l t i g e s V e r k e h r s s y s t e m z u g e s t a l t e n .
D i e E r g e b n i s s e d e r D a t e n a n a l y s e u n d d e r F o r s c h u n g f r d i e s e D o k t o r a r b e i t
w e r d e n i n K a p i t e l 1 0 , d e r S c h l u s s f o l g e r u n g , a b s c h l i e e n d d i s k u t i e r t . D i e s e
D o k t o r a r b e i t h a n d e l t v o n d e r M a r g i n a l i s i e r u n g d e s R a d f a h r e n s i m u r b a n e n
R a u m u n d i n s t d t i s c h e n V e r k e h r s s y s t e m e n . S t d t i s c h e s R a d f a h r e n ,
V e r k e h r s p l a n u n g , d i e M o b i l i t t d e r M e n s c h e n u n d d e r u r b a n e R a u m s t e h e n
a l l e i n V e r b i n d u n g m i t e i n a n d e r , w a s i n d i e s e r A b h a n d l u n g a u f g e z e i g t w u r d e .
I n d i e s e r A r b e i t w u r d e n T h e o r i e n b e r M o b i l i t t , M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e u n d
R a u m , m i t d e r h e u t i g e n D o m i n a n z d e s m o t o r i s i e r t e n V e r k e h r s u n d d e r
M a r g i n a l i s i e r u n g v o n R a d f a h r e r n i n u r b a n e n R u m e n v e r b u n d e n u n d e r k l r t .
D i e s e t h e o r e t i s c h e D i s k u s s i o n w u r d e d u r c h e m p i r i s c h e F o r s c h u n g i n
K o p e n h a g e n , D n e m a r k , u n d S t o c k h o l m , S c h w e d e n , u n t e r m a u e r t . A u e r d e m
w u r d e n d i e b e d e u t s a m e n F a k t o r e n , d i e z u r E n t w i c k l u n g d e r h e u t i g e n
V e r k e h r s i n f r a s t r u k t u r u n d d i e z u d e n E r g e b n i s s e n d e r P l a n u n g f r d a s
R a d f a h r e n i n v i e l e n S t d t e n h e u t e b e i t r a g e n , b e s c h r i e b e n . D i e s e F a k t o r e n s i n d
u n t e r a n d e r e m d i e E n t w i c k l u n g d e r M o d e r n e b z w . d e s M o d e r n i s m u s u n d ,
z u g l e i c h e i n e V e r k e h r s p l a n u n g , d i e d a r a u f k o n z e n t r i e r t w a r u n d b i s z u e i n e m
g e w i s s e n G r a d i m m e r n o c h d a r a u f k o n z e n t r i e r t i s t , d e n m o t o r i s i e r t e n V e r k e h r
z u p r i o r i s i e r e n . D i e s k a n n a u c h a u f d i e E n t w i c k l u n g d e r f o r d i s t i s c h e n
P r o d u k t i o n v o n A u t o s z u r c k g e f h r t w e r d e n . D e r E i n f l u s s d e r
w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e n , s o z i a l e n u n d k u l t u r e l l e n A s p e k t e i s t a u c h e i n B e i t r a g z u r
v e r s t r k t e n N u t z u n g v o m m o t o r i s i e r t e n V e r k e h r . A n d e r s a u s g e d r c k t i s t d i e s e
D i s s e r t a t i o n e i n F o r s c h u n g s p r o j e k t b e r d i e p o l i t i s c h e k o n o m i e , d i e
M a c h t v e r h l t n i s s e , d e n R a u m d e r M o b i l i t t u n d d i e M a r g i n a l i s i e r u n g d e r
R a d f a h r e r i m u r b a n e n K o n t e x t .

2 6

2 7
P r e f a c e C y c l i n g a n d t h e
m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f i n e q u a l i t i e s
C y c l i n g t h r o u g h c i t i e s i s a f a s c i n a t i n g m o d e o f m o v i n g a r o u n d a n d
e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e m i n a m u c h d i f f e r e n t w a y f r o m d r i v i n g a r o u n d b y c a r o r
t a k i n g p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t f o r g e t t i n g f r o m A t o B . H o w e v e r , t h e s e i m p r e s s i o n s
a r e n o t a l w a y s p o s i t i v e o n e s , a n d s o m e e x p e r i e n c e s c o u l d e v e n b e c h a r a c t e r i s e d
a s d a n g e r o u s . C y c l i n g t h r o u g h t h e s m a l l s t u d e n t t o w n o f L u n d , a l m o s t e v e r y
d a y o n e h a s t o f i g h t f o r t h e r i g h t t o c r o s s a s t r e e t , a n d d u r i n g w i n t e r t h e s n o w
a n d i c e o n m a n y b i c y c l e t r a c k s m a k e s i t h a r d o r s o m e t i m e s e v e n i m p o s s i b l e t o
b i k e s a f e l y t h r o u g h t h e c i t y , w h i l e t h e c a r s f l o w s m o o t h l y o v e r t h e c l e a r s t r e e t s .
A s a c y c l i s t y o u a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o t r a v e l o n t h e s t r e e t s i n S w e d e n i f t h e r e i s a n
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s , w h i c h c a u s e s c o n s i d e r a b l e i r r i t a t i o n i n t h e w i n t e r .
T h e s t o r y o f s u c h f i g h t s f o r s p a c e a n d t h e r i g h t t o u s e t h e u r b a n s p a c e
c o n t i n u e d f o r m e . W h i l e c y c l i n g a r o u n d C o p e n h a g e n o n d i f f e r e n t o c c a s i o n s I
r e a l i s e d t h a t C o p e n h a g e n , a l t h o u g h o n e o f t h e b e s t c y c l i n g c i t i e s i n t h e w o r l d ,
h a s n o t m a n a g e d t o r e d u c e t h e i m p a c t o f t h e c a r a s m u c h a s o n e w o u l d t h i n k .
T h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s i s g o o d , b u t a t s o m e p o i n t s t h e b i c y c l e t r a c k
s t o p p e d a n d I h a d t o m i x w i t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c f o r e x a m p l e . M o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
i s p r e s e n t a l m o s t a l l t h e t i m e a n d o f c o u r s e s e e m s t o h a v e m u c h m o r e s p a c e
t h a n t h a t a l l o t t e d t o c y c l i s t s . B u t f e l l o w c y c l i s t s c a n a l s o b e a s o u r c e o f
a n n o y a n c e i n C o p e n h a g e n . A t t h e V e l o c i t y C o n f e r e n c e i n C o p e n h a g e n i n
2 0 1 0 , I w a s b i k i n g w i t h a c o l l e a g u e t h r o u g h C o p e n h a g e n t r y i n g t o f i n d a n e w
b i c y c l e b r i d g e . W e h a d t o s t o p a n d l o o k a t a m a p a n d o t h e r c y c l i s t s g o t q u i t e
a n g r y a n d s t a t e d s h o u t i n g a t u s t o g e t o f f t h e t r a c k . O f c o u r s e w e w e r e
s u r p r i s e d , b u t I t h i n k t h e o t h e r c y c l i s t s w e r e m u c h m o r e a n n o y e d t h a n w e
w e r e .
B i c y c l i n g t h r o u g h S t o c k h o l m , h o w e v e r , w a s a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . D u r i n g m y
c y c l i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s i n S t o c k h o l m I t r u l y r e a l i s e d h o w u r b a n s p a c e w a r s a r e
f o u g h t i n t r a f f i c s p a c e s . O n m a n y o c c a s i o n s I w a s c l o s e t o b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n
a c c i d e n t s , a n d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w a s o f t e n v e r y f r u s t r a t i n g a n d c o n f u s i n g .

27
Preface Cycling and the
materialisation of inequalities
Cycling through cities is a fascinating mode of moving around and
experiencing them in a much different way from driving around by car or
taking public transport for getting from A to B. However, these impressions
are not always positive ones, and some experiences could even be characterised
as dangerous. Cycling through the small student town of Lund, almost every
day one has to fight for the right to cross a street, and during winter the snow
and ice on many bicycle tracks makes it hard or sometimes even impossible to
bike safely through the city, while the cars flow smoothly over the clear streets.
As a cyclist you are not allowed to travel on the streets in Sweden if there is an
infrastructure for cyclists, which causes considerable irritation in the winter.
The story of such fights for space and the right to use the urban space
continued for me. While cycling around Copenhagen on different occasions I
realised that Copenhagen, although one of the best cycling cities in the world,
has not managed to reduce the impact of the car as much as one would think.
The infrastructure for cyclists is good, but at some points the bicycle track
stopped and I had to mix with motorised traffic for example. Motorised traffic
is present almost all the time and of course seems to have much more space
than that allotted to cyclists. But fellow cyclists can also be a source of
annoyance in Copenhagen. At the Velocity Conference in Copenhagen in
2010, I was biking with a colleague through Copenhagen trying to find a new
bicycle bridge. We had to stop and look at a map and other cyclists got quite
angry and stated shouting at us to get off the track. Of course we were
surprised, but I think the other cyclists were much more annoyed than we
were.
Bicycling through Stockholm, however, was a different matter. During my
cycling observations in Stockholm I truly realised how urban space wars are
fought in traffic spaces. On many occasions I was close to being involved in
accidents, and the infrastructure was often very frustrating and confusing.
2 7

28
Often I did not know what to do next, since bicycle tracks ended in walls,
construction sites or on streets where cars were passing by at about 60 km/h. I
saw other cyclists struggling as well, and developed an understanding of the
constant wars going on in this city. These fights and problems cyclists face in
Stockholm might also explain the scarcity of them. Compared to Copenhagen
there are rather few cyclists on the streets in Stockholm, although the number
has been growing rapidly during recent years. And compared to other cities in
the world, cyclists are a visible part of the urban landscape in Stockholm.
During my visit to New York City for the Association of American
Geographers Meeting in 2012, for example, I could witness yet another case of
the marginalisation of cyclists in urban spaces. Although New York City has
also improved the bicycling infrastructure, there are hardly any bicyclists on the
streets. The motorised traffic dominates the street space together with
pedestrians on the sidewalks. Going to New York with the images of Moses
modernistic destruction of the city in my head I could not help but wonder
how New York is handling the situation of cyclists today. And after observing
the situation I can only come to the conclusion that cyclists are still
marginalised in New York and motorised traffic owns the streets of the city.
The urban space wars, fights and the marginalisation of cyclists in urban spaces
are what this doctoral thesis analyses. Questions of how cities evolved in
different ways and how mobility is influenced by the cities materialities are at
the core of the analysis of the space, the planning and the mobility of people.
For that matter, the case studies in this thesis, Copenhagen and Stockholm, are
used to exemplify those struggles and the materialities of urban spaces that
result in more or less focusing on motorised traffic and cycling. It is in all those
struggles, those fights and wars on urban streets between uneven forces and
powers that make research about vlomobility, transport and planning
fascinating and highly relevant in todays urban context. In times of climate
change, uneven development as Smith so elegantly once put it (Smith 2008) is
of great importance to shed light on the marginalisation in urban spaces and
the power relations that are at work in cities around the world. Therefore, this
thesis should be seen in the setting of urban struggles and conflicts and urban
space wars, which contribute to the marginalisation of cyclists in cities
everywhere.


2 8
O f t e n I d i d n o t k n o w w h a t t o d o n e x t , s i n c e b i c y c l e t r a c k s e n d e d i n w a l l s ,
c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s o r o n s t r e e t s w h e r e c a r s w e r e p a s s i n g b y a t a b o u t 6 0 k m / h . I
s a w o t h e r c y c l i s t s s t r u g g l i n g a s w e l l , a n d d e v e l o p e d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
c o n s t a n t w a r s g o i n g o n i n t h i s c i t y . T h e s e f i g h t s a n d p r o b l e m s c y c l i s t s f a c e i n
S t o c k h o l m m i g h t a l s o e x p l a i n t h e s c a r c i t y o f t h e m . C o m p a r e d t o C o p e n h a g e n
t h e r e a r e r a t h e r f e w c y c l i s t s o n t h e s t r e e t s i n S t o c k h o l m , a l t h o u g h t h e n u m b e r
h a s b e e n g r o w i n g r a p i d l y d u r i n g r e c e n t y e a r s . A n d c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r c i t i e s i n
t h e w o r l d , c y c l i s t s a r e a v i s i b l e p a r t o f t h e u r b a n l a n d s c a p e i n S t o c k h o l m .
D u r i n g m y v i s i t t o N e w Y o r k C i t y f o r t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n
G e o g r a p h e r s M e e t i n g i n 2 0 1 2 , f o r e x a m p l e , I c o u l d w i t n e s s y e t a n o t h e r c a s e o f
t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n s p a c e s . A l t h o u g h N e w Y o r k C i t y h a s
a l s o i m p r o v e d t h e b i c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , t h e r e a r e h a r d l y a n y b i c y c l i s t s o n t h e
s t r e e t s . T h e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c d o m i n a t e s t h e s t r e e t s p a c e t o g e t h e r w i t h
p e d e s t r i a n s o n t h e s i d e w a l k s . G o i n g t o N e w Y o r k w i t h t h e i m a g e s o f M o s e s
m o d e r n i s t i c d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c i t y i n m y h e a d I c o u l d n o t h e l p b u t w o n d e r
h o w N e w Y o r k i s h a n d l i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s t o d a y . A n d a f t e r o b s e r v i n g
t h e s i t u a t i o n I c a n o n l y c o m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c y c l i s t s a r e s t i l l
m a r g i n a l i s e d i n N e w Y o r k a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c o w n s t h e s t r e e t s o f t h e c i t y .
T h e u r b a n s p a c e w a r s , f i g h t s a n d t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n s p a c e s
a r e w h a t t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s a n a l y s e s . Q u e s t i o n s o f h o w c i t i e s e v o l v e d i n
d i f f e r e n t w a y s a n d h o w m o b i l i t y i s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e c i t i e s m a t e r i a l i t i e s a r e a t
t h e c o r e o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s p a c e , t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e m o b i l i t y o f p e o p l e .
F o r t h a t m a t t e r , t h e c a s e s t u d i e s i n t h i s t h e s i s , C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , a r e
u s e d t o e x e m p l i f y t h o s e s t r u g g l e s a n d t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s o f u r b a n s p a c e s t h a t
r e s u l t i n m o r e o r l e s s f o c u s i n g o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d c y c l i n g . I t i s i n a l l t h o s e
s t r u g g l e s , t h o s e f i g h t s a n d w a r s o n u r b a n s t r e e t s b e t w e e n u n e v e n f o r c e s a n d
p o w e r s t h a t m a k e r e s e a r c h a b o u t v l o m o b i l i t y , t r a n s p o r t a n d p l a n n i n g
f a s c i n a t i n g a n d h i g h l y r e l e v a n t i n t o d a y s u r b a n c o n t e x t . I n t i m e s o f c l i m a t e
c h a n g e , u n e v e n d e v e l o p m e n t a s S m i t h s o e l e g a n t l y o n c e p u t i t ( S m i t h 2 0 0 8 ) i s
o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o s h e d l i g h t o n t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n i n u r b a n s p a c e s a n d
t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t a r e a t w o r k i n c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s
t h e s i s s h o u l d b e s e e n i n t h e s e t t i n g o f u r b a n s t r u g g l e s a n d c o n f l i c t s a n d u r b a n
s p a c e w a r s , w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n c i t i e s
e v e r y w h e r e .

2 8

2 9









M o r e a n d m o r e s p a c e s o f t h e m o d e r n c i t y a r e b e i n g p r o d u c e d f o r u s r a t h e r t h a n b y
u s . P e o p l e , L e f e b v r e a r g u e d , h a v e a r i g h t t o m o r e ; t h e y h a v e t h e r i g h t t o t h e o u v r e .
( M i t c h e l l 2 0 0 3 : 1 8 )






29









More and more spaces of the modern city are being produced for us rather than by
us. People, Lefebvre argued, have a right to more; they have the right to the ouvre.
(Mitchell 2003: 18)





2 9

30
1 Introduction: Cycling, mobility
and research
Transport has been at the heart of the development of todays societies. To
move both people and goods is increasingly important, and the development of
transport systems, both urban, regional, national and global has grown rapidly
since the invention of the steam engine. However, transport is not only a
source of wealth and development. Infrastructure for motorised traffic also
creates social exclusion, and both motorised traffic and air traffic create many
environmental problems globally and locally. One part of mobility and
transport is bicycling. Cycling is a mode of transport quite often marginalised
in urban space (e.g. Khayesi et al. 2010 and Emanuel 2012). This thesis is
about urban cycling, mobility, planning and space, and what power relations
are built into the urban space or have created the urban space. Urban cycling
and mobility is seen as an approach to visualising injustice and power relations
in the city through case studies in Copenhagen, Denmark and Stockholm,
Sweden. Further, the intention is to make a connection to space and the
materialities that affect peoples movements in an urban context.
Moreover, transport also has a social and cultural side. Through the mobility
perspective one can add the social dimension to transport research, which is
important in this thesis. The shift in social sciences from analysing societies to
analysing mobilities was first initiated by John Urry in his book Sociology
beyond Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First Century from 2000. Urry also
introduced the mobility paradigm, meaning that social sciences shift more
from research on societies to research on mobilities (Urry 2007). That claim by
Urry was a radical attempt to shift the focus of research within sociology.
Mobility has always had an impact on peoples lives, which is why Urry sees
the need to focus more on mobilities in social studies instead of societies in
order to understand the rapidly changing world we live in today. However,
that does not mean we should not study societies, but that we should focus
more on mobilities, which produce and reproduce the social (Urry 2000).

3 0
1 I n t r o d u c t i o n : C y c l i n g , m o b i l i t y
a n d r e s e a r c h
T r a n s p o r t h a s b e e n a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o d a y s s o c i e t i e s . T o
m o v e b o t h p e o p l e a n d g o o d s i s i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , b o t h u r b a n , r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l a n d g l o b a l h a s g r o w n r a p i d l y
s i n c e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e s t e a m e n g i n e . H o w e v e r , t r a n s p o r t i s n o t o n l y a
s o u r c e o f w e a l t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . I n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a l s o
c r e a t e s s o c i a l e x c l u s i o n , a n d b o t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d a i r t r a f f i c c r e a t e m a n y
e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s g l o b a l l y a n d l o c a l l y . O n e p a r t o f m o b i l i t y a n d
t r a n s p o r t i s b i c y c l i n g . C y c l i n g i s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t q u i t e o f t e n m a r g i n a l i s e d
i n u r b a n s p a c e ( e . g . K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 a n d E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . T h i s t h e s i s i s
a b o u t u r b a n c y c l i n g , m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e , a n d w h a t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
a r e b u i l t i n t o t h e u r b a n s p a c e o r h a v e c r e a t e d t h e u r b a n s p a c e . U r b a n c y c l i n g
a n d m o b i l i t y i s s e e n a s a n a p p r o a c h t o v i s u a l i s i n g i n j u s t i c e a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
i n t h e c i t y t h r o u g h c a s e s t u d i e s i n C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k a n d S t o c k h o l m ,
S w e d e n . F u r t h e r , t h e i n t e n t i o n i s t o m a k e a c o n n e c t i o n t o s p a c e a n d t h e
m a t e r i a l i t i e s t h a t a f f e c t p e o p l e s m o v e m e n t s i n a n u r b a n c o n t e x t .
M o r e o v e r , t r a n s p o r t a l s o h a s a s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l s i d e . T h r o u g h t h e m o b i l i t y
p e r s p e c t i v e o n e c a n a d d t h e s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n t o t r a n s p o r t r e s e a r c h , w h i c h i s
i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s t h e s i s . T h e s h i f t i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s f r o m a n a l y s i n g s o c i e t i e s t o
a n a l y s i n g m o b i l i t i e s w a s f i r s t i n i t i a t e d b y J o h n U r r y i n h i s b o o k S o c i o l o g y
b e y o n d S o c i e t i e s : M o b i l i t i e s f o r t h e T w e n t y - F i r s t C e n t u r y f r o m 2 0 0 0 . U r r y a l s o
i n t r o d u c e d t h e m o b i l i t y p a r a d i g m , m e a n i n g t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e s s h i f t m o r e
f r o m r e s e a r c h o n s o c i e t i e s t o r e s e a r c h o n m o b i l i t i e s ( U r r y 2 0 0 7 ) . T h a t c l a i m b y
U r r y w a s a r a d i c a l a t t e m p t t o s h i f t t h e f o c u s o f r e s e a r c h w i t h i n s o c i o l o g y .
M o b i l i t y h a s a l w a y s h a d a n i m p a c t o n p e o p l e s l i v e s , w h i c h i s w h y U r r y s e e s
t h e n e e d t o f o c u s m o r e o n m o b i l i t i e s i n s o c i a l s t u d i e s i n s t e a d o f s o c i e t i e s i n
o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g w o r l d w e l i v e i n t o d a y . H o w e v e r ,
t h a t d o e s n o t m e a n w e s h o u l d n o t s t u d y s o c i e t i e s , b u t t h a t w e s h o u l d f o c u s
m o r e o n m o b i l i t i e s , w h i c h p r o d u c e a n d r e p r o d u c e t h e s o c i a l ( U r r y 2 0 0 0 ) .
3 0

3 1
M o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h g o e s d e e p e r t h a n c o m m o n t r a n s p o r t r e s e a r c h . W i t h a
m o b i l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e t h e f o c u s i s n o t o n l y o n t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , b u t a l s o o n
t h e m e a n i n g o f m o v e m e n t a n d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o c i a l a s p e c t s a n d
r e l a t i o n s t h a t a p p e a r i n s o c i e t i e s t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t a n d d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f
m o b i l i t y . T h u s m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h l o o k s a t t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m f r o m a d i f f e r e n t
p e r s p e c t i v e a n d g o e s d e e p e r i n t o s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f
m o v e m e n t s ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 6 , 2 0 1 0 , U r r y 2 0 0 7 ) . Y e t m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h h a s n o t
q u i t e e n t e r e d t h e r e s e a r c h a r e a o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f c y c l i n g , e x c e p t w i t h s o m e f e w
e x c e p t i o n s ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e F u r n e s s 2 0 0 7 a n d 2 0 1 0 ) . T h o s e q u e s t i o n s a r e
s e l d o m p a r t o f t h e r e s e a r c h o n c y c l i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s . T h a t m e a n s
t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h o n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e p o l i t i c s
o f c y c l i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s f i e l d i s g r o w i n g r i g h t n o w ( e . g . A l d r e d 2 0 1 2 ,
M c C a r t h y 2 0 1 1 a n d J o n e s e t a l . 2 0 1 2 ) , a n d t h i s t h e s i s i s s e t i n t h e g r o w i n g
f i e l d o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f c y c l i n g .
T h e l a c k o f s u c h p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t r a n s p o r t r e s e a r c h l e a d s t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e
r i g h t t o t h e c i t y a n d w h o h a s a c c e s s t o t h e c i t i e s t r a f f i c s p a c e s , w h i c h a r e a l s o
p u b l i c s p a c e s w h e r e e v e r y b o d y s h o u l d b e a b l e t o b e a n d t o u s e t h e s p a c e . T h i s
h a s b e e n i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e c r i t i c a l m a s s p r o t e s t s i n s e v e r a l c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e
w o r l d ( F u r n e s s 2 0 0 7 ) . W h a t i s n e e d e d , t h e n , i s a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r
a n a l y s i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s c y c l i s t s a c t u a l l y h a v e t o m o v e i n , i n o r d e r t o
i m p r o v e t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s , t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m e a s u r e s f o r c y c l i s t s
a n d f o r a n a l y s i n g c y c l i n g i n d i f f e r e n t c i t i e s . C y c l i s t s a r e o f t e n a m a r g i n a l i z e d
g r o u p i n u r b a n s p a c e s . T h e s p a c e w a r s i n u r b a n s p a c e s o f m o b i l i t y a r e
s o m e t i m e s v i s i b l e a n d s o m e t i m e s n o t . T h e r e i s m u c h r e s e a r c h b o t h f r o m t h e
m o b i l i t y f i e l d a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t f i e l d t h a t i s u s e f u l f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s
f o r c y c l i s t s i n c i t i e s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a l a c k o f b r i d g i n g t h e t w o
f i e l d s i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a j u s t t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e r i g h t s o f a l l
u s e r s a n d d o e s n o t m a r g i n a l i s e c e r t a i n g r o u p s l i k e c y c l i s t s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
o v e r a l l i n t e n t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o c o n t r i b u t e d e e p e r a n d n o v e l t h e o r e t i c a l
a s p e c t s o f c y c l i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s . I t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o f i l l t h e g a p s
a n d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e r e s e a r c h o n m o b i l i t i e s a n d c y c l i n g w i t h n e w i n s i g h t s , n e w
d i r e c t i o n s a n d d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t l e a d t o a m o r e j u s t l y
b u i l t t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , a n d t h a t h a v e p r e v e n t e d m o r e j u s t l y b u i l t t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m s . A t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m t h a t e x c l u d e s c e r t a i n g r o u p s f r o m p u b l i c s p a c e a n d
i s d a n g e r o u s o r m a r g i n a l i s e s c y c l i s t s c a n n o t b e a f a i r o r j u s t t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m . I n
o r d e r t o d o t h a t o n e h a s t o l o o k w i t h a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e a t t h e t r a n s p o r t

31
Mobility research goes deeper than common transport research. With a
mobility perspective the focus is not only on the transport system, but also on
the meaning of movement and the understanding of social aspects and
relations that appear in societies through movement and different forms of
mobility. Thus mobility research looks at the transport system from a different
perspective and goes deeper into social, cultural and political aspects of
movements (Cresswell 2006, 2010, Urry 2007). Yet mobility research has not
quite entered the research area of the politics of cycling, except with some few
exceptions (see for example Furness 2007 and 2010). Those questions are
seldom part of the research on cycling and planning for cyclists. That means
that there is little empirical research on the planning processes and the politics
of cycling. Nevertheless, this field is growing right now (e.g. Aldred 2012,
McCarthy 2011 and Jones et al. 2012), and this thesis is set in the growing
field of the politics of cycling.
The lack of such perspectives in transport research leads to the question of the
right to the city and who has access to the cities traffic spaces, which are also
public spaces where everybody should be able to be and to use the space. This
has been illustrated by the critical mass protests in several cities around the
world (Furness 2007). What is needed, then, is a theoretical framework for
analysing the environments cyclists actually have to move in, in order to
improve the planning processes, the implementation of measures for cyclists
and for analysing cycling in different cities. Cyclists are often a marginalized
group in urban spaces. The space wars in urban spaces of mobility are
sometimes visible and sometimes not. There is much research both from the
mobility field and the transport field that is useful for analysing the conditions
for cyclists in cities. However, there seems to be a lack of bridging the two
fields in order to create a just transport system that includes the rights of all
users and does not marginalise certain groups like cyclists. Therefore, the
overall intention of this thesis is to contribute deeper and novel theoretical
aspects of cycling and planning for cyclists. It is very important to fill the gaps
and contribute to the research on mobilities and cycling with new insights, new
directions and deeper understanding of the processes that lead to a more justly
built transport system, and that have prevented more justly built transport
systems. A transport system that excludes certain groups from public space and
is dangerous or marginalises cyclists cannot be a fair or just transport system. In
order to do that one has to look with a different perspective at the transport
3 1

32
system, which mobility research does, and that is also why a mobility
perspective is used in this thesis.
Power relations, space and planning are all connected, which is why a focus on
those three fields could lead to a deeper understanding of the marginalization
of cyclists and broaden our understanding of mobility, transport and
vlomobility. By connecting the power relations in urban spaces to mobility, as
well as to the political economy of capitalist societies, it becomes visible how
the economic structures also influence urban and transport planning. Hence
urban and transport planning also affect power relations in urban spaces. This
also involves the cultural and historical aspects that shape or have shaped
political economy, power relations and urban and transport planning. In order
to analyse vlomobility in urban areas, including the marginalisation of cyclists
and power relations in planning and within the transport system, theoretical
frameworks are needed. Those frameworks help to understand the needs of
cyclists in a more general and theoretical way, and involve more critical studies
about power relations in public spaces. I have briefly explained above what
transport and transport planning deals with, namely transport systems.
Moreover, I have hinted at what this thesis is about. The research within the
field of transport studies handles important questions, such as traffic safety,
transport efficiency and transport infrastructure. This can also be said for
transport research on cycling. However, in order to understand the power
relations within transport planning, the factors behind the planning of
transport systems, the political decisions and other social aspects of transport, I
think we need to turn, as mentioned above, to the term mobility as a theoretical
framework for deeper analysis of those themes and aspects. It is the mobility
perspective that provides us with the insights needed for analysing those factors
and that enables one to look beyond the transport system for analysis of
movements and transport planning (Paterson 2007, Furness 2010 and Harvey
2005).
Thus, the previous section brings us to the question of power or power
relations and what really shapes todays mobility. Power is one aspect, and
connected to that is the political economy of the production of mobility and
space today. Power relations and the political economy of mobility, or rather
automobility, has shaped the infrastructure and affected the way space is used
and what forms of mobilities are used (see for example Urry 2004 and Paterson
2007). Within the theoretical framework of mobility, studies are needed about
power relations and political economy in order to get an understanding of

3 2
s y s t e m , w h i c h m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h d o e s , a n d t h a t i s a l s o w h y a m o b i l i t y
p e r s p e c t i v e i s u s e d i n t h i s t h e s i s .
P o w e r r e l a t i o n s , s p a c e a n d p l a n n i n g a r e a l l c o n n e c t e d , w h i c h i s w h y a f o c u s o n
t h o s e t h r e e f i e l d s c o u l d l e a d t o a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n
o f c y c l i s t s a n d b r o a d e n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m o b i l i t y , t r a n s p o r t a n d
v l o m o b i l i t y . B y c o n n e c t i n g t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e s t o m o b i l i t y , a s
w e l l a s t o t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s , i t b e c o m e s v i s i b l e h o w
t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s a l s o i n f l u e n c e u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . H e n c e
u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a l s o a f f e c t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e s . T h i s
a l s o i n v o l v e s t h e c u l t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s t h a t s h a p e o r h a v e s h a p e d
p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . I n o r d e r
t o a n a l y s e v l o m o b i l i t y i n u r b a n a r e a s , i n c l u d i n g t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s
a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n p l a n n i n g a n d w i t h i n t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , t h e o r e t i c a l
f r a m e w o r k s a r e n e e d e d . T h o s e f r a m e w o r k s h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e n e e d s o f
c y c l i s t s i n a m o r e g e n e r a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l w a y , a n d i n v o l v e m o r e c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s
a b o u t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n p u b l i c s p a c e s . I h a v e b r i e f l y e x p l a i n e d a b o v e w h a t
t r a n s p o r t a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d e a l s w i t h , n a m e l y t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s .
M o r e o v e r , I h a v e h i n t e d a t w h a t t h i s t h e s i s i s a b o u t . T h e r e s e a r c h w i t h i n t h e
f i e l d o f t r a n s p o r t s t u d i e s h a n d l e s i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s , s u c h a s t r a f f i c s a f e t y ,
t r a n s p o r t e f f i c i e n c y a n d t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h i s c a n a l s o b e s a i d f o r
t r a n s p o r t r e s e a r c h o n c y c l i n g . H o w e v e r , i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , t h e f a c t o r s b e h i n d t h e p l a n n i n g o f
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , t h e p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s a n d o t h e r s o c i a l a s p e c t s o f t r a n s p o r t , I
t h i n k w e n e e d t o t u r n , a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t o t h e t e r m m o b i l i t y a s a t h e o r e t i c a l
f r a m e w o r k f o r d e e p e r a n a l y s i s o f t h o s e t h e m e s a n d a s p e c t s . I t i s t h e m o b i l i t y
p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t p r o v i d e s u s w i t h t h e i n s i g h t s n e e d e d f o r a n a l y s i n g t h o s e f a c t o r s
a n d t h a t e n a b l e s o n e t o l o o k b e y o n d t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m f o r a n a l y s i s o f
m o v e m e n t s a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ( P a t e r s o n 2 0 0 7 , F u r n e s s 2 0 1 0 a n d H a r v e y
2 0 0 5 ) .
T h u s , t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n b r i n g s u s t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f p o w e r o r p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s a n d w h a t r e a l l y s h a p e s t o d a y s m o b i l i t y . P o w e r i s o n e a s p e c t , a n d
c o n n e c t e d t o t h a t i s t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o b i l i t y a n d
s p a c e t o d a y . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f m o b i l i t y , o r r a t h e r
a u t o m o b i l i t y , h a s s h a p e d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d a f f e c t e d t h e w a y s p a c e i s u s e d
a n d w h a t f o r m s o f m o b i l i t i e s a r e u s e d ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e U r r y 2 0 0 4 a n d P a t e r s o n
2 0 0 7 ) . W i t h i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k o f m o b i l i t y , s t u d i e s a r e n e e d e d a b o u t
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y i n o r d e r t o g e t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
3 2

3 3
t o d a y s m o b i l i t y a n d o f t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s . T h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n
u r b a n s p a c e c a n a l s o b e c o n n e c t e d n o t o n l y t o L e f e b v r e s p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e
( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) , b u t a l s o t o h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y
( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 6 8 ] ) . A l t h o u g h s t u d i e s c o n c e r n i n g p o w e r a n d t r a n s p o r t
h a v e b e e n u n d e r t a k e n ( e . g . F l y v b j e r g a n d P e t e r s e n 1 9 8 1 a n d F l y v b j e r g 1 9 9 8 ) ,
t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f t h o s e a n d s i m i l a r s t u d i e s t o t h e m o b i l i t y t u r n i n t h e s o c i a l
s c i e n c e s a n d t o s p a c e i s q u i t e o f t e n l a c k i n g . A f o c u s o n t h e u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f
t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y c a n h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d b e a k e y
i s s u e w h i l e d e v e l o p i n g n e w f r a m e w o r k s f o r a n a l y s i n g p o w e r i n t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g .
I n o r d e r t o c o n d u c t a n a n a l y s i s o f u r b a n b i c y c l i n g , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ,
v l o m o b i l i t y , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y t h a t a f f e c t s m a n y
a s p e c t s , i t i s o f s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e t o f o c u s o n u r b a n a r e a s , b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n w h a t h a s b e e n d o n e i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e c y c l i n g a n d
r e d u c e t h e u s e o f t h e c a r ( S v e n s s o n 2 0 0 8 ) . T h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y i s s e l d o m
t o u c h e d u p o n , a n d i t s e e m s t h a t t r a n s p o r t r e s e a r c h a v o i d s t h e s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n
o f s u s t a i n a b i l i t y , s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n s , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e s
a f f e c t i n g m o b i l i t y , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s , w h i c h m a y e x p l a i n
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c i t i e s i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t , t h e i r t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s a n d t h e
s p a c e w a r s i n u r b a n s p a c e s . I n t h i s t h e s i s I w a n t t o a n a l y s e t r a n s p o r t a n d
c y c l i n g f r o m a m o b i l i t y a n d p o w e r p e r s p e c t i v e i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m a n d d e v e l o p t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e
a b o u t u r b a n m o b i l i t y ( e . g . U r r y 2 0 0 0 , C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 , B u e h l e r a n d P u c h e r
2 0 1 2 ) .
T h e t r a n s p o r t s e c t o r i s g l o b a l l y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a w i d e r a n g e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l
a n d s o c i e t a l p r o b l e m s , s u c h a s t h e e m i s s i o n o f g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s , n o i s e a n d
p a r t i c u l a t e p o l l u t i o n , t r a f f i c s a f e t y p r o b l e m s , h e a l t h p r o b l e m s a n d t h e l i k e
( B a n i s t e r 2 0 0 5 ) . T r a n s p o r t , g l o b a l l y , c o n t r i b u t e s a b o u t 1 3 % o f g r e e n h o u s e g a s
e m i s s i o n s ( I P C C 2 0 0 7 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e p o l l u t i o n o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s e c t o r i s
h i g h e r i n t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a t h a n i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e
w o r l d d u e t o t h e h i g h r a t e o f c a r o w n e r s h i p a n d u s e o f m o t o r i s e d r o a d
t r a n s p o r t , a l t h o u g h s o m e c o u n t r i e s t r a n s p o r t s e c t o r s , s u c h a s C h i n a s , a r e
s t a r t i n g t o p o l l u t e m o r e a n d m o r e ( B a n i s t e r 2 0 0 5 , N u h n a n d H e s s e 2 0 0 6 ) . B y
w a y o f c o m p a r i s o n , t h e t r a n s p o r t s e c t o r i n S w e d e n c o n s u m e s 2 5 % o f a l l
e n e r g y , a n d i t a c c o u n t s f o r a b o u t 3 8 % o f a l l e m i s s i o n s o f g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s
( C O
2
) ( N a t u r v r d s v e r k e t 2 0 0 8 ) . T h e r e a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o b l e m s o f n o i s e

33
todays mobility and of the marginalisation of cyclists. The power relations in
urban space can also be connected not only to Lefebvres production of space
(Lefebvre 1991 [1974]), but also to his concept of the right to the city
(Lefebvre 1996 [1968]). Although studies concerning power and transport
have been undertaken (e. g. Flyvbjerg and Petersen 1981 and Flyvbjerg 1998),
the connection of those and similar studies to the mobility turn in the social
sciences and to space is quite often lacking. A focus on the underpinnings of
the politics of mobility can help to understand power relations and be a key
issue while developing new frameworks for analysing power in transport
planning.
In order to conduct an analysis of urban bicycling, transport planning,
vlomobility, power relations and the political economy that affects many
aspects, it is of special importance to focus on urban areas, because there are
significant differences in what has been done in order to increase cycling and
reduce the use of the car (Svensson 2008). The politics of mobility is seldom
touched upon, and it seems that transport research avoids the social dimension
of sustainability, spatial dimensions, power relations and the structures
affecting mobility, transport planning and politics, which may explain
differences between cities in the modal split, their transport systems and the
space wars in urban spaces. In this thesis I want to analyse transport and
cycling from a mobility and power perspective in order to create an
understanding of todays transport system and develop theoretical knowledge
about urban mobility (e. g. Urry 2000, Cresswell 2010, Buehler and Pucher
2012).
The transport sector is globally contributing to a wide range of environmental
and societal problems, such as the emission of greenhouse gases, noise and
particulate pollution, traffic safety problems, health problems and the like
(Banister 2005). Transport, globally, contributes about 13 % of greenhouse gas
emissions (IPCC 2007). Moreover, the pollution of the transport sector is
higher in the European Union and North America than in other parts of the
world due to the high rate of car ownership and use of motorised road
transport, although some countries transport sectors, such as Chinas, are
starting to pollute more and more (Banister 2005, Nuhn and Hesse 2006). By
way of comparison, the transport sector in Sweden consumes 25% of all
energy, and it accounts for about 38% of all emissions of greenhouse gases
(CO
2
) (Naturvrdsverket 2008). There are also considerable problems of noise
3 3

34
and particulate pollution from motorised traffic (Miedema 2007, van Wee
2007).
Due to the negative effects of motorised transport, many cities around the
globe are trying to build sustainable transport systems. A sustainable transport
system is often regarded as one involving a high degree of walking, cycling and
use of public transport. Using the bicycle as a transport mode is, furthermore,
often seen as one of the most sustainable transport system modes (Banister
2005 and Tolley 2003). Cycling improves health and physical fitness
(Andersen et al., 2000; Cooper et al. 2008), and as cycling is based on muscle
power it is a very clean mode (of transport) without emissions. The bicycle is a
small vehicle, and cycling does not demand much space in urban areas. The
car, for example, uses 22.1 m/road user, whereas a bicycle only uses 9.7
m/road user (Stangeby and Norheim 1995). In addition, cyclists impose
relatively small risks to other road users in the streets and in public spaces
(Rietveld and Daniel 2004). Cyclists are, however, as vulnerable road users,
generally exposed to high accident risks. In Sweden, for example, for equal
distance travelled, cyclists are up to 5 times more likely to be killed compared
to car users (SIKA, 2008). Nevertheless, as mentioned above, cycling neither
contributes to pollution nor causes significant traffic safety problems for other
road users. At the same time, cycling takes up little space, is energy efficient
and a healthy mode of transport (Banister 2005, Garrard et al. 2012, Tranter
2012, Cooper et al. 2008). Despite all the positive aspects of cycling and
cyclists high exposure to accident risks, many cities do not plan for cyclists, i.e.
do not consider the needs of cyclists in transport plans and in urban planning
processes, or they assign cycling a low priority. Generally, cities and urban areas
in many corners of the world have been planned around the car. The
infrastructure is often based on the needs of motorised traffic. The needs of
cyclists, as well as pedestrians, have been ignored in many cities or only given
limited consideration. Thus, urban space and its circulation are today often
unjust, and cyclists are often marginalised road users with high accident risks
(Risser and Wunsch 2003, Khayesi et al. 2010). This can also be seen in
Sweden (Lundin 2008).
Cycling is a topic, both in research and in urban and transport planning, which
has, in the last few years, received more and more attention, partly because
cycling has increased in some countries (see for example Daley and Rissel
2011, McCarthy 2011 and Khayesi et al. 2010). Still, there are many
differences between planning and policies affecting cyclists and cycling and also

3 4
a n d p a r t i c u l a t e p o l l u t i o n f r o m m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c ( M i e d e m a 2 0 0 7 , v a n W e e
2 0 0 7 ) .
D u e t o t h e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o f m o t o r i s e d t r a n s p o r t , m a n y c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e
g l o b e a r e t r y i n g t o b u i l d s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s . A s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m i s o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s o n e i n v o l v i n g a h i g h d e g r e e o f w a l k i n g , c y c l i n g a n d
u s e o f p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t . U s i n g t h e b i c y c l e a s a t r a n s p o r t m o d e i s , f u r t h e r m o r e ,
o f t e n s e e n a s o n e o f t h e m o s t s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m m o d e s ( B a n i s t e r
2 0 0 5 a n d T o l l e y 2 0 0 3 ) . C y c l i n g i m p r o v e s h e a l t h a n d p h y s i c a l f i t n e s s
( A n d e r s e n e t a l . , 2 0 0 0 ; C o o p e r e t a l . 2 0 0 8 ) , a n d a s c y c l i n g i s b a s e d o n m u s c l e
p o w e r i t i s a v e r y c l e a n m o d e ( o f t r a n s p o r t ) w i t h o u t e m i s s i o n s . T h e b i c y c l e i s a
s m a l l v e h i c l e , a n d c y c l i n g d o e s n o t d e m a n d m u c h s p a c e i n u r b a n a r e a s . T h e
c a r , f o r e x a m p l e , u s e s 2 2 . 1 m / r o a d u s e r , w h e r e a s a b i c y c l e o n l y u s e s 9 . 7
m / r o a d u s e r ( S t a n g e b y a n d N o r h e i m 1 9 9 5 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , c y c l i s t s i m p o s e
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l r i s k s t o o t h e r r o a d u s e r s i n t h e s t r e e t s a n d i n p u b l i c s p a c e s
( R i e t v e l d a n d D a n i e l 2 0 0 4 ) . C y c l i s t s a r e , h o w e v e r , a s v u l n e r a b l e r o a d u s e r s ,
g e n e r a l l y e x p o s e d t o h i g h a c c i d e n t r i s k s . I n S w e d e n , f o r e x a m p l e , f o r e q u a l
d i s t a n c e t r a v e l l e d , c y c l i s t s a r e u p t o 5 t i m e s m o r e l i k e l y t o b e k i l l e d c o m p a r e d
t o c a r u s e r s ( S I K A , 2 0 0 8 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , c y c l i n g n e i t h e r
c o n t r i b u t e s t o p o l l u t i o n n o r c a u s e s s i g n i f i c a n t t r a f f i c s a f e t y p r o b l e m s f o r o t h e r
r o a d u s e r s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , c y c l i n g t a k e s u p l i t t l e s p a c e , i s e n e r g y e f f i c i e n t
a n d a h e a l t h y m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t ( B a n i s t e r 2 0 0 5 , G a r r a r d e t a l . 2 0 1 2 , T r a n t e r
2 0 1 2 , C o o p e r e t a l . 2 0 0 8 ) . D e s p i t e a l l t h e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f c y c l i n g a n d
c y c l i s t s h i g h e x p o s u r e t o a c c i d e n t r i s k s , m a n y c i t i e s d o n o t p l a n f o r c y c l i s t s , i . e .
d o n o t c o n s i d e r t h e n e e d s o f c y c l i s t s i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n s a n d i n u r b a n p l a n n i n g
p r o c e s s e s , o r t h e y a s s i g n c y c l i n g a l o w p r i o r i t y . G e n e r a l l y , c i t i e s a n d u r b a n a r e a s
i n m a n y c o r n e r s o f t h e w o r l d h a v e b e e n p l a n n e d a r o u n d t h e c a r . T h e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s o f t e n b a s e d o n t h e n e e d s o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h e n e e d s o f
c y c l i s t s , a s w e l l a s p e d e s t r i a n s , h a v e b e e n i g n o r e d i n m a n y c i t i e s o r o n l y g i v e n
l i m i t e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h u s , u r b a n s p a c e a n d i t s c i r c u l a t i o n a r e t o d a y o f t e n
u n j u s t , a n d c y c l i s t s a r e o f t e n m a r g i n a l i s e d r o a d u s e r s w i t h h i g h a c c i d e n t r i s k s
( R i s s e r a n d W u n s c h 2 0 0 3 , K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 ) . T h i s c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n
S w e d e n ( L u n d i n 2 0 0 8 ) .
C y c l i n g i s a t o p i c , b o t h i n r e s e a r c h a n d i n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , w h i c h
h a s , i n t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s , r e c e i v e d m o r e a n d m o r e a t t e n t i o n , p a r t l y b e c a u s e
c y c l i n g h a s i n c r e a s e d i n s o m e c o u n t r i e s ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e D a l e y a n d R i s s e l
2 0 1 1 , M c C a r t h y 2 0 1 1 a n d K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 ) . S t i l l , t h e r e a r e m a n y
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i c i e s a f f e c t i n g c y c l i s t s a n d c y c l i n g a n d a l s o
3 4

3 5
e n c o u r a g i n g c y c l i n g i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s a n d c i t i e s . T h e r e s u l t o f t h e d i f f e r e n t
p l a n n i n g i n i t i a t i v e s i s t h a t p e o p l e c y c l e m o r e i n c e r t a i n c i t i e s a n d c o u n t r i e s
t h a n i n o t h e r s . A n o t h e r r e s u l t i s t h a t p e o p l e w h o d o c y c l e i n c i t i e s w h e r e
p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d a n i s s u e e x p e r i e n c e h i g h e r r i s k s o f b e i n g
i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s . T h o s e c i t i e s a r e o f t e n m o r e u n s a f e a n d h a v e m o r e
i n s e c u r e e n v i r o n m e n t s f o r c y c l i s t s , w h i c h l e a d s t o a l o w e r p e r c e n t a g e o f b i c y c l e
t r i p s , b e c a u s e p e o p l e a r e d i s c o u r a g e d b y t h e b a d c o n d i t i o n s . S o m e c o u n t r i e s ,
h o w e v e r , a r e a t t h e f r o n t i e r o f b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g a n d a r e d e v e l o p i n g p o l i c i e s t o
i n c r e a s e c y c l i n g a n d t o m a k e c y c l i n g s a f e r a n d m o r e a c c e s s i b l e a n d t h u s a l s o
c r e a t e a m o r e j u s t u r b a n s p a c e ( P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r 2 0 0 9 , 2 0 0 8 , 2 0 0 7 B u e h l e r
e t a l . 2 0 0 9 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f o c u s i n b i c y c l e r e s e a r c h h a s h a d s o m e n o t a b l e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . T h o s e h a v e b e e n b e s t - p r a c t i s e ( l i k e t h o s e b y P u c h e r a n d
B u e h l e r , s e e a b o v e ) a n d b e h a v i o u r a l s t u d i e s ( F o r w a r d 2 0 0 3 , B e r n h o f t a n d
C a r s t e n s e n 2 0 0 8 ) , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ( i n c l . d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
c i t i e s ) ( P l o e g e r 2 0 0 3 , G o e t z k e a n d R a v e 2 0 1 1 ) , e f f e c t s t h a t h a v e a n i m p a c t o n
c y c l i n g , s u c h a s w e a t h e r a n d m a i n t e n a n c e ( W i n t e r s e t a l . 2 0 0 7 , B e r g s t r m a n d
M a g n u s s o n 2 0 0 3 , N i l s s o n 1 9 9 6 a n d s a f e t y ( b e r g e t a l . 1 9 9 6 , P a s a n e n 1 9 9 7 ) .
M o r e o v e r , s o m e r e s e a r c h h a s a l s o d e a l t w i t h p o l i c y a n d h o w i t a f f e c t s c y c l i n g
( M c C l i n t o c k 2 0 0 2 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h a n d t o
c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , u r b a n p l a n n i n g , u r b a n s p a c e a n d
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i s l a c k i n g i n e x i s t i n g b i c y c l e r e s e a r c h .
T h e a i m o f t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s i s t o b r i n g a s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n i n t o t h e r e s e a r c h
o f u r b a n m o b i l i t i e s a n d c o n n e c t t h e s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n t o t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f
c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n s p a c e . T h i s i s b e e n d o n e b y e x p l o r i n g t h e r o l e o f u r b a n
b i c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e o f s p a c e , m o b i l i t i e s
a n d p o w e r i s u s e d f o r a n a l y s i n g t h a t r o l e t h r o u g h c a s e s t u d i e s i n t w o
S c a n d i n a v i a n c i t i e s , n a m e l y C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . U r b a n b i c y c l i n g i s a
g o o d e x a m p l e o f s h o w i n g t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t i e s , s i n c e
c y c l i s t s o f t e n s u f f e r f r o m m a r g i n a l i s e d s p a c e i n c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d .






35
encouraging cycling in different countries and cities. The result of the different
planning initiatives is that people cycle more in certain cities and countries
than in others. Another result is that people who do cycle in cities where
planning for cyclists is not considered an issue experience higher risks of being
involved in accidents. Those cities are often more unsafe and have more
insecure environments for cyclists, which leads to a lower percentage of bicycle
trips, because people are discouraged by the bad conditions. Some countries,
however, are at the frontier of bicycle planning and are developing policies to
increase cycling and to make cycling safer and more accessible and thus also
create a more just urban space (Pucher and Buehler 2009, 2008, 2007 Buehler
et al. 2009). Nevertheless, the focus in bicycle research has had some notable
concentrations. Those have been best-practise (like those by Pucher and
Buehler, see above) and behavioural studies (Forward 2003, Bernhoft and
Carstensen 2008), investigations of infrastructure (incl. difference between
cities) (Ploeger 2003, Goetzke and Rave 2011), effects that have an impact on
cycling, such as weather and maintenance (Winters et al. 2007, Bergstrm and
Magnusson 2003, Nilsson 1996 and safety (berg et al. 1996, Pasanen 1997).
Moreover, some research has also dealt with policy and how it affects cycling
(McClintock 2002). However, the connection to mobility research and to
critical analysis of the transport systems, urban planning, urban space and
power relations is lacking in existing bicycle research.
The aim of this doctoral thesis is to bring a spatial dimension into the research
of urban mobilities and connect the spatial dimension to the marginalisation of
cyclists in urban space. This is been done by exploring the role of urban
bicycling and transport planning. The theoretical frame of space, mobilities
and power is used for analysing that role through case studies in two
Scandinavian cities, namely Copenhagen and Stockholm. Urban bicycling is a
good example of showing the relation between space and mobilities, since
cyclists often suffer from marginalised space in cities around the world.





3 5

36
In order to live up to the aim of this thesis, the following three research
questions will be answered:

1. How are power relations materialised in urban space and what effect
does the materialisation have on transport, mobility and planning?
2. How has transport planning been developed in Copenhagen and
Stockholm, and how are cycling, space and mobility handled in the
two cities?
3. How do cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm experience the
transport system, and how does that relate to space, planning and
politics in the two cities?

In the introduction of this thesis I have stressed the need to analyse cycling
from a mobility perspective and include analysis of power relations and space
in research on cycling and transport systems, something that has partly been
done in mobility research. My intention is to build a bridge between transport
research and mobility research and connect the fields with analysis of space and
power relations.
I start in Chapter 2 with a description of my research design, methodologies
and methods used for collecting and analysing my empirical material, which is
both qualitative and quantitative, in order to give the reader an understanding
of my scientific standpoint and of the ideas behind the research in terms of
methodological viewpoint. The chapter builds theoretically upon the work of
critical theory and critical realism. I try to give the reader an understanding of
why I used the methods I used and how they are connected to each other
through the theoretical work of both critical theory and critical realism.
In Chapter 3 I frame the thesis theoretically within the field of mobility and
vlomobility in order to create a better understanding of the theoretical
perspectives used in this dissertation. Research on mobility and vlomobility is
described. This chapter frames the thesis and explains why the mobility
perspective is used. In other words, this chapter deals with the mobility
question and places the thesis in the mobility field. This chapter is the starting
point for the analysis in this thesis. From this chapter, the next step is to go
deeper into the notions of power and space, which is important for mobility,

3 6
I n o r d e r t o l i v e u p t o t h e a i m o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e r e s e a r c h
q u e s t i o n s w i l l b e a n s w e r e d :

1 . H o w a r e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s m a t e r i a l i s e d i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d w h a t e f f e c t
d o e s t h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n h a v e o n t r a n s p o r t , m o b i l i t y a n d p l a n n i n g ?
2 . H o w h a s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m , a n d h o w a r e c y c l i n g , s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t y h a n d l e d i n t h e
t w o c i t i e s ?
3 . H o w d o c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m e x p e r i e n c e t h e
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , a n d h o w d o e s t h a t r e l a t e t o s p a c e , p l a n n i n g a n d
p o l i t i c s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s ?

I n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s I h a v e s t r e s s e d t h e n e e d t o a n a l y s e c y c l i n g
f r o m a m o b i l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e a n d i n c l u d e a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s p a c e
i n r e s e a r c h o n c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a s p a r t l y b e e n
d o n e i n m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h . M y i n t e n t i o n i s t o b u i l d a b r i d g e b e t w e e n t r a n s p o r t
r e s e a r c h a n d m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h a n d c o n n e c t t h e f i e l d s w i t h a n a l y s i s o f s p a c e a n d
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s .
I s t a r t i n C h a p t e r 2 w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f m y r e s e a r c h d e s i g n , m e t h o d o l o g i e s
a n d m e t h o d s u s e d f o r c o l l e c t i n g a n d a n a l y s i n g m y e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l , w h i c h i s
b o t h q u a l i t a t i v e a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e , i n o r d e r t o g i v e t h e r e a d e r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f m y s c i e n t i f i c s t a n d p o i n t a n d o f t h e i d e a s b e h i n d t h e r e s e a r c h i n t e r m s o f
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l v i e w p o i n t . T h e c h a p t e r b u i l d s t h e o r e t i c a l l y u p o n t h e w o r k o f
c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m . I t r y t o g i v e t h e r e a d e r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
w h y I u s e d t h e m e t h o d s I u s e d a n d h o w t h e y a r e c o n n e c t e d t o e a c h o t h e r
t h r o u g h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k o f b o t h c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m .
I n C h a p t e r 3 I f r a m e t h e t h e s i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f m o b i l i t y a n d
v l o m o b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e s u s e d i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . R e s e a r c h o n m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y i s
d e s c r i b e d . T h i s c h a p t e r f r a m e s t h e t h e s i s a n d e x p l a i n s w h y t h e m o b i l i t y
p e r s p e c t i v e i s u s e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h i s c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h t h e m o b i l i t y
q u e s t i o n a n d p l a c e s t h e t h e s i s i n t h e m o b i l i t y f i e l d . T h i s c h a p t e r i s t h e s t a r t i n g
p o i n t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s t h e s i s . F r o m t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e n e x t s t e p i s t o g o
d e e p e r i n t o t h e n o t i o n s o f p o w e r a n d s p a c e , w h i c h i s i m p o r t a n t f o r m o b i l i t y ,
3 6

3 7
b u t i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y d e a l t w i t h i n c o n n e c t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t o m o b i l i t y
r e s e a r c h .
D u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s t h e s i s d e a l s w i t h p e o p l e m o v i n g i n u r b a n a r e a s ,
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s / p o w e r p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e n o t i o n o f s p a c e
a n d s p a c e w a r s i s o f i n t e r e s t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f c y c l i n g , u r b a n m o b i l i t y a n d
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h o s e a s p e c t s a r e d e a l t w i t h i n C h a p t e r 4 , w h e r e t h e
n o t i o n s o f p o w e r a n d s p a c e a r e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e f a c t t h a t u r b a n m o b i l i t y a n d
v l o m o b i l i t y a r e s e t i n s p a c e ( u r b a n s p a c e s i n t h e c a s e o f t h i s t h e s i s ) , s p a c e h a s
t o b e d e a l t w i t h t o d e v e l o p a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h e r e c o n f l i c t s o c c u r a n d h o w
s p a c e i s p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h m o b i l i t y a n d t h r o u g h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . H e r e I d r a w
o n L e f e b v r e s t h e o r i e s o n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) a n d c o n n e c t
t h a t t o h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y ( 1 9 9 6 ) . C o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e
d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n t h e l i g h t o f u r b a n s p a c e w a r s , a
c o n c e p t d e v e l o p e d b y Z y g m u n t B a u m a n ( 1 9 9 8 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
s p a c e a n d u r b a n s p a c e w a r s h a s t o d o w i t h p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n c i t i e s
a n d u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , a n d t h e r e f o r e a l s o w i t h u r b a n b i c y c l i n g . I n o r d e r
t o a n a l y s e s u c h p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , C h a p t e r 4 d e v e l o p s a t h e o r e t i c a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n c o n n e c t i o n t o s p a c e a n d s p a c e
w a r s . T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e c o m e s f r o m d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . I u s e t h e
t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r d e v e l o p e d b y L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) a n d c o n n e c t h i s v i e w t o
L e f e b v r e s . C h a p t e r 4 d e f i n e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e o f p o w e r , s p a c e a n d s p a c e
w a r s f o r t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . I t c o n n e c t s m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h w i t h r e s e a r c h o n p o w e r ,
s p a c e a n d p l a c e i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s
t h e s i s .
C h a p t e r 5 e x p l o r e s h o w p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f s p a c e a r e
m a t e r i a l i s e d i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d w h a t h a s a f f e c t e d a n d s h a p e d m o d e r n u r b a n
t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n b u i l t i n t o o u r
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e i n d u s t r y a n d
i n d u s t r i e s c o n n e c t e d t o t h i s b r a n c h h a v e h a d a t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t
a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g a r o u n d t h e g l o b e . T h i s c h a p t e r o f f e r s e x a m p l e s f r o m
S w e d e n , w h e r e I s h o w h o w t h i s h a s h a p p e n e d w i t h t h e e n t r a n c e o f m o d e r n i s m
i n t o u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d h o w t h a t s t i l l a f f e c t s p l a n n i n g t o d a y . I
a l s o c o n n e c t t h i s t o L e f e b v r e s r i g h t t o t h e c i t y c o n c e p t a n d t r y t o d e v e l o p a
b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s s h a p e d t o d a y , a n d w h y , w i t h
t h e h e l p o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e o f t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s .
T h e c a s e s i t e s f o r t h i s t h e s i s , S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n , a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n
C h a p t e r 6 . S o m e e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e o f f e r e d o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t ,

37
but is not particularly dealt with in connection to each other and to mobility
research.
Due to the fact that this thesis deals with people moving in urban areas,
transport planning and power relations/power perspectives, the notion of space
and space wars is of interest for the analysis of cycling, urban mobility and
transport planning. Those aspects are dealt with in Chapter 4, where the
notions of power and space are considered. The fact that urban mobility and
vlomobility are set in space (urban spaces in the case of this thesis), space has
to be dealt with to develop an understanding of where conflicts occur and how
space is produced through mobility and through social relations. Here I draw
on Lefebvres theories on the production of space (1991 [1974]) and connect
that to his concept of the right to the city (1996). Conflicts between the
different modes of transport can also be seen in the light of urban space wars, a
concept developed by Zygmunt Bauman (1998). Moreover, the production of
space and urban space wars has to do with power and power relations in cities
and urban transport systems, and therefore also with urban bicycling. In order
to analyse such power relations, Chapter 4 develops a theoretical
understanding of power and power relations in connection to space and space
wars. This theoretical knowledge comes from different perspectives. I use the
three dimensions of power developed by Lukes (2005) and connect his view to
Lefebvres. Chapter 4 defines the theoretical outline of power, space and space
wars for this dissertation. It connects mobility research with research on power,
space and place in order to develop a theoretical frame for the analysis in this
thesis.
Chapter 5 explores how power relations and the productions of space are
materialised in urban space and what has affected and shaped modern urban
transport and urban planning. Power relations have been built into our
infrastructure, and the political economy of the automobile industry and
industries connected to this branch have had a tremendous impact on transport
and urban planning around the globe. This chapter offers examples from
Sweden, where I show how this has happened with the entrance of modernism
into urban and transport planning and how that still affects planning today. I
also connect this to Lefebvres right to the city concept and try to develop a
better understanding of how the infrastructure is shaped today, and why, with
the help of the theoretical outline of this doctoral thesis.
The case sites for this thesis, Stockholm and Copenhagen, are introduced in
Chapter 6. Some explanations are offered on the differences in the modal split,
3 7

38
infrastructure and planning. Moreover, we learn why Copenhagens bicycle
infrastructure is better than Stockholms and how the two cities have developed
their infrastructures. This chapter also serves as a background for Chapter 7,
where the empirical material from the interviews in both Stockholm and
Copenhagen is analysed. The data collection through the interviews helped
create a deeper understanding of how the two cities have been planned and are
planned today. Moreover, relations and structures could be uncovered that
affected the planning and the outcome of planning and policy decisions, both
at a political level and at an administrative level. Additionally, through the
analysis of the power relations in urban space, one can see what influenced and
still influences the planning and the politics of mobility and transport in
Copenhagen and Stockholm. From that analysis the questions of how cyclists
in both cities experience cycling, traffic and the planning for cyclists arise.
This will be dealt with in Chapter 8. Cyclists experience is analysed from data
collected through survey studies in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The focus of
the analysis of the survey data is on the differences and similarities between
cyclists in Stockholm and Copenhagen. This is analysed with the Chi2 test and
by analysing the frequencies of the answers. With a starting point in the
analysis of the qualitative data (interviews and observations) and the
quantitative data (surveys), Chapter 9 brings the two together in an analysis of
the differences between the views of planners and politicians and the users of
the urban spaces of mobility, in this case, the cyclists. It seems that planners
and politicians have one view of the outcome of their decisions, which might
not correspond to the experience of the cyclists and to the modal split.
Moreover, connections are made to previous analysis in this thesis concerning
automobility, political economy, modernism and power relations in urban
space and urban cycling.
It is in Chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9 where the empirical data from interviews,
observations, surveys and analysis of plan and policy material are analysed, and
where the difference from the theoretical research in the mobility field lies.
Those chapters develop the empirical understanding of what mobility or
vlomobility means, and why the urban transport system and urban cycling
look as they do in the case studies. Although some empirical data is also used in
Chapter 5, the main work in the empirical field is done in these four chapters.
Finally, I wrap the thesis up in Chapter 10, where I summarize the findings of
the empirical and theoretical work of this doctoral thesis and try to connect the

3 8
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d p l a n n i n g . M o r e o v e r , w e l e a r n w h y C o p e n h a g e n s b i c y c l e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s b e t t e r t h a n S t o c k h o l m s a n d h o w t h e t w o c i t i e s h a v e d e v e l o p e d
t h e i r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s . T h i s c h a p t e r a l s o s e r v e s a s a b a c k g r o u n d f o r C h a p t e r 7 ,
w h e r e t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n i s a n a l y s e d . T h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v i e w s h e l p e d
c r e a t e a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w t h e t w o c i t i e s h a v e b e e n p l a n n e d a n d a r e
p l a n n e d t o d a y . M o r e o v e r , r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s c o u l d b e u n c o v e r e d t h a t
a f f e c t e d t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s , b o t h
a t a p o l i t i c a l l e v e l a n d a t a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h r o u g h t h e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e , o n e c a n s e e w h a t i n f l u e n c e d a n d
s t i l l i n f l u e n c e s t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y a n d t r a n s p o r t i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . F r o m t h a t a n a l y s i s t h e q u e s t i o n s o f h o w c y c l i s t s
i n b o t h c i t i e s e x p e r i e n c e c y c l i n g , t r a f f i c a n d t h e p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a r i s e .
T h i s w i l l b e d e a l t w i t h i n C h a p t e r 8 . C y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e i s a n a l y s e d f r o m d a t a
c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h s u r v e y s t u d i e s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e f o c u s o f
t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y d a t a i s o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n
c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e C h i 2 t e s t a n d
b y a n a l y s i n g t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e a n s w e r s . W i t h a s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a ( i n t e r v i e w s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s ) a n d t h e
q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a ( s u r v e y s ) , C h a p t e r 9 b r i n g s t h e t w o t o g e t h e r i n a n a n a l y s i s o f
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e v i e w s o f p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s a n d t h e u s e r s o f
t h e u r b a n s p a c e s o f m o b i l i t y , i n t h i s c a s e , t h e c y c l i s t s . I t s e e m s t h a t p l a n n e r s
a n d p o l i t i c i a n s h a v e o n e v i e w o f t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e i r d e c i s i o n s , w h i c h m i g h t
n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e c y c l i s t s a n d t o t h e m o d a l s p l i t .
M o r e o v e r , c o n n e c t i o n s a r e m a d e t o p r e v i o u s a n a l y s i s i n t h i s t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g
a u t o m o b i l i t y , p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , m o d e r n i s m a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n
s p a c e a n d u r b a n c y c l i n g .
I t i s i n C h a p t e r s 6 , 7 , 8 a n d 9 w h e r e t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a f r o m i n t e r v i e w s ,
o b s e r v a t i o n s , s u r v e y s a n d a n a l y s i s o f p l a n a n d p o l i c y m a t e r i a l a r e a n a l y s e d , a n d
w h e r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e f r o m t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h e m o b i l i t y f i e l d l i e s .
T h o s e c h a p t e r s d e v e l o p t h e e m p i r i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t m o b i l i t y o r
v l o m o b i l i t y m e a n s , a n d w h y t h e u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m a n d u r b a n c y c l i n g
l o o k a s t h e y d o i n t h e c a s e s t u d i e s . A l t h o u g h s o m e e m p i r i c a l d a t a i s a l s o u s e d i n
C h a p t e r 5 , t h e m a i n w o r k i n t h e e m p i r i c a l f i e l d i s d o n e i n t h e s e f o u r c h a p t e r s .
F i n a l l y , I w r a p t h e t h e s i s u p i n C h a p t e r 1 0 , w h e r e I s u m m a r i z e t h e f i n d i n g s o f
t h e e m p i r i c a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k o f t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s a n d t r y t o c o n n e c t t h e
3 8

3 9
r e s e a r c h t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e o f t h i s t h e s i s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r I a l s o l i n e o u t
i d e a s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h o n t h e t o p i c o f m o b i l i t y / v l o m o b i l i t y .


39
research to the theoretical outline of this thesis. In this chapter I also line out
ideas for further research on the topic of mobility/vlomobility.

3 9

40
2 Research design a story
about methods

Today, the urban phenomenon astonishes us by its scale; its complexity surpasses the
tools of our understanding and the instruments of practical activity. It serves as a
constant reminder of the theory of complexification, according to which social
phenomena acquire increasingly greater complexity. (Lefebvre 2003 [1970]:45)

This chapter describes the methods used for collecting the empirical data and
how the collection of the empirical data took place and evolved during the
process of collection and analysis. Furthermore, it sets the theoretical outline
for the collection of the empirical data in this dissertation. It also explains the
theoretical approach for the methods used for the collection of the data,
meaning a short excursion to the field of philosophy of science.
The analysis of planning for cycling, as mentioned in the introduction of this
thesis, rarely goes beyond research of best-practice and policy studies, aspects of
traffic safety or the basic notion that cities need to increase cycling and provide
better infrastructures for cyclists (Banister 2005, 2006 and 2008, Banister and
Hickman 2006, Kenworthy 2006, Rietveld and Daniel 2004). Understanding
the underlying processes that have an impact on urban and transport planning
is important in order to deal with sustainable modes of transport such as
bicycle traffic. Here it is important to analyse the historical aspects, as Emanuel
has done for Stockholm and Sweden for the period 1930-1980 (Emanuel
2012). The focus in his analysis is, however, not on the materialities of space
and other structures, such as economic ones, that influence planning. That is
why research on the materialities, structures and politics of transport planning
is very important in order to deal with problems concerning sustainable modes
of transport, such as walking and cycling, traffic in general, politics of mobility
and questions of mobility in general.

4 0
2 R e s e a r c h d e s i g n a s t o r y
a b o u t m e t h o d s

T o d a y , t h e u r b a n p h e n o m e n o n a s t o n i s h e s u s b y i t s s c a l e ; i t s c o m p l e x i t y s u r p a s s e s t h e
t o o l s o f o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y . I t s e r v e s a s a
c o n s t a n t r e m i n d e r o f t h e t h e o r y o f c o m p l e x i f i c a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h s o c i a l
p h e n o m e n a a c q u i r e i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r c o m p l e x i t y . ( L e f e b v r e 2 0 0 3 [ 1 9 7 0 ] : 4 5 )

T h i s c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s t h e m e t h o d s u s e d f o r c o l l e c t i n g t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a a n d
h o w t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a t o o k p l a c e a n d e v o l v e d d u r i n g t h e
p r o c e s s o f c o l l e c t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t s e t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e
f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . I t a l s o e x p l a i n s t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h f o r t h e m e t h o d s u s e d f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e d a t a ,
m e a n i n g a s h o r t e x c u r s i o n t o t h e f i e l d o f p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e .
T h e a n a l y s i s o f p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g , a s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s
t h e s i s , r a r e l y g o e s b e y o n d r e s e a r c h o f b e s t - p r a c t i c e a n d p o l i c y s t u d i e s , a s p e c t s o f
t r a f f i c s a f e t y o r t h e b a s i c n o t i o n t h a t c i t i e s n e e d t o i n c r e a s e c y c l i n g a n d p r o v i d e
b e t t e r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s f o r c y c l i s t s ( B a n i s t e r 2 0 0 5 , 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 0 8 , B a n i s t e r a n d
H i c k m a n 2 0 0 6 , K e n w o r t h y 2 0 0 6 , R i e t v e l d a n d D a n i e l 2 0 0 4 ) . U n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r o c e s s e s t h a t h a v e a n i m p a c t o n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g
i s i m p o r t a n t i n o r d e r t o d e a l w i t h s u s t a i n a b l e m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t s u c h a s
b i c y c l e t r a f f i c . H e r e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a n a l y s e t h e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s , a s E m a n u e l
h a s d o n e f o r S t o c k h o l m a n d S w e d e n f o r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 8 0 ( E m a n u e l
2 0 1 2 ) . T h e f o c u s i n h i s a n a l y s i s i s , h o w e v e r , n o t o n t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s o f s p a c e
a n d o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s , s u c h a s e c o n o m i c o n e s , t h a t i n f l u e n c e p l a n n i n g . T h a t i s
w h y r e s e a r c h o n t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s , s t r u c t u r e s a n d p o l i t i c s o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g
i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n o r d e r t o d e a l w i t h p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g s u s t a i n a b l e m o d e s
o f t r a n s p o r t , s u c h a s w a l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g , t r a f f i c i n g e n e r a l , p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y
a n d q u e s t i o n s o f m o b i l i t y i n g e n e r a l .
4 0

4 1
T h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n f o r t h i s t h e s i s h a s d e v e l o p e d o n t h e b a s i s o f d i f f e r e n t i d e a s
a n d t h e o r e t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t s . T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e d e s i g n o f t h i s
t h e s i s a n d o f t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a n d a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s d r a w s m a i n l y o n
c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d o n c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m . I t h a s b e e n m y a m b i t i o n t o b u i l d a s o l i d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e m e t h o d s u s e d f o r c o l l e c t i n g
e m p i r i c a l d a t a a n d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h a t d a t a . D r a w i n g o n t h o s e t w o
p h i l o s o p h i e s i t m a k e s s e n s e t o m e r g e d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s , n a m e l y q u a l i t a t i v e a n d
q u a n t i t a t i v e , i n t o a d u a l a p p r o a c h i n o r d e r t o g a t h e r a s m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n a s
p o s s i b l e s o t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s c a n b e a n s w e r e d . I n s e c t i o n 2 . 1 I w i l l
o u t l i n e t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e t h e s i s i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l . I n t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n p r o j e c t t h e o n l y p a r t t h a t w a s c l e a r w a s t h e f o c u s
o n c y c l i n g a s a s u s t a i n a b l e m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t . T h e i d e a c a m e u p t h a t a
c o m p a r i s o n o f t w o c i t i e s c o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g . I d e v e l o p e d i d e a s a b o u t t w o
c i t i e s , n a m e l y C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k a n d S t o c k h o l m , S w e d e n . B o t h c o u n t r i e s
h a v e a s i m i l a r h i s t o r y c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y w e l f a r e s y s t e m s a n d c l a s s s t r u g g l e s
d u r i n g t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y a n d s h a r e a c u l t u r e o f p r o v i d i n g g o o d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s ,
b o t h s o c i a l a n d p h y s i c a l , f o r t h e i r c i t i z e n s . M o r e o v e r , b o t h c o u n t r i e s h a v e a
s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n o f d e m o c r a c y a n d s i m i l a r i d e a s a b o u t c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n
d e m o c r a c y ( B e n n e r a n d V a d 2 0 0 0 ) .
T o a n a l y s e p l a n n i n g i n t h e t w o c a p i t a l c i t i e s w o u l d b e a g o o d s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r
t a k i n g a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h e u r b a n t r a n s p o r t a n d c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s a n d t h e
p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e m . F u r t h e r m o r e , C o p e n h a g e n
s e e m e d t o m e t o b e a g o o d c h o i c e d u e t o i t s r e p u t a t i o n a s a w o r l d l e a d i n g
c y c l i n g c i t y a n d a h i g h r a t e o f c y c l i n g i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t ( s e e T a b l e 2 i n s e c t i o n
6 ) . L i v i n g c l o s e t o t h e D a n i s h b o r d e r i n t h e c i t y o f L u n d I h a d v i s i t e d
C o p e n h a g e n o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s a n d n o t e d t h e h u g e a m o u n t o f c y c l i s t s i n t h e
c i t y . C o p e n h a g e n a p p e a r e d i n m a n y a r t i c l e s a b o u t c y c l i n g a s a p i o n e e r i n
b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g . T h u s , t h e c h o i c e o f C o p e n h a g e n s e e m e d n a t u r a l . H o w e v e r ,
s i n c e I w a n t e d t o m a k e a c o m p a r a t i v e c a s e s t u d y i n o r d e r t o g e t a b r o a d e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s , I n e e d e d a n o t h e r c i t y t o
c o m p a r e C o p e n h a g e n w i t h . I c h o s e S t o c k h o l m , b e c a u s e S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n a r e t w o S c a n d i n a v i a n c a p i t a l s s i m i l a r i n s i z e . M o r e o v e r , I w a n t e d
t w o c i t i e s t h a t a r e n o t s y m m e t r i c i n c o m p a r i s o n , i n o t h e r w o r d s s i m i l a r i n s i z e
a n d b o t h S c a n d i n a v i a n c a p i t a l s , b u t v e r y d i f f e r e n t w h e n i t c o m e s t o c y c l i n g .
T h e m o d a l s p l i t f o r c y c l i n g i s m u c h h i g h e r i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m
( s e e s e c t i o n 6 ) , w h i c h h a s t r i g g e r e d m y h y p o t h e s i s t h a t C o p e n h a g e n i s a c y c l i n g
c i t y , w i t h a g o o d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s , w e l l d e v e l o p e d a p p r o a c h e s t o

41
The research design for this thesis has developed on the basis of different ideas
and theoretical standpoints. The philosophical foundation of the design of this
thesis and of the methodological and analytical approaches draws mainly on
critical theory and on critical realism. It has been my ambition to build a solid
philosophical and theoretical foundation for the methods used for collecting
empirical data and for the analysis of that data. Drawing on those two
philosophies it makes sense to merge different methods, namely qualitative and
quantitative, into a dual approach in order to gather as much information as
possible so that the research questions can be answered. In section 2.1 I will
outline the philosophical foundation of the thesis in greater detail. In the
beginning of the dissertation project the only part that was clear was the focus
on cycling as a sustainable mode of transport. The idea came up that a
comparison of two cities could be interesting. I developed ideas about two
cities, namely Copenhagen, Denmark and Stockholm, Sweden. Both countries
have a similar history characterised by welfare systems and class struggles
during the 20th century and share a culture of providing good infrastructures,
both social and physical, for their citizens. Moreover, both countries have a
strong tradition of democracy and similar ideas about citizen participation in
democracy (Benner and Vad 2000).
To analyse planning in the two capital cities would be a good starting point for
taking a closer look at the urban transport and cycling infrastructures and the
planning processes involved in developing them. Furthermore, Copenhagen
seemed to me to be a good choice due to its reputation as a world leading
cycling city and a high rate of cycling in the modal split (see Table 2 in section
6). Living close to the Danish border in the city of Lund I had visited
Copenhagen on several occasions and noted the huge amount of cyclists in the
city. Copenhagen appeared in many articles about cycling as a pioneer in
bicycle planning. Thus, the choice of Copenhagen seemed natural. However,
since I wanted to make a comparative case study in order to get a broader
understanding of bicycle planning in different settings, I needed another city to
compare Copenhagen with. I chose Stockholm, because Stockholm and
Copenhagen are two Scandinavian capitals similar in size. Moreover, I wanted
two cities that are not symmetric in comparison, in other words similar in size
and both Scandinavian capitals, but very different when it comes to cycling.
The modal split for cycling is much higher in Copenhagen than in Stockholm
(see section 6), which has triggered my hypothesis that Copenhagen is a cycling
city, with a good infrastructure for cyclists, well developed approaches to
4 1

42
planning for cyclists and a high share of trips by bikes in the modal split, and
that Stockholm would, to some extent, be the opposite of Copenhagen. This
hypothesis is also partly underpinned by the research done by Emanuel (2012),
who shows that Stockholm, historically, mixed traffic until the car became
more dominant and established in the Swedish society, and that consequently
very little infrastructure was built for cyclists. Copenhagen, on the other hand,
established an infrastructure quite early at the beginning of the 20
th
century
(Emanuel 2012). That was the starting point for the comparative case study
that constitutes the foundation of the empirical data collection for this doctoral
thesis.
Another idea that I identified as important in the field of cycling and
transportation studies was that cycling and bicycle planning could not be fully
understood by investigating cycling exclusively. Planning, transport and cycling
are complex social phenomena. Transport planning in particular, but also
urban planning, are seen as rational (Flyvbjerg 1998), which means that social
relations (including political aspects) are often excluded when looking at
planning and transport. If only one aspect of a factor such as cycling is taken
into account, the whole story of why the transport systems look like they do
could not be fully told. This is important in order to create a full
understanding of planning and politics (see Sandercock 1998). My concept
was that a broader approach, both method wise and theory wise, would be
needed. Therefore, two main methods have been used for the concrete
collection of the empirical data in the two case cities, namely interviews (with
central important planners and politicians) and survey studies among cyclists in
Copenhagen and Stockholm. As background data and better insight in the
bicycling and transport infrastructure and the transport planning, observational
studies and document studies (of important policy and planning documents)
have also been undertaken. The observations and the document studies serve as
an introduction to the cases and are described more in detail below.
This approach enables a data collection from different perspectives and with
different insights into the use and condition of the infrastructure and the
thoughts behind transport planning and planning for cyclists. It is important
to avoid looking at cycling and bicycle planning from a purely bicycle or
bicycle planning perspective. Transport and planning are interconnected with
other areas, such as the users impressions of the system, urban planning and
politics. Therefore, the variety of methods used for the data collection in this
thesis give the broad data needed in order to answer the research questions

4 2
p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a n d a h i g h s h a r e o f t r i p s b y b i k e s i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t , a n d
t h a t S t o c k h o l m w o u l d , t o s o m e e x t e n t , b e t h e o p p o s i t e o f C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s
h y p o t h e s i s i s a l s o p a r t l y u n d e r p i n n e d b y t h e r e s e a r c h d o n e b y E m a n u e l ( 2 0 1 2 ) ,
w h o s h o w s t h a t S t o c k h o l m , h i s t o r i c a l l y , m i x e d t r a f f i c u n t i l t h e c a r b e c a m e
m o r e d o m i n a n t a n d e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e S w e d i s h s o c i e t y , a n d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y
v e r y l i t t l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w a s b u i l t f o r c y c l i s t s . C o p e n h a g e n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
e s t a b l i s h e d a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e q u i t e e a r l y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y
( E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . T h a t w a s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e c o m p a r a t i v e c a s e s t u d y
t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r t h i s d o c t o r a l
t h e s i s .
A n o t h e r i d e a t h a t I i d e n t i f i e d a s i m p o r t a n t i n t h e f i e l d o f c y c l i n g a n d
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s t u d i e s w a s t h a t c y c l i n g a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g c o u l d n o t b e f u l l y
u n d e r s t o o d b y i n v e s t i g a t i n g c y c l i n g e x c l u s i v e l y . P l a n n i n g , t r a n s p o r t a n d c y c l i n g
a r e c o m p l e x s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a . T r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r , b u t a l s o
u r b a n p l a n n i n g , a r e s e e n a s r a t i o n a l ( F l y v b j e r g 1 9 9 8 ) , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s ) a r e o f t e n e x c l u d e d w h e n l o o k i n g a t
p l a n n i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t . I f o n l y o n e a s p e c t o f a f a c t o r s u c h a s c y c l i n g i s t a k e n
i n t o a c c o u n t , t h e w h o l e s t o r y o f w h y t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s l o o k l i k e t h e y d o
c o u l d n o t b e f u l l y t o l d . T h i s i s i m p o r t a n t i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a f u l l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s ( s e e S a n d e r c o c k 1 9 9 8 ) . M y c o n c e p t
w a s t h a t a b r o a d e r a p p r o a c h , b o t h m e t h o d w i s e a n d t h e o r y w i s e , w o u l d b e
n e e d e d . T h e r e f o r e , t w o m a i n m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r t h e c o n c r e t e
c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a i n t h e t w o c a s e c i t i e s , n a m e l y i n t e r v i e w s ( w i t h
c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n t p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s ) a n d s u r v e y s t u d i e s a m o n g c y c l i s t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . A s b a c k g r o u n d d a t a a n d b e t t e r i n s i g h t i n t h e
b i c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , o b s e r v a t i o n a l
s t u d i e s a n d d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s ( o f i m p o r t a n t p o l i c y a n d p l a n n i n g d o c u m e n t s )
h a v e a l s o b e e n u n d e r t a k e n . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s s e r v e a s
a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e c a s e s a n d a r e d e s c r i b e d m o r e i n d e t a i l b e l o w .
T h i s a p p r o a c h e n a b l e s a d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f r o m d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d w i t h
d i f f e r e n t i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e u s e a n d c o n d i t i o n o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e
t h o u g h t s b e h i n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t
t o a v o i d l o o k i n g a t c y c l i n g a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g f r o m a p u r e l y b i c y c l e o r
b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g p e r s p e c t i v e . T r a n s p o r t a n d p l a n n i n g a r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d w i t h
o t h e r a r e a s , s u c h a s t h e u s e r s i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e s y s t e m , u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d
p o l i t i c s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e v a r i e t y o f m e t h o d s u s e d f o r t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n i n t h i s
t h e s i s g i v e t h e b r o a d d a t a n e e d e d i n o r d e r t o a n s w e r t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s
4 2

4 3
p o s e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n c h a p t e r . T h e y a l s o a l l o w f o r t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s ,
w h i c h i s a l s o p a r t o f t h i s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ( A l v e s s o n a n d S k l d b e r g 2 0 0 8 ) .
T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e m e t h o d s u s e d f o r t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r t h i s s t u d y i s
i n t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e , w h i c h a r e
o u t l i n e d i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r .
2 . 1 E x c u r s i o n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e t h e
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n
T h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e , t h e t h e o r i e s i n v o l v e d a n d t h e m e t h o d o l o g y
c o n n e c t e d t o i t d e t e r m i n e s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h a n d a r e t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o n d u c t e d i n r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s . I t a l s o d e t e r m i n e s w h i c h
m e t h o d s a n d a p p r o a c h e s a r e c h o s e n a n d w h i c h a r e l e f t o u t . I t i s t h e r e f o r e
i m p o r t a n t t o g i v e a s h o r t a c c o u n t o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s t h a t h a v e
d e t e r m i n e d t h e r e s e a r c h a p p r o a c h i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n a n d t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t a p p r o a c h b r i n g s w i t h i t .
P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , o b s e r v a t i o n s , i n t e r v i e w s a n d p l a n / p o l i c y a n a l y s i s a r e p a r t o f
t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a n d / o r p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n s . I n t h e c a s e o f
m y r e s e a r c h I h a v e p a r t l y b e e n i n s p i r e d b y L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) a n d b y c r i t i c a l t h e o r y
a n d c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m . B o t h c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m a c k n o w l e d g e t h e
d u a l i t y o f d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s u s e d i n r e s e a r c h a n d a l s o t h e n e e d f o r s u c h a
d u a l i t y , h o w e v e r d i f f e r e n t l y . L u k e s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h i s m o r e p r a c t i c a l .
F u r t h e r m o r e , o n e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f L u k e s i d e a a b o u t m e t h o d o l o g i e s i s t h a t
a f o c u s o n e m p i r i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t i o n a n d t h e m e t h o d s c o n n e c t e d t o i t m i g h t n o t
b e e n o u g h . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e e f f e c t o f t h o s e
r e l a t i o n s w e n e e d t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f p o w e r ,
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d a s p e c t s c o n n e c t e d t o i t ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 ) . T h i s i s w h y t h i s
t h e s i s a l s o f o c u s e s o n a t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o w e r a n d s p a c e i n o r d e r
t o d e v e l o p a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t e d a b o u t c y c l i n g a n d
p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s i n
C h a p t e r s 3 , 4 a n d 5 p a v e t h e w a y f o r a d e e p a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d a n d
f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r t h a t L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 )
t a l k s a b o u t . T h e a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d i n t h i s t h e s i s c a n b e s e e n a s t h e o p p o s i t e o f
a p o s i t i v i s t i c o r n a t u r a l i s t i c o n e l i k e s c h o l a r s s u c h a s P o p p e r p u t f o r w a r d
( P o p p e r 1 9 9 1 ) . I t i s r a t h e r a h e r m e n e u t i c a p p r o a c h . I n h e r m e n e u t i c o r

43
posed in the introduction chapter. They also allow for theoretical discussions,
which is also part of this doctoral dissertation (Alvesson and Skldberg 2008).
The starting point of the methods used for the data collection for this study is
in the methodological considerations and the philosophy of science, which are
outlined in the next section of this chapter.
2.1 Excursion to the philosophy of science the
methodological foundation
The philosophy of science, the theories involved and the methodology
connected to it determine scientific research and are the foundation of the
investigations conducted in research projects. It also determines which
methods and approaches are chosen and which are left out. It is therefore
important to give a short account of the philosophical foundations that have
determined the research approach in this dissertation and the methodological
consequences that approach brings with it.
Philosophically, observations, interviews and plan/policy analysis are part of
the hermeneutic and/or phenomenological research traditions. In the case of
my research I have partly been inspired by Lukes (2005) and by critical theory
and critical realism. Both critical theory and critical realism acknowledge the
duality of different methods used in research and also the need for such a
duality, however differently. Lukes methodological approach is more practical.
Furthermore, one important aspect of Lukes idea about methodologies is that
a focus on empirical data collection and the methods connected to it might not
be enough. In order to understand power relations and the effect of those
relations we need theoretical understanding and interpretations of power,
power relations and aspects connected to it (Lukes 2005). This is why this
thesis also focuses on a theoretical understanding of power and space in order
to develop an interpretation of the empirical data collected about cycling and
planning in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The theoretical discussions in
Chapters 3, 4 and 5 pave the way for a deep analysis of the data collected and
for an understanding of the different dimensions of power that Lukes (2005)
talks about. The approach adopted in this thesis can be seen as the opposite of
a positivistic or naturalistic one like scholars such as Popper put forward
(Popper 1991). It is rather a hermeneutic approach. In hermeneutic or
4 3

44
individualistic research studies, approaches build more on an individual
qualitative understanding of specific problems in the society, in this case
planning for cyclists and mobility in two Scandinavian capital cities. A
hermeneutic approach also entails a different kind of methodological thinking.
The methodology builds on understanding and interpretation and is followed
by certain kinds of methods, such as interviews or observations, but
quantitative studies can also be interpreted in a qualitative way and can thus be
part of a hermeneutic approach. When conducting research in a hermeneutic
way there cannot be a claim of total objectivity or ultimate truth, but the claim
of individual understanding of a certain situation, for example the transport
planning processes in Stockholm and Copenhagen (Hollis 1996).
The theoretical considerations of this chapter offer a framework for the
methodology for analysing the planning for bicycles, mobility and vlomobility
in Copenhagen and Stockholm. Planning also involves culture, politics,
identity and the production of space. Being aware of all those aspects, I tried to
create a framework for interviews with planners and politicians in Copenhagen
and Stockholm that would yield material for a deeper analysis than just the
physical structure, which naturally also influences how many people use the
bike but is certainly not the only aspect. Furthermore, it is of interest to
investigate why decisions were taken that led to the physical structure we can
all see today in Copenhagen and Stockholm. The factors behind these decision,
for example power relations and different forms of power in planning processes
(as Lukes 2005 describes, see Chapter 4) and cyclists perspectives are very
important in order to develop an understanding of todays urban
infrastructure. This also means that different approaches, methodological
considerations and methods are needed in order to find the hidden power
relations and aspects that affect the outcome of planning and politics (Lukes
2005).
Thus, the question of how the collection of the empirical material and the
analysis of the same is analysed and interpreted remains to be answered from a
philosophy-of- science perspective. Although the account of the
methodological background above is closely linked to that answer, the
philosophical basis of the analysis is grounded on critical realism. Proponents
of critical realism, Popper among others, have criticised both positivistic and
naturalistic philosophy for searching for laws in social sciences, similar to the
laws in natural science, and the postmodern philosophy that seems to have a
tendency to neglect the reality of life in societies and only seems to argue that

4 4
i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s , a p p r o a c h e s b u i l d m o r e o n a n i n d i v i d u a l
q u a l i t a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s i n t h e s o c i e t y , i n t h i s c a s e
p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a n d m o b i l i t y i n t w o S c a n d i n a v i a n c a p i t a l c i t i e s . A
h e r m e n e u t i c a p p r o a c h a l s o e n t a i l s a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g .
T h e m e t h o d o l o g y b u i l d s o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d i s f o l l o w e d
b y c e r t a i n k i n d s o f m e t h o d s , s u c h a s i n t e r v i e w s o r o b s e r v a t i o n s , b u t
q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s c a n a l s o b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n a q u a l i t a t i v e w a y a n d c a n t h u s b e
p a r t o f a h e r m e n e u t i c a p p r o a c h . W h e n c o n d u c t i n g r e s e a r c h i n a h e r m e n e u t i c
w a y t h e r e c a n n o t b e a c l a i m o f t o t a l o b j e c t i v i t y o r u l t i m a t e t r u t h , b u t t h e c l a i m
o f i n d i v i d u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e t h e t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n ( H o l l i s 1 9 9 6 ) .
T h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h i s c h a p t e r o f f e r a f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e
m e t h o d o l o g y f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l e s , m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y
i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . P l a n n i n g a l s o i n v o l v e s c u l t u r e , p o l i t i c s ,
i d e n t i t y a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e . B e i n g a w a r e o f a l l t h o s e a s p e c t s , I t r i e d t o
c r e a t e a f r a m e w o r k f o r i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s i n C o p e n h a g e n
a n d S t o c k h o l m t h a t w o u l d y i e l d m a t e r i a l f o r a d e e p e r a n a l y s i s t h a n j u s t t h e
p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h n a t u r a l l y a l s o i n f l u e n c e s h o w m a n y p e o p l e u s e t h e
b i k e b u t i s c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e o n l y a s p e c t . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s o f i n t e r e s t t o
i n v e s t i g a t e w h y d e c i s i o n s w e r e t a k e n t h a t l e d t o t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e w e c a n
a l l s e e t o d a y i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h e f a c t o r s b e h i n d t h e s e d e c i s i o n ,
f o r e x a m p l e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f p o w e r i n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s
( a s L u k e s 2 0 0 5 d e s c r i b e s , s e e C h a p t e r 4 ) a n d c y c l i s t s p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e v e r y
i m p o r t a n t i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t o d a y s u r b a n
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h i s a l s o m e a n s t h a t d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s , m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d m e t h o d s a r e n e e d e d i n o r d e r t o f i n d t h e h i d d e n p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s a n d a s p e c t s t h a t a f f e c t t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s ( L u k e s
2 0 0 5 ) .
T h u s , t h e q u e s t i o n o f h o w t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l a n d t h e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e s a m e i s a n a l y s e d a n d i n t e r p r e t e d r e m a i n s t o b e a n s w e r e d f r o m a
p h i l o s o p h y - o f - s c i e n c e p e r s p e c t i v e . A l t h o u g h t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l b a c k g r o u n d a b o v e i s c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h a t a n s w e r , t h e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s o f t h e a n a l y s i s i s g r o u n d e d o n c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m . P r o p o n e n t s
o f c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m , P o p p e r a m o n g o t h e r s , h a v e c r i t i c i s e d b o t h p o s i t i v i s t i c a n d
n a t u r a l i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y f o r s e a r c h i n g f o r l a w s i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , s i m i l a r t o t h e
l a w s i n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , a n d t h e p o s t m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h y t h a t s e e m s t o h a v e a
t e n d e n c y t o n e g l e c t t h e r e a l i t y o f l i f e i n s o c i e t i e s a n d o n l y s e e m s t o a r g u e t h a t
4 4

4 5
n o g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s o r c a u s a l i t i e s b u t o n l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e ( S a y e r
2 0 0 4 ) . I c e r t a i n l y a g r e e w i t h S a y e r s c r i t i c i s m o f p o s i t i v i s m a s w e l l a s w i t h t h e
c r i t i c i s m d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s p o s t m o d e r n i s m . I n m y o w n r e s e a r c h t h e m i x o f
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d c a u s a l i t i e s h a s g u i d e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m e t h o d s a n d
t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a . C r i t i c a l r e a l i s m s u p p o r t s b r o a d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d
c l a i m s , a s S a y e r ( 2 0 0 4 ) p u t s i t :
F i r s t , t h e r e a l i s , w h a t e v e r e x i s t s , b e i t n a t u r a l o r s o c i a l , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t e v e r i t i s
a n e m p i r i c a l o b j e c t f o r u s , a n d w h a t e v e r w e h a p p e n t o h a v e a n a d e q u a t e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t s n a t u r e . S e c o n d l y , t h e r e a l i s t h e r e a l m o f o b j e c t s , t h e i r
s t r u c t u r e s a n d p o w e r s . ( S a y e r 2 0 0 4 : 1 1 )
I f t h a t i s t a k e n a s a r e q u i r e m e n t f o r c o n d u c t i n g r e s e a r c h , t h e n e e d f o r a b r o a d
m e t h o d o l o g y f o r d e v e l o p i n g r e s e a r c h m e t h o d s b e c o m e s e v i d e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m f o r m s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s o f t h e a n a l y s i s
o f t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l .
C r i t i c a l r e a l i s m a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r c a n o n l y i n v e s t i g a t e a n d
d e v e l o p a c e r t a i n , l i m i t e d k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t s o c i e t y a n d c a n o n l y
d e v e l o p t h a t k n o w l e d g e w i t h i n c e r t a i n , l i m i t e d a r e a s , t r a n s f e r r e d b y c e r t a i n
d i s c o u r s e s . H o w e v e r , t h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t n o t h i n g c a n b e s a i d a b o u t t h e
s o c i e t y u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ( S a y e r 2 0 0 4 ) . M o r e o v e r ,
c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m a l s o p r o m o t e s a b r o a d u s e o f m e t h o d s ( s e e S a y e r 1 9 9 2 ) i n o r d e r
t o d e v e l o p a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e . T h i s i s d o n e b y d i v i d i n g k n o w l e d g e
i n t o t h e r e a l , t h e a c t u a l a n d t h e e m p i r i c a l . S a y e r ( 2 0 0 4 ) d e f i n e s t h e r e a l a s
e v e r y t h i n g t h a t e x i s t s , b o t h n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l . I t i s a l s o d e f i n e d a s t h e
s t r u c t u r e s a n d p o w e r o f t h e o b j e c t s a c t i n g w i t h i n t h e r e a l . T h e a c t u a l i s
d e f i n e d b y S a y e r a s f o l l o w s :
T h e a c t u a l r e f e r s t o w h a t h a p p e n s i f a n d w h e n t h o s e p o w e r s a r e a c t i v a t e d , t o w h a t
t h e y d o a n d w h a t e v e n t u a t e s w h e n t h e y d o ( S a y e r 2 0 0 4 : 1 2 )
T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e a c t u a l , a c c o r d i n g t o S a y e r ( 2 0 0 4 ) , d e a l s w i t h m a t t e r s o f
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s a n d t h e i r e f f e c t s . T h e e m p i r i c a l , t h e n , i s
d e f i n e d a s t h e d o m a i n o f e x p e r i e n c e ( S a y e r 2 0 0 4 : 1 2 ) , i . e . t o w h a t e x t e n t t h e
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s e t c . i n t h e a c t u a l a r e e x p e r i e n c e d . I n o r d e r t o g a i n k n o w l e d g e
o f a l l t h r e e d o m a i n s , a b r o a d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n i s n e e d e d . I b e l i e v e
t h e e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h i s t h e s i s a n d t h e a n a l y s i s o f i t a r e w e l l f o u n d e d i n
t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m d u e t o t h e b r o a d u s e o f
d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , m o b i l i t y a n d

45
no generalisations or causalities but only interpretations are possible (Sayer
2004). I certainly agree with Sayers criticism of positivism as well as with the
criticism directed towards postmodernism. In my own research the mix of
interpretations and causalities has guided the development of the methods and
the analysis of the data. Critical realism supports broad investigations and
claims, as Sayer (2004) puts it:
First, the real is, whatever exists, be it natural or social, regardless of whatever it is
an empirical object for us, and whatever we happen to have an adequate
understanding of its nature. Secondly, the real is the realm of objects, their
structures and powers. (Sayer 2004:11)
If that is taken as a requirement for conducting research, the need for a broad
methodology for developing research methods becomes evident. Furthermore,
the philosophy of critical realism forms the philosophical basis of the analysis
of the empirical material.
Critical realism acknowledges that the researcher can only investigate and
develop a certain, limited kind of knowledge about society and can only
develop that knowledge within certain, limited areas, transferred by certain
discourses. However, this does not mean that nothing can be said about the
society under investigation, as mentioned above (Sayer 2004). Moreover,
critical realism also promotes a broad use of methods (see Sayer 1992) in order
to develop a stratification of knowledge. This is done by dividing knowledge
into the real, the actual and the empirical. Sayer (2004) defines the real as
everything that exists, both natural and social. It is also defined as the
structures and power of the objects acting within the real. The actual is
defined by Sayer as follows:
The actual refers to what happens if and when those powers are activated, to what
they do and what eventuates when they do (Sayer 2004:12)
This means that the actual, according to Sayer (2004), deals with matters of
power relations and structures and their effects. The empirical, then, is
defined as the domain of experience (Sayer 2004:12), i.e. to what extent the
power relations etc. in the actual are experienced. In order to gain knowledge
of all three domains, a broad methodological foundation is needed. I believe
the empirical research in this thesis and the analysis of it are well founded in
the philosophy of critical theory and critical realism due to the broad use of
different methods, the theoretical analysis of power relations, mobility and
4 5

46
space and the theoretical analysis of the marginalisation of cyclists in urban
public spaces.
While critical realism forms the philosophical and methodological basis for the
methods used for collecting the empirical material, critical theory is used as the
philosophical basis for analysing the data and the processes in the two case
cities. In order to analyse power relations and maintain a critical view of the
data, but also of the planning and political processes in Copenhagen and
Stockholm, I use critical theory as a broad analytical approach to the empirical
data and to investigate the on-going processes in Copenhagen and Stockholm.
Critical theory builds on the work of the so-called Frankfurt School of Critical
Theory and is known for its interpretive or reflective approach. Critical theory
can be linked to critical realism in its view of science and society. Although
critical theory is often seen as more macro- oriented than critical realism, they
share the view that societies and social phenomena are produced by social
relations and structures and often rooted in a historical context. Those relations
and structures cannot be analysed by looking for social laws but must be
approached in a more qualitative way, which is something that both critical
realism and critical theory have in common (Alvesson and Skldberg 2008).
Another main aspect of critical theory is
a pronounced interest in critically questioning the realised social reality.
(Alvesson and Skldberg 2008:287 Authors translation)
Moreover, critical theory is sceptical about the rationality of science, especially
the shift towards the search for truth and general laws in societies. Talking
about the shift in the philosophy of science towards rationality Herbert
Marcuse said:
Made into a methodological principle, this suspension has a twofold consequence:
(a) it strengthened the shift of the theoretical emphasis from the metaphysical What
is?... to the functional How?, and (b) it establishes a practical (though by no
means absolute) certainty which, in its operations with matter, is with good
conscience free from commitment to any substance outside the operational context.
(Marcuse 2002 [1964]:155)
What Marcuse means is that theoretical research has lost its meaning, because
it deals with metaphysics and perceptions that cannot be measured. This also
has a bearing on other immeasurable aspects, such as justice, social perceptions
or the socially constructed places we move in. That process had, in a way,
already begun with the French revolution. Marcuse explains that, although

4 6
s p a c e a n d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n
p u b l i c s p a c e s .
W h i l e c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m f o r m s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e
m e t h o d s u s e d f o r c o l l e c t i n g t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l , c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s u s e d a s t h e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e d a t a a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e t w o c a s e
c i t i e s . I n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d m a i n t a i n a c r i t i c a l v i e w o f t h e
d a t a , b u t a l s o o f t h e p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m , I u s e c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a s a b r o a d a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e e m p i r i c a l
d a t a a n d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e o n - g o i n g p r o c e s s e s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m .
C r i t i c a l t h e o r y b u i l d s o n t h e w o r k o f t h e s o - c a l l e d F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l o f C r i t i c a l
T h e o r y a n d i s k n o w n f o r i t s i n t e r p r e t i v e o r r e f l e c t i v e a p p r o a c h . C r i t i c a l t h e o r y
c a n b e l i n k e d t o c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m i n i t s v i e w o f s c i e n c e a n d s o c i e t y . A l t h o u g h
c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s o f t e n s e e n a s m o r e m a c r o - o r i e n t e d t h a n c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m , t h e y
s h a r e t h e v i e w t h a t s o c i e t i e s a n d s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a a r e p r o d u c e d b y s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s a n d o f t e n r o o t e d i n a h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . T h o s e r e l a t i o n s
a n d s t r u c t u r e s c a n n o t b e a n a l y s e d b y l o o k i n g f o r s o c i a l l a w s b u t m u s t b e
a p p r o a c h e d i n a m o r e q u a l i t a t i v e w a y , w h i c h i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t b o t h c r i t i c a l
r e a l i s m a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y h a v e i n c o m m o n ( A l v e s s o n a n d S k l d b e r g 2 0 0 8 ) .
A n o t h e r m a i n a s p e c t o f c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s
a p r o n o u n c e d i n t e r e s t i n c r i t i c a l l y q u e s t i o n i n g t h e r e a l i s e d s o c i a l r e a l i t y .
( A l v e s s o n a n d S k l d b e r g 2 0 0 8 : 2 8 7 A u t h o r s t r a n s l a t i o n )
M o r e o v e r , c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s s c e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f s c i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y
t h e s h i f t t o w a r d s t h e s e a r c h f o r t r u t h a n d g e n e r a l l a w s i n s o c i e t i e s . T a l k i n g
a b o u t t h e s h i f t i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e t o w a r d s r a t i o n a l i t y H e r b e r t
M a r c u s e s a i d :
M a d e i n t o a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e , t h i s s u s p e n s i o n h a s a t w o f o l d c o n s e q u e n c e :
( a ) i t s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e s h i f t o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l e m p h a s i s f r o m t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l W h a t
i s ? . . . t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l H o w ? , a n d ( b ) i t e s t a b l i s h e s a p r a c t i c a l ( t h o u g h b y n o
m e a n s a b s o l u t e ) c e r t a i n t y w h i c h , i n i t s o p e r a t i o n s w i t h m a t t e r , i s w i t h g o o d
c o n s c i e n c e f r e e f r o m c o m m i t m e n t t o a n y s u b s t a n c e o u t s i d e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t e x t .
( M a r c u s e 2 0 0 2 [ 1 9 6 4 ] : 1 5 5 )
W h a t M a r c u s e m e a n s i s t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s l o s t i t s m e a n i n g , b e c a u s e
i t d e a l s w i t h m e t a p h y s i c s a n d p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t c a n n o t b e m e a s u r e d . T h i s a l s o
h a s a b e a r i n g o n o t h e r i m m e a s u r a b l e a s p e c t s , s u c h a s j u s t i c e , s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n s
o r t h e s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d p l a c e s w e m o v e i n . T h a t p r o c e s s h a d , i n a w a y ,
a l r e a d y b e g u n w i t h t h e F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n . M a r c u s e e x p l a i n s t h a t , a l t h o u g h
4 6

4 7
c r i t i c i s i n g i t s t e r r o r , t h e G e r m a n i d e a l i s t s , e . g . H e g e l , K a n t o r F i c h t e ,
a p p r e c i a t e d t h e r e v o l u t i o n , s i n c e t h e y t h o u g h t t h a t f r o m t h e n o n , T h e w o r l d
w a s t o b e a n o r d e r o f r e a s o n . ( M a r c u s e 1 9 9 9 [ 1 9 4 1 ] : 4 ) F u r t h e r m o r e , M a r c u s e
a l s o c o n s i d e r s a g r e a t m a n y o f o u r n e e d s a s p r e c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e c a p i t a l i s t
s o c i e t i e s w e l i v e i n . H e d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t r u e a n d f a l s e n e e d s a s f o l l o w s :
T h e i n t e n s i t y , t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d e v e n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f h u m a n n e e d s , b e y o n d t h e
b i o l o g i c a l l e v e l , h a v e a l w a y s b e e n p r e c o n d i t i o n e d . W e m a y d i s t i n g u i s h b o t h t r u e
a n d f a l s e n e e d s . M o s t o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g n e e d s t o r e l a x , t o h a v e f u n , t o b e h a v e a n d
c o n s u m e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , t o l o v e a n d h a t e w h a t o t h e r s l o v e
a n d h a t e , b e l o n g t o t h i s c a t e g o r y o f f a l s e n e e d s . ( M a r c u s e 2 0 0 2 [ 1 9 6 4 ] : 6 - 7 )
D u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y t h e m e a s u r a b l e c o u n t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e w h a t w e c a n
c o n n e c t t o t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d i t i s a r g u e d t h a t o t h e r a s p e c t s o f r e a s o n a n d
t h e o r e t i c a l t h o u g h t n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o c i e t y . T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e a u t o m o b i l e c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s a p a r t i n t h i s s h i f t f r o m m e t a p h y s i c a l ,
t h e o r e t i c a l a n d a l s o s o c i a l t h i n k i n g t o e m p i r i c i s m a n d m e a s u r a b l e f a c t s
( M a r c u s e 2 0 0 2 [ 1 9 6 4 ] ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e s h o u l d r e m a i n c r i t i c a l t o w a r d s
M a r c u s e s s t a t e m e n t , b e c a u s e w h o i s h e t o t e l l u s h o w a n d w h y w e w a n t t o
r e l a x , f o r e x a m p l e ? H o w e v e r , I b e l i e v e h e t o u c h e s u p o n a v e r y i m p o r t a n t
a s p e c t , n a m e l y t h a t , i n t h i s k i n d o f s o c i e t y t h a t M a r c u s e d e s c r i b e s v e r y c l e a r l y ,
a u t o m o b i l i t y h a s a d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n . T h r o u g h M a r c u s e s t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k w e
c a n u n d e r s t a n d a n d l o o k a t s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r e o t h e r w i s e h a r d t o i d e n t i f y a n d
t h u s e a s y t o o v e r l o o k . M a r c u s e s w o r k s e t s t h e a g e n d a f o r t h e m e t h o d s u s e d i n
t h i s t h e s i s .
T h e c o n n e c t i o n o f a u t o m o b i l i t y t o t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l d u r i n g t h e 2 0
t h

c e n t u r y a n d t h e s o c i a l c l i m a t e d e s c r i b e d b y M a r c u s e h a v e p a v e d t h e w a y f o r
n e w f o r m s o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , w h i c h h a s a f f e c t e d t r a f f i c a n d
m a r g i n a l i s e d n o n - m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t s i n c e t h e 1 9 2 0 s a n d o n w a r d s
i n m a n y c o u n t r i e s a n d c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h e f a l s e n e e d s a n d t h e
p r e c o n d i t i o n i n g h a v e s h a p e d c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a l s o t h e w a y
p e o p l e m o v e a b o u t . C a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n i s t h e d o m i n a n t f a c t o r i n s h a p i n g
p e o p l e s m o b i l i t y . T h u s , c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s a b o u t r e s e a r c h t h a t r e v e a l s s u c h
s t r u c t u r e s a n d c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y s e s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n s o c i e t i e s . C r i t i c a l t h e o r y
h e l p s t o a p p r o a c h s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f q u e s t i o n i n g t h e
t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d i s s u e s a n d p r o c e s s e s ( A l v e s s o n a n d S k l d b e r g 2 0 0 8 ) .
T h e r e f o r e , c r i t i c a l t h e o r y o f f e r s a p l a u s i b l e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e
r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t i n t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . T h e a i m o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , b e s i d e s t h e
a i m m e n t i o n e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , i s t o c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y s e t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s

47
criticising its terror, the German idealists, e.g. Hegel, Kant or Fichte,
appreciated the revolution, since they thought that from then on, The world
was to be an order of reason. (Marcuse 1999 [1941]:4) Furthermore, Marcuse
also considers a great many of our needs as preconditioned by the capitalist
societies we live in. He distinguishes between true and false needs as follows:
The intensity, the satisfaction and even the character of human needs, beyond the
biological level, have always been preconditioned. We may distinguish both true
and false needs. Most of the prevailing needs to relax, to have fun, to behave and
consume in accordance with the advertisements, to love and hate what others love
and hate, belong to this category of false needs. (Marcuse 2002 [1964]:6-7)
Due to the fact that only the measurable counts, and therefore what we can
connect to the physical world it is argued that other aspects of reason and
theoretical thought not contribute to the development of society. Therefore,
the automobile can also be seen as a part in this shift from metaphysical,
theoretical and also social thinking to empiricism and measurable facts
(Marcuse 2002 [1964]). Nevertheless, one should remain critical towards
Marcuses statement, because who is he to tell us how and why we want to
relax, for example? However, I believe he touches upon a very important
aspect, namely that, in this kind of society that Marcuse describes very clearly,
automobility has a dominant position. Through Marcuses theoretical work we
can understand and look at structures that are otherwise hard to identify and
thus easy to overlook. Marcuses work sets the agenda for the methods used in
this thesis.
The connection of automobility to the accumulation of capital during the 20
th

century and the social climate described by Marcuse have paved the way for
new forms of urban and transport planning, which has affected traffic and
marginalised non-motorised modes of transport since the 1920s and onwards
in many countries and cities around the world. The false needs and the
preconditioning have shaped capitalist societies and consequently also the way
people move about. Capital accumulation is the dominant factor in shaping
peoples mobility. Thus, critical theory is about research that reveals such
structures and critically analyses the institutions in societies. Critical theory
helps to approach social phenomena with the intention of questioning the
taken-for-granted issues and processes (Alvesson and Skldberg 2008).
Therefore, critical theory offers a plausible philosophical foundation for the
research carried out in this doctoral thesis. The aim of this research, besides the
aim mentioned in the introduction, is to critically analyse the transport systems
4 7

48
in the two case cities. Moreover, critical theory offers a perspective that allows
me to critically approach the taken-for-granted systems and structures behind
the planning processes in Stockholm and Copenhagen. This includes, for
example, a critical analysis of bicycling in Copenhagen, which might not be as
perfect as it seems at first glance. In other words the research design builds
both on critical realism and critical theory, as both provide the critical and
broad approach needed to analyse the research questions posed and live up to
the aim of this thesis.
2.2 Background information observations and
document studies
Bearing in mind the broad approach needed for this project, I considered how
knowledge about transport planning and the infrastructure of cyclists in the
two cities can be gained and how cyclists view the situation. The first step was
to cycle in the two cities in order to get a feeling and better understanding of
the infrastructure and the situations for cyclists in Stockholm and
Copenhagen. Although, I knew that I was going to conduct interviews with
planners and politicians and probably also collect data on cyclists attitudes, the
starting point was making observations in the two cities.
Thus, observations have been made in the form of cycling through both
Copenhagen and Stockholm in order to obtain a deeper understanding of the
infrastructure for cyclists and to observe traffic and the networks in the two
Scandinavian cities. The observations were made over a 5-day period (5 days in
Stockholm and 5 days in Copenhagen). During the observations notes and
pictures were taken, for a better understanding of the infrastructure and of
cycling in Copenhagen and Stockholm. The observations lasted for about 6
hours during daytime, from morning to early evening every day of the 5-day
period, and were mainly made in the central parts of the two cities. Both the
interview studies and the observational studies were conducted between
January 2010 and March 2011. The observations I made in Copenhagen and
Stockholm involved visual observation of cyclists and traffic in Copenhagen
and Stockholm, but I also cycled on my own in order to get a feeling of what it
is really like to cycle in Copenhagen and Stockholm. It was my ambition to get
a feeling for cycling in both Copenhagen and Stockholm, the people who

4 8
i n t h e t w o c a s e c i t i e s . M o r e o v e r , c r i t i c a l t h e o r y o f f e r s a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t a l l o w s
m e t o c r i t i c a l l y a p p r o a c h t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d s y s t e m s a n d s t r u c t u r e s b e h i n d
t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s i n c l u d e s , f o r
e x a m p l e , a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f b i c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n , w h i c h m i g h t n o t b e a s
p e r f e c t a s i t s e e m s a t f i r s t g l a n c e . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n b u i l d s
b o t h o n c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y , a s b o t h p r o v i d e t h e c r i t i c a l a n d
b r o a d a p p r o a c h n e e d e d t o a n a l y s e t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s p o s e d a n d l i v e u p t o
t h e a i m o f t h i s t h e s i s .
2 . 2 B a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d
d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s
B e a r i n g i n m i n d t h e b r o a d a p p r o a c h n e e d e d f o r t h i s p r o j e c t , I c o n s i d e r e d h o w
k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f c y c l i s t s i n t h e
t w o c i t i e s c a n b e g a i n e d a n d h o w c y c l i s t s v i e w t h e s i t u a t i o n . T h e f i r s t s t e p w a s
t o c y c l e i n t h e t w o c i t i e s i n o r d e r t o g e t a f e e l i n g a n d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n s f o r c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n . A l t h o u g h , I k n e w t h a t I w a s g o i n g t o c o n d u c t i n t e r v i e w s w i t h
p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s a n d p r o b a b l y a l s o c o l l e c t d a t a o n c y c l i s t s a t t i t u d e s , t h e
s t a r t i n g p o i n t w a s m a k i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s .
T h u s , o b s e r v a t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e i n t h e f o r m o f c y c l i n g t h r o u g h b o t h
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s a n d t o o b s e r v e t r a f f i c a n d t h e n e t w o r k s i n t h e t w o
S c a n d i n a v i a n c i t i e s . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e m a d e o v e r a 5 - d a y p e r i o d ( 5 d a y s i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d 5 d a y s i n C o p e n h a g e n ) . D u r i n g t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s n o t e s a n d
p i c t u r e s w e r e t a k e n , f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d o f
c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s l a s t e d f o r a b o u t 6
h o u r s d u r i n g d a y t i m e , f r o m m o r n i n g t o e a r l y e v e n i n g e v e r y d a y o f t h e 5 - d a y
p e r i o d , a n d w e r e m a i n l y m a d e i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t s o f t h e t w o c i t i e s . B o t h t h e
i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s a n d t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d b e t w e e n
J a n u a r y 2 0 1 0 a n d M a r c h 2 0 1 1 . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s I m a d e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m i n v o l v e d v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s a n d t r a f f i c i n C o p e n h a g e n
a n d S t o c k h o l m , b u t I a l s o c y c l e d o n m y o w n i n o r d e r t o g e t a f e e l i n g o f w h a t i t
i s r e a l l y l i k e t o c y c l e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . I t w a s m y a m b i t i o n t o g e t
a f e e l i n g f o r c y c l i n g i n b o t h C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , t h e p e o p l e w h o
4 8

4 9
c y c l e d t h e r e a n d t h e p r o b l e m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h c y c l i n g i n t h o s e c i t i e s . I t w a s
i m p o r t a n t f o r m e t o r e a l l y e x p e r i e n c e a n d o b s e r v e t h e p r o c e s s o f c y c l i n g i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m i n o r d e r t o g e t a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t i t
i n v o l v e d . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e m a d e i n a m o r e o r l e s s u n s t r u c t u r e d w a y i n
t h e c e n t r a l p a r t s o f t h e t w o c i t i e s . I t r i e d t o f o l l o w d i f f e r e n t f l o w s o f c y c l i s t s
t h r o u g h t h e c i t y a n d o b s e r v e t h e i r b e h a v i o u r a n d t h e p r o b l e m s a n d p o s s i b i l i t i e s
w h e n c y c l i n g t h e r e . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e m a d e b e s i d e t h e c y c l e t r a c k s i n t h e
c e n t r a l p a r t s o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . I w a s a p a s s i v e o b s e r v e r o f t h e
t r a f f i c a n d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d o t h e r r o a d u s e r s . T h e
p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e m a d e o n m y o w n b i k e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d o n a
r e n t e d o n e i n S t o c k h o l m .
O b s e r v a t i o n i s a w i d e l y a c c e p t e d m e t h o d i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e
f i e l d s o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , e t h n o l o g y a n d g e o g r a p h y . T h e m e t h o d p r o v i d e s t h e
r e s e a r c h e r w i t h d i r e c t d a t a t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o c e s s o f u s i n g i t ( A r v a s t s o n a n d
E h n 2 0 0 9 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e a l s o c o m m o n i n o t h e r f i e l d s , e . g .
t r a f f i c s a f e t y r e s e a r c h , w h e r e r e s e a r c h e r s o b s e r v e c r o s s r o a d s i n o r d e r t o i d e n t i f y
c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n r o a d u s e r s . T h i s t y p e o f o b s e r v a t i o n i s , h o w e v e r , a w a y o f
g e t t i n g m o r e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a a b o u t t r a f f i c s a f e t y p r o b l e m s ( f o r m o r e
i n f o r m a t i o n s e e S v e n s s o n 1 9 9 8 ) . P a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y
u s e d i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e t h a n i n , f o r e x a m p l e , t r a f f i c s a f e t y r e s e a r c h o r o t h e r f i e l d s .
P a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o r e g u l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h a t t h e y p r o v i d e
f i r s t - h a n d a n d d i r e c t d a t a t h a t c a n s u b s e q u e n t l y b e a n a l y s e d . T h e d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e t w o k i n d s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s i s t h a t o n e p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e a c t i o n s
t h a t a r e o b s e r v e d , i . e . i n t h i s c a s e r i d i n g a b i k e t h r o u g h C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m ( R o s e 2 0 0 2 , K e m m i s a n d M c T a g g a r t 2 0 0 0 , A r v a s t s o n a n d E h n
2 0 0 9 ) . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t s o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m . I p a i d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o c r o s s r o a d s a n d p a r t s o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
w h e r e c y c l i s t s i n t e r a c t w i t h o t h e r r o a d u s e r s , a n d t o t h e o v e r a l l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
f o r c y c l i s t s a n d h o w i t w o r k s f o r c y c l i s t s . T h e p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e
u n s t r u c t u r e d . I f o l l o w e d t h e f l o w a n d t r i e d t o c y c l e i n a s m a n y d i f f e r e n t c e n t r a l
a r e a s a s p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o g e t a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
a n d w h a t i t i s l i k e f o r c y c l i s t s t o g e t t h r o u g h C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m o n a
b i k e . F u r t h e r m o r e , I w a n t e d p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s t o e n a b l e m e t o g e t t o
k n o w p a r t s a n d a r e a s w h e r e i t i s e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t o r p l e a s a n t t o c y c l e a n d
w h e r e c o n f l i c t s w i t h o t h e r r o a d u s e r s t a k e p l a c e .
D u r i n g t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s I t o o k p i c t u r e s , a n d a f t e r e a c h p e r i o d o f o b s e r v a t i o n I
t o o k n o t e s a b o u t w h a t I h a d s e e n . W h e n I w a s b a c k i n t h e o f f i c e I r e w r o t e t h e

49
cycled there and the problems connected with cycling in those cities. It was
important for me to really experience and observe the process of cycling in
Copenhagen and Stockholm in order to get a better understanding of what it
involved. The observations were made in a more or less unstructured way in
the central parts of the two cities. I tried to follow different flows of cyclists
through the city and observe their behaviour and the problems and possibilities
when cycling there. The observations were made beside the cycle tracks in the
central parts of Copenhagen and Stockholm. I was a passive observer of the
traffic and the interactions between cyclists and other road users. The
participant observations were made on my own bike in Copenhagen and on a
rented one in Stockholm.
Observation is a widely accepted method in social science, especially in the
fields of anthropology, ethnology and geography. The method provides the
researcher with direct data throughout the process of using it (Arvastson and
Ehn 2009). Furthermore, observations are also common in other fields, e.g.
traffic safety research, where researchers observe crossroads in order to identify
conflicts between road users. This type of observation is, however, a way of
getting more quantitative data about traffic safety problems (for more
information see Svensson 1998). Participant observations are more frequently
used in social science than in, for example, traffic safety research or other fields.
Participant observations are similar to regular observations in that they provide
first-hand and direct data that can subsequently be analysed. The difference
between the two kinds of observations is that one participates in the actions
that are observed, i.e. in this case riding a bike through Copenhagen and
Stockholm (Rose 2002, Kemmis and McTaggart 2000, Arvastson and Ehn
2009). The observations took place in the central parts of Copenhagen and
Stockholm. I paid special attention to crossroads and parts of the infrastructure
where cyclists interact with other road users, and to the overall infrastructure
for cyclists and how it works for cyclists. The participant observations were
unstructured. I followed the flow and tried to cycle in as many different central
areas as possible in order to get a deeper understanding of the infrastructure
and what it is like for cyclists to get through Copenhagen and Stockholm on a
bike. Furthermore, I wanted participant observations to enable me to get to
know parts and areas where it is especially difficult or pleasant to cycle and
where conflicts with other road users take place.
During the observations I took pictures, and after each period of observation I
took notes about what I had seen. When I was back in the office I rewrote the
4 9

50
notes on the computer. The information from the observations proved to be
very helpful later in the interviews with the planners, since I had a deeper and
better understanding of cycling in Copenhagen and Stockholm and of what
the infrastructure in the two cities looks like. Moreover, it helped me to
develop the kind of knowledge about the two cities cycling and transport
infrastructures, problems/advantages when cycling in the two cities etc. that I
needed. In other words, the observations provided me with the kind of
knowledge that I was hoping to get. Additionally, I could also verify my
hypotheses about the cycling infrastructure etc. in Stockholm and
Copenhagen. Those were also confirmed in the data from the national travel
surveys in Sweden and Denmark (see Chapter 6 in this thesis). However, it
should be noted that the observations made in Copenhagen and Stockholm
served more as a complement to the data from the interviews and the data
from the survey studies. The data collected are not shown as independent
results in this thesis but are used for confirming certain parts of the data from
the interviews and for introducing the cases of Stockholm and Copenhagen in
Chapter 6. Moreover, they have been used to strengthen my own
understanding of the infrastructure in the two cities and have been an
important part in the process of collecting the empirical data.
The document study was partly, as mentioned above, conducted to prepare for
the interviews, but was also useful after the interviews, since some interviewees
recommended or mentioned certain reports or policy or plan documents. The
document studies should be seen as an empirical complement to the data from
the interviews concerning facts about bicycle planning in Copenhagen and
Stockholm. Chapter 6, where the cases are introduced, draws a great deal on
the plans, policies and similar documents in order to create an understanding
of the infrastructure for bicyclists in the two cities and in order to show the
way they plan and direct their policy efforts within the field of bicycle
planning. It was not my ambition to systematically go through all the material
from the two cases about bicycling or bicycle planning and make a systematic
comparison as such. Rather, the document study should be seen as
complementing the empirical data from the interviews and as introducing the
cases of Stockholm and Copenhagen. The documents used for this study were
mainly bicycle strategies and plans as well as other plans or documents
concerning cycling and transport in Copenhagen and Stockholm, such as
technical investigations or environmental plans or transport strategies.


5 0
n o t e s o n t h e c o m p u t e r . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s p r o v e d t o b e
v e r y h e l p f u l l a t e r i n t h e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h t h e p l a n n e r s , s i n c e I h a d a d e e p e r a n d
b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a n d o f w h a t
t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n t h e t w o c i t i e s l o o k s l i k e . M o r e o v e r , i t h e l p e d m e t o
d e v e l o p t h e k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e t w o c i t i e s c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , p r o b l e m s / a d v a n t a g e s w h e n c y c l i n g i n t h e t w o c i t i e s e t c . t h a t I
n e e d e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s p r o v i d e d m e w i t h t h e k i n d o f
k n o w l e d g e t h a t I w a s h o p i n g t o g e t . A d d i t i o n a l l y , I c o u l d a l s o v e r i f y m y
h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t t h e c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e e t c . i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n . T h o s e w e r e a l s o c o n f i r m e d i n t h e d a t a f r o m t h e n a t i o n a l t r a v e l
s u r v e y s i n S w e d e n a n d D e n m a r k ( s e e C h a p t e r 6 i n t h i s t h e s i s ) . H o w e v e r , i t
s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m
s e r v e d m o r e a s a c o m p l e m e n t t o t h e d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s a n d t h e d a t a
f r o m t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s . T h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d a r e n o t s h o w n a s i n d e p e n d e n t
r e s u l t s i n t h i s t h e s i s b u t a r e u s e d f o r c o n f i r m i n g c e r t a i n p a r t s o f t h e d a t a f r o m
t h e i n t e r v i e w s a n d f o r i n t r o d u c i n g t h e c a s e s o f S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n i n
C h a p t e r 6 . M o r e o v e r , t h e y h a v e b e e n u s e d t o s t r e n g t h e n m y o w n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n t h e t w o c i t i e s a n d h a v e b e e n a n
i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c o l l e c t i n g t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a .
T h e d o c u m e n t s t u d y w a s p a r t l y , a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , c o n d u c t e d t o p r e p a r e f o r
t h e i n t e r v i e w s , b u t w a s a l s o u s e f u l a f t e r t h e i n t e r v i e w s , s i n c e s o m e i n t e r v i e w e e s
r e c o m m e n d e d o r m e n t i o n e d c e r t a i n r e p o r t s o r p o l i c y o r p l a n d o c u m e n t s . T h e
d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s s h o u l d b e s e e n a s a n e m p i r i c a l c o m p l e m e n t t o t h e d a t a f r o m
t h e i n t e r v i e w s c o n c e r n i n g f a c t s a b o u t b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m . C h a p t e r 6 , w h e r e t h e c a s e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d , d r a w s a g r e a t d e a l o n
t h e p l a n s , p o l i c i e s a n d s i m i l a r d o c u m e n t s i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r b i c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s a n d i n o r d e r t o s h o w t h e
w a y t h e y p l a n a n d d i r e c t t h e i r p o l i c y e f f o r t s w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f b i c y c l e
p l a n n i n g . I t w a s n o t m y a m b i t i o n t o s y s t e m a t i c a l l y g o t h r o u g h a l l t h e m a t e r i a l
f r o m t h e t w o c a s e s a b o u t b i c y c l i n g o r b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g a n d m a k e a s y s t e m a t i c
c o m p a r i s o n a s s u c h . R a t h e r , t h e d o c u m e n t s t u d y s h o u l d b e s e e n a s
c o m p l e m e n t i n g t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s a n d a s i n t r o d u c i n g t h e
c a s e s o f S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e d o c u m e n t s u s e d f o r t h i s s t u d y w e r e
m a i n l y b i c y c l e s t r a t e g i e s a n d p l a n s a s w e l l a s o t h e r p l a n s o r d o c u m e n t s
c o n c e r n i n g c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , s u c h a s
t e c h n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l p l a n s o r t r a n s p o r t s t r a t e g i e s .

5 0

5 1
2 . 3 I n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s
T h e n e x t s t e p i n t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t i o n w a s t o f i n d o u t m o r e a b o u t
c y c l i n g a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . I n t e r v i e w s w e r e
c h o s e n a s a g o o d w a y t o a c h i e v e t h a t a n d a l s o t o d e v e l o p a d e e p a n d t h o r o u g h
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s . T h e c o n c r e t e a p p r o a c h f o r
i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e p l a n n i n g s y s t e m s a n d w h a t h a s h a d a n i m p a c t o n t h e m w a s
i n t e r v i e w s w i t h d i f f e r e n t b i c y c l e a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s a t d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s
a n d l e v e l s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , p o l i t i c i a n s w h o w e r e t h e n a n d / o r a r e
s t i l l a c t i v e l y w o r k i n g a t d i f f e r e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l s w i t h t r a n s p o r t a n d
b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d . O v e r a l l ,
t h i r t e e n i n t e r v i e w s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d , 6 i n S t o c k h o l m a n d 7 i n
C o p e n h a g e n .
T h e f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n s w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d :

C o p e n h a g e n :
A n d r e a s R h l : H e a d o f t h e b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g p r o g r a m a t t h e C e n t r e f o r
T r a n s p o r t , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 0 1 - 0 8
N i e l s J e n s e n : B i c y c l e p l a n n e r w i t h l o n g e x p e r i e n c e a t t h e C e n t r e f o r
T r a n s p o r t , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n 2 0 1 0 - 0 1 - 0 8
N i e l s T r s l v : H e a d o f t h e C e n t r e f o r T r a n s p o r t , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ,
i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 1 0 - 0 7
H j a l t e A a b e r g : H e a d o f t h e T e c h n i c a l a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
u n d e r w h i c h t h e C e n t r e f o r T r a n s p o r t i s l o c a t e d , t o d a y R e g i o n a l D i r e c t o r f o r
t h e C a p i t a l R e g i o n o f D e n m a r k , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 1 0 - 1 9
S r e n E l l e : U r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r w i t h l o n g e x p e r i e n c e o f p l a n n i n g a t
t h e C e n t r e o f U r b a n D e v e l o p m e n t , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 0 9 -
2 1
J a k o b H j o r t s k o v J e n s e n : U r b a n p l a n n e r a t t h e C e n t r e o f U r b a n D e v e l o p m e n t
f o c u s e d o n z o n i n g p l a n n i n g , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 1 1 - 1 8
K l a u s B o n d a m : P o l i t i c i a n f o r t h e R a d i c a l L e f t p a r t y , v i c e m a y o r f o r T e c h n i c a l
a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 2 0 0 6 - 2 0 1 2 , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ,
i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 0 2 - 1 5

51
2.3 Interview studies
The next step in the empirical data collection was to find out more about
cycling and bicycle planning in Stockholm and Copenhagen. Interviews were
chosen as a good way to achieve that and also to develop a deep and thorough
understanding of the planning processes. The concrete approach for
investigating the planning systems and what has had an impact on them was
interviews with different bicycle and transport planners at different positions
and levels in the two cities. Furthermore, politicians who were then and/or are
still actively working at different administrative levels with transport and
bicycle planning in Stockholm and Copenhagen were interviewed. Overall,
thirteen interviews have been conducted, 6 in Stockholm and 7 in
Copenhagen.
The following persons were interviewed:

Copenhagen:
Andreas Rhl: Head of the bicycle planning program at the Centre for
Transport, City of Copenhagen, interviewed 2010-01-08
Niels Jensen: Bicycle planner with long experience at the Centre for
Transport, City of Copenhagen 2010-01-08
Niels Trslv: Head of the Centre for Transport, City of Copenhagen,
interviewed 2010-10-07
Hjalte Aaberg: Head of the Technical and Environmental Administration
under which the Centre for Transport is located, today Regional Director for
the Capital Region of Denmark, interviewed 2010-10-19
Sren Elle: Urban and transport planner with long experience of planning at
the Centre of Urban Development, City of Copenhagen, interviewed 2011-09-
21
Jakob Hjortskov Jensen: Urban planner at the Centre of Urban Development
focused on zoning planning, City of Copenhagen, interviewed 2011-11-18
Klaus Bondam: Politician for the Radical Left party, vice mayor for Technical
and Environmental Administration 2006-2012, City of Copenhagen,
interviewed 2011-02-15
5 1

52
Stockholm:
Krister Isaksson: Bicycle planner at the Transport Planning Department, City
of Stockholm, today consultant for SWECO, interviewed 2010-05-25
Krister Spolander: Senior consultant at Spolander Consulting with long
experience of transport in Stockholm with a focus on bicycling, interviewed
2010-02-12
C 2010-11-01
One transport planner who wanted to be anonymous: interviewed 2010-
11-01
Mats Fager: Transport planner with long experience working at the Transport
Planning Department, City of Stockholm, now consultant for WSP,
interviewed 2011-10-13
Eric Tedesj: Urban planner with a focus on transport issues in zoning
planning at the Urban Planning Department, City of Stockholm, interviewed
2011-09-26
Stella Fare: Politician for the Stockholm Party (now Liberal Party), vice mayor
for urban politics 1998 2002, City of Stockholm, interviewed 2011-03-25

It has to be mentioned that it was somewhat easier to get interviews in
Copenhagen than in Stockholm, and it was also easier to get the permission of
the persons interviewed in Copenhagen to use their names. As can be seen in
the list above, one planner in Stockholm wished to remain anonymous.
Moreover, one person I planned to interview in Stockholm who has a similar
position as that of Hjalte Aaberg in Copenhagen refused to give me an
interview. However, I also wanted to interview a certain consultant in
Copenhagen, who also declined. Nevertheless, it was not very complicated to
get the interviews I needed in Copenhagen and Stockholm.
The first idea was to start interviewing the responsible bicycle planner/s in each
city. In those interviews the planners mentioned other planners of importance
to, or who had been important to, transport and bicycle planning. The purpose
was to gather information from different types of planners, such as urban
planners, transport planners and bicycle planners at different levels in order to
develop a rather broad understanding of transport and bicycle planning in

5 2
S t o c k h o l m :
K r i s t e r I s a k s s o n : B i c y c l e p l a n n e r a t t h e T r a n s p o r t P l a n n i n g D e p a r t m e n t , C i t y
o f S t o c k h o l m , t o d a y c o n s u l t a n t f o r S W E C O , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 0 5 - 2 5
K r i s t e r S p o l a n d e r : S e n i o r c o n s u l t a n t a t S p o l a n d e r C o n s u l t i n g w i t h l o n g
e x p e r i e n c e o f t r a n s p o r t i n S t o c k h o l m w i t h a f o c u s o n b i c y c l i n g , i n t e r v i e w e d
2 0 1 0 - 0 2 - 1 2
C 2 0 1 0 - 1 1 - 0 1
O n e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r w h o w a n t e d t o b e a n o n y m o u s : i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 -
1 1 - 0 1
M a t s F a g e r : T r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r w i t h l o n g e x p e r i e n c e w o r k i n g a t t h e T r a n s p o r t
P l a n n i n g D e p a r t m e n t , C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m , n o w c o n s u l t a n t f o r W S P ,
i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 1 0 - 1 3
E r i c T e d e s j : U r b a n p l a n n e r w i t h a f o c u s o n t r a n s p o r t i s s u e s i n z o n i n g
p l a n n i n g a t t h e U r b a n P l a n n i n g D e p a r t m e n t , C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m , i n t e r v i e w e d
2 0 1 1 - 0 9 - 2 6
S t e l l a F a r e : P o l i t i c i a n f o r t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y ( n o w L i b e r a l P a r t y ) , v i c e m a y o r
f o r u r b a n p o l i t i c s 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 2 , C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 0 3 - 2 5

I t h a s t o b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t i t w a s s o m e w h a t e a s i e r t o g e t i n t e r v i e w s i n
C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m , a n d i t w a s a l s o e a s i e r t o g e t t h e p e r m i s s i o n o f
t h e p e r s o n s i n t e r v i e w e d i n C o p e n h a g e n t o u s e t h e i r n a m e s . A s c a n b e s e e n i n
t h e l i s t a b o v e , o n e p l a n n e r i n S t o c k h o l m w i s h e d t o r e m a i n a n o n y m o u s .
M o r e o v e r , o n e p e r s o n I p l a n n e d t o i n t e r v i e w i n S t o c k h o l m w h o h a s a s i m i l a r
p o s i t i o n a s t h a t o f H j a l t e A a b e r g i n C o p e n h a g e n r e f u s e d t o g i v e m e a n
i n t e r v i e w . H o w e v e r , I a l s o w a n t e d t o i n t e r v i e w a c e r t a i n c o n s u l t a n t i n
C o p e n h a g e n , w h o a l s o d e c l i n e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t w a s n o t v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d t o
g e t t h e i n t e r v i e w s I n e e d e d i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m .
T h e f i r s t i d e a w a s t o s t a r t i n t e r v i e w i n g t h e r e s p o n s i b l e b i c y c l e p l a n n e r / s i n e a c h
c i t y . I n t h o s e i n t e r v i e w s t h e p l a n n e r s m e n t i o n e d o t h e r p l a n n e r s o f i m p o r t a n c e
t o , o r w h o h a d b e e n i m p o r t a n t t o , t r a n s p o r t a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g . T h e p u r p o s e
w a s t o g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p l a n n e r s , s u c h a s u r b a n
p l a n n e r s , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n e r s a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s i n o r d e r t o
d e v e l o p a r a t h e r b r o a d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t r a n s p o r t a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n
5 2

5 3
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . A l l t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s a r e p l a y i n g , o r h a v e p l a y e d ,
a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n b i c y c l e , t r a n s p o r t o r s t r a t e g i c p l a n n i n g o r i n o r g a n i s i n g
t h e d e p a r t m e n t s . T h e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e e i t h e r t e l e p h o n e i n t e r v i e w s o r f a c e - t o -
f a c e i n t e r v i e w s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a n d l a s t e d a n a v e r a g e o f 4 5
m i n u t e s . D u e t o t h e l i m i t e d t i m e o f s o m e o f t h e p e r s o n s i n t e r v i e w e d a n d m y
h a v i n g t o t r a v e l t o S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n f o r e v e r y s i n g l e i n t e r v i e w ,
c e r t a i n i n t e r v i e w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d v i a t e l e p h o n e . O n e o f t h e m o s t o b v i o u s
a d v a n t a g e s o f c o n d u c t i n g s o m e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s b y p h o n e w a s t o g e t t h e d a t a I
n e e d e d f o r t h e r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s t h e s i s . H o w e v e r , t h e m a j o r d i s a d v a n t a g e i s t h e
l a c k o f p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t a n d t h e f a c t t h a t o n e c a n n o t o b s e r v e t h e r e a c t i o n s e t c .
o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e d p e r s o n s . H o w e v e r , t e l e p h o n e i n t e r v i e w s a r e o f t e n l e s s
e x p e n s i v e a n d l e s s t i m e - c o n s u m i n g f o r b o t h t h e i n t e r v i e w e r a n d t h e i n t e r v i e w e e
( B a i l y 1 9 8 7 , K v a l e 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n l e n g t h w a s d u e t o e i t h e r t h e t i m e
a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p e r s o n s b e i n g i n t e r v i e w e d o r h o w m u c h t h e p e r s o n s w a n t e d t o
t a l k . I n g e n e r a l i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s i n
t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , t h e l e s s t i m e t h e y h a d . T h e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e s e m i -
s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m e s a n d c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s , w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e
i n t e r v i e w e e s t o d i r e c t t h e i n t e r v i e w s t o w a r d s t h e m e s a n d a s p e c t s t h e y f o u n d
i m p o r t a n t . C o n d u c t i n g i n t e r v i e w s w i t h d i f f e r e n t p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s
s h o u l d p r o v i d e t h e b r o a d n e s s r e q u i r e d t o g e t a s u f f i c i e n t a m o u n t o f d a t a t o
a n s w e r t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s . W h e n t h e t h i r t e e n i n t e r v i e w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d ,
t h e a n s w e r s g r a d u a l l y b e c a m e m o r e a n d m o r e r e p e t i t i v e , a n d n e w , d e e p e r a n d
d i f f e r e n t k n o w l e d g e f o r t h i s t h e s i s c o u l d n o t b e g a i n e d , w h i c h l e d t o a n e n d o f
t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n d u c t i n g i n t e r v i e w s i n t h e t w o c a s e c i t i e s . T h i s i s a c o m m o n
a p p r o a c h i n i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s ( M a x w e l l 2 0 0 4 ) .
I i n t e r v i e w e d t h e p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m b y
m e a n s o f a n i n t e r v i e w g u i d e I d e v e l o p e d ( s e e A p p e n d i x 1 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e
i n t e r v i e w s w e r e s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t t h e m e s I w o u l d l i k e t o
b e c o v e r e d . T h e g u i d e w a s m o r e o f a t o o l t o k e e p a r e d t h r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
i n t e r v i e w s . I w a n t e d t o h a v e o p e n i n t e r v i e w s w h e r e t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s c a n t e l l m e
a s m u c h a b o u t p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g e t c . i n C o p e n h a g e n
a n d S t o c k h o l m a s p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t m y i n t e r f e r i n g t o o m u c h . I n o r d e r t o
p r e p a r e m y s e l f f o r t h e i n t e r v i e w s I s t u d i e d s e v e r a l d o c u m e n t s f r o m
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m d e a l i n g w i t h b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g , e . g . C o p e n h a g e n s
b i c y c l e p o l i c y a n d t h e b i c y c l e p l a n f o r t h e i n n e r c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m . T h e
i n t e r v i e w s a l l o w e d m e t o b u i l d k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c a l
p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s w i t h i n t r a f f i c a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n

53
Copenhagen and Stockholm. All the interviewees are playing, or have played,
an important role in bicycle, transport or strategic planning or in organising
the departments. The interviews were either telephone interviews or face-to-
face interviews in Stockholm and Copenhagen and lasted an average of 45
minutes. Due to the limited time of some of the persons interviewed and my
having to travel to Stockholm and Copenhagen for every single interview,
certain interviews were conducted via telephone. One of the most obvious
advantages of conducting some of the interviews by phone was to get the data I
needed for the research for this thesis. However, the major disadvantage is the
lack of personal contact and the fact that one cannot observe the reactions etc.
of the interviewed persons. However, telephone interviews are often less
expensive and less time-consuming for both the interviewer and the interviewee
(Baily 1987, Kvale 1997). The difference in length was due to either the time
available to the persons being interviewed or how much the persons wanted to
talk. In general it can be said that the higher the position of the interviewees in
the organisational hierarchy, the less time they had. The interviews were semi-
structured according to themes and certain questions, which enabled the
interviewees to direct the interviews towards themes and aspects they found
important. Conducting interviews with different planners and politicians
should provide the broadness required to get a sufficient amount of data to
answer the research questions. When the thirteen interviews were conducted,
the answers gradually became more and more repetitive, and new, deeper and
different knowledge for this thesis could not be gained, which led to an end of
the process of conducting interviews in the two case cities. This is a common
approach in interview studies (Maxwell 2004).
I interviewed the planners and politicians in Copenhagen and Stockholm by
means of an interview guide I developed (see Appendix 1). Consequently the
interviews were semi-structured according to different themes I would like to
be covered. The guide was more of a tool to keep a red thread throughout the
interviews. I wanted to have open interviews where the interviewees can tell me
as much about planning for cyclists and transport planning etc. in Copenhagen
and Stockholm as possible without my interfering too much. In order to
prepare myself for the interviews I studied several documents from
Copenhagen and Stockholm dealing with bicycle planning, e.g. Copenhagens
bicycle policy and the bicycle plan for the inner city of Stockholm. The
interviews allowed me to build knowledge about the planning and political
processes and the developments within traffic and bicycle planning in
5 3

54
Stockholm and Copenhagen. Furthermore, my observations in the two cities
provided knowledge about how people cycle, what it is like to ride a bike in
Copenhagen and Stockholm, what kind of people cycle in the two cities and
also where critical points of conflicts are located. The focus in this kind of
research is more on the interpretation of the answers I received and on
obtaining a deeper understanding of the complexity and different aspects of a
social process called planning for cyclists and of the development of bicycling
in Copenhagen. The social activities and power relations were of special
importance here (Rubin and Rubin 2005, Gubrium and Holstein 1997, Cloke
et al.2004).
The interview study was conducted in the following form, which partly builds
on Kvale (1997):

- Create a theme for the study
- Planning
- Interview
- Transcript
- Analysis

The themes of the study were developed in line with the different people who
were interviewed, and the aim was to investigate bicycle planning in
Copenhagen and Stockholm and whether the transport planners in the two
cities really plan for cyclists or not. Moreover, it was important to develop an
understanding of the transport development and processes and other
background factors of importance for the creation of todays transport systems
in Stockholm and Copenhagen and for the mobility of the citizens in the two
cities. The interviews had been planned in advance, and the choice of
interviewees was based on recommendations from the first interview partners
and developed in accordance with what knowledge and data seemed to be
missing. The analysis of the interview material was a content analysis. After the
transcripts, the content was analysed by applying the theories used in this thesis
(see Chapters 3, 4 and 5 for the theoretical discussion). I looked for answers to
my research questions, connections between the interviews and if and how they
interrelate with one another. I also looked at the data from the interviews and
tried to detect differences between the answers of the planners and politicians

5 4
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , m y o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s
p r o v i d e d k n o w l e d g e a b o u t h o w p e o p l e c y c l e , w h a t i t i s l i k e t o r i d e a b i k e i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , w h a t k i n d o f p e o p l e c y c l e i n t h e t w o c i t i e s a n d
a l s o w h e r e c r i t i c a l p o i n t s o f c o n f l i c t s a r e l o c a t e d . T h e f o c u s i n t h i s k i n d o f
r e s e a r c h i s m o r e o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e a n s w e r s I r e c e i v e d a n d o n
o b t a i n i n g a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f a
s o c i a l p r o c e s s c a l l e d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a n d o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b i c y c l i n g
i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h e s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s w e r e o f s p e c i a l
i m p o r t a n c e h e r e ( R u b i n a n d R u b i n 2 0 0 5 , G u b r i u m a n d H o l s t e i n 1 9 9 7 , C l o k e
e t a l . 2 0 0 4 ) .
T h e i n t e r v i e w s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m , w h i c h p a r t l y b u i l d s
o n K v a l e ( 1 9 9 7 ) :

- C r e a t e a t h e m e f o r t h e s t u d y
- P l a n n i n g
- I n t e r v i e w
- T r a n s c r i p t
- A n a l y s i s

T h e t h e m e s o f t h e s t u d y w e r e d e v e l o p e d i n l i n e w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e w h o
w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d , a n d t h e a i m w a s t o i n v e s t i g a t e b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a n d w h e t h e r t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s i n t h e t w o
c i t i e s r e a l l y p l a n f o r c y c l i s t s o r n o t . M o r e o v e r , i t w a s i m p o r t a n t t o d e v e l o p a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t r a n s p o r t d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p r o c e s s e s a n d o t h e r
b a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s o f i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s
i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a n d f o r t h e m o b i l i t y o f t h e c i t i z e n s i n t h e t w o
c i t i e s . T h e i n t e r v i e w s h a d b e e n p l a n n e d i n a d v a n c e , a n d t h e c h o i c e o f
i n t e r v i e w e e s w a s b a s e d o n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f r o m t h e f i r s t i n t e r v i e w p a r t n e r s
a n d d e v e l o p e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h a t k n o w l e d g e a n d d a t a s e e m e d t o b e
m i s s i n g . T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w m a t e r i a l w a s a c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s . A f t e r t h e
t r a n s c r i p t s , t h e c o n t e n t w a s a n a l y s e d b y a p p l y i n g t h e t h e o r i e s u s e d i n t h i s t h e s i s
( s e e C h a p t e r s 3 , 4 a n d 5 f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n ) . I l o o k e d f o r a n s w e r s t o
m y r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s , c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r v i e w s a n d i f a n d h o w t h e y
i n t e r r e l a t e w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . I a l s o l o o k e d a t t h e d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s a n d
t r i e d t o d e t e c t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e a n s w e r s o f t h e p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s
5 4

5 5
i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , I t r i e d t o s e e
w h e r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s , i f a n y , w e r e a n d h o w t h e a n s w e r s , i n r e s p e c t t o t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s , c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d . I a l s o t r i e d t o f i n d s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e a n s w e r s
a n d t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d . T h i s p r o c e s s o f c o n d u c t i n g i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s w a s
d e v e l o p e d i n c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n t o K v a l e ( 1 9 9 7 ) a n d R u b i n a n d R u b i n ( 2 0 0 5 )
a n d w a s g r o u n d e d o n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s o f c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d c r i t i c a l
r e a l i s m d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r . M a r c u s e s a n d S a y e r s t h e o r e t i c a l a n d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l w o r k e n a b l e s m e t o c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h i n a c r i t i c a l w a y a n d o f f e r s a
p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e s e a r c h d o n e f o r t h i s t h e s i s .
E s p e c i a l l y t h e w o r k o f M a r c u s e p r o v i d e s a n i n s i g h t i n t o h o w c r i t i c a l r e s e a r c h
c a n b e c o n d u c t e d i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d s t r u c t u r e s a n d a s p e c t s o f t h e s o c i a l
w o r l d t h a t o n e m i g h t n o t b e a w a r e o f ( M a r c u s e 1 9 9 9 [ 1 9 4 1 ] a n d 2 0 0 2
[ 1 9 6 4 ] ) . S a y e r s w o r k , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o f f e r s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r
u s i n g d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s i n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a n e e d e d f o r t h i s
r e s e a r c h ( S a y e r 2 0 0 4 ) .
I t i s s o m e t i m e s a r g u e d t h a t q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h c a n n o t b e g e n e r a l i s e d , w h i c h i s
t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e t h e c a s e . H o w e v e r , t h e q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s
d i s s e r t a t i o n o u t l i n e s a s p e c t s t h a t h a v e a f f e c t e d u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n , a n d p r o v i d e s a d e e p e r v i e w o f w h y t h e c i t i e s
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s l o o k l i k e t h e y d o . T h i s c o u l d a l s o h a v e a b e a r i n g o n o t h e r
c i t i e s , a n d i n t h i s s e n s e t h e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a i s m o r e
a n a l y t i c a l ( s e e F r e u d e n d a l - P e d e r s e n 2 0 0 9 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h i s
k i n d o f d a t a c o u l d h a v e a n i m p a c t o n o t h e r r e s e a r c h o n t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n
p l a n n i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s d o e s n o t s e e k t h e
t r u t h , b u t i n s t e a d a t t e m p t s t o d e v e l o p a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s e s , t h e
r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e p o l i t i c s t h a t h a v e s h a p e d t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s
i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s i s q u i t e i n l i n e w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e t h e s i s d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 2 . 4 i n t h i s c h a p t e r . I t w a s
i m p o r t a n t t o c o l l e c t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d a t a i n o r d e r t o a n s w e r t h e r e s e a r c h
q u e s t i o n s p o s e d i n t h i s t h e s i s p r o p e r l y , w h i c h i s a l s o w h y t h e c h o i c e o f t h e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e u s e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s
f o r t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t i o n h a s b e e n m a d e . T h e c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e
c a s e s c h o s e n f o r t h i s t h e s i s w a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h ( M a r c u s e 1 9 9 9
[ 1 9 4 1 ] a n d 2 0 0 2 [ 1 9 6 4 ] , S a y e r 2 0 0 4 ) .


55
in Copenhagen and Stockholm respectively. In other words, I tried to see
where the differences, if any, were and how the answers, in respect to the
differences, could be interpreted. I also tried to find similarities in the answers
and the data collected. This process of conducting interview studies was
developed in close connection to Kvale (1997) and Rubin and Rubin (2005)
and was grounded on the philosophical ideas of critical theory and critical
realism discussed in the previous chapter. Marcuses and Sayers theoretical and
philosophical work enables me to conduct research in a critical way and offers a
philosophical and theoretical understanding of the research done for this thesis.
Especially the work of Marcuse provides an insight into how critical research
can be conducted in order to understand structures and aspects of the social
world that one might not be aware of (Marcuse 1999 [1941] and 2002
[1964]). Sayers work, on the other hand, offers the theoretical foundation for
using different methods in order to collect the empirical data needed for this
research (Sayer 2004).
It is sometimes argued that qualitative research cannot be generalised, which is
to a certain degree the case. However, the qualitative research in this
dissertation outlines aspects that have affected urban and transport planning in
Stockholm and Copenhagen, and provides a deeper view of why the cities
transport systems look like they do. This could also have a bearing on other
cities, and in this sense the generalisation of the qualitative data is more
analytical (see Freudendal-Pedersen 2009). Consequently, the analysis of this
kind of data could have an impact on other research on transport and urban
planning. Nevertheless, the research for this doctoral thesis does not seek the
truth, but instead attempts to develop an understanding of the processes, the
relations and the politics that have shaped the outcome of the transport systems
in Stockholm and Copenhagen. This is quite in line with the philosophical
foundation of the thesis described in section 2.4 in this chapter. It was
important to collect the appropriate data in order to answer the research
questions posed in this thesis properly, which is also why the choice of the
philosophical foundation and, consequently, the use of the different methods
for the empirical data collection has been made. The critical analysis of the
cases chosen for this thesis was very important for this research (Marcuse 1999
[1941] and 2002 [1964], Sayer 2004).

5 5

56
2.4 Survey studies
After the collection of the qualitative data, the perspectives of the cyclists in
Copenhagen and Stockholm were still missing. During the preparations for the
interviews I had already decided that an overview of the perspective of the
cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm should be included in this research.
Initially I tried to test on-street interviews with cyclists by stopping cyclists to
interview them in the spring of 2010. This appeared to be quite difficult, since
many cyclists did not want to stop or told me that they had no time.
I therefore decided to conduct a survey study in each of the two cities, which
was carried out in the spring of 2011. 3,005 postal questionnaires were sent
out in Copenhagen and 3,012 in Stockholm, followed by a reminder about
three weeks later.The response rate was 39.54 % in Stockholm (1,191
individuals) and 36.61 % in Copenhagen (1,100 individuals), which is quite
satisfactory, and since there is no bias in the responses (see Chapter 8) they can
easily be used in the statistical analysis in this thesis. The questionnaire was
divided into three parts. The first part consists of basic questions for collecting
some background data, e.g. questions about age, sex, income etc. The second
part contains questions about time spent in traffic using different modes of
transport, and the third part contains statement questions. The questionnaire
contains a total of seventeen questions, of which questions 11 and 12 have
several sub-questions. An example of the questionnaires in Stockholm and
Copenhagen, which includes all the questions and the design of the
questionnaires, can be found in Appendix 2. The detailed description of the
method can be found in Chapter 8. However, as an introduction, the method
used for analysing the data from the questionnaires was partly descriptive
statistics, that is to say that I created frequency tables and graphs and compared
the data in those tables and the graphs in Stockholm with the data for
Copenhagen. This gives a very good overview of the data collected and a good
insight into who has answered the survey and what kind of people bike in both
cities (Eggeby and Sderberg 1999). Furthermore, I did a Chi2 test, a statistical
method for comparing two samples, like the answers from Stockholm and
Copenhagen (Edling and Hedstrm 2003), and a Mann-Whitney test, a
statistical method that can handle scale data and compare it (Agresti and Finlay
2009) with other parts of the data from the survey and compared this data
from Stockholm with Copenhagen. As mentioned before, the complete

5 6
2 . 4 S u r v e y s t u d i e s
A f t e r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a , t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m w e r e s t i l l m i s s i n g . D u r i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e
i n t e r v i e w s I h a d a l r e a d y d e c i d e d t h a t a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e
c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h .
I n i t i a l l y I t r i e d t o t e s t o n - s t r e e t i n t e r v i e w s w i t h c y c l i s t s b y s t o p p i n g c y c l i s t s t o
i n t e r v i e w t h e m i n t h e s p r i n g o f 2 0 1 0 . T h i s a p p e a r e d t o b e q u i t e d i f f i c u l t , s i n c e
m a n y c y c l i s t s d i d n o t w a n t t o s t o p o r t o l d m e t h a t t h e y h a d n o t i m e .
I t h e r e f o r e d e c i d e d t o c o n d u c t a s u r v e y s t u d y i n e a c h o f t h e t w o c i t i e s , w h i c h
w a s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e s p r i n g o f 2 0 1 1 . 3 , 0 0 5 p o s t a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e r e s e n t
o u t i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d 3 , 0 1 2 i n S t o c k h o l m , f o l l o w e d b y a r e m i n d e r a b o u t
t h r e e w e e k s l a t e r . T h e r e s p o n s e r a t e w a s 3 9 . 5 4 % i n S t o c k h o l m ( 1 , 1 9 1
i n d i v i d u a l s ) a n d 3 6 . 6 1 % i n C o p e n h a g e n ( 1 , 1 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s ) , w h i c h i s q u i t e
s a t i s f a c t o r y , a n d s i n c e t h e r e i s n o b i a s i n t h e r e s p o n s e s ( s e e C h a p t e r 8 ) t h e y c a n
e a s i l y b e u s e d i n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s i n t h i s t h e s i s . T h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w a s
d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s . T h e f i r s t p a r t c o n s i s t s o f b a s i c q u e s t i o n s f o r c o l l e c t i n g
s o m e b a c k g r o u n d d a t a , e . g . q u e s t i o n s a b o u t a g e , s e x , i n c o m e e t c . T h e s e c o n d
p a r t c o n t a i n s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t i m e s p e n t i n t r a f f i c u s i n g d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f
t r a n s p o r t , a n d t h e t h i r d p a r t c o n t a i n s s t a t e m e n t q u e s t i o n s . T h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
c o n t a i n s a t o t a l o f s e v e n t e e n q u e s t i o n s , o f w h i c h q u e s t i o n s 1 1 a n d 1 2 h a v e
s e v e r a l s u b - q u e s t i o n s . A n e x a m p l e o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n , w h i c h i n c l u d e s a l l t h e q u e s t i o n s a n d t h e d e s i g n o f t h e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , c a n b e f o u n d i n A p p e n d i x 2 . T h e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
m e t h o d c a n b e f o u n d i n C h a p t e r 8 . H o w e v e r , a s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e m e t h o d
u s e d f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e d a t a f r o m t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w a s p a r t l y d e s c r i p t i v e
s t a t i s t i c s , t h a t i s t o s a y t h a t I c r e a t e d f r e q u e n c y t a b l e s a n d g r a p h s a n d c o m p a r e d
t h e d a t a i n t h o s e t a b l e s a n d t h e g r a p h s i n S t o c k h o l m w i t h t h e d a t a f o r
C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s g i v e s a v e r y g o o d o v e r v i e w o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d a n d a g o o d
i n s i g h t i n t o w h o h a s a n s w e r e d t h e s u r v e y a n d w h a t k i n d o f p e o p l e b i k e i n b o t h
c i t i e s ( E g g e b y a n d S d e r b e r g 1 9 9 9 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , I d i d a C h i 2 t e s t , a s t a t i s t i c a l
m e t h o d f o r c o m p a r i n g t w o s a m p l e s , l i k e t h e a n s w e r s f r o m S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n ( E d l i n g a n d H e d s t r m 2 0 0 3 ) , a n d a M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t , a
s t a t i s t i c a l m e t h o d t h a t c a n h a n d l e s c a l e d a t a a n d c o m p a r e i t ( A g r e s t i a n d F i n l a y
2 0 0 9 ) w i t h o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e d a t a f r o m t h e s u r v e y a n d c o m p a r e d t h i s d a t a
f r o m S t o c k h o l m w i t h C o p e n h a g e n . A s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , t h e c o m p l e t e
5 6

5 7
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m e t h o d s a n d d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s u r v e y s i s f o u n d
i n C h a p t e r 8 o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .
T h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s w e r e d o n e i n o r d e r t o g a t h e r s o m e g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e a t t i t u d e s o f p e o p l e w h o u s e t h e b i c y c l e i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n a n d w h a t t h e i r i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s f o r c y c l i s t s a r e .
T h e s u r v e y s , d e s c r i b e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r 8 , b u i l d u p o n t h e
m e t h o d o l o g y d e v e l o p e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y e x p l a i n e d
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r . T h e y w e r e a l s o c o n d u c t e d p a r t l y t o c l a r i f y t h e v i e w s
a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i n t e r v i e w s t u d y . T h i s s h o u l d s e r v e a s a
c o m p l e m e n t t o t h e v i e w s o f t h e p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e
s u r v e y s t u d y e x p r e s s e s t h e v i e w s o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . F r o m a
s t a t i s t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y d a t a r e f l e c t s t h e c y c l i s t s
v i e w s o f c y c l i n g , p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m ( E g g e b y
a n d S d e r b e r g 1 9 9 9 ) . T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s a n d t h e c o n c r e t e
m e t h o d s u s e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s a r e e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p t e r 8 . I d e c i d e d t o m a k e
t h i s d i v i s i o n , s i n c e I t h i n k i t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e r e a d e r t o h a v e t h e d e t a i l e d
f a c t s a b o u t t h e s e s t u d i e s n e a r a t h a n d w h e n r e a d i n g a b o u t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e
s u r v e y s t u d i e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s a r e a l s o
c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d i n t h e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d
p o l i t i c i a n s , i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e t h e b r o a d u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p r o a c h t h a t i s
n e e d e d w h e n a n a l y s i n g c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g .
H o w e v e r , i t a l s o s e e m s i m p o r t a n t t o t a k e a c r i t i c a l l o o k a t t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f
s u r v e y s t u d i e s , w h i c h , j u s t a s i n t h o s e c o n d u c t e d f o r t h i s t h e s i s , a r e s o d e t a i l e d ,
a n d d e e p i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h o w p e o p l e i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n
e x p e r i e n c e c y c l i n g i s n o t c a p t u r e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a g e n e r a l v i e w o f c y c l i n g a n d
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o c i t i e s c a n b e p r e s e n t e d , w h i c h w a s a l s o t h e
p u r p o s e o f t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s I c o n d u c t e d . H o w e v e r , i t w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r
f u t u r e r e s e a r c h t o d e v e l o p s u c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i s m i s s i n g b y c o n d u c t i n g
i n t e r v i e w s a n d / o r f o c u s g r o u p s t u d i e s w i t h c y c l i s t s . T h e s u r v e y w a s n o t o n l y
s e n t o u t t o d e v o t e d c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s b u t a l s o t o a s a m p l e o f r e s i d e n t s i n
t h e c a s e s t u d y c i t i e s , i n o r d e r t o g e t a h i g h e r r e s p o n s e r a t e . T h e i d e a w a s t o
c r e a t e a s m a l l e r s a m p l e t h a t i n c l u d e s o n l y t h e c y c l i s t s t h a t h a v e a n s w e r e d t h e
s u r v e y . T h e m e t h o d s f o r d o i n g t h a t a r e e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p t e r 8 . M o r e o v e r ,
a n o t h e r w a y o f b u i l d i n g k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e c y c l i s t s v i e w s c o u l d h a v e b e e n
o n - s t r e e t i n t e r v i e w s , w h i c h , a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t u r n e d o u t t o b e d i f f i c u l t .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e l a s t q u e s t i o n i n t h e s u r v e y w a s w h e t h e r t h e p e r s o n w o u l d l i k e
t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a n i n t e r v i e w o r a f o c u s g r o u p s e s s i o n . T h e p u r p o s e w a s t o

57
description of the methods and detailed information about the surveys is found
in Chapter 8 of this dissertation.
The survey studies were done in order to gather some general information
about the attitudes of people who use the bicycle in Stockholm and
Copenhagen and what their impressions of the infrastructures for cyclists are.
The surveys, described in greater detail in Chapter 8, build upon the
methodology developed in this chapter and the politics of mobility explained
in the following chapter. They were also conducted partly to clarify the views
and developments expressed in the interview study. This should serve as a
complement to the views of the planners and politicians. In other words, the
survey study expresses the views of the cyclists in the two cities. From a
statistical point of view, the analysis of the survey data reflects the cyclists
views of cycling, planning and politics in Copenhagen and Stockholm (Eggeby
and Sderberg 1999). The analysis of the survey studies and the concrete
methods used for the analysis are explained in Chapter 8. I decided to make
this division, since I think it is important for the reader to have the detailed
facts about these studies near at hand when reading about the results of the
survey studies. Moreover, the data collected in the survey studies are also
compared with the data obtained in the interviews with planners and
politicians, in order to create the broad understanding and approach that is
needed when analysing cycling and transport planning.
However, it also seems important to take a critical look at the limitations of
survey studies, which, just as in those conducted for this thesis, are so detailed,
and deep information about how people in Stockholm and Copenhagen
experience cycling is not captured. Nevertheless, a general view of cycling and
the differences between the two cities can be presented, which was also the
purpose of the survey studies I conducted. However, it would be interesting for
future research to develop such understanding that is missing by conducting
interviews and/or focus group studies with cyclists. The survey was not only
sent out to devoted cyclists in the two cities but also to a sample of residents in
the case study cities, in order to get a higher response rate. The idea was to
create a smaller sample that includes only the cyclists that have answered the
survey. The methods for doing that are explained in Chapter 8. Moreover,
another way of building knowledge about the cyclists views could have been
on-street interviews, which, as mentioned above, turned out to be difficult.
Furthermore, the last question in the survey was whether the person would like
to participate in an interview or a focus group session. The purpose was to
5 7

58
follow up the survey data by interviews or focus group sessions; this could not
be done here for lack of time and is certainly worth considering in future
research.
2.5 The combination of methods
One question that needs to be answered is: What happens when those methods
are combined? This is dealt with in the next part of this chapter.
In order to answer this question I divided the methods into two different
categories and described them, their function, the type of information gathered
and what type of data is collected (see Table 1 below). The illustration of the
methods used for data collection in this thesis should help to understand the
different roles of the methods in the process of collecting the empirical data.
The different methods also provide different data that have to be kept in mind
when analysing the empirical data. It is important to remember that the
empirical data offer different answers to the research questions.

Table 1: Methods used for data collection
Methods Function
Type of
information
Type of
data
Interview
Studies
Increased understanding
of the planning and
policy material;
increased understanding
of the planning
processes and factors
that have influenced and
are influencing the
planning and the
politics
First-hand
information
from
professionals
and politicians
working with
urban transport
and bicycle
planning
Qualitative
data
Survey
Studies
Increased understanding
of the attitudes and
impressions of cyclists in
Stockholm and
Copenhagen
First-hand
information
from cyclists in
Stockholm and
Copenhagen
Quantitative
data

5 8
f o l l o w u p t h e s u r v e y d a t a b y i n t e r v i e w s o r f o c u s g r o u p s e s s i o n s ; t h i s c o u l d n o t
b e d o n e h e r e f o r l a c k o f t i m e a n d i s c e r t a i n l y w o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g i n f u t u r e
r e s e a r c h .
2 . 5 T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e t h o d s
O n e q u e s t i o n t h a t n e e d s t o b e a n s w e r e d i s : W h a t h a p p e n s w h e n t h o s e m e t h o d s
a r e c o m b i n e d ? T h i s i s d e a l t w i t h i n t h e n e x t p a r t o f t h i s c h a p t e r .
I n o r d e r t o a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n I d i v i d e d t h e m e t h o d s i n t o t w o d i f f e r e n t
c a t e g o r i e s a n d d e s c r i b e d t h e m , t h e i r f u n c t i o n , t h e t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d
a n d w h a t t y p e o f d a t a i s c o l l e c t e d ( s e e T a b l e 1 b e l o w ) . T h e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e
m e t h o d s u s e d f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n i n t h i s t h e s i s s h o u l d h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
d i f f e r e n t r o l e s o f t h e m e t h o d s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c o l l e c t i n g t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a .
T h e d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s a l s o p r o v i d e d i f f e r e n t d a t a t h a t h a v e t o b e k e p t i n m i n d
w h e n a n a l y s i n g t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e
e m p i r i c a l d a t a o f f e r d i f f e r e n t a n s w e r s t o t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s .

T a b l e 1 : M e t h o d s u s e d f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n
M e t h o d s F u n c t i o n
T y p e o f
i n f o r m a t i o n
T y p e o f
d a t a
I n t e r v i e w
S t u d i e s
I n c r e a s e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e p l a n n i n g a n d
p o l i c y m a t e r i a l ;
i n c r e a s e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e p l a n n i n g
p r o c e s s e s a n d f a c t o r s
t h a t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d a n d
a r e i n f l u e n c i n g t h e
p l a n n i n g a n d t h e
p o l i t i c s
F i r s t - h a n d
i n f o r m a t i o n
f r o m
p r o f e s s i o n a l s
a n d p o l i t i c i a n s
w o r k i n g w i t h
u r b a n t r a n s p o r t
a n d b i c y c l e
p l a n n i n g
Q u a l i t a t i v e
d a t a
S u r v e y
S t u d i e s
I n c r e a s e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e a t t i t u d e s a n d
i m p r e s s i o n s o f c y c l i s t s i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n
F i r s t - h a n d
i n f o r m a t i o n
f r o m c y c l i s t s i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n
Q u a n t i t a t i v e
d a t a
5 8

5 9
T h e t w o d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s u s e d f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n s e r v e d d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s
a n d r e s u l t e d i n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f d a t a . O n e m e t h o d c o l l e c t e d q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a
a n d o n e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a . T h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s a n d
d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s b u i l t a v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e
t r a n s p o r t a n d c y c l i n g s y s t e m s i n t h e t w o c a s e c i t i e s a n d a l s o f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r
t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p o w e r o n t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g a n d o n
p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s . T h e o t h e r q u a l i t a t i v e m e t h o d u s e d f o r c o l l e c t i n g t h e
e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s t h e s i s i s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s m e t h o d d e l i v e r e d t h e i n i t i a l d a t a o n t h e c y c l i n g a n d
t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d a d e e p e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e u s e o f b i c y c l e s i n t h e t w o
c i t i e s b a s e d o n m y o w n e x p e r i e n c e s a n d o n o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e t r a f f i c . T h o s e
i m p r e s s i o n s a r e p a r t l y b a c k e d u p b y t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s , w h e r e t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e
d a t a o f c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d v i e w s o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , t r a n s p o r t / b i c y c l e
p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s a r e c o l l e c t e d .
A l t h o u g h s u r v e y s t u d i e s m i g h t n o t c o l l e c t a l l d a t a o n c y c l i s t s v i e w s , t h e y
c e r t a i n l y g i v e a n o v e r a l l i m p r e s s i o n o f w h a t p e o p l e w h o u s e t h e i r b i k e s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m t h i n k a b o u t t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e p l a n n i n g
f o r c y c l i s t s . T h e r o l e o f t h e s u r v e y w a s a l s o t o o b t a i n a m o r e g e n e r a l p i c t u r e o f
t h e v i e w s o f c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o c a s e c i t i e s a n d t o c o m p a r e t h e s e d a t a w i t h t h a t
f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s . T h i s w a s d o n e i n o r d e r t o f i n d o u t w h e t h e r p l a n n e r s a n d
p o l i t i c i a n s h a v e s i m i l a r v i e w s o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e s t r a t e g i e s i n t h e t w o
c i t i e s a s t h e c y c l i s t s a n d w h e t h e r c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e c y c l i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
g o a l s s e t u p i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , I w a n t e d t o e s t a b l i s h a c o m p a r a b l e
d a t a s e t o f c y c l i s t s v i e w s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s i n o r d e r t o f i n d o u t w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a n d , i f s o , w h e t h e r t h o s e
c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , p o l i t i c s a n d p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h e s o f t h e
t w o c i t i e s . I t w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r m y r e s e a r c h t o g e t b o t h s i d e s o f t h e c o i n ,
n a m e l y t h e p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s v i e w s o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e
p l a n n i n g a n d t h e c y c l i s t s v i e w o f t h e m . I t s e e m e d i m p o r t a n t t o m e t o i n c l u d e
t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e c y c l i s t s , b e c a u s e o n a n e v e r y d a y b a s i s i t i s t h e c y c l i s t s a n d
t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e t w o c i t i e s w h o e n c o u n t e r t h e u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s p a c e a n d
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d w h o h a v e t o u s e i t . T h i s c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n c l o s e r e l a t i o n t o
b o t h L e f e b v r e s p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) a n d C r e s s w e l l s
p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) , w h i c h a r e d e a l t w i t h l a t e r i n t h i s t h e s i s .
O n t h e w h o l e , i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s u s e d f o r c o l l e c t i n g t h e
e m p i r i c a l d a t a a r e s u i t a b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s . T h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a s e r v e
t h e p u r p o s e o f g e t t i n g a g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c y c l i s t s p e r s p e c t i v e s i n

59
The two different methods used for data collection served different purposes
and resulted in different types of data. One method collected qualitative data
and one quantitative data. The qualitative data from the interviews and
document studies built a very important foundation for the analysis of the
transport and cycling systems in the two case cities and also form the basis for
the analysis of the influence of power on the outcome of planning and on
political decisions. The other qualitative method used for collecting the
empirical material for this thesis is the observations in Stockholm and
Copenhagen. This method delivered the initial data on the cycling and
transport infrastructure and a deeper insight into the use of bicycles in the two
cities based on my own experiences and on observations of the traffic. Those
impressions are partly backed up by the survey studies, where the quantitative
data of cyclists experiences and views of the infrastructure, transport/bicycle
planning and politics are collected.
Although survey studies might not collect all data on cyclists views, they
certainly give an overall impression of what people who use their bikes in
Copenhagen and Stockholm think about the infrastructure and the planning
for cyclists. The role of the survey was also to obtain a more general picture of
the views of cyclists in the two case cities and to compare these data with that
from the interviews. This was done in order to find out whether planners and
politicians have similar views of the infrastructure and the strategies in the two
cities as the cyclists and whether cyclists experience cycling according to the
goals set up in the two cities. Furthermore, I wanted to establish a comparable
data set of cyclists views and experiences in order to find out whether there are
differences between Stockholm and Copenhagen and, if so, whether those
correspond with the power relations, politics and planning approaches of the
two cities. It was important for my research to get both sides of the coin,
namely the planners and politicians views of the infrastructure and the
planning and the cyclists view of them. It seemed important to me to include
the experiences of the cyclists, because on an everyday basis it is the cyclists and
the inhabitants of the two cities who encounter the urban transport space and
infrastructure and who have to use it. This can also be seen in close relation to
both Lefebvres production of space (Lefebvre 1991 [1974]) and Cresswells
politics of mobility (Cresswell 2010), which are dealt with later in this thesis.
On the whole, it can be said that the different methods used for collecting the
empirical data are suitable for different purposes. The quantitative data serve
the purpose of getting a general understanding of the cyclists perspectives in
5 9

60
Stockholm and Copenhagen, whereas the qualitative methods are best suited
for developing a deeper understanding of the planning processes and politics in
the two case cities and for developing my own understanding of the bicycling
infrastructure. It was not the purpose of the research design to weigh different
methods against each other, since the methods used in this thesis are best
suited for collecting the data needed to answer the research questions. All the
methods helped me understand different aspects of the research, such as the
historical development of the infrastructure and how cyclists experience the
infrastructure in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The data, as was hopefully made
clear in the philosophical part of this chapter, are not a reflection of the truth.
They are an interpretation of a mobile reality in two Scandinavian capital
cities.


6 0
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n , w h e r e a s t h e q u a l i t a t i v e m e t h o d s a r e b e s t s u i t e d
f o r d e v e l o p i n g a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d p o l i t i c s i n
t h e t w o c a s e c i t i e s a n d f o r d e v e l o p i n g m y o w n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b i c y c l i n g
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . I t w a s n o t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n t o w e i g h d i f f e r e n t
m e t h o d s a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r , s i n c e t h e m e t h o d s u s e d i n t h i s t h e s i s a r e b e s t
s u i t e d f o r c o l l e c t i n g t h e d a t a n e e d e d t o a n s w e r t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s . A l l t h e
m e t h o d s h e l p e d m e u n d e r s t a n d d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f t h e r e s e a r c h , s u c h a s t h e
h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d h o w c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e t h e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e d a t a , a s w a s h o p e f u l l y m a d e
c l e a r i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p a r t o f t h i s c h a p t e r , a r e n o t a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e t r u t h .
T h e y a r e a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a m o b i l e r e a l i t y i n t w o S c a n d i n a v i a n c a p i t a l
c i t i e s .

6 0

6 1
3 M o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y
f r a m i n g t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n

m o b i l i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n s o c i e t i e s s h o u l d b e a t t h e h e a r t o f a r e c o n s t i t u t e d
s o c i o l o g y ( U r r y 2 0 0 0 : 2 1 0 )

T h i s c h a p t e r s t a r t s w i t h a q u e s t i o n : W h y a n a l y s e s o c i e t y a n d b i c y c l i n g t h r o u g h
t h e l e n s o f m o b i l i t y ? D u r i n g t h e 1 9
t h
a n d 2 0
t h
c e n t u r i e s , t h e m o v e m e n t s o f
p e o p l e a n d g o o d s h a v e c h a n g e d q u i t e d r a m a t i c a l l y . R a i l r o a d s a n d s t e a m b o a t s
h a v e f o s t e r e d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e b i c y c l e h a s , a t l e a s t t o a
c e r t a i n d e g r e e , l i b e r a t e d w o m e n b y e n a b l i n g t h e m t o m o v e a r o u n d m o r e e a s i l y .
A l t h o u g h t h e b i c y c l e w a s i n i t i a l l y j u s t a t o y f o r t h e u p p e r c l a s s e s , i t l a t e r ( i n t h e
e a r l y 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y ) b e c a m e a g e n e r a l m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t , n o t l e a s t f o r t h e
w o r k i n g c l a s s . I n t h e e a r l y 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y t h e a u t o m o b i l e s t a r t e d t o h a v e a n
i m p a c t o n r i c h p e o p l e s m o b i l i t y . B y t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s t h e a u t o m o b i l e
b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n i n w e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s a n d c a m e t o d o m i n a t e u r b a n
a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t h e m o b i l i t y o f m a n y p e o p l e ( M e r k i 2 0 0 8 ,
M a c k i n t o s h a n d N o r c l i f f 2 0 0 7 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o U r r y ( 2 0 0 0 ) , t h e i m p a c t o f
m o b i l i t i e s o n s o c i e t y i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t , s o i m p o r t a n t , i n f a c t , t h a t U r r y c l a i m s
t h a t , d u e t o t h e t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t o f m o b i l i t i e s o n s o c i e t i e s a n d p e o p l e s
e v e r y d a y l i v e s a n d c o m p l e x s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , s o c i o l o g y s h o u l d s e e k t o
i n c o r p o r a t e s t u d i e s o f m o b i l i t i e s i n t o t h e c o r e s u b j e c t s o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
s o c i e t y . H e s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o c i o l o g y a s a d i s c i p l i n e h a s b e e n
i n f l u e n c e d b y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s , s u c h a s t h e g a y / l e s b i a n
m o v e m e n t , t h e w o m e n s m o v e m e n t o r s t u d e n t m o v e m e n t s . I t w a s s u c h
m o v e m e n t s t h a t c r e a t e d n e w , b u t o f t e n l i m i t e d , p u b l i c s p a c e s a n d n e w f o r m s
o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . T h e r e f o r e , m o b i l i t i e s c a n b e s e e n a s a v e r y p o w e r f u l t o o l i n
a n a l y s i n g s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a . M o r e o v e r , U r r y a l s o s t a t e s t h a t m o b i l i t y o f
i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t s c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f d i s c i p l i n e s , e . g .

61
3 Mobility and vlomobility
framing the dissertation

mobilities rather than societies should be at the heart of a reconstituted
sociology (Urry 2000:210)

This chapter starts with a question: Why analyse society and bicycling through
the lens of mobility? During the 19
th
and 20
th
centuries, the movements of
people and goods have changed quite dramatically. Railroads and steamboats
have fostered industrialization, and the invention of the bicycle has, at least to a
certain degree, liberated women by enabling them to move around more easily.
Although the bicycle was initially just a toy for the upper classes, it later (in the
early 20
th
century) became a general mode of transport, not least for the
working class. In the early 20
th
century the automobile started to have an
impact on rich peoples mobility. By the 1950s and 1960s the automobile
became increasingly common in western societies and came to dominate urban
and transport planning and the mobility of many people (Merki 2008,
Mackintosh and Norcliff 2007). According to Urry (2000), the impact of
mobilities on society is very important, so important, in fact, that Urry claims
that, due to the tremendous impact of mobilities on societies and peoples
everyday lives and complex social relations, sociology should seek to
incorporate studies of mobilities into the core subjects of the investigation of
society. He stresses that the development of sociology as a discipline has been
influenced by different forms of social movements, such as the gay/lesbian
movement, the womens movement or student movements. It was such
movements that created new, but often limited, public spaces and new forms
of social sciences. Therefore, mobilities can be seen as a very powerful tool in
analysing social phenomena. Moreover, Urry also states that mobility of
intellectual thoughts contributes to the restructuring of disciplines, e.g.
6 1

62
sociology, towards focusing on mobilities rather than societies. Thus, a focus
on mobilities rather than societies offers new insights into social relations,
power relations and political decisions (Urry 2000). Bearing that in mind,
framing this thesis within mobilities instead of adopting other social staring
points provides a mobile perspective on a topic that focuses on movement and
transport, i.e. bicycling and transport planning, while at the same time offering
a new lens through which power relations, critical theory, planning etc. can be
studied. However, Urrys argumentation is a purely theoretical one, which is
why empirical studies of mobilities, or in this case of vlomobility, would
contribute a deeper understanding of the practice of mobilities.
Thus, the concept of mobility contributes to a deeper theoretical
understanding within the field of planning for cyclists, and could offer an
approach for analysing transport planning. Mobility could also have
implications for rethinking transport policies in cities. Mobility can, as seen
above, be infused with power relations, and is of great significance for how
people use mobile spaces. This creates conflicts between different kinds of road
users that are not always observable (Handerson 2009). Moreover, the politics
of mobility proposed by Cresswell (2010) and introduced below provides a
theoretical concept for analysing cycling and transport in space. The mobility
turn thus broadens the perspectives on transport and brings social and cultural
perspectives into issues of movements and transport.
The word mobility is used in different contexts. The mobility turn, or the new
mobilities paradigm as this turn has also been called (Sheller and Urry 2006) in
the social sciences includes many aspects. It is a broad conceptualisation of
transport and traffic, of the movement and flow of people (Sheller and Urry
2006). For example, the word automobility refers to a form of mobility that
works automatically, or, in the usual sense, that works through a machine, i.e.
the car. Automobility, according to Urry, refers to a whole system that includes
different aspects, such as culture, consumption, industrial production and
private mobility (Urry 2004). Moreover, automobility can also be seen as the
hegemonic practice of mobility in western societies (Aldred 2010, Horton
2006). The example of automobility shows how much more complex the term
mobility really is, compared to, for example transport. Furthermore,
automobility and vlomobility are aspects that exemplify research on different
forms of mobility or mobilities. Another form of mobilities where extensive
research has been conducted is aeromobilities. Within this field, the mobility
turn in social sciences is used to analyse the expansion of air travel, aviation

6 2
s o c i o l o g y , t o w a r d s f o c u s i n g o n m o b i l i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n s o c i e t i e s . T h u s , a f o c u s
o n m o b i l i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n s o c i e t i e s o f f e r s n e w i n s i g h t s i n t o s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ,
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s ( U r r y 2 0 0 0 ) . B e a r i n g t h a t i n m i n d ,
f r a m i n g t h i s t h e s i s w i t h i n m o b i l i t i e s i n s t e a d o f a d o p t i n g o t h e r s o c i a l s t a r i n g
p o i n t s p r o v i d e s a m o b i l e p e r s p e c t i v e o n a t o p i c t h a t f o c u s e s o n m o v e m e n t a n d
t r a n s p o r t , i . e . b i c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e o f f e r i n g
a n e w l e n s t h r o u g h w h i c h p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , c r i t i c a l t h e o r y , p l a n n i n g e t c . c a n b e
s t u d i e d . H o w e v e r , U r r y s a r g u m e n t a t i o n i s a p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l o n e , w h i c h i s
w h y e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s o f m o b i l i t i e s , o r i n t h i s c a s e o f v l o m o b i l i t y , w o u l d
c o n t r i b u t e a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f m o b i l i t i e s .
T h u s , t h e c o n c e p t o f m o b i l i t y c o n t r i b u t e s t o a d e e p e r t h e o r e t i c a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s , a n d c o u l d o f f e r a n
a p p r o a c h f o r a n a l y s i n g t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . M o b i l i t y c o u l d a l s o h a v e
i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r r e t h i n k i n g t r a n s p o r t p o l i c i e s i n c i t i e s . M o b i l i t y c a n , a s s e e n
a b o v e , b e i n f u s e d w i t h p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , a n d i s o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r h o w
p e o p l e u s e m o b i l e s p a c e s . T h i s c r e a t e s c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f r o a d
u s e r s t h a t a r e n o t a l w a y s o b s e r v a b l e ( H a n d e r s o n 2 0 0 9 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e p o l i t i c s
o f m o b i l i t y p r o p o s e d b y C r e s s w e l l ( 2 0 1 0 ) a n d i n t r o d u c e d b e l o w p r o v i d e s a
t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t f o r a n a l y s i n g c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t i n s p a c e . T h e m o b i l i t y
t u r n t h u s b r o a d e n s t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t r a n s p o r t a n d b r i n g s s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l
p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t o i s s u e s o f m o v e m e n t s a n d t r a n s p o r t .
T h e w o r d m o b i l i t y i s u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s . T h e m o b i l i t y t u r n , o r t h e n e w
m o b i l i t i e s p a r a d i g m a s t h i s t u r n h a s a l s o b e e n c a l l e d ( S h e l l e r a n d U r r y 2 0 0 6 ) i n
t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i n c l u d e s m a n y a s p e c t s . I t i s a b r o a d c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f
t r a n s p o r t a n d t r a f f i c , o f t h e m o v e m e n t a n d f l o w o f p e o p l e ( S h e l l e r a n d U r r y
2 0 0 6 ) . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e w o r d a u t o m o b i l i t y r e f e r s t o a f o r m o f m o b i l i t y t h a t
w o r k s a u t o m a t i c a l l y , o r , i n t h e u s u a l s e n s e , t h a t w o r k s t h r o u g h a m a c h i n e , i . e .
t h e c a r . A u t o m o b i l i t y , a c c o r d i n g t o U r r y , r e f e r s t o a w h o l e s y s t e m t h a t i n c l u d e s
d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s , s u c h a s c u l t u r e , c o n s u m p t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d
p r i v a t e m o b i l i t y ( U r r y 2 0 0 4 ) . M o r e o v e r , a u t o m o b i l i t y c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s t h e
h e g e m o n i c p r a c t i c e o f m o b i l i t y i n w e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s ( A l d r e d 2 0 1 0 , H o r t o n
2 0 0 6 ) . T h e e x a m p l e o f a u t o m o b i l i t y s h o w s h o w m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x t h e t e r m
m o b i l i t y r e a l l y i s , c o m p a r e d t o , f o r e x a m p l e t r a n s p o r t . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
a u t o m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y a r e a s p e c t s t h a t e x e m p l i f y r e s e a r c h o n d i f f e r e n t
f o r m s o f m o b i l i t y o r m o b i l i t i e s . A n o t h e r f o r m o f m o b i l i t i e s w h e r e e x t e n s i v e
r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d i s a e r o m o b i l i t i e s . W i t h i n t h i s f i e l d , t h e m o b i l i t y
t u r n i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i s u s e d t o a n a l y s e t h e e x p a n s i o n o f a i r t r a v e l , a v i a t i o n
6 2

6 3
a n d g l o b a l m o b i l i t y i n a g l o b a l i s e d w o r l d . A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m a s s t r a v e l ,
g l o b a l i s a t i o n , s p a c e a n d p l a c e , s u b j e c t i v i t i e s a n d m o d e r n i t y i s d e v e l o p e d
( C v e r n e r e t a l . 2 0 0 9 , A d e y 2 0 0 8 , G u i v a a n d J a i n 2 0 1 1 ) . A n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g
a s p e c t o f m o b i l i t i e s i s r e s e a r c h o n m o b i l e l i v e s a n d h o w m o b i l i t y a f f e c t s o u r
p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s , w h i c h h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e i m p a c t o f m o b i l i t y o n
p e o p l e s e v e r y d a y l i v e s a n d h o w m o b i l e p e o p l e a r e p e r c e i v e d i n s o c i e t i e s . H e r e
C r e s w e l l o f f e r s i n s i g h t s i n t o l i f e a s a t r a m p i n t h e U S A o r h o w i m m i g r a t i o n i s
s h a p e d b y , a n d s h a p e s , m o b i l i t y ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 1 a n d 2 0 0 6 ) . M o b i l e l i v e s a n d
h o w t h e y a f f e c t a n d a r e a f f e c t e d b y s o c i e t y a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n t h e p u b l i c a n d
p r i v a t e s p h e r e s r e p r e s e n t a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f m o b i l i t y t h a t i s f o c u s e d o n i n
r e s e a r c h i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ( S h e l l e r a n d U r r y 2 0 0 3 , E l l i o t t a n d U r r y 2 0 1 0 ) .
E m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h p l a y s a m o r e i m p o r t a n t r o l e w i t h i n t h o s e f i e l d s o f m o b i l i t y
t h a n i n m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h f o c u s i n g o n t h e m o b i l i t y t u r n w i t h i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ,
w h i c h c a n b e s e e n e . g . i n r e s e a r c h o n m o b i l e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r l i v e s ( K e s s e l r i n g
2 0 0 6 ) . H o w e v e r , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s t h e s i s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s e a r c h o n
m o b i l i t y , a u t o m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y s e e m s b e s t s u i t e d f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
f r a m e f o r a n a l y s i n g c y c l i n g , s p a c e a n d p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n .
I n o r d e r t o g i v e m o b i l i t y a n e v e n b r o a d e r d e f i n i t i o n , t h e t e r m v l o m o b i l i t y c a n
a l s o b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e c o n c e p t o f a u t o m o b i l i t y . V l o m o b i l i t y i s t h e c y c l i s t s
f o r m o f m o b i l i t y a n d , a s t h e t e r m s u g g e s t s , r e f e r s t o m o b i l i t y o n a b i c y c l e .
C y c l i s t s d i s p l a y a d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f m o b i l i t y t h a n m o t o r i s t s , i n t e r m s o f s p a c e
( b o t h w h i l e c y c l i n g a n d p a r k i n g ) , a n d a l s o i n t e r m s o f s a f e t y a n d i n t e r m s o f
e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s a n d e n e r g y u s e / p o l l u t i o n ( H o r t o n 2 0 0 6 , F u r n e s s
2 0 0 7 , P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r 2 0 1 2 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , s o m e a s p e c t s o f v l o m o b i l i t y ,
s u c h a s c r i t i c a l m a s s e v e n t s , t r y t o i n t e r v e n e w i t h a n d c r e a t e t h e i r o w n u r b a n
s p a c e a n d , i n t h a t c o n t e x t , e s t a b l i s h a n o r m a t i v e c r i t i q u e o f t h e u s e o f u r b a n
s p a c e t o d a y . T h e d o m i n a t i o n o f a u t o m o b i l i t y a n d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f c y c l i n g
c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s a f o r m o f c o n t e s t i n g t h e u s e o f u r b a n s p a c e ( F u r n e s s 2 0 0 7 ,
S p i n n e y 2 0 1 0 ) .
A s a s t a r t i t c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t m o b i l i t y o f t e n s t a r t s w i t h a m o v e m e n t f r o m
A t o B . T h e r e f o r e , m o b i l i t y i s a f o r m o f d i s p l a c e m e n t b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t
g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , m o b i l i t y , e s p e c i a l l y i n r e c e n t r e s e a r c h , h a s
a l s o i n c l u d e d o t h e r a s p e c t s , s u c h a s m o b i l i t y i n t h e f o r m s o f n e t w o r k s a n d
c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e t e c h n o l o g y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m , m i g r a t i o n e t c . ,
w h i c h w i d e n s t h e p e r s p e c t i v e f r o m o n l y t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l m o v e m e n t f r o m
p o i n t A t o p o i n t B ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e U r r y 2 0 0 4 o r S h e l l e r 2 0 0 4 ) . T h i s i s a l s o a

63
and global mobility in a globalised world. An understanding of mass travel,
globalisation, space and place, subjectivities and modernity is developed
(Cverner et al. 2009, Adey 2008, Guiva and Jain 2011). Another interesting
aspect of mobilities is research on mobile lives and how mobility affects our
public and private spheres, which has focused on the impact of mobility on
peoples everyday lives and how mobile people are perceived in societies. Here
Creswell offers insights into life as a tramp in the USA or how immigration is
shaped by, and shapes, mobility (Cresswell 2001 and 2006). Mobile lives and
how they affect and are affected by society and their impact on the public and
private spheres represent another aspect of mobility that is focused on in
research in social sciences (Sheller and Urry 2003, Elliott and Urry 2010).
Empirical research plays a more important role within those fields of mobility
than in mobility research focusing on the mobility turn within social sciences,
which can be seen e.g. in research on mobile people and their lives (Kesselring
2006). However, for the purpose of this thesis the theoretical research on
mobility, automobility and vlomobility seems best suited for the theoretical
frame for analysing cycling, space and planning in Stockholm and
Copenhagen.
In order to give mobility an even broader definition, the term vlomobility can
also be included in the concept of automobility. Vlomobility is the cyclists
form of mobility and, as the term suggests, refers to mobility on a bicycle.
Cyclists display a different type of mobility than motorists, in terms of space
(both while cycling and parking), and also in terms of safety and in terms of
environmental problems and energy use/pollution (Horton 2006, Furness
2007, Pucher and Buehler 2012). In addition, some aspects of vlomobility,
such as critical mass events, try to intervene with and create their own urban
space and, in that context, establish a normative critique of the use of urban
space today. The domination of automobility and the performance of cycling
can also be seen as a form of contesting the use of urban space (Furness 2007,
Spinney 2010).
As a start it can be established that mobility often starts with a movement from
A to B. Therefore, mobility is a form of displacement between different
geographical locations. However, mobility, especially in recent research, has
also included other aspects, such as mobility in the forms of networks and
communication and the technology connected with them, migration etc.,
which widens the perspective from only the geographical movement from
point A to point B (see for example Urry 2004 or Sheller 2004). This is also a
6 3

64
claim made by Cresswell in his book On the Move: Mobility in the Modern
Western World (2006). Cresswell argues that:
The movement of people (and things) all over the world and at all scales are, after
all, full of meaning. They are also products and producers of power. (Cresswell
2006:2)
He also finds similarities between place and mobility (Cresswell 2006). Place,
as it is often referred to in geographical research, always has a meaning attached
to it. Space, on the other hand, is a more general and abstract definition of
the areas of the world. It can be claimed that almost all kinds of space are also
connected to places and therefore have a social relation connected to it.
Moreover, the production of space and place, as Lefebvre sees it, is connected
to power relations and structures, both social, economic and cultural ones, that
form spaces and convert them into places (Lefebvre 1991 [1974]). There are
many different types of places, such as urban places, traffic places, places of
memories etc. All those places have different meanings, depending on the
personal experience etc. linked to them. In other words, places are spaces that
are made meaningful by people and their relations (Cresswell 2004). Hence,
Cresswell sees the connection between place and mobility, since mobility, like
place, has a deeper meaning and is produced through social relations, structures
and power relations (Cresswell 2006). It can thus be concluded that both
places and mobilities have political dimensions and are affected by different
structures and relations. This discussion of space, place and power will be
followed up in the next chapter of this thesis.
According to Cresswell (2010) mobility includes three political aspects,
namely:

- Physical movement from A to B
- The representation of the movement, which can create a shared
meaning
- The practise of movement, which is experienced and embodied

These three political aspects of mobility illustrate the complexity and also the
realities of the mobile world we live in today. Mobility and the politics of
mobility shape, through social relations, differences in representation and the

6 4
c l a i m m a d e b y C r e s s w e l l i n h i s b o o k O n t h e M o v e : M o b i l i t y i n t h e M o d e r n
W e s t e r n W o r l d ( 2 0 0 6 ) . C r e s s w e l l a r g u e s t h a t :
T h e m o v e m e n t o f p e o p l e ( a n d t h i n g s ) a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d a n d a t a l l s c a l e s a r e , a f t e r
a l l , f u l l o f m e a n i n g . T h e y a r e a l s o p r o d u c t s a n d p r o d u c e r s o f p o w e r . ( C r e s s w e l l
2 0 0 6 : 2 )
H e a l s o f i n d s s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n p l a c e a n d m o b i l i t y ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 6 ) . P l a c e ,
a s i t i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o i n g e o g r a p h i c a l r e s e a r c h , a l w a y s h a s a m e a n i n g a t t a c h e d
t o i t . S p a c e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s a m o r e g e n e r a l a n d a b s t r a c t d e f i n i t i o n o f
t h e a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d . I t c a n b e c l a i m e d t h a t a l m o s t a l l k i n d s o f s p a c e a r e a l s o
c o n n e c t e d t o p l a c e s a n d t h e r e f o r e h a v e a s o c i a l r e l a t i o n c o n n e c t e d t o i t .
M o r e o v e r , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d p l a c e , a s L e f e b v r e s e e s i t , i s c o n n e c t e d
t o p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s , b o t h s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l o n e s , t h a t
f o r m s p a c e s a n d c o n v e r t t h e m i n t o p l a c e s ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) . T h e r e a r e
m a n y d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p l a c e s , s u c h a s u r b a n p l a c e s , t r a f f i c p l a c e s , p l a c e s o f
m e m o r i e s e t c . A l l t h o s e p l a c e s h a v e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e e t c . l i n k e d t o t h e m . I n o t h e r w o r d s , p l a c e s a r e s p a c e s t h a t
a r e m a d e m e a n i n g f u l b y p e o p l e a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 4 ) . H e n c e ,
C r e s s w e l l s e e s t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p l a c e a n d m o b i l i t y , s i n c e m o b i l i t y , l i k e
p l a c e , h a s a d e e p e r m e a n i n g a n d i s p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , s t r u c t u r e s
a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 6 ) . I t c a n t h u s b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t b o t h
p l a c e s a n d m o b i l i t i e s h a v e p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s a n d a r e a f f e c t e d b y d i f f e r e n t
s t r u c t u r e s a n d r e l a t i o n s . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f s p a c e , p l a c e a n d p o w e r w i l l b e
f o l l o w e d u p i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r o f t h i s t h e s i s .
A c c o r d i n g t o C r e s s w e l l ( 2 0 1 0 ) m o b i l i t y i n c l u d e s t h r e e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s ,
n a m e l y :

- P h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t f r o m A t o B
- T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t , w h i c h c a n c r e a t e a s h a r e d
m e a n i n g
- T h e p r a c t i s e o f m o v e m e n t , w h i c h i s e x p e r i e n c e d a n d e m b o d i e d

T h e s e t h r e e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f m o b i l i t y i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d a l s o t h e
r e a l i t i e s o f t h e m o b i l e w o r l d w e l i v e i n t o d a y . M o b i l i t y a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f
m o b i l i t y s h a p e , t h r o u g h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d t h e
6 4

6 5
e m b o d i m e n t o f m o b i l i t y . T h u s , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e u r b a n s p a c e a r e
c o n n e c t e d t o t h o s e d i f f e r e n c e s a n d c a n n o t b e a n a l y s e d w i t h o u t t h e a n a l y t i c
c o n c e p t o f m o b i l i t y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e t e r m m o b i l i t y i n c l u d e s s u c h v a l u e s a s
j u s t i c e a n d e q u i t y , a n d c o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e u s e d f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t i n p u b l i c s p a c e s . T h i s c a n b e
l i n k e d t o b i c y c l i n g , s i n c e p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i n v o l v e s f a c i l i t a t i n g a n d
i n c r e a s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c y c l i s t s t o r i d e t h e i r b i c y c l e s s a f e l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e
c i t y w i t h o u t b e i n g m a r g i n a l i s e d a n d w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o f i g h t f o r s p a c e .
T h e r e f o r e t h e c o n c e p t o f m o b i l i t y c o u l d b e a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a t h e o r e t i c a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n e e d s o f c y c l i s t s a n d t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s f o r c y c l i s t s i n
c i t i e s ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) . T h u s , t h e t e r m m o b i l i t y c o v e r s m o r e t h a n b e h a v i o u r
a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o m o v e a r o u n d i n u r b a n s p a c e . T h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y t e r m s
a u t o m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y c o u l d a l s o b e u s e d t o a p p r o a c h t h e c o n f l i c t s
b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d a n d c y c l i n g t r a f f i c a s w e l l a s t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t a r e
c o n n e c t e d t o t h o s e c o n f l i c t s .
G e t t i n g f r o m A t o B i s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e o f j u s t a b o u t a n y m o v e m e n t .
C r e s s w e l l d e f i n e s m o v e m e n t a s f o l l o w s :
P h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t i s , i f y o u l i k e , t h e r a w m a t e r i a l f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o b i l i t y .
P e o p l e m o v e , t h i n g s m o v e , i d e a s m o v e . ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 : 1 9 )
P h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t c a n b e m e a s u r e d ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) . C r e s s w e l l c l a i m s t h a t
t h e r e i s a r a t i o n a l i t y c o n n e c t e d t o i t a n d t h a t t h i s r a t i o n a l i t y o f m o v i n g f r o m A
t o B h a s m a r g i n a l i s e d t h e b r o a d e r o r m o r e s o c i e t a l t h i n k i n g a b o u t m o b i l i t y
t h a t w a s i n t r o d u c e d b y U r r y i n t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ( U r r y 2 0 0 0 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
m o v i n g p h y s i c a l l y f r o m o n e p o i n t t o a n o t h e r u s u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e b e g i n n i n g
o f a c t u a l m o v e m e n t s a n d m o b i l i t i e s . C r e s s w e l l t h e n p r o g r e s s e s t o t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s u c h p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) . A t t h i s n e x t s t a g e
o f C r e s s w e l l s p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y , i . e . t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m o b i l i t y , h e
c o n n e c t s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m o b i l i t y w i t h t h e m e a n i n g o f m o v e m e n t s t h a t
a r e s h a r e d b y t h e p e o p l e w h o p e r f o r m t h e m . T h o s e s h a r e d m e a n i n g s m i g h t
t o d a y b e s u c h i s s u e s a s e . g . f r e e d o m ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) . O n e s h a r e d m e a n i n g
c o u l d a l s o b e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f u r b a n c y c l i n g , w h i c h s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e
t o u c h e d u p o n . T h e y s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , u r b a n c y c l i n g a s a m e a n s o f
i n c o r p o r a t i n g p e o p l e i n t o t h e c i v i l s o c i e t y . M o r e o v e r , c y c l i n g c a n c r e a t e a
s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e e f f e c t s o f u r b a n c y c l i n g ( e . g . S p i n n e y 2 0 0 7 , 2 0 1 0 ,
W r a y 2 0 0 8 a n d G a r r a r d e t a l . 2 0 1 2 ) . T h e l a s t a s p e c t o f C r e s s w e l l s p o l i t i c s o f
m o b i l i t y i s p r a c t i c e , w h i c h c a n a l s o b e l i n k e d t o c y c l i n g :

65
embodiment of mobility. Thus, power relations in the urban space are
connected to those differences and cannot be analysed without the analytic
concept of mobility. Consequently, the term mobility includes such values as
justice and equity, and could, therefore, be used for analysing the power
relations between different modes of transport in public spaces. This can be
linked to bicycling, since planning for cyclists involves facilitating and
increasing the possibility for cyclists to ride their bicycles safely throughout the
city without being marginalised and without having to fight for space.
Therefore the concept of mobility could be a starting point for a theoretical
understanding of the needs of cyclists and the planning processes for cyclists in
cities (Cresswell 2010). Thus, the term mobility covers more than behaviour
and the ability to move around in urban space. The contradictory terms
automobility and vlomobility could also be used to approach the conflicts
between motorised and cycling traffic as well as the power relations that are
connected to those conflicts.
Getting from A to B is the fundamental principle of just about any movement.
Cresswell defines movement as follows:
Physical movement is, if you like, the raw material for the production of mobility.
People move, things move, ideas move. (Cresswell 2010: 19)
Physical movement can be measured (Cresswell 2010). Cresswell claims that
there is a rationality connected to it and that this rationality of moving from A
to B has marginalised the broader or more societal thinking about mobility
that was introduced by Urry in the social sciences (Urry 2000). Nevertheless,
moving physically from one point to another usually constitutes the beginning
of actual movements and mobilities. Cresswell then progresses to the
representation of such physical movement (Cresswell 2010). At this next stage
of Cresswells politics of mobility, i.e. the representation of mobility, he
connects the representation of mobility with the meaning of movements that
are shared by the people who perform them. Those shared meanings might
today be such issues as e.g. freedom (Cresswell 2010). One shared meaning
could also be the performance of urban cycling, which some researchers have
touched upon. They see, for example, urban cycling as a means of
incorporating people into the civil society. Moreover, cycling can create a
shared experience of the effects of urban cycling (e.g. Spinney 2007, 2010,
Wray 2008 and Garrard et al. 2012). The last aspect of Cresswells politics of
mobility is practice, which can also be linked to cycling:
6 5

66
Finally, there is practice. By this I mean both the everyday sense of particular
practices such as walking or driving and also the more theoretical sense of the social
as it is embodied and habitualised (Bourdieu, 1990). (Cresswell 2010: 20)
This quote from Cresswell suggests that mobility includes, not only the
movement from A to B and the meaning of that movement, but also the
practice of moving. The social side of movements is also included in mobility.
In this part of the politics of mobility, connections are made to the experience
of movements. Approaching transport, mobility and cycling from a perspective
that includes the practice of movements will make certain relations, such as
power struggles over urban space, visible. Thus, the politics of mobility,
research on mobility in general and research on vlomobility might contribute
to developing new and deeper insights into the development of urban transport
systems, the power struggles within these systems and the role of urban cycling
in the planning and development of urban transport systems. Urry, for
example, also connects consumption, culture and production to automobility
(Urry 2004, 2007), suggesting that the economic structures of todays capitalist
societies, which affect the power relations between motorised and cycle traffic,
could be analysed from a mobility perspective. A high percentage of car
ownership and the domination of automobility are, moreover, connected to
such economic structures and to culture, or a car culture, which can be
discerned in societies with the highest percentage of car ownership, such as the
USA (Wray 2008).
What Cresswell offers, among other things, is a connection between mobility
and space by means of the politics of mobility. Cresswells (2004) starting
point for this connection, however, is not space, but place. Whereas space is
something more general, like public space, and can be everywhere, place is
often linked to a specific location. Moreover, the abstraction of space seems to
be the opposite of place, since space becomes place when human beings attach
meaning to space. However, this division between space and place becomes less
clear when we look at the theory of space proposed by Lefebvre and Harvey
(see Chapter 4). Space in their sense is socially produced and produces power
relations. Therefore, it is quite close to the term place in this sense. Place
always has meaning attached to it, which, of course, can vary a great deal from
person to person. Consequently, what is a place full of meaning for one person
does not necessarily have the same meaning for another (Cresswell 2004).


6 6
F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s p r a c t i c e . B y t h i s I m e a n b o t h t h e e v e r y d a y s e n s e o f p a r t i c u l a r
p r a c t i c e s s u c h a s w a l k i n g o r d r i v i n g a n d a l s o t h e m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l s e n s e o f t h e s o c i a l
a s i t i s e m b o d i e d a n d h a b i t u a l i s e d ( B o u r d i e u , 1 9 9 0 ) . ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 : 2 0 )
T h i s q u o t e f r o m C r e s s w e l l s u g g e s t s t h a t m o b i l i t y i n c l u d e s , n o t o n l y t h e
m o v e m e n t f r o m A t o B a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f t h a t m o v e m e n t , b u t a l s o t h e
p r a c t i c e o f m o v i n g . T h e s o c i a l s i d e o f m o v e m e n t s i s a l s o i n c l u d e d i n m o b i l i t y .
I n t h i s p a r t o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y , c o n n e c t i o n s a r e m a d e t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e
o f m o v e m e n t s . A p p r o a c h i n g t r a n s p o r t , m o b i l i t y a n d c y c l i n g f r o m a p e r s p e c t i v e
t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e p r a c t i c e o f m o v e m e n t s w i l l m a k e c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s , s u c h a s
p o w e r s t r u g g l e s o v e r u r b a n s p a c e , v i s i b l e . T h u s , t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y ,
r e s e a r c h o n m o b i l i t y i n g e n e r a l a n d r e s e a r c h o n v l o m o b i l i t y m i g h t c o n t r i b u t e
t o d e v e l o p i n g n e w a n d d e e p e r i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m s , t h e p o w e r s t r u g g l e s w i t h i n t h e s e s y s t e m s a n d t h e r o l e o f u r b a n c y c l i n g
i n t h e p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s . U r r y , f o r
e x a m p l e , a l s o c o n n e c t s c o n s u m p t i o n , c u l t u r e a n d p r o d u c t i o n t o a u t o m o b i l i t y
( U r r y 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 0 7 ) , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s o f t o d a y s c a p i t a l i s t
s o c i e t i e s , w h i c h a f f e c t t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d a n d c y c l e t r a f f i c ,
c o u l d b e a n a l y s e d f r o m a m o b i l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e . A h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f c a r
o w n e r s h i p a n d t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f a u t o m o b i l i t y a r e , m o r e o v e r , c o n n e c t e d t o
s u c h e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s a n d t o c u l t u r e , o r a c a r c u l t u r e , w h i c h c a n b e
d i s c e r n e d i n s o c i e t i e s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f c a r o w n e r s h i p , s u c h a s t h e
U S A ( W r a y 2 0 0 8 ) .
W h a t C r e s s w e l l o f f e r s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , i s a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m o b i l i t y
a n d s p a c e b y m e a n s o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y . C r e s s w e l l s ( 2 0 0 4 ) s t a r t i n g
p o i n t f o r t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s n o t s p a c e , b u t p l a c e . W h e r e a s s p a c e i s
s o m e t h i n g m o r e g e n e r a l , l i k e p u b l i c s p a c e , a n d c a n b e e v e r y w h e r e , p l a c e i s
o f t e n l i n k e d t o a s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , t h e a b s t r a c t i o n o f s p a c e s e e m s t o
b e t h e o p p o s i t e o f p l a c e , s i n c e s p a c e b e c o m e s p l a c e w h e n h u m a n b e i n g s a t t a c h
m e a n i n g t o s p a c e . H o w e v e r , t h i s d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n s p a c e a n d p l a c e b e c o m e s l e s s
c l e a r w h e n w e l o o k a t t h e t h e o r y o f s p a c e p r o p o s e d b y L e f e b v r e a n d H a r v e y
( s e e C h a p t e r 4 ) . S p a c e i n t h e i r s e n s e i s s o c i a l l y p r o d u c e d a n d p r o d u c e s p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e t e r m p l a c e i n t h i s s e n s e . P l a c e
a l w a y s h a s m e a n i n g a t t a c h e d t o i t , w h i c h , o f c o u r s e , c a n v a r y a g r e a t d e a l f r o m
p e r s o n t o p e r s o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h a t i s a p l a c e f u l l o f m e a n i n g f o r o n e p e r s o n
d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e t h e s a m e m e a n i n g f o r a n o t h e r ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 4 ) .

6 6

6 7
C r e s s w e l l h a s d e s c r i b e d p l a c e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y :
P l a c e , a t a b a s i c l e v e l , i s s p a c e i n v e s t e d w i t h m e a n i n g i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p o w e r .
( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 4 : 1 2 )
T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f p l a c e i s v e r y c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o s o c i a l s p a c e a s L e f e b v r e s e e s i t .
I t i s t h e r e f o r e n o e a s y t a s k t o d i s t i n g u i s h s p a c e a n d p l a c e . I n t h i s t h e s i s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h m o b i l i t y a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , t h e L e f e b v r e i a n f o r m o f s o c i a l
s p a c e , t h e s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s o f H a r v e y a n d C r e s w e l l s s a n a l y s i s o f p l a c e a r e w e l l
s u i t e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f m o b i l e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n a r e a s . T h e s o c i a l
p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d t h e m e a n i n g a t t a c h e d t o p l a c e a r e c e n t r a l t o m o b i l i t y ,
s i n c e m o b i l i t y t a k e s p l a c e i n t i m e a n d s p a c e . T h e r e f o r e , m o b i l i t y i n g e n e r a l ,
a n d v l o m o b i l i t y i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e p r o d u c e d i n t i m e a n d s p a c e b y s i m i l a r
r e l a t i o n s a n d f o r m s o f p o w e r a s s p a c e . H e n c e , t h e n o t i o n s o f s o c i a l s p a c e a n d
p l a c e a r e c e n t r a l t o t h i s t h e s i s o n v l o m o b i l i t y . I t c o u l d a l s o b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
p l a c e i s m o r e c o n n e c t e d t o b e l o n g i n g , w h e r e a s s p a c e i s c o n n e c t e d t o o t h e r
a s p e c t s , e . g . e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s , a s w e l l . C r e s s w e l l ( 2 0 0 4 ) p u t s i t a s f o l l o w s ,
w h e n h e d e s c r i b e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a g e o g r a p h y o f p l a c e a t a t i m e w h e n
s p a c e w a s d o m i n a t e d b y i d e a s o f t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f s p a t i a l s c i e n c e :
W h i l e s p a c e i s a m e n a b l e t o t h e a b s t r a c t i o n o f s p a t i a l s c i e n c e a n d e c o n o m i c
r a t i o n a l i t y , p l a c e i s a m e n a b l e t o d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h i n g s s u c h a s v a l u e a n d
b e l o n g i n g . ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 4 : 2 0 )
M o r e o v e r , d u e t o t h e s o c i a l p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p l a c e , I
f i n d i t r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t A u g s ( 1 9 9 5 ) t h e o r y o f n o n - p l a c e s , w h i c h h e
d e f i n e s a s p l a c e s w i t h n o m e a n i n g , p l a c e s o f f l o w s , s u c h a s a i r p o r t s . T h o s e
p l a c e s m i g h t b e e x p e r i e n c e d a s p l a c e l e s s b y p e o p l e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h , s i n c e t h e y
a r e s o u l l e s s p l a c e s t h a t l o o k t h e s a m e e v e r y w h e r e a n d s e e m t o h a v e n o r e a l
h u m a n l i f e a t t a c h e d t o t h e m , j u s t b e c a u s e t h e m o d e r n i t y o f d e v e l o p m e n t i n
h u m a n h i s t o r y h a s m a n a g e d t o t a k e o v e r . H o w e v e r , t h o s e p l a c e s m i g h t h a v e
m e a n i n g f o r o t h e r p e o p l e , f o r e x a m p l e t h e s t a f f o f a i r p o r t s , w h o h a v e t o w o r k
a n d s p e n d a g r e a t d e a l o f t h e i r t i m e t h e r e t o e a r n t h e i r l i v i n g .
I n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s w e h a v e t o t u r n t o
t h e t e r m m o b i l i t y a s a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r a d e e p e r a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o w e r
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d b i c y c l e t r a f f i c . M o r e o v e r , d u e t o i t s
b r o a d d e f i n i t i o n , t h e t e r m m o b i l i t y c a n b e u s e f u l w h i l e a p p r o a c h i n g t h e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n p u b l i c s p a c e s a s w e l l a s i n t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n
p l a n n i n g . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h L u k e s t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k o f p o w e r ( d i s c u s s e d
i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r ) a n d C r e s s w e l l s d e f i n i t i o n , a n a n a l y t i c

67
Cresswell has described place in the following way:
Place, at a basic level, is space invested with meaning in the context of power.
(Cresswell 2004:12)
This description of place is very closely linked to social space as Lefebvre sees it.
It is therefore no easy task to distinguish space and place. In this thesis
concerned with mobility and power relations, the Lefebvreian form of social
space, the spatial analysis of Harvey and Creswellss analysis of place are well
suited for the analysis of mobile power relations in urban areas. The social
production of space and the meaning attached to place are central to mobility,
since mobility takes place in time and space. Therefore, mobility in general,
and vlomobility in particular, are produced in time and space by similar
relations and forms of power as space. Hence, the notions of social space and
place are central to this thesis on vlomobility. It could also be pointed out that
place is more connected to belonging, whereas space is connected to other
aspects, e.g. economic structures, as well. Cresswell (2004) puts it as follows,
when he describes the development of a geography of place at a time when
space was dominated by ideas of the rationality of spatial science:
While space is amenable to the abstraction of spatial science and economic
rationality, place is amenable to discussions of things such as value and
belonging. (Cresswell 2004:20)
Moreover, due to the social production of space and the definition of place, I
find it rather difficult to accept Augs (1995) theory of non-places, which he
defines as places with no meaning, places of flows, such as airports. Those
places might be experienced as placeless by people passing through, since they
are soulless places that look the same everywhere and seem to have no real
human life attached to them, just because the modernity of development in
human history has managed to take over. However, those places might have
meaning for other people, for example the staff of airports, who have to work
and spend a great deal of their time there to earn their living.
In order to analyse transport planning and power relations we have to turn to
the term mobility as a theoretical framework for a deeper analysis of the power
relation between motorised traffic and bicycle traffic. Moreover, due to its
broad definition, the term mobility can be useful while approaching the
marginalisation of cyclists in public spaces as well as in transport and urban
planning. In connection with Lukes theoretical framework of power (discussed
in greater detail in the next chapter) and Cresswells definition, an analytic
6 7

68
basis can be developed for bringing transport planning and bicycling and social
theory together. What Lukes offers is a methodological framework for
analysing power relations, whereas Cresswell proposes a theoretical framework
for analysing mobility. By combining the two, we achieve a broad theoretical
starting point for analysing power relations between motorised traffic and
bicycle traffic in urban public spaces. Cresswells view of the representation of
mobility and the experience of embodied mobility creates a research agenda for
bicycle traffic and why this mode of transport is excluded in many urban
public spaces. Lukes third dimension of power gives a deeper insight into how
non-observable aspects of power can be analysed. The combination of the
theories will reveal the underlying mechanisms for why bicycle traffic in urban
spaces has much less power than motorised traffic, which calls for a deeper
analysis of the power relations between motorised traffic and bicycle traffic in
urban public spaces. This can be connected to Lukes third dimension of
power, which will be explained below (Lukes 2005). The different aspects of
the politics of mobility need to be analysed from a power perspective, which, as
Lukes states (2005), needs to involve a methodological change. Consequently,
in research on the politics of mobility and power relations, new ways of
unfolding power relations need to be found. Since street space is a very
important aspect of both power relations and mobility, a theoretical and
methodological development for analysing street space from a perspective of
mobility and power is needed.
Vlomobility has emerged as a further development of the terms mobility
and automobility. Like the term automobility, it describes the mobile
issues of cycling, including its cultural, political and economic aspects. In other
words, it captures a broader view of cycling than traditional definitions within
the field of transport planning or transport geography. Vlomobility has
gradually emerged as a field within mobility research,, most of the research
coming out of the UK and the USA (see for example Aldred 2010, 2012,
Spinney 2006, 2007, 2010, Furness 2007, 2010 and Pesses 2010). In Sweden
and Denmark, research on cycling and especially on vlomobility is not very
common (e.g. Emanuel 2012, Nilsson 2003 and Stigell 2011).
On the whole, there is very little empirical analysis of the political processes
and the cultural, economic or historical aspects (see Chapter 1 in this thesis)
that affected the results of and the decisions taken in planning for cyclists.
Although the research by Urry, Cresswell etc. described above is very important
for a deeper theoretical understanding of mobilities today, it lacks the empirical

6 8
b a s i s c a n b e d e v e l o p e d f o r b r i n g i n g t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d b i c y c l i n g a n d s o c i a l
t h e o r y t o g e t h e r . W h a t L u k e s o f f e r s i s a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r
a n a l y s i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , w h e r e a s C r e s s w e l l p r o p o s e s a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k
f o r a n a l y s i n g m o b i l i t y . B y c o m b i n i n g t h e t w o , w e a c h i e v e a b r o a d t h e o r e t i c a l
s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n a l y s i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d
b i c y c l e t r a f f i c i n u r b a n p u b l i c s p a c e s . C r e s s w e l l s v i e w o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
m o b i l i t y a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f e m b o d i e d m o b i l i t y c r e a t e s a r e s e a r c h a g e n d a f o r
b i c y c l e t r a f f i c a n d w h y t h i s m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t i s e x c l u d e d i n m a n y u r b a n
p u b l i c s p a c e s . L u k e s t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r g i v e s a d e e p e r i n s i g h t i n t o h o w
n o n - o b s e r v a b l e a s p e c t s o f p o w e r c a n b e a n a l y s e d . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e
t h e o r i e s w i l l r e v e a l t h e u n d e r l y i n g m e c h a n i s m s f o r w h y b i c y c l e t r a f f i c i n u r b a n
s p a c e s h a s m u c h l e s s p o w e r t h a n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , w h i c h c a l l s f o r a d e e p e r
a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d b i c y c l e t r a f f i c i n
u r b a n p u b l i c s p a c e s . T h i s c a n b e c o n n e c t e d t o L u k e s t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f
p o w e r , w h i c h w i l l b e e x p l a i n e d b e l o w ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 ) . T h e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f
t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y n e e d t o b e a n a l y s e d f r o m a p o w e r p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h , a s
L u k e s s t a t e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) , n e e d s t o i n v o l v e a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c h a n g e . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
i n r e s e a r c h o n t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , n e w w a y s o f
u n f o l d i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s n e e d t o b e f o u n d . S i n c e s t r e e t s p a c e i s a v e r y
i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f b o t h p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d m o b i l i t y , a t h e o r e t i c a l a n d
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t f o r a n a l y s i n g s t r e e t s p a c e f r o m a p e r s p e c t i v e o f
m o b i l i t y a n d p o w e r i s n e e d e d .
V l o m o b i l i t y h a s e m e r g e d a s a f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t e r m s m o b i l i t y
a n d a u t o m o b i l i t y . L i k e t h e t e r m a u t o m o b i l i t y , i t d e s c r i b e s t h e m o b i l e
i s s u e s o f c y c l i n g , i n c l u d i n g i t s c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s . I n o t h e r
w o r d s , i t c a p t u r e s a b r o a d e r v i e w o f c y c l i n g t h a n t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s w i t h i n
t h e f i e l d o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g o r t r a n s p o r t g e o g r a p h y . V l o m o b i l i t y h a s
g r a d u a l l y e m e r g e d a s a f i e l d w i t h i n m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h , , m o s t o f t h e r e s e a r c h
c o m i n g o u t o f t h e U K a n d t h e U S A ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e A l d r e d 2 0 1 0 , 2 0 1 2 ,
S p i n n e y 2 0 0 6 , 2 0 0 7 , 2 0 1 0 , F u r n e s s 2 0 0 7 , 2 0 1 0 a n d P e s s e s 2 0 1 0 ) . I n S w e d e n
a n d D e n m a r k , r e s e a r c h o n c y c l i n g a n d e s p e c i a l l y o n v l o m o b i l i t y i s n o t v e r y
c o m m o n ( e . g . E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 , N i l s s o n 2 0 0 3 a n d S t i g e l l 2 0 1 1 ) .
O n t h e w h o l e , t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s
a n d t h e c u l t u r a l , e c o n o m i c o r h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s ( s e e C h a p t e r 1 i n t h i s t h e s i s )
t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f a n d t h e d e c i s i o n s t a k e n i n p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s .
A l t h o u g h t h e r e s e a r c h b y U r r y , C r e s s w e l l e t c . d e s c r i b e d a b o v e i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t
f o r a d e e p e r t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m o b i l i t i e s t o d a y , i t l a c k s t h e e m p i r i c a l
6 8

6 9
d i m e n s i o n , w h i c h i s w h y t h i s t h e s i s a i m s a t c o n n e c t i n g t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e s o f m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y t o e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h e
c o n c e p t o f m o b i l i t y o f f e r s t h e r i g h t f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
i n v e s t i g a t i n g v l o m o b i l i t y , a u t o m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g , e t c .


69
dimension, which is why this thesis aims at connecting the theoretical
perspectives of mobility and vlomobility to empirical investigations. The
concept of mobility offers the right framework for the purpose of
investigating vlomobility, automobility, planning, etc.

6 9

70
4 Power, space and space wars
the theoretical outline

The urge to conquer and control space is as old as humanity itself. (Lund Hansen
2006:15)

The purpose of this chapter is twofold. Firstly, I aim to highlight the
theoretical concepts of power and power relations used in this thesis as an
analytical tool to explain the current mobilities in Stockholm and Copenhagen
and the transport and bicycle planning approach in the two cities. Moreover,
relations between motorised traffic and cycle traffic, and how those relations
are formed and influenced by urban and transport planning, are touched upon
here in order to exemplify the theoretical approach. Thus, the focus is on
theoretical aspects of urban transport and cycle planning, and how that
planning paradigm might have influenced the emerging car society, the
exclusion of cyclists from public spaces and the power relations between the
different modes of transport.
Secondly, the concepts of space and space wars are introduced in order to set
the structures and theoretical knowledge of power and power relations in a
theoretical notion of space and spatial conflicts (space wars).
The themes introduced above can, of course, also be applied to other forms of
mobility such as walking and public transport. However, the focus of this
thesis is on vlomobility and urban bicycle traffic in relation to automobility
and motorised traffic and in relation to urban and transport planning.
The development of urban and transport planning has vast implications for
power relations in the public space, which explains the marginalisation of
cyclists even more. Throughout the processes of transport planning and urban
development, cities and their infrastructure are built in certain ways, often in

7 0
4 P o w e r , s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e

T h e u r g e t o c o n q u e r a n d c o n t r o l s p a c e i s a s o l d a s h u m a n i t y i t s e l f . ( L u n d H a n s e n
2 0 0 6 : 1 5 )

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t w o f o l d . F i r s t l y , I a i m t o h i g h l i g h t t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s u s e d i n t h i s t h e s i s a s a n
a n a l y t i c a l t o o l t o e x p l a i n t h e c u r r e n t m o b i l i t i e s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n
a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . M o r e o v e r ,
r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d c y c l e t r a f f i c , a n d h o w t h o s e r e l a t i o n s
a r e f o r m e d a n d i n f l u e n c e d b y u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , a r e t o u c h e d u p o n
h e r e i n o r d e r t o e x e m p l i f y t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h . T h u s , t h e f o c u s i s o n
t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t s o f u r b a n t r a n s p o r t a n d c y c l e p l a n n i n g , a n d h o w t h a t
p l a n n i n g p a r a d i g m m i g h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e e m e r g i n g c a r s o c i e t y , t h e
e x c l u s i o n o f c y c l i s t s f r o m p u b l i c s p a c e s a n d t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e
d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t .
S e c o n d l y , t h e c o n c e p t s o f s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n o r d e r t o s e t
t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n a
t h e o r e t i c a l n o t i o n o f s p a c e a n d s p a t i a l c o n f l i c t s ( s p a c e w a r s ) .
T h e t h e m e s i n t r o d u c e d a b o v e c a n , o f c o u r s e , a l s o b e a p p l i e d t o o t h e r f o r m s o f
m o b i l i t y s u c h a s w a l k i n g a n d p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t . H o w e v e r , t h e f o c u s o f t h i s
t h e s i s i s o n v l o m o b i l i t y a n d u r b a n b i c y c l e t r a f f i c i n r e l a t i o n t o a u t o m o b i l i t y
a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d i n r e l a t i o n t o u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g h a s v a s t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e p u b l i c s p a c e , w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f
c y c l i s t s e v e n m o r e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d u r b a n
d e v e l o p m e n t , c i t i e s a n d t h e i r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a r e b u i l t i n c e r t a i n w a y s , o f t e n i n
7 0

7 1
f a v o u r o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h e r e a r e i n g e n e r a l m a n y d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n c o u n t r i e s r e g a r d i n g p l a n n i n g , p o l i c i e s a f f e c t i n g
c y c l i s t s a n d c y c l i n g a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f c y c l i n g . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e a l s o
d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i n c l u s i o n a n d e x c l u s i o n o f t h e n e e d s o f c y c l i s t s i n m a n y
d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s a s w e l l a s w i t h i n c o u n t r i e s a n d b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t c i t i e s i n
a n y o n e c o u n t r y . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p l a n n i n g i n i t i a t i v e s a r e t h a t
p e o p l e c y c l e m o r e i n c e r t a i n c i t i e s a n d c o u n t r i e s t h a n i n o t h e r s . H o w e v e r ,
a s p e c t s o t h e r t h a n p l a n n i n g , s u c h a s c u l t u r e , m i g h t a l s o h a v e a n i m p a c t ( A l d r e d
2 0 1 0 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e c y c l i s t s a r e o f t e n e x p o s e d i n n o n - c y c l i n g c i t i e s t o a h i g h e r
a c c i d e n t r i s k ( P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r 2 0 0 8 , E l v i k 2 0 0 9 ) . T h a t l e a d s t o t h e
q u e s t i o n o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y a n d w h o h a s a c c e s s t o t h e c i t i e s p u b l i c t r a f f i c
s p a c e s , w h e r e e v e r y b o d y s h o u l d b e a b l e t o b e ( s e e K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 ) . S o m e
c o u n t r i e s a r e a t t h e f r o n t i e r o f c y c l e p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p p o l i c i e s i n o r d e r t o
i n c r e a s e c y c l i n g , m a k i n g c y c l i n g s a f e r a n d m o r e a c c e s s i b l e , a n d t h e r e b y a l s o
c r e a t e a m o r e j u s t u r b a n s p a c e ( P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r 2 0 0 9 , 2 0 0 8 , 2 0 0 7 , B u e h l e r
e t a l . 2 0 0 9 ) . T h e n e x t s e c t i o n w i l l e l a b o r a t e o n t h e c o n c e p t o f p o w e r a n d
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s u s e d i n t h i s t h e s i s i n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e p o w e r i n p u b l i c s p a c e s
b e t w e e n c y c l e t r a f f i c a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c .
4 . 1 P o w e r t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s a n d i d e a s
P o w e r a s a c o n c e p t h a s b e e n w i d e l y d i s c u s s e d i n r e s e a r c h t h r o u g h o u t t h e s o c i a l
s c i e n c e s a n d h u m a n i t i e s , f o r e x a m p l e b y F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 8 0 ) a n d A l l e n ( 2 0 0 3 ) .
F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s , t h e c o n c e p t o f p o w e r d e v e l o p e d b y
S t e v e L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) w i l l b e u s e d . P o w e r w o r k s i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s , a n d
a n a l y s e s o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t i n
u r b a n s p a c e s r e q u i r e a n a l y s e s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s b e h i n d t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d
a s p e c t s ; L u k e s p u t s i t t h i s w a y :
M y v i e w w a s , a n d i s , t h a t w e n e e d t o t h i n k a b o u t p o w e r b r o a d l y r a t h e r t h a n
n a r r o w l y i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s r a t h e r t h a n o n e o r t w o a n d t h a t w e n e e d t o
a t t e n d t o t h o s e a s p e c t s o f p o w e r t h a t a r e l e a s t a c c e s s i b l e t o o b s e r v a t i o n : t h a t , i n d e e d ,
p o w e r i s a t i t s m o s t e f f e c t i v e w h e n l e a s t o b s e r v a b l e . ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 : 1 1 )
T h e f i r s t d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r f o c u s e s o n a s p e c t s s u c h a s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g ,
o b s e r v a b l e c o n f l i c t s , b e h a v i o u r a n d p o l i c y i n t e r e s t s t h a t a r e e x p o s e d i n p o l i t i c a l
d e c i s i o n s e t c . M o r e o v e r , t h e f o c u s i s o n k e y i s s u e s i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . T h a t

71
favour of motorised traffic. There are in general many differences between
European and American countries regarding planning, policies affecting
cyclists and cycling and encouragement of cycling. Therefore, there are also
differences in the inclusion and exclusion of the needs of cyclists in many
different countries as well as within countries and between different cities in
any one country. The results of the different planning initiatives are that
people cycle more in certain cities and countries than in others. However,
aspects other than planning, such as culture, might also have an impact (Aldred
2010). Furthermore cyclists are often exposed in non-cycling cities to a higher
accident risk (Pucher and Buehler 2008, Elvik 2009). That leads to the
question of the right to the city and who has access to the cities public traffic
spaces, where everybody should be able to be (see Khayesi et al. 2010). Some
countries are at the frontier of cycle planning and develop policies in order to
increase cycling, making cycling safer and more accessible, and thereby also
create a more just urban space (Pucher and Buehler 2009, 2008, 2007, Buehler
et al. 2009). The next section will elaborate on the concept of power and
power relations used in this thesis in order to analyse power in public spaces
between cycle traffic and motorised traffic.
4.1 Power theoretical concepts and ideas
Power as a concept has been widely discussed in research throughout the social
sciences and humanities, for example by Foucault (1980) and Allen (2003).
For the purpose of this doctoral thesis, the concept of power developed by
Steve Lukes (2005) will be used. Power works in many different ways, and
analyses of power relations and the connections with cycling and transport in
urban spaces require analyses of the structures behind the taken-for-granted
aspects; Lukes puts it this way:
My view was, and is, that we need to think about power broadly rather than
narrowly in three dimensions rather than one or two and that we need to
attend to those aspects of power that are least accessible to observation: that, indeed,
power is at its most effective when least observable. (Lukes 2005:11)
The first dimension of power focuses on aspects such as decision-making,
observable conflicts, behaviour and policy interests that are exposed in political
decisions etc. Moreover, the focus is on key issues in social relations. That
7 1

72
means the first dimension focuses on observable actions of power revealed in
political and social processes. The second dimension of power centres on what
Lukes called a (qualified) critique of behavioural focus (Lukes 2005:29). The
focus within the second dimension is also on decision-making, but also on
non-decision-making and subjective interests within political processes.
Further, also within the second dimension, issues are of importance. However,
not only key issues are part of this dimension, but also potential issues that
might arise in social relations or political processes. Within the third dimension
of power the focus is not only on a qualified critique of a behavioural focus,
but on a more general critique. Here, the focus is on decision-making and
political agendas behind decisions, but they cannot, essentially, be revealed or
dealt with through decisions. Also, conflicts are important for analysis of power
within the second dimension. Those conflicts are also visible conflicts, but
might also consist of hidden conflicts, which makes them harder to observe
and analyse (Lukes 2005). As Haugaard (2003) sees Lukes theory of power, it
deals with false consciousness. The third dimension of power is hidden in the
taken-for-granted social structures and everyday practises, which means power
relations are at play without people subjected to them really recognising those
relations.
Thus, power often works in a hidden form, unapparent and even invisible.
Lukes (2005:1) states that the most effective form of power is the kind of
power that:
...prevent[s] people, to whatever degree, from having grievances by shaping their
perceptions, cognitions and preferences in such way that they accept their role in the
existing order of things. (Lukes 2005:1)
Consequently, such power works very effectively when people do not feel
influenced or over ruled, but instead just act according to what other people
want (or expect). For example, if cyclists feel that they always have to yield for
car drivers, a rule of order is established and accepted. The car drivers control
the traffic situation and quasi naturally claim the right to go first. Another
example is marketing strategies of car producers to create a larger demand for
cars and thereby also influence planning and decision-making. Although
difficult to perceive, they nevertheless imply power relations. This is what
Lukes sees as the third dimension of power. Power in this sense works without
traces and is often hard to observe, while simultaneously influencing peoples
thoughts, behaviour and actions in everyday life by creating a hierarchical
practise.

7 2
m e a n s t h e f i r s t d i m e n s i o n f o c u s e s o n o b s e r v a b l e a c t i o n s o f p o w e r r e v e a l e d i n
p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s . T h e s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r c e n t r e s o n w h a t
L u k e s c a l l e d a ( q u a l i f i e d ) c r i t i q u e o f b e h a v i o u r a l f o c u s ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 : 2 9 ) . T h e
f o c u s w i t h i n t h e s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n i s a l s o o n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , b u t a l s o o n
n o n - d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a n d s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r e s t s w i t h i n p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s .
F u r t h e r , a l s o w i t h i n t h e s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n , i s s u e s a r e o f i m p o r t a n c e . H o w e v e r ,
n o t o n l y k e y i s s u e s a r e p a r t o f t h i s d i m e n s i o n , b u t a l s o p o t e n t i a l i s s u e s t h a t
m i g h t a r i s e i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o r p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s . W i t h i n t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n
o f p o w e r t h e f o c u s i s n o t o n l y o n a q u a l i f i e d c r i t i q u e o f a b e h a v i o u r a l f o c u s ,
b u t o n a m o r e g e n e r a l c r i t i q u e . H e r e , t h e f o c u s i s o n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a n d
p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a s b e h i n d d e c i s i o n s , b u t t h e y c a n n o t , e s s e n t i a l l y , b e r e v e a l e d o r
d e a l t w i t h t h r o u g h d e c i s i o n s . A l s o , c o n f l i c t s a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r
w i t h i n t h e s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n . T h o s e c o n f l i c t s a r e a l s o v i s i b l e c o n f l i c t s , b u t
m i g h t a l s o c o n s i s t o f h i d d e n c o n f l i c t s , w h i c h m a k e s t h e m h a r d e r t o o b s e r v e
a n d a n a l y s e ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 ) . A s H a u g a a r d ( 2 0 0 3 ) s e e s L u k e s t h e o r y o f p o w e r , i t
d e a l s w i t h f a l s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r i s h i d d e n i n t h e
t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d e v e r y d a y p r a c t i s e s , w h i c h m e a n s p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s a r e a t p l a y w i t h o u t p e o p l e s u b j e c t e d t o t h e m r e a l l y r e c o g n i s i n g t h o s e
r e l a t i o n s .
T h u s , p o w e r o f t e n w o r k s i n a h i d d e n f o r m , u n a p p a r e n t a n d e v e n i n v i s i b l e .
L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 : 1 ) s t a t e s t h a t t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e f o r m o f p o w e r i s t h e k i n d o f
p o w e r t h a t :
. . . p r e v e n t [ s ] p e o p l e , t o w h a t e v e r d e g r e e , f r o m h a v i n g g r i e v a n c e s b y s h a p i n g t h e i r
p e r c e p t i o n s , c o g n i t i o n s a n d p r e f e r e n c e s i n s u c h w a y t h a t t h e y a c c e p t t h e i r r o l e i n t h e
e x i s t i n g o r d e r o f t h i n g s . ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 : 1 )
C o n s e q u e n t l y , s u c h p o w e r w o r k s v e r y e f f e c t i v e l y w h e n p e o p l e d o n o t f e e l
i n f l u e n c e d o r o v e r r u l e d , b u t i n s t e a d j u s t a c t a c c o r d i n g t o w h a t o t h e r p e o p l e
w a n t ( o r e x p e c t ) . F o r e x a m p l e , i f c y c l i s t s f e e l t h a t t h e y a l w a y s h a v e t o y i e l d f o r
c a r d r i v e r s , a r u l e o f o r d e r i s e s t a b l i s h e d a n d a c c e p t e d . T h e c a r d r i v e r s c o n t r o l
t h e t r a f f i c s i t u a t i o n a n d q u a s i n a t u r a l l y c l a i m t h e r i g h t t o g o f i r s t . A n o t h e r
e x a m p l e i s m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s o f c a r p r o d u c e r s t o c r e a t e a l a r g e r d e m a n d f o r
c a r s a n d t h e r e b y a l s o i n f l u e n c e p l a n n i n g a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . A l t h o u g h
d i f f i c u l t t o p e r c e i v e , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s i m p l y p o w e r r e l a t i o n s . T h i s i s w h a t
L u k e s s e e s a s t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r . P o w e r i n t h i s s e n s e w o r k s w i t h o u t
t r a c e s a n d i s o f t e n h a r d t o o b s e r v e , w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n f l u e n c i n g p e o p l e s
t h o u g h t s , b e h a v i o u r a n d a c t i o n s i n e v e r y d a y l i f e b y c r e a t i n g a h i e r a r c h i c a l
p r a c t i s e .
7 2

7 3
I n t h i s s e n s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n u s e r s o f d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d
w i t h i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a r e i m p o r t a n t t o a n a l y s e w i t h a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e
o n p o w e r , b e c a u s e e v e n h e r e t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r w i l l e m e r g e . I t
c o u l d f o r e x a m p l e b e s e e n i n t h e c o n t i n u o u s g r o w t h o f c a r u s e , s u p p o r t e d b y
c o m m e r c i a l s m a k i n g p e o p l e f e e l t h e n e e d o f a c a r i n o r d e r t o g a i n f r e e d o m .
P e o p l e g e n e r a l l y s e e m u n a w a r e o f h o w p o w e r a f f e c t s t h e i r t r a v e l b e h a v i o u r a n d
h o w a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f u n s a f e s t r e e t s .
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e p o w e r o f c a r - p r o d u c e r s a n d t h e i r m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s
i n f l u e n c e s t h e p l a n n i n g o f t h e c i t y a n d t h e c i t y s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . M o r e
p e o p l e w a n t t o b u y a c a r , e v e n s e v e r a l p e r h o u s e h o l d . M o r e c a r s o n t h e s t r e e t s
l e a d t o p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e d e m a n d s f o r c a r s , h e n c e t h e a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , t u r n i n g m a n y
s t r e e t s i n t o r o a d s f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h e s a m e m e c h a n i s m s t h a t a f f e c t e d
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a f f e c t p l a n n i n g t o d a y ,
f o r e x a m p l e t h r o u g h e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s a n d t h e d e d i c a t i o n t o m o d e r n i t y .
A l t h o u g h s o m e c i t i e s t r y t o t h i n k a n d a c t d i f f e r e n t l y , t h e o v e r a l l
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n p u b l i c s p a c e s i s a p r o b l e m i n m o s t c i t i e s a r o u n d
t h e w o r l d . T h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r w o r k s t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f
c o m m u n i c a t i o n , f r a m e d b y f e e l i n g s a n d b e h a v i o u r p r o d u c e d a n d r e p r o d u c e d
b y t h e r o a d s y s t e m c o n t e x t . T h e r e f o r e i t s e e m s t h a t L u k e s n o t i o n o f t h e t h i r d
d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r c a n b e a p p l i e d t o p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s
o f r o a d u s e r s . T h e q u o t a t i o n b y L u k e s c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t
f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d c a r - u s e r s o n o n e h a n d
a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b e t w e e n r o a d u s e r s i n g e n e r a l a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s .
L u k e s v i e w o f p o w e r i s r a d i c a l , b e c a u s e h e s e e s p o w e r i n i t s i n v i s i b l e f o r m a s
t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e f o r m ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 ) .
T h i s k i n d o f p o w e r i s v e r y e f f e c t i v e , b u t o f c o u r s e n o t e a s y t o a n a l y s e s i n c e i t i s
h i d d e n i n p e o p l e s a c t i o n s , b e h a v i o u r s , p r e f e r e n c e s a n d t h e l i k e . A c c o r d i n g l y ,
L u k e s s e e s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h p o w e r r e l a t i o n s . W h e n
o n e a p p r o a c h e s p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d p o w e r o f t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n , b e h a v i o u r a l
s t u d i e s h a v e l i m i t a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , a c h a n g e i n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g i s
n e e d e d i n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 ) .
O v e r a l l , L u k e s a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r i n d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s a p p e a r s t o b e a s o u n d
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e s p a t i a l o u t c o m e s o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , L u k e s h a s n o s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n i n h i s a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , A l l e n ( 2 0 0 3 ) d i d n o t i n c l u d e L u k e s i n h i s a n a l y s i s o f
p o w e r , b e c a u s e A l l e n s e e s t h i s l a c k o f s p a t i a l i t y i n L u k e s w o r k . T h i s c a n , o f

73
In this sense power relations between users of different modes of transport and
within transport planning are important to analyse with a broader perspective
on power, because even here the third dimension of power will emerge. It
could for example be seen in the continuous growth of car use, supported by
commercials making people feel the need of a car in order to gain freedom.
People generally seem unaware of how power affects their travel behaviour and
how at the same time they contribute to the production of unsafe streets.
Simultaneously, the power of car-producers and their marketing strategies
influences the planning of the city and the citys transport planning. More
people want to buy a car, even several per household. More cars on the streets
lead to planning and space demands for cars, hence the almost inevitable
marginalisation of cyclists in urban and transport planning, turning many
streets into roads for motorised traffic. The same mechanisms that affected
transport planning in the early days of motorised traffic affect planning today,
for example through economic structures and the dedication to modernity.
Although some cities try to think and act differently, the overall
marginalisation of cyclists in public spaces is a problem in most cities around
the world. The third dimension of power works through different types of
communication, framed by feelings and behaviour produced and reproduced
by the road system context. Therefore it seems that Lukes notion of the third
dimension of power can be applied to power relations between different types
of road users. The quotation by Lukes can contribute to a theoretical concept
for analysing the power relations between cyclists and car-users on one hand
and, on the other hand, between road users in general and transport planners.
Lukes view of power is radical, because he sees power in its invisible form as
the most effective form (Lukes 2005).
This kind of power is very effective, but of course not easy to analyse since it is
hidden in peoples actions, behaviours, preferences and the like. Accordingly,
Lukes sees methodological problems when dealing with power relations. When
one approaches power relations and power of the third dimension, behavioural
studies have limitations. Therefore, a change in methodological thinking is
needed in order to analyse the third dimension of power (Lukes 2005).
Overall, Lukes analysis of power in different dimensions appears to be a sound
theoretical framework for analysing the spatial outcomes of power and power
relations. However, Lukes has no spatial dimension in his analysis of power
relations. Therefore, Allen (2003) did not include Lukes in his analysis of
power, because Allen sees this lack of spatiality in Lukes work. This can, of
7 3

74
course, be debated. Lukes provides a deep and thorough analysis of power and,
although he does not make a connection to spaces and places, this connection
can easily be made, especially if combining Lukes with Lefebvre, which is done
in this thesis. With this connection of the spatial context, which is needed in
an analysis of transport, planning, mobility and vlomobility, a deeper
perspective of power and a deeper understanding of the changes in
methodologies can be achieved. Lukes work shows that other methods, and
hence a change in methodology, are necessary when one tries to analyse power
and power relations on a more profound level. The third dimension of Lukes
definition of power requires several methods, and overall also a more
hermeneutic approach, which goes hand in hand with a change of
methodological thinking. Whereas Dahls analysis of power (also criticised by
Lukes 2005) focuses on strictly behavioural studies of a more positivist nature,
Lukes suggestion of a second and third dimension must involve other
approaches. Dahls approach to power, where A exercises power over B, which
can be observed, is far too shallow and misses the deeper, underlying structures
that affect decision makers, planners and the like, and which cannot be directly
observed (see Dahl 1957). This methodological change in power analysis and
the connection to the theoretical analysis of power and space by Lefebvre offers
a new perspective on power relations in public urban spaces between road users
and between decision makers/planners and road users. The third dimension of
Lukes power analysis is furthermore a contribution to Allens seductive logic of
power. Also in Allens view, power works hidden from physical observation,
although one can observe aspects of this seduction; in architecture for example,
there is no observable conflict (see Allen 2003, 2006). The same can be said
about Lukes third dimension of power, which makes it even more surprising
that Allen does not include Lukes in his analysis of power.
To summarise the previous paragraphs, a methodological development and
different empirical studies in power analysis are needed in order to develop a
deeper understanding of the power relations in transport planning, in urban
public spaces and spaces of traffic. In order to capture all dimensions of power,
broader methodological approaches, besides behavioural studies, are needed.
The methodological foundation and the methods resulting from that
foundation have to be broader, meaning that more different methods, like
interviews, surveys, observations etc. are needed for analysing all aspects of
power within political and social relations. It is not enough to know that
motorised traffic has more power in the public space than cyclists; we also need

7 4
c o u r s e , b e d e b a t e d . L u k e s p r o v i d e s a d e e p a n d t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r a n d ,
a l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t m a k e a c o n n e c t i o n t o s p a c e s a n d p l a c e s , t h i s c o n n e c t i o n
c a n e a s i l y b e m a d e , e s p e c i a l l y i f c o m b i n i n g L u k e s w i t h L e f e b v r e , w h i c h i s d o n e
i n t h i s t h e s i s . W i t h t h i s c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e s p a t i a l c o n t e x t , w h i c h i s n e e d e d i n
a n a n a l y s i s o f t r a n s p o r t , p l a n n i n g , m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y , a d e e p e r
p e r s p e c t i v e o f p o w e r a n d a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c h a n g e s i n
m e t h o d o l o g i e s c a n b e a c h i e v e d . L u k e s w o r k s h o w s t h a t o t h e r m e t h o d s , a n d
h e n c e a c h a n g e i n m e t h o d o l o g y , a r e n e c e s s a r y w h e n o n e t r i e s t o a n a l y s e p o w e r
a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s o n a m o r e p r o f o u n d l e v e l . T h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f L u k e s
d e f i n i t i o n o f p o w e r r e q u i r e s s e v e r a l m e t h o d s , a n d o v e r a l l a l s o a m o r e
h e r m e n e u t i c a p p r o a c h , w h i c h g o e s h a n d i n h a n d w i t h a c h a n g e o f
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g . W h e r e a s D a h l s a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r ( a l s o c r i t i c i s e d b y
L u k e s 2 0 0 5 ) f o c u s e s o n s t r i c t l y b e h a v i o u r a l s t u d i e s o f a m o r e p o s i t i v i s t n a t u r e ,
L u k e s s u g g e s t i o n o f a s e c o n d a n d t h i r d d i m e n s i o n m u s t i n v o l v e o t h e r
a p p r o a c h e s . D a h l s a p p r o a c h t o p o w e r , w h e r e A e x e r c i s e s p o w e r o v e r B , w h i c h
c a n b e o b s e r v e d , i s f a r t o o s h a l l o w a n d m i s s e s t h e d e e p e r , u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e s
t h a t a f f e c t d e c i s i o n m a k e r s , p l a n n e r s a n d t h e l i k e , a n d w h i c h c a n n o t b e d i r e c t l y
o b s e r v e d ( s e e D a h l 1 9 5 7 ) . T h i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c h a n g e i n p o w e r a n a l y s i s a n d
t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r a n d s p a c e b y L e f e b v r e o f f e r s
a n e w p e r s p e c t i v e o n p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n p u b l i c u r b a n s p a c e s b e t w e e n r o a d u s e r s
a n d b e t w e e n d e c i s i o n m a k e r s / p l a n n e r s a n d r o a d u s e r s . T h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f
L u k e s p o w e r a n a l y s i s i s f u r t h e r m o r e a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o A l l e n s s e d u c t i v e l o g i c o f
p o w e r . A l s o i n A l l e n s v i e w , p o w e r w o r k s h i d d e n f r o m p h y s i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n ,
a l t h o u g h o n e c a n o b s e r v e a s p e c t s o f t h i s s e d u c t i o n ; i n a r c h i t e c t u r e f o r e x a m p l e ,
t h e r e i s n o o b s e r v a b l e c o n f l i c t ( s e e A l l e n 2 0 0 3 , 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e s a m e c a n b e s a i d
a b o u t L u k e s t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r , w h i c h m a k e s i t e v e n m o r e s u r p r i s i n g
t h a t A l l e n d o e s n o t i n c l u d e L u k e s i n h i s a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r .
T o s u m m a r i s e t h e p r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h s , a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
d i f f e r e n t e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s i n p o w e r a n a l y s i s a r e n e e d e d i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a
d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , i n u r b a n
p u b l i c s p a c e s a n d s p a c e s o f t r a f f i c . I n o r d e r t o c a p t u r e a l l d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r ,
b r o a d e r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s , b e s i d e s b e h a v i o u r a l s t u d i e s , a r e n e e d e d .
T h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n a n d t h e m e t h o d s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h a t
f o u n d a t i o n h a v e t o b e b r o a d e r , m e a n i n g t h a t m o r e d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s , l i k e
i n t e r v i e w s , s u r v e y s , o b s e r v a t i o n s e t c . a r e n e e d e d f o r a n a l y s i n g a l l a s p e c t s o f
p o w e r w i t h i n p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . I t i s n o t e n o u g h t o k n o w t h a t
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c h a s m o r e p o w e r i n t h e p u b l i c s p a c e t h a n c y c l i s t s ; w e a l s o n e e d
7 4

7 5
t o k n o w w h y t h e y h a v e t h a t k i n d o f p o w e r a n d w h y c i t i e s a r e p l a n n e d a s t h e y
a r e . O n e o f t h e a s p e c t s i s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f m o d e r n i s m , b u t i t i s v i t a l t o r e a l i s e
t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r m e c h a n i s m s , s u c h a s t h e c a r i n d u s t r y , s t a t u s , c u l t u r e , a n d
t h e l i k e . T h o s e a s p e c t s n e e d m o r e r e s e a r c h a n d a h e r m e n e u t i c a p p r o a c h i f o n e
w a n t s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g a n d t h e p o w e r g a m e s i n u r b a n
s p a c e s .
O b v i o u s l y , t h r o u g h o u t t h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n c e p t o f p o w e r i n c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h t r a f f i c , c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , p o w e r h a s m a n y d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s
a n d d i m e n s i o n s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o m b i n e t h o s e d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s i n
o r d e r t o u s e t h e m a s a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r a n a l y s i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n u s e r s o f d i f f e r e n t t r a n s p o r t m o d e s a n d b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t u s e r s o f
p u b l i c s p a c e s a n d s t r e e t s . M o r e o v e r , i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o c o m b i n e t h o s e
d i m e n s i o n s w h e n f o c u s i n g o n t h e c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n c y c l e t r a f f i c a n d m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c a n d t h e b u i l t - i n p r o b l e m s i n u r b a n p u b l i c s p a c e s , c o n f l i c t s t h a t l e a d t o
t h e e x c l u s i o n a n d m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s f r o m p u b l i c u r b a n s p a c e s . F o r t h i s
d i s s e r t a t i o n , t h e s p a t i a l t h e o r i e s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d t h e r i g h t t o t h e
c i t y c o m b i n e d w i t h L u k e s t h r e e d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r s e e m w e l l s u i t e d f o r
a n a l y s i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e m o b i l e w o r l d o f t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g .
P o w e r , a s s e e n i n L u k e s w o r k , h a s d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s a n d w o r k s e v e n w h e n
o n e i s n o t a w a r e o f t h e e f f e c t s . M o r e o v e r , s i n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o A l l e n , p o w e r
a l w a y s h a s a s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n , i t m u s t b e s e e n i n i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f s p a c e , w h i c h i s w h y L e f e b v r e s t h e o r i e s o n t h e c i t y a n d o n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
s p a c e o f f e r a w e l l - f o u n d e d t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o v l o m o b i l i t y . T h e t e n s i o n s i n t o d a y s u r b a n a r e a s
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , t h e p r e s s u r e o n t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
a n d t h e c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n s u s t a i n a b l e u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t , i f o n e w a n t s t o u s e
t h a t t e r m , a n d m o v e m e n t s i n c i t i e s n e e d t o b e a n a l y s e d i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e
k n o w l e d g e a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n s i n c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l l e n s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r
c a n o f f e r d e e p e r i n s i g h t s i n m o b i l i t i e s f r o m a n e m p i r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e .
I n o r d e r t o c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d t o d e v e l o p a
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k t o a n a l y s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t r o a d u s e r s , a n d b r i n g s t u d i e s o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t o t h e f i e l d
o f v l o m o b i l i t y , p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n d e f i n e d . H o w e v e r ,
p o w e r i s i n t e r l i n k e d w i t h g e o g r a p h y , b e c a u s e p o w e r i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n t i m e a n d
s p a c e , m e a n i n g t h a t p o w e r i s p a r t o f s p a c e , b e c a u s e w h e n p o w e r i s u s e d i t i s
s i t u a t e d i n s p a c e ( A l l e n 2 0 0 3 ) . W i t h i n t h e c o n c e p t o f s p a c e , o n e h a s t o d e f i n e

75
to know why they have that kind of power and why cities are planned as they
are. One of the aspects is the influence of modernism, but it is vital to realise
that there are other mechanisms, such as the car industry, status, culture, and
the like. Those aspects need more research and a hermeneutic approach if one
wants to understand the outcome of planning and the power games in urban
spaces.
Obviously, throughout this analysis of the concept of power in connection
with traffic, cycling and transport planning, power has many different aspects
and dimensions. It is important to combine those different dimensions in
order to use them as a theoretical framework for analysing power relations
between users of different transport modes and between different users of
public spaces and streets. Moreover, it is also important to combine those
dimensions when focusing on the conflicts between cycle traffic and motorised
traffic and the built-in problems in urban public spaces, conflicts that lead to
the exclusion and marginalisation of cyclists from public urban spaces. For this
dissertation, the spatial theories of the production of space and the right to the
city combined with Lukes three dimension of power seem well suited for
analysing power relations in the mobile world of transport and urban planning.
Power, as seen in Lukes work, has different dimensions and works even when
one is not aware of the effects. Moreover, since, according to Allen, power
always has a spatial dimension, it must be seen in its relation to the production
of space, which is why Lefebvres theories on the city and on the production of
space offer a well-founded theoretical approach to urban and transport
planning in relation to vlomobility. The tensions in todays urban areas
between different modes of transport, the pressure on transport infrastructure
and the conflicts between sustainable urban development, if one wants to use
that term, and movements in cities need to be analysed in order to create
knowledge about what happens in cities around the world. Therefore, the
theoretical lens of the production of space and the three dimensions of power
can offer deeper insights in mobilities from an empirical perspective.
In order to come to terms with power relations in urban space and to develop a
theoretical framework to analyse power relations in transport planning and
between different road users, and bring studies of power relations into the field
of vlomobility, power and power relations have been defined. However,
power is interlinked with geography, because power is distributed in time and
space, meaning that power is part of space, because when power is used it is
situated in space (Allen 2003). Within the concept of space, one has to define
7 5

76
what power is and how it is distributed between different institutions or
individuals. Here I agree with Allen that geography and space are important in
power issues, which is why I briefly connect power to space with Allens help,
and later in this chapter with Lefebvres philosophy of the right to the city and
the production of space.
Power can be defined as an effect of social relations within social interaction, or
as Allen expressed it: Power is a relational effect of social interaction. (Allen
2003:2) This definition of power can, than, be seen as structural, because:
Some people and some groups have more power than others, not by accident or by a
series of fortune events, but by virtue of the structure of relations of which they are a
part. (Allen 2003:26) Power is affected by the structures in society, and in the
case of traffic those structures are both social and physical.
Thus, power cannot be seen as something one can possess, but as a
phenomenon that arises from social relations and interaction in space and time,
and therefore it must be analysed in a spatial context (Allen 2003). It is
therefore we find power in spaces and places, and it is precisely the lack of
spatiality that Allen misses in other works on power and power relations).
Power according to Allen can also be seen as a medium that flows in networks
and is mediated through the actions of people, as individuals or as groups.
Thus, in this case power is produced through action, and is therefore an effect
rather than something one can possess. Consequently, power must be seen in
relation to peoples behaviour, actions and the like, and how the effect of those
actions relates to other people and how that is expressed in time and space
(Allen 2003). Allens notion of power and power relations brings power into a
spatial perspective, which is highly needed in urban and transport planning
and mobility studies.
When it comes to power relations in an urban context, one could say that it is
about the right to use public space, and therefore about equity between citizens
who use different modes of transport and have different forms of mobility.
Henri Lefebvre called this the right to the city; a theoretical framework for
analysing urban conflicts. The right to the city will also be discussed in the next
chapter. However, it seems important to explain the theoretical thinking about
the right to the city developed by Lefebvre, because it has connections to the
discussion on power and power relations in connection to urban and transport
planning and is highly relevant for the discussion on space, place and space
wars. The idea, right to the city, was developed by Lefebvre in 1968 (Purcell
2002). In 1996 the writings of Lefebvre on that topic were translated into

7 6
w h a t p o w e r i s a n d h o w i t i s d i s t r i b u t e d b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s o r
i n d i v i d u a l s . H e r e I a g r e e w i t h A l l e n t h a t g e o g r a p h y a n d s p a c e a r e i m p o r t a n t i n
p o w e r i s s u e s , w h i c h i s w h y I b r i e f l y c o n n e c t p o w e r t o s p a c e w i t h A l l e n s h e l p ,
a n d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i t h L e f e b v r e s p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y a n d
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e .
P o w e r c a n b e d e f i n e d a s a n e f f e c t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , o r
a s A l l e n e x p r e s s e d i t : P o w e r i s a r e l a t i o n a l e f f e c t o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . ( A l l e n
2 0 0 3 : 2 ) T h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f p o w e r c a n , t h a n , b e s e e n a s s t r u c t u r a l , b e c a u s e :
S o m e p e o p l e a n d s o m e g r o u p s h a v e m o r e p o w e r t h a n o t h e r s , n o t b y a c c i d e n t o r b y a
s e r i e s o f f o r t u n e e v e n t s , b u t b y v i r t u e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f r e l a t i o n s o f w h i c h t h e y a r e a
p a r t . ( A l l e n 2 0 0 3 : 2 6 ) P o w e r i s a f f e c t e d b y t h e s t r u c t u r e s i n s o c i e t y , a n d i n t h e
c a s e o f t r a f f i c t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e b o t h s o c i a l a n d p h y s i c a l .
T h u s , p o w e r c a n n o t b e s e e n a s s o m e t h i n g o n e c a n p o s s e s s , b u t a s a
p h e n o m e n o n t h a t a r i s e s f r o m s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a n d i n t e r a c t i o n i n s p a c e a n d t i m e ,
a n d t h e r e f o r e i t m u s t b e a n a l y s e d i n a s p a t i a l c o n t e x t ( A l l e n 2 0 0 3 ) . I t i s
t h e r e f o r e w e f i n d p o w e r i n s p a c e s a n d p l a c e s , a n d i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e l a c k o f
s p a t i a l i t y t h a t A l l e n m i s s e s i n o t h e r w o r k s o n p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s ) .
P o w e r a c c o r d i n g t o A l l e n c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s a m e d i u m t h a t f l o w s i n n e t w o r k s
a n d i s m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n s o f p e o p l e , a s i n d i v i d u a l s o r a s g r o u p s .
T h u s , i n t h i s c a s e p o w e r i s p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h a c t i o n , a n d i s t h e r e f o r e a n e f f e c t
r a t h e r t h a n s o m e t h i n g o n e c a n p o s s e s s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , p o w e r m u s t b e s e e n i n
r e l a t i o n t o p e o p l e s b e h a v i o u r , a c t i o n s a n d t h e l i k e , a n d h o w t h e e f f e c t o f t h o s e
a c t i o n s r e l a t e s t o o t h e r p e o p l e a n d h o w t h a t i s e x p r e s s e d i n t i m e a n d s p a c e
( A l l e n 2 0 0 3 ) . A l l e n s n o t i o n o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b r i n g s p o w e r i n t o a
s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h i s h i g h l y n e e d e d i n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g
a n d m o b i l i t y s t u d i e s .
W h e n i t c o m e s t o p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n a n u r b a n c o n t e x t , o n e c o u l d s a y t h a t i t i s
a b o u t t h e r i g h t t o u s e p u b l i c s p a c e , a n d t h e r e f o r e a b o u t e q u i t y b e t w e e n c i t i z e n s
w h o u s e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d h a v e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f m o b i l i t y .
H e n r i L e f e b v r e c a l l e d t h i s t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y ; a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r
a n a l y s i n g u r b a n c o n f l i c t s . T h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y w i l l a l s o b e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t
c h a p t e r . H o w e v e r , i t s e e m s i m p o r t a n t t o e x p l a i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b o u t
t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y d e v e l o p e d b y L e f e b v r e , b e c a u s e i t h a s c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e
d i s c u s s i o n o n p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n c o n n e c t i o n t o u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g a n d i s h i g h l y r e l e v a n t f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n s p a c e , p l a c e a n d s p a c e
w a r s . T h e i d e a , r i g h t t o t h e c i t y , w a s d e v e l o p e d b y L e f e b v r e i n 1 9 6 8 ( P u r c e l l
2 0 0 2 ) . I n 1 9 9 6 t h e w r i t i n g s o f L e f e b v r e o n t h a t t o p i c w e r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
7 6

7 7
E n g l i s h i n t h e b o o k W r i t i n g s o n C i t i e s , a n d i t i s f r o m t h a t b o o k t h e
d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w s d r a w s ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 6 8 ] ) . H e r e L e f e b v r e d e v e l o p s
t h e i d e a o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y , w h i c h i s p a r t l y d r a w n u p o n i n t h i s t h e s i s . T h e
r i g h t t o t h e c i t y c o n c e p t i s a c o n c e p t f o r r a d i c a l c h a n g e o f t h e u r b a n l a n d s c a p e
a n d o f u r b a n l i f e . M u c h f o c u s i n L e f e b v r e s w o r k i s o n e v e r y d a y l i f e ( s e e f o r
e x a m p l e L e f e b v r e 2 0 0 4 [ 1 9 9 2 ] ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y i s a l s o a
c o n c e p t f o r t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r e v e r y d a y l i f e . L e f e b v r e d e l i v e r s n o t a r e c i p e f o r
c h a n g e a n d w h a t r i g h t s s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y , b u t i n s t e a d
s e e s t h e c o n c e p t m o r e a s a r i g h t t o t r a n s f o r m t h e c i t y b y t h e p e o p l e . I t i s n o
c o n c e p t f o r r e f o r m , b u t f o r r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 6 8 ] ) . O r
i n L e f e b v r e s o w n w o r d s :
t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y i s l i k e a c r y a n d a d e m a n d . T h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y c a n n o t
b e c o n c e i v e d o f a s a s i m p l e v i s i t i n g r i g h t o r a s a r e t u r n t o t r a d i t i o n a l c i t i e s . I t c a n
o n l y b e f o r m u l a t e d a s a t r a n s f o r m e d a n d r e n e w e d r i g h t t o u r b a n l i f e . ( L e f e b v r e
1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 6 8 ] : 1 5 8 )
F r o m t h i s L e f e b v r e a l s o c o n n e c t s t h e c i t y t o p e o p l e b y e x e m p l i f y i n g t h a t
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c o r c a r s p r o d u c e o n e k i n d o f n o i s e e t c . , b u t p e o p l e a d i f f e r e n t
o n e , n a m e l y t h a t o f f e e t a n d w o r d s ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 6 8 ] : 2 2 0 ) . H e r e o n e
c a n a g a i n s e e t h e f o c u s o n e v e r y d a y l i f e a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o c r e a t e u r b a n l i v i n g
a n d w h o a l s o h a v e t h e r i g h t t o c h a n g e a n d t r a n s f o r m u r b a n s p a c e a n d u r b a n
l i v i n g . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y i s a r a d i c a l c o n c e p t o f u r b a n c h a n g e
a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . O n e c a n s e e i n L e f e b v r e s w o r k t h e c i t y a s a q u e s t i o n o f
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a s s e t s a n d r i g h t s . T h r o u g h h i s w o r k o n e c a n m a k e s t r u c t u r e s i n
c i t i e s v i s i b l e i n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s .
M o r e o v e r , L e f e b v r e d e v e l o p e d t h e i d e a o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e i n h i s b o o k
T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) o n t h e b a s i s o f h i s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s
a n d t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y a n d u r b a n r e a l i t i e s . H e
d e v e l o p s t h e o r i e s a b o u t h o w s p a c e s i n u r b a n a r e a s a r e f o r m e d a n d , a s h e s e e s i t ,
p r o d u c e d . H e s e e s s p a c e p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s a n d e v e r y d a y
l i v i n g . S p a c e i s t h e r e f o r e n o t o n l y p h y s i c a l l y b u i l t , b u t a l s o s o c i a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d ,
p r o d u c e d a n d r e - p r o d u c e d . B y u s i n g t h e b u i l t s p a c e i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s , p e o p l e
w i l l a s s i g n d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s t o p u b l i c s p a c e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s o c i a l
i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n p e o p l e i n t h e p u b l i c s p a c e p r o d u c e t h e u r b a n s p a c e a n d
c o n t r i b u t e t o h o w d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s a n d p u b l i c s p a c e s i n c i t i e s a r e p e r c e i v e d a n d
h o w p e o p l e u s e t h o s e s p a c e s a n d p l a c e s . T h e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n a n d t h e s o c i a l
p r o d u c t i o n o f u r b a n s p a c e t h e r e f o r e h a v e i m p a c t o n h o w p e o p l e p e r c e i v e a n d
e x p e r i e n c e s p a c e . P e o p l e i n t e r p r e t s p a c e v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y a n d a l s o u s e s p a c e v e r y

77
English in the book Writings on Cities, and it is from that book the
discussion that follows draws (Lefebvre 1996 [1968]). Here Lefebvre develops
the idea of the right to the city, which is partly drawn upon in this thesis. The
right to the city concept is a concept for radical change of the urban landscape
and of urban life. Much focus in Lefebvres work is on everyday life (see for
example Lefebvre 2004 [1992]). Therefore, the right to the city is also a
concept for the people and their everyday life. Lefebvre delivers not a recipe for
change and what rights should be included in the right to the city, but instead
sees the concept more as a right to transform the city by the people. It is no
concept for reform, but for radical transformation (Lefebvre 1996 [1968]). Or
in Lefebvres own words:
the right to the city is like a cry and a demand. The right to the city cannot
be conceived of as a simple visiting right or as a return to traditional cities. It can
only be formulated as a transformed and renewed right to urban life. (Lefebvre
1996 [1968]:158)
From this Lefebvre also connects the city to people by exemplifying that
motorised traffic or cars produce one kind of noise etc., but people a different
one, namely that of feet and words (Lefebvre 1996 [1968]:220). Here one
can again see the focus on everyday life and the people who create urban living
and who also have the right to change and transform urban space and urban
living. In other words the right to the city is a radical concept of urban change
and transformation. One can see in Lefebvres work the city as a question of
distribution of assets and rights. Through his work one can make structures in
cities visible in order to analyse power relations.
Moreover, Lefebvre developed the idea of the production of space in his book
The production of space (1991 [1974]) on the basis of his earlier writings
and theoretical development on the right to the city and urban realities. He
develops theories about how spaces in urban areas are formed and, as he sees it,
produced. He sees space produced through social interactions and everyday
living. Space is therefore not only physically built, but also socially interpreted,
produced and re-produced. By using the built space in different ways, people
will assign different meanings to public spaces. Furthermore, the social
interactions between people in the public space produce the urban space and
contribute to how different places and public spaces in cities are perceived and
how people use those spaces and places. The social interaction and the social
production of urban space therefore have impact on how people perceive and
experience space. People interpret space very differently and also use space very
7 7

78
differently, which can have a major impact on power relations in cities and
urban areas as well as on the planning processes. Power relations are, through
social relations, written into the physical structures and produce and reproduce
spatial power relations. Some people or groups have more power in (the) space
than other people and groups; specific power relations in urban spaces and
between different groups who use those spaces emerge. That means that the
spatial power relations or the materialities of cities benefit some people or
groups and strengthen their position, while others experience disadvantages.
However, eventually it is about "the right to public spaces" in cities, and about
who has (better) access to those spaces and who is restricted or even excluded.
Those spaces are, according to Lefebvre (1991 [1974]), produced by
capitalism, and force people to conduct their lives according to the needs of
capital. Furthermore, those spaces create certain power relations in urban
spaces and within the transport systems of cities (Lefebvre 1991 [1974]).
The details of Lefebvres spatial concept will be analysed in Chapter 4.2 where
space is introduced more thoroughly. In terms of transport, capitalism has
produced the motorised modes of transport, and through that also certain
kinds of urban spaces that marginalise cyclists and create power relations that
favour motorised modes of transport (Furness 2010). Nevertheless, the right to
public space is only one minor aspect of the concept of the right to the city,
because, as mentioned above, this concept is broader and more radical. The
connection, though, to the power relations in urban space and in the
production of urban space is an important aspect. Here one can see in many
cities around the world that motorised traffic is dominating urban space, while
cyclists often are marginalised. This is something that is further developed later
in this thesis.
Lefebvres theories on urban public spaces and the right to the city can have
implications for power relations between the different modes of transport, such
as cycling and car use. For example streets where car-users frequently exceed
the speed limits produce a public space that could be perceived as dangerous
for cyclists. Such high-speed streets or roads appear unsafe to these groups.
This could exclude people from using those spaces with other modes of
transport than cars, e.g. people who do not have access to a car. Car drivers
may have more power in these spaces, as through their behaviour they produce
barriers for other road users' possible use of this space. Lefebvres theories can
provide the basis for a concept analysing how public space and street space are
perceived and how power relations between the different road users are

7 8
d i f f e r e n t l y , w h i c h c a n h a v e a m a j o r i m p a c t o n p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n c i t i e s a n d
u r b a n a r e a s a s w e l l a s o n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e , t h r o u g h
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , w r i t t e n i n t o t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d p r o d u c e a n d r e p r o d u c e
s p a t i a l p o w e r r e l a t i o n s . S o m e p e o p l e o r g r o u p s h a v e m o r e p o w e r i n ( t h e ) s p a c e
t h a n o t h e r p e o p l e a n d g r o u p s ; s p e c i f i c p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e s a n d
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s w h o u s e t h o s e s p a c e s e m e r g e . T h a t m e a n s t h a t t h e
s p a t i a l p o w e r r e l a t i o n s o r t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s o f c i t i e s b e n e f i t s o m e p e o p l e o r
g r o u p s a n d s t r e n g t h e n t h e i r p o s i t i o n , w h i l e o t h e r s e x p e r i e n c e d i s a d v a n t a g e s .
H o w e v e r , e v e n t u a l l y i t i s a b o u t " t h e r i g h t t o p u b l i c s p a c e s " i n c i t i e s , a n d a b o u t
w h o h a s ( b e t t e r ) a c c e s s t o t h o s e s p a c e s a n d w h o i s r e s t r i c t e d o r e v e n e x c l u d e d .
T h o s e s p a c e s a r e , a c c o r d i n g t o L e f e b v r e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) , p r o d u c e d b y
c a p i t a l i s m , a n d f o r c e p e o p l e t o c o n d u c t t h e i r l i v e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n e e d s o f
c a p i t a l . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h o s e s p a c e s c r e a t e c e r t a i n p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n
s p a c e s a n d w i t h i n t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s o f c i t i e s ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) .
T h e d e t a i l s o f L e f e b v r e s s p a t i a l c o n c e p t w i l l b e a n a l y s e d i n C h a p t e r 4 . 2 w h e r e
s p a c e i s i n t r o d u c e d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y . I n t e r m s o f t r a n s p o r t , c a p i t a l i s m h a s
p r o d u c e d t h e m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , a n d t h r o u g h t h a t a l s o c e r t a i n
k i n d s o f u r b a n s p a c e s t h a t m a r g i n a l i s e c y c l i s t s a n d c r e a t e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t
f a v o u r m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t ( F u r n e s s 2 0 1 0 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r i g h t t o
p u b l i c s p a c e i s o n l y o n e m i n o r a s p e c t o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y ,
b e c a u s e , a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h i s c o n c e p t i s b r o a d e r a n d m o r e r a d i c a l . T h e
c o n n e c t i o n , t h o u g h , t o t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d i n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f u r b a n s p a c e i s a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t . H e r e o n e c a n s e e i n m a n y
c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d t h a t m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i s d o m i n a t i n g u r b a n s p a c e , w h i l e
c y c l i s t s o f t e n a r e m a r g i n a l i s e d . T h i s i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d l a t e r
i n t h i s t h e s i s .
L e f e b v r e s t h e o r i e s o n u r b a n p u b l i c s p a c e s a n d t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y c a n h a v e
i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , s u c h
a s c y c l i n g a n d c a r u s e . F o r e x a m p l e s t r e e t s w h e r e c a r - u s e r s f r e q u e n t l y e x c e e d
t h e s p e e d l i m i t s p r o d u c e a p u b l i c s p a c e t h a t c o u l d b e p e r c e i v e d a s d a n g e r o u s
f o r c y c l i s t s . S u c h h i g h - s p e e d s t r e e t s o r r o a d s a p p e a r u n s a f e t o t h e s e g r o u p s .
T h i s c o u l d e x c l u d e p e o p l e f r o m u s i n g t h o s e s p a c e s w i t h o t h e r m o d e s o f
t r a n s p o r t t h a n c a r s , e . g . p e o p l e w h o d o n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o a c a r . C a r d r i v e r s
m a y h a v e m o r e p o w e r i n t h e s e s p a c e s , a s t h r o u g h t h e i r b e h a v i o u r t h e y p r o d u c e
b a r r i e r s f o r o t h e r r o a d u s e r s ' p o s s i b l e u s e o f t h i s s p a c e . L e f e b v r e s t h e o r i e s c a n
p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r a c o n c e p t a n a l y s i n g h o w p u b l i c s p a c e a n d s t r e e t s p a c e a r e
p e r c e i v e d a n d h o w p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t r o a d u s e r s a r e
7 8

7 9
e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s c a n a l s o b e c o n n e c t e d t o A l l e n s t h e o r y o f a m b i e n t p o w e r ,
w h i c h m e a n s a f o r m o f p o w e r t h a t i s q u i t e i n v i s i b l e a n d l e a d s f o r e x a m p l e t o
t h e e x c l u s i o n o f p e o p l e f r o m s p a c e w i t h o u t p h y s i c a l l y e x c l u d i n g t h e m ( A l l e n
2 0 0 6 ) . T h i s v i e w o f p o w e r c a n b e c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o L u k e s t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f
p o w e r , d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . S i g n s o f a m b i e n t p o w e r c o u l d b e s a l i e n t i n s p a c e s o f
m o b i l i t y . C e r t a i n r o a d s o r s t r e e t s m a y c a u s e f e e l i n g s o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y a n d
i n s e c u r i t y . T h i s c o u l d b e d u e t o f e a r o f c r i m e b e c a u s e o f p o o r o r n o l i g h t n i n g ,
o r s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e s t r e e t s s e e m e m p t y a p r o b l e m t a k e n u p l a t e r i n t h i s
t h e s i s . T h i s c o u l d m a k e p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s f e e l u n w e l c o m e . T h u s , c e r t a i n
r o a d u s e r s c a n b e e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e u s e o f c e r t a i n s t r e e t s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s .
T h e w a y p u b l i c s p a c e s a r e d e s i g n e d a n d s o c i a l l y p r o d u c e d i n f l u e n c e s t h e p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , o r b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t r o a d u s e r s . A s t h e
d e s i g n g i v e s c e r t a i n r o a d u s e r s m o r e p o w e r a n d f e e l i n g o f b e l o n g i n g t h a n
o t h e r s , i t i n f l u e n c e s t h e w a y r o a d u s e r s c o m m u n i c a t e a n d i n t e r a c t w i t h e a c h
o t h e r ( " I b e l o n g h e r e , y o u d o n ' t ! " ) .
T h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t r o a d u s e r s a r e f o r m e d b o t h b y s o c i a l
i n t e r a c t i o n , w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e p l a c e s , a n d b y t h e d e s i g n o f p u b l i c s p a c e s .
C l a r k ( 2 0 0 3 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e f e e l i n g o f b e i n g p u s h e d a s i d e a s a c y c l i s t b y t h e
p h y s i c a l l y s t r o n g e r m o t o r i s e d r o a d u s e r s , i n h i s c a s e b y a S U V ( S p o r t U t i l i t y
V e h i c l e ) . T h i s f e e l i n g o f n o t b e i n g i n c o n t r o l o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d o f b e i n g
p o w e r l e s s , w h e n s u c h a c a r c l a i m s p r i o r i t y , r e f l e c t s t h a t m o t o r i s e d r o a d u s e r s
a r e s t r o n g e r t h a n n o n - m o t o r i s e d r o a d u s e r s . M o r e o v e r , t h i s s h o w s a t t h e s a m e
t i m e t h a t t h e p o w e r o f t h e s t r o n g e r p a r t i e s c a n b e u s e d ( a n d a b u s e d ) b y
c l a i m i n g f o r e x a m p l e p r i o r i t y i n t h e p u b l i c s p a c e s i n u r b a n a r e a s , e v e n t h o u g h
t h e y l e g a l l y d o n o t h a v e t h a t p r i o r i t y ( C l a r k 2 0 0 3 ) . O t h e r s t u d i e s h a v e a l s o
s h o w n t h a t , c o m p a r e d t o d r i v e r s o f o t h e r t y p e s o f v e h i c l e s , d r i v e r s o f S U V s
m o r e o f t e n e x c e e d s p e e d l i m i t s a n d a c t m o r e r e c k l e s s l y i n l a n e s w i t c h i n g , w h i c h
a l s o c a n h a v e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o n n o n - m o t o r i s e d r o a d u s e r s ( R u d i n - B r o w n
2 0 0 6 ) .
T o c o n c l u d e , s e v e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s s e e m a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n a n a l y s i n g
t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c o n
t h e o t h e r h a n d i n u r b a n s p a c e c r e a t e d t h r o u g h p l a n n i n g . I n t h e a n a l y s i s o f
p o w e r i n t h i s t h e s i s , s e v e r a l a s p e c t s a r e t o u c h e d u p o n , f o r e x a m p l e t h e p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , w h i c h i s a n a l y s e d n o t l e a s t
t h r o u g h t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a n d t h r o u g h t h e
m a t e r i a l i t i e s i n u r b a n s p a c e . H e r e a l l d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r a r e a t p l a y a n d
a n a l y s e d , b o t h t h e h i d d e n s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e u r b a n m a t e r i a l i t i e s a n d t h e

79
established. This can also be connected to Allens theory of ambient power,
which means a form of power that is quite invisible and leads for example to
the exclusion of people from space without physically excluding them (Allen
2006). This view of power can be closely linked to Lukes third dimension of
power, described above. Signs of ambient power could be salient in spaces of
mobility. Certain roads or streets may cause feelings of vulnerability and
insecurity. This could be due to fear of crime because of poor or no lightning,
or simply because the streets seem empty a problem taken up later in this
thesis. This could make pedestrians and cyclists feel unwelcome. Thus, certain
road users can be excluded from the use of certain streets and environments.
The way public spaces are designed and socially produced influences the power
relations between different people, or between different road users. As the
design gives certain road users more power and feeling of belonging than
others, it influences the way road users communicate and interact with each
other ("I belong here, you don't!").
The power relations between the different road users are formed both by social
interaction, which produces the places, and by the design of public spaces.
Clark (2003) describes the feeling of being pushed aside as a cyclist by the
physically stronger motorised road users, in his case by a SUV (Sport Utility
Vehicle). This feeling of not being in control of the situation and of being
powerless, when such a car claims priority, reflects that motorised road users
are stronger than non-motorised road users. Moreover, this shows at the same
time that the power of the stronger parties can be used (and abused) by
claiming for example priority in the public spaces in urban areas, even though
they legally do not have that priority (Clark 2003). Other studies have also
shown that, compared to drivers of other types of vehicles, drivers of SUVs
more often exceed speed limits and act more recklessly in lane switching, which
also can have negative effects on non-motorised road users (Rudin-Brown
2006).
To conclude, several theoretical approaches seem appropriate when analysing
the power relations between cyclists on the one hand and motorised traffic on
the other hand in urban space created through planning. In the analysis of
power in this thesis, several aspects are touched upon, for example the power
relations between cyclists and motorised traffic, which is analysed not least
through the survey studies in Copenhagen and Stockholm and through the
materialities in urban space. Here all dimensions of power are at play and
analysed, both the hidden structures in the urban materialities and the
7 9

80
observable conflicts between the different modes of transport. Nevertheless, the
aim of this thesis is not only to analyse the power relationship between
different road users. Although that is one aspect in this thesis and it is very
important, the power relations between the groups are a result of planning the
urban space. Thus, design, planning and architecture all influence the power
relations and the behaviour of people in public spaces, which, enlisting the
theory developed by Allen, could be analysed; especially, the hidden structures
and social relations that have led to the outcome of cyclists marginalisation in
urban space, and also different results in two different cities (Stockholm and
Copenhagen). Here the three dimensions of Lukes view of power are very
important. Furthermore, connections could be made here to Lefebvres
theories of the production of public spaces and the concept of the right to the
city.
The power of the car is also structurally embedded in the socialisation of
people in the Western world, for example by commercials and through the use
of the car by parents. Those structures together with the symbols (fast cars,
highways etc.) form different power relations between different road users and
contribute to the exclusion of cyclists from the public spaces in urban areas.
The power relations between cycle traffic and motorised traffic, which are built
into the urban spaces, are created through the social structures. Those
structures are often influenced by commercials, socialisation, planning ideals
and the production systems for cars (Allen 2003). The power relations one can
observe in the public space through visual observation of, for example,
architecture and urban planning, could also depend on underlying social power
structures. It could for example also be related to discourses stemming from car
commercials, stating that car drivers (par prfrence) have more power than
other road users. Here the connection to the economic structures that formed
the car society by modes of production becomes evident (see for example
Gartman 2004).
4.2 Space and space wars
Space, or rather the production of space, has already been illuminated.
Nevertheless, it is important to clarify what space is and what space in relation
to place is. Moreover, it is important, when analysing power relations in space,
to see how the concept of space wars could be included in this discussion and

8 0
o b s e r v a b l e c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
a i m o f t h i s t h e s i s i s n o t o n l y t o a n a l y s e t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
d i f f e r e n t r o a d u s e r s . A l t h o u g h t h a t i s o n e a s p e c t i n t h i s t h e s i s a n d i t i s v e r y
i m p o r t a n t , t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p s a r e a r e s u l t o f p l a n n i n g t h e
u r b a n s p a c e . T h u s , d e s i g n , p l a n n i n g a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e a l l i n f l u e n c e t h e p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f p e o p l e i n p u b l i c s p a c e s , w h i c h , e n l i s t i n g t h e
t h e o r y d e v e l o p e d b y A l l e n , c o u l d b e a n a l y s e d ; e s p e c i a l l y , t h e h i d d e n s t r u c t u r e s
a n d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t h a v e l e d t o t h e o u t c o m e o f c y c l i s t s m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n i n
u r b a n s p a c e , a n d a l s o d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s i n t w o d i f f e r e n t c i t i e s ( S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n ) . H e r e t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f L u k e s v i e w o f p o w e r a r e v e r y
i m p o r t a n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , c o n n e c t i o n s c o u l d b e m a d e h e r e t o L e f e b v r e s
t h e o r i e s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f p u b l i c s p a c e s a n d t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e
c i t y .
T h e p o w e r o f t h e c a r i s a l s o s t r u c t u r a l l y e m b e d d e d i n t h e s o c i a l i s a t i o n o f
p e o p l e i n t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d , f o r e x a m p l e b y c o m m e r c i a l s a n d t h r o u g h t h e u s e
o f t h e c a r b y p a r e n t s . T h o s e s t r u c t u r e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s y m b o l s ( f a s t c a r s ,
h i g h w a y s e t c . ) f o r m d i f f e r e n t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t r o a d u s e r s a n d
c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f c y c l i s t s f r o m t h e p u b l i c s p a c e s i n u r b a n a r e a s .
T h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c y c l e t r a f f i c a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , w h i c h a r e b u i l t
i n t o t h e u r b a n s p a c e s , a r e c r e a t e d t h r o u g h t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s . T h o s e
s t r u c t u r e s a r e o f t e n i n f l u e n c e d b y c o m m e r c i a l s , s o c i a l i s a t i o n , p l a n n i n g i d e a l s
a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s f o r c a r s ( A l l e n 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s o n e c a n
o b s e r v e i n t h e p u b l i c s p a c e t h r o u g h v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n o f , f o r e x a m p l e ,
a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g , c o u l d a l s o d e p e n d o n u n d e r l y i n g s o c i a l p o w e r
s t r u c t u r e s . I t c o u l d f o r e x a m p l e a l s o b e r e l a t e d t o d i s c o u r s e s s t e m m i n g f r o m c a r
c o m m e r c i a l s , s t a t i n g t h a t c a r d r i v e r s ( p a r p r f r e n c e ) h a v e m o r e p o w e r t h a n
o t h e r r o a d u s e r s . H e r e t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s t h a t f o r m e d
t h e c a r s o c i e t y b y m o d e s o f p r o d u c t i o n b e c o m e s e v i d e n t ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e
G a r t m a n 2 0 0 4 ) .
4 . 2 S p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s
S p a c e , o r r a t h e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e , h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i l l u m i n a t e d .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c l a r i f y w h a t s p a c e i s a n d w h a t s p a c e i n r e l a t i o n
t o p l a c e i s . M o r e o v e r , i t i s i m p o r t a n t , w h e n a n a l y s i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n s p a c e ,
t o s e e h o w t h e c o n c e p t o f s p a c e w a r s c o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n a n d
8 0

8 1
c o u l d s h e d l i g h t o n t h e p r o b l e m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h p o w e r , s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t y .
T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l i n t r o d u c e t h e s p a t i a l c o n c e p t s i n o r d e r t o c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h
t h e l a c k o f s p a t i a l i t y i n L u k e s p o w e r a n a l y s i s . A l t h o u g h t h a t h a s p a r t l y b e e n
d o n e a b o v e , I f e e l t h e r e i s a n e e d t o p r o p e r l y i n t r o d u c e s p a c e a s a t h e o r e t i c a l
c o n c e p t f o r a n a l y s i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d i n t r a n s p o r t .
A c c o r d i n g t o H a r v e y ( 2 0 0 6 b ) , s p a c e i s a c o m p l e x c o n s t r u c t i o n . H a r v e y s t a r t s
b y g i v i n g a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s p a c e b y r e f e r r i n g t o w h a t
N e w t o n a n d D e s c a r t e s u n d e r s t o o d a s s p a c e . T h i s f o r m o f s p a c e i s s e e n a s f i x e d
a n d e v e r y t h i n g i n i t i s b o u n d t o i t s l a w s . I t i s t h e s p a c e o f m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d
r a t i o n a l i t y , s p a c e o f c a l c u l a t i o n s ; o r i n o t h e r w o r d s i t i s t h e s p a c e o f s c i e n c e .
H a r v e y c a l l s t h i s k i n d o f s p a c e a b s o l u t e s p a c e . W h e n i t c o m e s t o s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s
t h i s k i n d o f a b s o l u t e s p a c e i s
T h e s p a c e o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d o t h e r b o u n d e d t e r r i t o r i a l d e s i g n a t i o n ( s u c h a s
s t a t e s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s , c i t y p l a n s a n d u r b a n g r i d s ) . ( H a r v e y 2 0 0 6 b : 1 2 1 )
A l t h o u g h t h e s e f o r m s c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e y a r e s t i l l
m e a s u r e a b l e a n d t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e r a t i o n a l . H o w e v e r , w i t h E i n s t e i n s
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r e l a t i v i t y , s p a c e w a s s e e n a s r e l a t i o n a l t o t i m e . T h a t m e a n s t h a t
s p a c e i s n o t f i x e d , b u t d e p e n d e n t o n t h e r e l a t i o n t o t i m e . T h i s m e a n s t h a t
s p a c e c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e a n d i s a f f e c t e d b y t i m e . E i n s t e i n s i d e a o f r e l a t i v e
s p a c e , w h i c h i s p a r t l y i n f l u e n c e d , a c c o r d i n g t o H a r v e y ( 2 0 0 6 b ) , b y L e i b n i z
c o n c e p t o f t h e m o n a d , m a k e s i t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t o r e d u c e s p a c e t o
m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t s p a c e i s b o u n d t o t i m e i n
s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l i t y ( H a r v e y 2 0 0 6 b ) . T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t i m e a n d s p a c e
o f f e r s a n e w w a y o f t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t s p a c e a s a s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i n t h e w a y
L e f e b v r e h a s d o n e i n T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f S p a c e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e
c o n c e p t o f r e l a t i v i t y l e a d s t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s p a c e a s r e l a t i o n a l , m e a n i n g
t h a t t i m e a n d s p a c e a r e n o t o n l y r e l a t i v e , b u t a l s o a r e f o r m e d i n r e l a t i o n s t o
o t h e r f o r m s , s u c h a s m u s i c , p o e t r y e t c . T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o H a r v e y ( 2 0 0 6 b ) ,
o n e c a n i d e n t i f y t h r e e t y p e s o f s p a c e :

- A b s o l u t e s p a c e
- R e l a t i v e s p a c e
- R e l a t i o n a l s p a c e


81
could shed light on the problems connected with power, space and mobility.
This section will introduce the spatial concepts in order to come to terms with
the lack of spatiality in Lukes power analysis. Although that has partly been
done above, I feel there is a need to properly introduce space as a theoretical
concept for analysing power relations in urban space and in transport.
According to Harvey (2006b), space is a complex construction. Harvey starts
by giving an illustration of the philosophy of space by referring to what
Newton and Descartes understood as space. This form of space is seen as fixed
and everything in it is bound to its laws. It is the space of measurements and
rationality, space of calculations; or in other words it is the space of science.
Harvey calls this kind of space absolute space. When it comes to social relations
this kind of absolute space is
The space of private property and other bounded territorial designation (such as
states, administrative units, city plans and urban grids). (Harvey 2006b:121)
Although these forms can also be seen as socially constructed, they are still
measureable and to a certain degree rational. However, with Einsteins
introduction of relativity, space was seen as relational to time. That means that
space is not fixed, but dependent on the relation to time. This means that
space changes over time and is affected by time. Einsteins idea of relative
space, which is partly influenced, according to Harvey (2006b), by Leibniz
concept of the monad, makes it more complicated to reduce space to
measurements and calculations, due to the fact that space is bound to time in
spatio-temporality (Harvey 2006b). The connection between time and space
offers a new way of theorizing about space as a social construct in the way
Lefebvre has done in The production of Space (1991 [1974]). Moreover, the
concept of relativity leads to the development of space as relational, meaning
that time and space are not only relative, but also are formed in relations to
other forms, such as music, poetry etc. Thus, according to Harvey (2006b),
one can identify three types of space:

- Absolute space
- Relative space
- Relational space

8 1

82
Harvey sees the complexity of space. He summarises the complexity and
difference between the forms of space that he identified. Similarly, Lefebvre
developed a triad of space or spatial practice that is closely linked to the
production of space and to the different forms of relations that form space. He
calls those three types of space or spatial practice:
1 Spatial practice, which embraces production and reproduction, and the
particular locations and spatial sets characteristic of each social formation. Spatial
practice ensures continuity and some degree of cohesion. In terms of social space, and
of each member of a given society's relationship to that space, this cohesion implies a
guaranteed level of competence and a specific level of performance.
2 Representations of space, which are tied to the relations of production and to the
'order' which those relations impose, and hence to knowledge, to signs, to codes, and
to 'frontal' relations.
3 Representational spaces, embodying complex symbolisms, sometimes coded,
sometimes not, linked to the clandestine or underground side of social life, as also to
art (which may come eventually to be defined less as a code of space than as a code
of representational spaces).
(Lefebvre 1991 [1974]:33)
In Lefebvres definition of space or the different forms of space, the social
aspects are already at work. Harvey (2006b) mentioned that the line between
the three forms of space (absolute, relative, relational) is not clear, and space
can be one of the forms or all three. This depends on the social relations and
the different situations in which space is experienced. Therefore, space is
formed, as Lefebvre (1991 [1974]) argued, by social relations, and those of
course change over time, which is why space changes over time. Moreover,
Harvey (2006b) sees the three spaces in a dialectic relation to each other rather
than completely separated from each other, or rather than in a certain
hierarchy to each other.
For this thesis it is important to focus on the social construction and the
production of space, since that has a connection to power relations in general
and public space in particular. As power and power relations have different
forms and are expressed in different ways it is interesting to examine how those
forms of power and power relations are connected to space and mobility.
Mobility is also connected to space and place, as mentioned in Chapter 3
above, due to the fact that almost all forms of movements and mobilities are
conducted in time and space. However, those social constructions of space

8 2
H a r v e y s e e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f s p a c e . H e s u m m a r i s e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e f o r m s o f s p a c e t h a t h e i d e n t i f i e d . S i m i l a r l y , L e f e b v r e
d e v e l o p e d a t r i a d o f s p a c e o r s p a t i a l p r a c t i c e t h a t i s c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d t o t h e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f r e l a t i o n s t h a t f o r m s p a c e . H e
c a l l s t h o s e t h r e e t y p e s o f s p a c e o r s p a t i a l p r a c t i c e :
1 S p a t i a l p r a c t i c e , w h i c h e m b r a c e s p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n , a n d t h e
p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n s a n d s p a t i a l s e t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e a c h s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n . S p a t i a l
p r a c t i c e e n s u r e s c o n t i n u i t y a n d s o m e d e g r e e o f c o h e s i o n . I n t e r m s o f s o c i a l s p a c e , a n d
o f e a c h m e m b e r o f a g i v e n s o c i e t y ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h a t s p a c e , t h i s c o h e s i o n i m p l i e s a
g u a r a n t e e d l e v e l o f c o m p e t e n c e a n d a s p e c i f i c l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e .
2 R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f s p a c e , w h i c h a r e t i e d t o t h e r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d t o t h e
' o r d e r ' w h i c h t h o s e r e l a t i o n s i m p o s e , a n d h e n c e t o k n o w l e d g e , t o s i g n s , t o c o d e s , a n d
t o ' f r o n t a l ' r e l a t i o n s .
3 R e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s p a c e s , e m b o d y i n g c o m p l e x s y m b o l i s m s , s o m e t i m e s c o d e d ,
s o m e t i m e s n o t , l i n k e d t o t h e c l a n d e s t i n e o r u n d e r g r o u n d s i d e o f s o c i a l l i f e , a s a l s o t o
a r t ( w h i c h m a y c o m e e v e n t u a l l y t o b e d e f i n e d l e s s a s a c o d e o f s p a c e t h a n a s a c o d e
o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s p a c e s ) .
( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] : 3 3 )
I n L e f e b v r e s d e f i n i t i o n o f s p a c e o r t h e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f s p a c e , t h e s o c i a l
a s p e c t s a r e a l r e a d y a t w o r k . H a r v e y ( 2 0 0 6 b ) m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e l i n e b e t w e e n
t h e t h r e e f o r m s o f s p a c e ( a b s o l u t e , r e l a t i v e , r e l a t i o n a l ) i s n o t c l e a r , a n d s p a c e
c a n b e o n e o f t h e f o r m s o r a l l t h r e e . T h i s d e p e n d s o n t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a n d
t h e d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h s p a c e i s e x p e r i e n c e d . T h e r e f o r e , s p a c e i s
f o r m e d , a s L e f e b v r e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) a r g u e d , b y s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , a n d t h o s e o f
c o u r s e c h a n g e o v e r t i m e , w h i c h i s w h y s p a c e c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e . M o r e o v e r ,
H a r v e y ( 2 0 0 6 b ) s e e s t h e t h r e e s p a c e s i n a d i a l e c t i c r e l a t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r r a t h e r
t h a n c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r , o r r a t h e r t h a n i n a c e r t a i n
h i e r a r c h y t o e a c h o t h e r .
F o r t h i s t h e s i s i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o f o c u s o n t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e , s i n c e t h a t h a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l
a n d p u b l i c s p a c e i n p a r t i c u l a r . A s p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h a v e d i f f e r e n t
f o r m s a n d a r e e x p r e s s e d i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o e x a m i n e h o w t h o s e
f o r m s o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e c o n n e c t e d t o s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t y .
M o b i l i t y i s a l s o c o n n e c t e d t o s p a c e a n d p l a c e , a s m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r 3
a b o v e , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t a l m o s t a l l f o r m s o f m o v e m e n t s a n d m o b i l i t i e s a r e
c o n d u c t e d i n t i m e a n d s p a c e . H o w e v e r , t h o s e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f s p a c e
8 2

8 3
d e t e r m i n e t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e h o w p e o p l e s e e t h e m s e l v e s i n s p a c e o r , i n o t h e r
w o r d s , h o w p e o p l e p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s , e x p e r i e n c e s e t c . i n t h a t
s p a c e . T h u s , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p l a c e a n d s p a c e i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r
i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e i m p a c t s o n v l o m o b i l i t y i n u r b a n
p u b l i c s p a c e s , p l a n n i n g a n d s o c i e t y ( H a r v e y 1 9 9 6 ) .
T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d s o c i a l s p a c e i s w e l l s u i t e d a s a r e f e r e n c e f r a m e f o r
a n a l y s i n g m o b i l i t y i n g e n e r a l a n d v l o m o b i l i t y i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h i s t h e s i s i s
a b o u t m o v e m e n t s i n s p a c e a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o t o r i s e d s p a c e s , l e a d i n g t o
t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , c y c l i n g c a n b e c o n n e c t e d t o
i d e n t i t y , b e l o n g i n g , a n d h e n c e , p l a c e o r a s e n s e o f p l a c e ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e
S p i n n e y 2 0 1 0 , 2 0 0 7 , 2 0 0 6 o r F i n c h a m 2 0 0 7 ) , b u t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s
d i s s e r t a t i o n i s t o a n a l y s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e s p a c e s o f m o b i l i t y , w h i c h , a s
w e s h a l l s e e l a t e r , a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t y i n a
L e f e b v r e i a n s e n s e .
T o f o l l o w u p o n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f s p a c e I w a n t t o i n t r o d u c e t h e i d e a o f s p a c e
w a r s . O r i g i n a l l y , t h e t e r m s p a c e w a r s w a s i n t r o d u c e d b y Z y g m u n t B a u m a n
( 1 9 9 8 ) . B a u m a n s e e s s o c i a l s p a c e n o t r i s i n g f r o m o b j e c t i v e a n d m e a s u r a b l e
s p a c e , b u t t h e o t h e r w a y a r o u n d . S p a c e c o m e s f r o m s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , a n d i n
s u c h r e l a t i o n s b a t t l e s o v e r s p a c e o r s p a c e w a r o c c u r . B a u m a n i s c r i t i c a l t o w a r d s
t h e i d e a o f m e a s u r i n g s p a c e o b j e c t i v e l y , a n d a l s o t o w a r d s t h e m e a s u r i n g p r o c e s s
i t s e l f . H e s t a t e s :
N o t j u s t t h e q u e s t i o n o f m e a s u r i n g t h e s p a c e o b j e c t i v e l y p r e s e n t e d a p r o b l e m ,
h o w e v e r . B e f o r e i t m a y c o m e t o m e a s u r i n g , o n e n e e d s f i r s t t o h a v e a c l e a r n o t i o n o f
w h a t i s t h e r e t o b e m e a s u r e d . ( B a u m a n 1 9 9 8 : 2 8 )
F r o m t h i s B a u m a n g o e s f u r t h e r a n d s e e s h o w m o d e r n s t a t e s f o r c e s s p a c e i n t o
o b j e c t i v e l y m e a s u r a b l e u n i t s a n d i n t o m a p s i n o r d e r t o g e t a r o u n d l o c a l
s u b j e c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h c o u l d c o n t a i n d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s o f s p a c e a n d p r a c t i s e ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n a n u r b a n c o n t e x t . I t s e e m s t h e r e f o r e , a c c o r d i n g t o B a u m a n , t h a t
t h e b a t t l e o v e r s p a c e a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f s p a c e a r e p a r t o f p e o p l e s d a i l y l i v e s .
T h e f o c u s o n l o c a l s p a c e s h a s c o m e d u e t o t h e e f f e c t s o f g l o b a l i s a t i o n ( B a u m a n
1 9 9 8 ) . I n a g l o b a l i s e d w o r l d f r e e d o m t o m o v e o v e r s p a c e b e c o m e s m o r e a n d
m o r e i m p o r t a n t , a n d w i t h t h a t f r e e d o m o f m o v e m e n t t h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s w h o
h a s t h e r i g h t t o w h a t m o b i l i t y a n d w h o c a n a c t u a l l y m o v e a r o u n d .
M o b i l i t y i n o t h e r w o r d s b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t , o r a s B a u m a n p u t s i t :

83
determine to a certain degree how people see themselves in space or, in other
words, how people place themselves and their relations, experiences etc. in that
space. Thus, the connection between place and space is very important for
illuminating the power relations and the impacts on vlomobility in urban
public spaces, planning and society (Harvey 1996).
The production of space and social space is well suited as a reference frame for
analysing mobility in general and vlomobility in particular. This thesis is
about movements in space and the production of motorised spaces, leading to
the marginalisation of cyclists. Nevertheless, cycling can be connected to
identity, belonging, and hence, place or a sense of place (see for example
Spinney 2010, 2007, 2006 or Fincham 2007), but the purpose of this
dissertation is to analyse power relations and the spaces of mobility, which, as
we shall see later, are connected to the production of space and mobility in a
Lefebvreian sense.
To follow up on the discussion of space I want to introduce the idea of space
wars. Originally, the term space wars was introduced by Zygmunt Bauman
(1998). Bauman sees social space not rising from objective and measurable
space, but the other way around. Space comes from social relations, and in
such relations battles over space or space war occur. Bauman is critical towards
the idea of measuring space objectively, and also towards the measuring process
itself. He states:
Not just the question of measuring the space objectively presented a problem,
however. Before it may come to measuring, one needs first to have a clear notion of
what is there to be measured. (Bauman 1998:28)
From this Bauman goes further and sees how modern states forces space into
objectively measurable units and into maps in order to get around local
subjectivities, which could contain different meanings of space and practise,
especially in an urban context. It seems therefore, according to Bauman, that
the battle over space and interpretations of space are part of peoples daily lives.
The focus on local spaces has come due to the effects of globalisation (Bauman
1998). In a globalised world freedom to move over space becomes more and
more important, and with that freedom of movement the question arises who
has the right to what mobility and who can actually move around.
Mobility in other words becomes increasingly important, or as Bauman puts it:
8 3

84
Mobility climbs to the rank of the uppermost among the coveted values and the
freedom to move, perpetually a scarce and unequally distributed commodity, fast
becomes the main stratifying factor of our late-modern or postmodern times.
(Bauman 1998:2)
The attempt to objectify and measure space and the effects of globalisation
together create the basis for space war. Space wars are battles over space, the
interpretations of space and battles over the use and the freedom of space:
Urban territory becomes the battlefield of continuous space war, sometimes erupting
into public spectacle of inner-city riots, ritual skirmishes with the police, the
occasional forays of soccer crowds, but waged daily just beneath the surface of the
public (publicized), official version of the routine urban order. (Bauman 1998:22)
In the daily battle over space and how space is interpreted, we can see
connections to the more philosophical discussion about space by Harvey and
Lefebvre in the previous section of this chapter. The meaning of space is not
fixed, and it seems that the role social space takes in this is very important. The
different definitions of space discussed above lead back to the subjectivity of
space and from that to the space wars in urban areas due to the fact, according
to Bauman (1998), that through globalisation actors, nation states, cities, try to
objectify space to avoid alternatives to the globalised and neo-liberal view of
space and of mobility. It is in those tensions between subjectivity and
objectivity we can find the space wars erupting. When connecting the space
war concept with the definition of space by Harvey and Lefebvre and with the
right to the city concept by Lefebvre, one sees a framework for analysing power
relations in urban spaces and planning. Moreover, the connection to the
definitions of power and power relations receives a more spatial dimension.
Those aspects together, then, can be related to the overall mobility turn in the
social sciences, described in the previous chapter, in order to create the link
between space, power and mobility. Those connections and links will be made
clear in the analysis of the empirical material collected for this thesis. The start
of that will be made in the next chapter, where urban mobility is analysed in
relation to modernism and the dominance of motorised traffic in urban space.
Thus the combination of space as a theoretical concept and power relations
helps to understand the different processes and structures that influence the
mobility of people and that lead to spaces where people are excluded.
One research area where the concept of urban space wars has been used is
gentrification and urban development research. Lund Hansen, for example,

8 4
M o b i l i t y c l i m b s t o t h e r a n k o f t h e u p p e r m o s t a m o n g t h e c o v e t e d v a l u e s a n d t h e
f r e e d o m t o m o v e , p e r p e t u a l l y a s c a r c e a n d u n e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d c o m m o d i t y , f a s t
b e c o m e s t h e m a i n s t r a t i f y i n g f a c t o r o f o u r l a t e - m o d e r n o r p o s t m o d e r n t i m e s .
( B a u m a n 1 9 9 8 : 2 )
T h e a t t e m p t t o o b j e c t i f y a n d m e a s u r e s p a c e a n d t h e e f f e c t s o f g l o b a l i s a t i o n
t o g e t h e r c r e a t e t h e b a s i s f o r s p a c e w a r . S p a c e w a r s a r e b a t t l e s o v e r s p a c e , t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f s p a c e a n d b a t t l e s o v e r t h e u s e a n d t h e f r e e d o m o f s p a c e :
U r b a n t e r r i t o r y b e c o m e s t h e b a t t l e f i e l d o f c o n t i n u o u s s p a c e w a r , s o m e t i m e s e r u p t i n g
i n t o p u b l i c s p e c t a c l e o f i n n e r - c i t y r i o t s , r i t u a l s k i r m i s h e s w i t h t h e p o l i c e , t h e
o c c a s i o n a l f o r a y s o f s o c c e r c r o w d s , b u t w a g e d d a i l y j u s t b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e
p u b l i c ( p u b l i c i z e d ) , o f f i c i a l v e r s i o n o f t h e r o u t i n e u r b a n o r d e r . ( B a u m a n 1 9 9 8 : 2 2 )
I n t h e d a i l y b a t t l e o v e r s p a c e a n d h o w s p a c e i s i n t e r p r e t e d , w e c a n s e e
c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e m o r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t s p a c e b y H a r v e y a n d
L e f e b v r e i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r . T h e m e a n i n g o f s p a c e i s n o t
f i x e d , a n d i t s e e m s t h a t t h e r o l e s o c i a l s p a c e t a k e s i n t h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . T h e
d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n s o f s p a c e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e l e a d b a c k t o t h e s u b j e c t i v i t y o f
s p a c e a n d f r o m t h a t t o t h e s p a c e w a r s i n u r b a n a r e a s d u e t o t h e f a c t , a c c o r d i n g
t o B a u m a n ( 1 9 9 8 ) , t h a t t h r o u g h g l o b a l i s a t i o n a c t o r s , n a t i o n s t a t e s , c i t i e s , t r y t o
o b j e c t i f y s p a c e t o a v o i d a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e g l o b a l i s e d a n d n e o - l i b e r a l v i e w o f
s p a c e a n d o f m o b i l i t y . I t i s i n t h o s e t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d
o b j e c t i v i t y w e c a n f i n d t h e s p a c e w a r s e r u p t i n g . W h e n c o n n e c t i n g t h e s p a c e
w a r c o n c e p t w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f s p a c e b y H a r v e y a n d L e f e b v r e a n d w i t h t h e
r i g h t t o t h e c i t y c o n c e p t b y L e f e b v r e , o n e s e e s a f r a m e w o r k f o r a n a l y s i n g p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e s a n d p l a n n i n g . M o r e o v e r , t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e
d e f i n i t i o n s o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s r e c e i v e s a m o r e s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n .
T h o s e a s p e c t s t o g e t h e r , t h e n , c a n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e o v e r a l l m o b i l i t y t u r n i n t h e
s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e t h e l i n k
b e t w e e n s p a c e , p o w e r a n d m o b i l i t y . T h o s e c o n n e c t i o n s a n d l i n k s w i l l b e m a d e
c l e a r i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d f o r t h i s t h e s i s . T h e s t a r t
o f t h a t w i l l b e m a d e i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , w h e r e u r b a n m o b i l i t y i s a n a l y s e d i n
r e l a t i o n t o m o d e r n i s m a n d t h e d o m i n a n c e o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n u r b a n s p a c e .
T h u s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f s p a c e a s a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
h e l p s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e
m o b i l i t y o f p e o p l e a n d t h a t l e a d t o s p a c e s w h e r e p e o p l e a r e e x c l u d e d .
O n e r e s e a r c h a r e a w h e r e t h e c o n c e p t o f u r b a n s p a c e w a r s h a s b e e n u s e d i s
g e n t r i f i c a t i o n a n d u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t r e s e a r c h . L u n d H a n s e n , f o r e x a m p l e ,
8 4

8 5
u s e s t h e c o n c e p t o f u r b a n s p a c e w a r s i n o r d e r t o s h o w t h e s t r u g g l e s o v e r s p a c e s
i n c i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y l i v i n g s p a c e o r a f f o r d a b l e l i v i n g s p a c e . T h e p r o c e s s e s i n
c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d o f t e n l e a d t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f c e r t a i n g r o u p s o f p e o p l e
f r o m p u b l i c s p a c e s , a s w e l l a s f r o m h o u s i n g . T h o s e c o n f l i c t s c a n o f t e n b e q u i t e
v i o l e n t , a s e x a m p l e s f r o m N e w Y o r k s h o w ( L u n d H a n s e n 2 0 0 6 ) . I n t h i s t h e s i s
t h e c o n c e p t o f s p a c e w a r s i s u s e d i n a s i m i l a r w a y i n o r d e r t o s h o w t h a t
c o n f l i c t s o v e r u r b a n s p a c e s e x i s t a n d t h a t s t r e e t s p a c e i s f o u g h t o v e r a n d
n e g o t i a t e d i n t h e e v e r y d a y l i f e o f c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n .
A l t h o u g h t h o s e s t r u g g l e s a r e n o t r e a l l y v i o l e n t i n t h e t w o c a s e c i t i e s , t h e f i g h t
o v e r t h e r i g h t t o m o v e a r o u n d i n t h e c i t y a n d o v e r p u b l i c s p a c e i s a n i m p o r t a n t
i s s u e .
I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k d i s c u s s e d a b o v e o n s p a c e , s p a c e w a r s a n d
p o w e r w i l l h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d
f o r t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . S p a c e a s a c o n c e p t i s u s e d t o s h o w h o w p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
i n u r b a n s p a c e a r e m a t e r i a l i s e d a n d h o w s p a c e a n d t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s o f t h e c i t i e s
o f S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n i n f l u e n c e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t
m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , a n d a l s o f o r m t h e o u t c o m e o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . T h e s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s v i t a l f o r t h e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r a n d t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , b e c a u s e s p a c e d o e s i n f l u e n c e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n
u r b a n s p a c e . T h i s h a s b e e n s h o w n i n t h e w o r k o f L e f e b v r e a n d H a r v e y ( s e e
a b o v e ) a n d w i l l a l s o b e c l a r i f i e d a n d s h o w n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s . I n o t h e r
w o r d s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f s p a c e a n d p o w e r w i t h t h e o v e r a l l f r a m e o f m o b i l i t y
m a k e s a d e e p , t h o r o u g h a n d c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f c y c l i n g , p l a n n i n g , s p a c e a n d
m o v e m e n t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m p o s s i b l e . M o r e o v e r , i t a l l o w s f o r a n
a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d f a c t o r s b e h i n d t h e o b v i o u s o n e s i n o r d e r t o c o m e
t o t e r m s w i t h t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n s p a c e . T h e a n a l y s i s o f
m o b i l i t y , t r a n s p o r t , p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e , w h i c h w i l l b e d e a l t w i t h i n c o m i n g
c h a p t e r s w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l t o o l s o f p o w e r a n d s p a t i a l t h e o r y , h e l p s t o d e v e l o p
a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , c u l t u r a l e t c . p r o c e s s e s i n S t o c k h o l m
a n d C o p e n h a g e n t h a t h a v e s h a p e d a n d a r e s h a p i n g t h e u r b a n f a b r i c a n d t h e
f i g h t o v e r u r b a n s p a c e t o d a y .


85
uses the concept of urban space wars in order to show the struggles over spaces
in cities, especially living space or affordable living space. The processes in
cities around the world often lead to the exclusion of certain groups of people
from public spaces, as well as from housing. Those conflicts can often be quite
violent, as examples from New York show (Lund Hansen 2006). In this thesis
the concept of space wars is used in a similar way in order to show that
conflicts over urban spaces exist and that street space is fought over and
negotiated in the everyday life of cyclists in Stockholm and Copenhagen.
Although those struggles are not really violent in the two case cities, the fight
over the right to move around in the city and over public space is an important
issue.
In conclusion, the theoretical work discussed above on space, space wars and
power will help to understand the analysis of the empirical material collected
for this doctoral thesis. Space as a concept is used to show how power relations
in urban space are materialised and how space and the materialities of the cities
of Stockholm and Copenhagen influence power relations between different
modes of transport, and also form the outcome of urban and transport
planning practises in the two cities. The spatial perspective is vital for the
analysis of the different dimensions of power and the power relations between
different modes of transport, because space does influence power relations in
urban space. This has been shown in the work of Lefebvre and Harvey (see
above) and will also be clarified and shown in the following chapters. In other
words the combination of space and power with the overall frame of mobility
makes a deep, thorough and critical analysis of cycling, planning, space and
movements in Copenhagen and Stockholm possible. Moreover, it allows for an
analysis of the structures and factors behind the obvious ones in order to come
to terms with the marginalisation of cyclists in urban space. The analysis of
mobility, transport, planning and space, which will be dealt with in coming
chapters with the theoretical tools of power and spatial theory, helps to develop
an understanding of the social, political, cultural etc. processes in Stockholm
and Copenhagen that have shaped and are shaping the urban fabric and the
fight over urban space today.

8 5

86
5 The materialisation of power
relations in urban mobility

If youve ever dreamed of driving an Army tank, the Hummer is the next best
thing. (2001 SUV line-up, Crains Chicago Business, October 9, 2000, quoted
in Clark 2003:159)

This chapter introduces the materialisation of power relations in urban
mobility and explains this materialisation through the turn to modernistic
planning and ideas in transport and urban planning. Examples are given from
Sweden and Denmark of how such materialisation was realised and
implemented. Those materialisations are built into todays infrastructure and
still affect planners thinking, unconsciously, about how urban space and the
transport system should be planned and organised, leading to the
marginalisation of cyclists in public space. This is very close connected to the
theoretical framework on space and power relations outlined in the previous
chapter, and is the start and the background for the analysis of the empirical
data that follows in the following chapters.
Today, policy goals like decreasing car traffic and modal shifts towards public
transport, walking and cycling are common in European cities. Moreover,
dense urban planning and areas for pedestrian and cyclists are promoted (e.g.
Kennworthy 2006, Banister 2006 and 2008). Transport planners in the United
States of America formulated similar goals in the early years of the 20
th
century.
In those days, transport planners as well as urban planners favoured a dense
planning approach with space for pedestrians and cyclists (Brown et al. 2009).
As Brown et al. state:
During the 1910s and 1920s, transportation planners stayed largely faithful to the
principles of the 1909 conference (Brown, 2006). By and large they embraced

8 6
5 T h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n m o b i l i t y

I f y o u v e e v e r d r e a m e d o f d r i v i n g a n A r m y t a n k , t h e H u m m e r i s t h e n e x t b e s t
t h i n g . ( 2 0 0 1 S U V l i n e - u p , C r a i n s C h i c a g o B u s i n e s s , O c t o b e r 9 , 2 0 0 0 , q u o t e d
i n C l a r k 2 0 0 3 : 1 5 9 )

T h i s c h a p t e r i n t r o d u c e s t h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n
m o b i l i t y a n d e x p l a i n s t h i s m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e t u r n t o m o d e r n i s t i c
p l a n n i n g a n d i d e a s i n t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g . E x a m p l e s a r e g i v e n f r o m
S w e d e n a n d D e n m a r k o f h o w s u c h m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n w a s r e a l i s e d a n d
i m p l e m e n t e d . T h o s e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n s a r e b u i l t i n t o t o d a y s i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d
s t i l l a f f e c t p l a n n e r s t h i n k i n g , u n c o n s c i o u s l y , a b o u t h o w u r b a n s p a c e a n d t h e
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s h o u l d b e p l a n n e d a n d o r g a n i s e d , l e a d i n g t o t h e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n p u b l i c s p a c e . T h i s i s v e r y c l o s e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k o n s p a c e a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s o u t l i n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s
c h a p t e r , a n d i s t h e s t a r t a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e e m p i r i c a l
d a t a t h a t f o l l o w s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s .
T o d a y , p o l i c y g o a l s l i k e d e c r e a s i n g c a r t r a f f i c a n d m o d a l s h i f t s t o w a r d s p u b l i c
t r a n s p o r t , w a l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g a r e c o m m o n i n E u r o p e a n c i t i e s . M o r e o v e r ,
d e n s e u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d a r e a s f o r p e d e s t r i a n a n d c y c l i s t s a r e p r o m o t e d ( e . g .
K e n n w o r t h y 2 0 0 6 , B a n i s t e r 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 0 8 ) . T r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s i n t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a f o r m u l a t e d s i m i l a r g o a l s i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y .
I n t h o s e d a y s , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s a s w e l l a s u r b a n p l a n n e r s f a v o u r e d a d e n s e
p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h w i t h s p a c e f o r p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s ( B r o w n e t a l . 2 0 0 9 ) .
A s B r o w n e t a l . s t a t e :
D u r i n g t h e 1 9 1 0 s a n d 1 9 2 0 s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p l a n n e r s s t a y e d l a r g e l y f a i t h f u l t o t h e
p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e 1 9 0 9 c o n f e r e n c e ( B r o w n , 2 0 0 6 ) . B y a n d l a r g e t h e y e m b r a c e d
8 6

8 7
m u l t i m o d a l i s m a n d t h e y v i e w e d t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d l a n d u s e a s
c r i t i c a l t o s u c c e s s f u l p l a n n i n g o u t c o m e s ( B r o w n e t a l . 2 0 0 9 : 1 6 3 )
H o w e v e r , t h e h i s t o r y o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g t h r o u g h o u t m o s t o f t h e
2 0 t h c e n t u r y t e l l s a d i f f e r e n t s t o r y . S o w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t h a t t r i g g e r e d a
d i f f e r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t ? I n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , t h e i d e a l o f t h e
m o d e r n c i t y w a s d e v e l o p e d a n d i m p l e m e n t e d i n m a n y c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d ,
a n d t h a t s t i l l h a u n t s o u r m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s . T h e m o d e r n i s t u r b a n p l a n n i n g
f a v o u r e d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c ( H e i n e b e r g 2 0 0 1 , N u h n a n d H e s s e 2 0 0 6 ,
F e a t h e r s t o n e 2 0 0 4 ) . M o d e r n i s m a n d m o d e r n i s t u r b a n p l a n n i n g a r e c l o s e l y
l i n k e d t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k o f L e C o r b u s i e r . O n e c o r n e r s t o n e i n L e
C o r b u s i e r s t h e o r i e s w a s t o p h y s i c a l l y s e p a r a t e a r e a s f o r l i v i n g , w o r k i n g , l e i s u r e
a n d s o f o r t h ( H a l l 2 0 0 2 ) , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e m o d e r n c i t y p r i o r i t i s e s
t r a v e l l i n g b y c a r . L e C o r b u s i e r s i d e a l c i t y w a s o n e w i t h v e r y t a l l b u i l d i n g s a n d
s t r a i g h t r o a d s t o e n a b l e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c t o f l o w e f f i c i e n t l y ( H a l l 2 0 0 2 ) .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e t h e o r i e s o f L e C o r b u s i e r i n s p i r e d p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s t o
c r e a t e a m o d e r n c i t y , w h i c h c a n , f o r e x a m p l e b e s e e n i n t h e S w e d i s h S C A F T
r e g u l a t i o n s , w h i c h c a m e m u c h l a t e r ( i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 s ) a n d w i l l b e a n a l y s e d
m o r e b e l o w ( H a g s o n 2 0 0 4 , s e e a l s o L u n d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . E v e n i f
h a r d l y a n y o f L e C o r b u s i e r s p l a n s w e r e i m p l e m e n t e d , t h e r e w e r e o t h e r
a r c h i t e c t s a n d u r b a n p l a n n e r s w h o i n f l u e n c e d m o d e r n i s t p l a n n i n g i n c i t i e s , f o r
e x a m p l e M o s e s i n N e w Y o r k o r K u b i t s c h e k d e O l i v i e r a i n R i o d e J a n e i r o ( H a l l
2 0 0 2 ) . M o d e r n i s t p l a n n i n g f a v o u r e d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , b e c a u s e i t s a w
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a s t h e m o d e r n w a y o f m o v i n g w i t h i n a n d b e t w e e n c i t i e s .
T h e r e b y p u b l i c l i f e i n t h e s t r e e t b e c a m e o l d - f a s h i o n e d , a n d s t r e e t s w e r e t o b e
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o r o a d s f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a n s p o r t . T h u s , m o d e r n i s t i c p l a n n i n g
s a w t h e d e a t h o f t h e s t r e e t w i t h a p u b l i c l i f e . T h e s t r e e t s w e r e s e e n a s p l a c e s o f
f l o w f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , s y m b o l i z i n g m o d e r n i t y i t s e l f . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e
s t r e e t a s a p u b l i c s p a c e h a d t o d i e f o r ( t h e c r e a t i o n o f ) a m o d e r n c i t y . H e n c e , i n
o r d e r t o c r e a t e a m o d e r n c i t y , o n e h a d t o p l a n f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , w h i c h a l s o
w o u l d l e a d t o t h e r e b e i n g n o s p a c e f o r o t h e r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t i n t h e s t r e e t s
( n o w r o a d s ) , s u c h a s c y c l i n g ( H o l s t o n 2 0 0 2 ) .
T r a n s p o r t t o d a y i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r p e o p l e , t h e i r m o b i l i t y a n d t h e
a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l . C a p i t a l a n d t r a n s p o r t h a v e b e e n c o n n e c t e d s i n c e t h e
i n v e n t i o n o f t h e s t e a m e n g i n e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r a i l w a y f o r t h e
t r a n s p o r t o f p r o d u c t i o n f a c t o r s a n d f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s . W i t h t h e i n v e n t i o n o f
t h e c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e c a r f o r p e r s o n a l t r a n s p o r t b e g a n .
T h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c a r t o t h e l o w e r a n d m i d d l e c l a s s e s

87
multimodalism and they viewed the integration of transportation and land use as
critical to successful planning outcomes (Brown et al. 2009:163)
However, the history of urban and transport planning throughout most of the
20th century tells a different story. So what has happened that triggered a
different development? In the beginning of the 20th century, the ideal of the
modern city was developed and implemented in many cities around the world,
and that still haunts our modern societies. The modernist urban planning
favoured motorised traffic (Heineberg 2001, Nuhn and Hesse 2006,
Featherstone 2004). Modernism and modernist urban planning are closely
linked to the theoretical work of Le Corbusier. One cornerstone in Le
Corbusiers theories was to physically separate areas for living, working, leisure
and so forth (Hall 2002), which means that the modern city prioritises
travelling by car. Le Corbusiers ideal city was one with very tall buildings and
straight roads to enable motorised traffic to flow efficiently (Hall 2002).
Furthermore, the theories of Le Corbusier inspired planners and politicians to
create a modern city, which can, for example be seen in the Swedish SCAFT
regulations, which came much later (in the late 1960s) and will be analysed
more below (Hagson 2004, see also Lundin 2008 and Emanuel 2012). Even if
hardly any of Le Corbusiers plans were implemented, there were other
architects and urban planners who influenced modernist planning in cities, for
example Moses in New York or Kubitschek de Oliviera in Rio de Janeiro (Hall
2002). Modernist planning favoured motorised traffic, because it saw
motorised traffic as the modern way of moving within and between cities.
Thereby public life in the street became old-fashioned, and streets were to be
transformed into roads for motorised transport. Thus, modernistic planning
saw the death of the street with a public life. The streets were seen as places of
flow for motorised traffic, symbolizing modernity itself. In other words, the
street as a public space had to die for (the creation of) a modern city. Hence, in
order to create a modern city, one had to plan for motorised traffic, which also
would lead to there being no space for other modes of transport in the streets
(now roads), such as cycling (Holston 2002).
Transport today is very important for people, their mobility and the
accumulation of capital. Capital and transport have been connected since the
invention of the steam engine and the development of the railway for the
transport of production factors and finished products. With the invention of
the combustion engine the domination of the car for personal transport began.
The production and the distribution of the car to the lower and middle classes
8 7

88
were made possible by new forms of production today known as Fordism,
which strengthened the connection of motorised traffic and capitalism.
Paterson writes about different regimes of capital accumulation, drawing on
regulatory theory. Those regimes highly connect to automobility. He claims
that the accumulation of capital and economic growth in many industrialised
countries depends very much on the car industry. It all started with the Fordist
production of cars, where the automobile worked itself into everyday travel and
in that way created new markets for capital accumulation. This is the first
regime of capital accumulation within the car industry. At this stage the car
took over increasingly as a mode of transport, even for working class people,
because Fordism made it possible to produce cars on a large scale and at a
lower price. The first regime of capital accumulation worked quite well for the
car industry in the USA and Europe until Japanese car producers created just
in time production and could compete with equally good cars at a lower price.
This together with the first oil crisis threw the car industry into the second
regime of capital accumulation, generally known as post-Fordism. It is also a
sign of the survival potential of capitalism. Paterson shows how motorised
traffic is part of the accumulation of capital at different stages, which is also an
explanation for why little happened in many countries to stop the rise of the
car and ignored for so long its destructive force in forms of pollution,
destruction of communities and public spaces, traffic related deaths and the
like (Paterson 2007). In this sense urban conflicts in traffic are connected to
automobility and to accumulation of capital, because capital is at the heart of
automobility and its dominance in private transport.
Countries also have an important role to play in the production of car spaces
and in the accumulation of capital for the car industry. Already in the early
years of automobile production, the economic growth that resulted, especially
in the years of Fordism and Post-Fordism, gave countries with a car industry
arguments to support it. Since the car industry provides economic growth,
employment and capital accumulation, in which capitalist countries have an
immense interest, the support in different forms to the car industry is
understandable. This support is also an effect of the car lobby, and later on,
when the car was already a mode of mass transportation, the oil industry and
the road building industry. While motorised traffic was growing, such
industries demanded that roads should be better and more beneficial to
motorised traffic, which of course left fewer investments for other modes of
transportation such as cycling. In a coalition of the industries and municipal

8 8
w e r e m a d e p o s s i b l e b y n e w f o r m s o f p r o d u c t i o n t o d a y k n o w n a s F o r d i s m ,
w h i c h s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d c a p i t a l i s m .
P a t e r s o n w r i t e s a b o u t d i f f e r e n t r e g i m e s o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n , d r a w i n g o n
r e g u l a t o r y t h e o r y . T h o s e r e g i m e s h i g h l y c o n n e c t t o a u t o m o b i l i t y . H e c l a i m s
t h a t t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l a n d e c o n o m i c g r o w t h i n m a n y i n d u s t r i a l i s e d
c o u n t r i e s d e p e n d s v e r y m u c h o n t h e c a r i n d u s t r y . I t a l l s t a r t e d w i t h t h e F o r d i s t
p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s , w h e r e t h e a u t o m o b i l e w o r k e d i t s e l f i n t o e v e r y d a y t r a v e l a n d
i n t h a t w a y c r e a t e d n e w m a r k e t s f o r c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n . T h i s i s t h e f i r s t
r e g i m e o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c a r i n d u s t r y . A t t h i s s t a g e t h e c a r
t o o k o v e r i n c r e a s i n g l y a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t , e v e n f o r w o r k i n g c l a s s p e o p l e ,
b e c a u s e F o r d i s m m a d e i t p o s s i b l e t o p r o d u c e c a r s o n a l a r g e s c a l e a n d a t a
l o w e r p r i c e . T h e f i r s t r e g i m e o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n w o r k e d q u i t e w e l l f o r t h e
c a r i n d u s t r y i n t h e U S A a n d E u r o p e u n t i l J a p a n e s e c a r p r o d u c e r s c r e a t e d j u s t
i n t i m e p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o u l d c o m p e t e w i t h e q u a l l y g o o d c a r s a t a l o w e r p r i c e .
T h i s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f i r s t o i l c r i s i s t h r e w t h e c a r i n d u s t r y i n t o t h e s e c o n d
r e g i m e o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n , g e n e r a l l y k n o w n a s p o s t - F o r d i s m . I t i s a l s o a
s i g n o f t h e s u r v i v a l p o t e n t i a l o f c a p i t a l i s m . P a t e r s o n s h o w s h o w m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c i s p a r t o f t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s , w h i c h i s a l s o a n
e x p l a n a t i o n f o r w h y l i t t l e h a p p e n e d i n m a n y c o u n t r i e s t o s t o p t h e r i s e o f t h e
c a r a n d i g n o r e d f o r s o l o n g i t s d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e i n f o r m s o f p o l l u t i o n ,
d e s t r u c t i o n o f c o m m u n i t i e s a n d p u b l i c s p a c e s , t r a f f i c r e l a t e d d e a t h s a n d t h e
l i k e ( P a t e r s o n 2 0 0 7 ) . I n t h i s s e n s e u r b a n c o n f l i c t s i n t r a f f i c a r e c o n n e c t e d t o
a u t o m o b i l i t y a n d t o a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l , b e c a u s e c a p i t a l i s a t t h e h e a r t o f
a u t o m o b i l i t y a n d i t s d o m i n a n c e i n p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t .
C o u n t r i e s a l s o h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e t o p l a y i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s p a c e s
a n d i n t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l f o r t h e c a r i n d u s t r y . A l r e a d y i n t h e e a r l y
y e a r s o f a u t o m o b i l e p r o d u c t i o n , t h e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h t h a t r e s u l t e d , e s p e c i a l l y
i n t h e y e a r s o f F o r d i s m a n d P o s t - F o r d i s m , g a v e c o u n t r i e s w i t h a c a r i n d u s t r y
a r g u m e n t s t o s u p p o r t i t . S i n c e t h e c a r i n d u s t r y p r o v i d e s e c o n o m i c g r o w t h ,
e m p l o y m e n t a n d c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n , i n w h i c h c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s h a v e a n
i m m e n s e i n t e r e s t , t h e s u p p o r t i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s t o t h e c a r i n d u s t r y i s
u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h i s s u p p o r t i s a l s o a n e f f e c t o f t h e c a r l o b b y , a n d l a t e r o n ,
w h e n t h e c a r w a s a l r e a d y a m o d e o f m a s s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , t h e o i l i n d u s t r y a n d
t h e r o a d b u i l d i n g i n d u s t r y . W h i l e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c w a s g r o w i n g , s u c h
i n d u s t r i e s d e m a n d e d t h a t r o a d s s h o u l d b e b e t t e r a n d m o r e b e n e f i c i a l t o
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , w h i c h o f c o u r s e l e f t f e w e r i n v e s t m e n t s f o r o t h e r m o d e s o f
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s u c h a s c y c l i n g . I n a c o a l i t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i e s a n d m u n i c i p a l
8 8

8 9
t r a f f i c e n g i n e e r s , t h e f o c u s s h i f t e d f r o m r e g u l a t i o n s f o r c a r t r a f f i c , s u c h a s b u i l t -
i n s p e e d l i m i t s i n c a r s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 t h a n d e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , t o m o r e a n d
b e t t e r s p a c e a n d l e s s r e g u l a t i o n o f c a r s . T h i s l e d t o t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f o t h e r
m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , s u c h a s t h e b i k e . T h e m o s t e x c l u d i n g w a y o f p r o m o t i n g
t h e c a r w a s t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e h i g h w a y , a r o a d t h a t i s f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
o n l y , l e a v i n g n o s p a c e f o r c y c l i s t s o r p e d e s t r i a n s . T h e h i g h w a y , i n i t i a t e d b y
M u s s o l i n i i n I t a l y a n d H i t l e r i n G e r m a n y a n d a d o p t e d l a t e r i n G r e a t B r i t a i n
a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a , m a r k s t h e r e a l d e a t h o f t h e s t r e e t a n d t h e
t o t a l e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r t r a n s p o r t m o d e s f r o m p u b l i c s p a c e , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n
h i g h w a y s w e r e b u i l t t h r o u g h c i t i e s a n d u r b a n s p a c e s ( P a t e r s o n 2 0 0 7 , H o l s t o n
2 0 0 2 ) . H a v i n g s a i d t h i s , i t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t a u t o m o b i l i t y f o r c e d u r b a n a n d
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s t o f i n d n e w w a y s o f p l a n n i n g t h e c i t y . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
t h e d o m i n a n c e o f q u a n t i t a t i v e , m e a s u r a b l e s c i e n c e , m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d t h e
r e s e a r c h a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c a r t r a f f i c e m e r g e d a s a n o b j e c t i v e a n d m e a s u r a b l e
s c i e n c e , l e a v i n g a s i d e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t r a f f i c , s u c h a s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f
n e i g h b o u r h o o d c o m m u n i t i e s .
S w e d e n h a s , i n g e n e r a l , a l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f t r a f f i c a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g w i t h a n
i n i t i a l b o o m i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s . S i n c e t h e n p l a n n i n g h a s a l w a y s p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t
r o l e i n S w e d e n u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t . I n t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s ,
t h e i d e a o f m o d e r n i s m h a d a t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t o n S w e d i s h c i t i e s . T h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s u b u r b s i n c i t i e s l i k e S t o c k h o l m w a s c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h e
t h i n k i n g o f L e C o r b u s i e r , a n d i n m a n y c i t i e s t h e c e n t r e s w e r e t o r n d o w n t o
m a k e p l a c e f o r b r o a d e r r o a d s a n d n e w m o d e r n b u i l d i n g s t h a t w e r e p r o m o t e d a s
t h e n e w h o m e s f o r t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s ( L u n d i n 2 0 0 8 ) . T h o s e s u b u r b s w e r e p a r t
o f t h e s o - c a l l e d M i l l i o n P r o g r a m ( 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 7 5 ) , w h e r e t h e p l a n w a s t o b u i l d o n e
m i l l i o n n e w f l a t s w i t h i n 1 0 y e a r s , b e c a u s e o f t h e c r i s i s i n t h e h o u s i n g m a r k e t i n
t h a t t i m e . T h e p l a n w a s r e a l i z e d a n d o n e m i l l i o n n e w f l a t s w e r e b u i l t . I n
S t o c k h o l m , f o r e x a m p l e , w e h a v e T e n s t a a n d R i n k e b y ( B j r k a n d R e p p e n
2 0 0 0 , L n s s t y r e l s e S t o c k h o l m 2 0 0 4 ) .
I t i s t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t S w e d i s h p l a n n e r s a n d e n g i n e e r s w r o t e t h e
S C A F T r e g u l a t i o n s , w h i c h a r e p l a n n i n g g u i d e l i n e s f o r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d
a r e v e r y m u c h i n f l u e n c e d b y m o d e r n i s t i c t h i n k i n g a n d f a v o u r s m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c . T h o s e r e g u l a t i o n s w e r e d e v e l o p e d b y t h e w o r k i n g g r o u p f o r t r a f f i c
s a f e t y a t C h a l m e r s T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y i n G o t h e n b u r g . H o w e v e r , t h o s e
g u i d e l i n e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d f o r t r a f f i c s a f e t y r e a s o n s b e c a u s e m a n y p e o p l e ,
e s p e c i a l l y p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s , w e r e k i l l e d i n t r a f f i c i n S w e d e n i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s
a n d 1 9 7 0 s . I t w a s a g u i d e l i n e f o r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a s a f e r

89
traffic engineers, the focus shifted from regulations for car traffic, such as built-
in speed limits in cars in the late 19th and early 20th century, to more and
better space and less regulation of cars. This led to the marginalisation of other
modes of transport, such as the bike. The most excluding way of promoting
the car was the invention of the highway, a road that is for motorised traffic
only, leaving no space for cyclists or pedestrians. The highway, initiated by
Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany and adopted later in Great Britain
and the United States of America, marks the real death of the street and the
total exclusion of other transport modes from public space, especially when
highways were built through cities and urban spaces (Paterson 2007, Holston
2002). Having said this, it is also true that automobility forced urban and
transport planners to find new ways of planning the city. In connection with
the dominance of quantitative, measurable science, motorised traffic and the
research and planning for car traffic emerged as an objective and measurable
science, leaving aside other aspects of traffic, such as the destruction of
neighbourhood communities.
Sweden has, in general, a long tradition of traffic and urban planning with an
initial boom in the 1950s. Since then planning has always played an important
role in Sweden urban development. In the end of the 1960s and in the 1970s,
the idea of modernism had a tremendous impact on Swedish cities. The
construction of suburbs in cities like Stockholm was closely linked to the
thinking of Le Corbusier, and in many cities the centres were torn down to
make place for broader roads and new modern buildings that were promoted as
the new homes for the working class (Lundin 2008). Those suburbs were part
of the so-called Million Program (1965-1975), where the plan was to build one
million new flats within 10 years, because of the crisis in the housing market in
that time. The plan was realized and one million new flats were built. In
Stockholm, for example, we have Tensta and Rinkeby (Bjrk and Reppen
2000, Lnsstyrelse Stockholm 2004).
It is therefore not surprising that Swedish planners and engineers wrote the
SCAFT regulations, which are planning guidelines for transport planning and
are very much influenced by modernistic thinking and favours motorised
traffic. Those regulations were developed by the working group for traffic
safety at Chalmers Technical University in Gothenburg. However, those
guidelines were developed for traffic safety reasons because many people,
especially pedestrians and cyclists, were killed in traffic in Sweden in the 1960s
and 1970s. It was a guideline for transport planning in order to create a safer
8 9

90
traffic environment. In order to reduce fatalities, the idea was to build or
design a transport system where different modes of transport never have to
interact. This should at the same time create a good flow for motorised traffic
with fairly high speeds for car traffic. The results of SCAFT included traffic
separation, which makes sense when modes of transport otherwise are mixed
on streets with speed levels at 50 km/h or higher, there is an infrastructure
generating more motorised traffic, and a focus on the flow of motorised traffic
and the marginalisation of cyclists and pedestrians (Statens planverk 1967).
Thus, the intentions of SCAFT were of course good, but the results of its
implementation were, among other things, a marginalisation of bicycles as a
mode of transport, built-in power relations in the infrastructure and a self-
generating structure that means more mobility for people who have access to
motorised modes of transport and less for the rest. This creates a structure were
the car is very important for peoples everyday mobility. Nevertheless, cycling
within areas planned according to SCAFT is quite good, but the connectivity
with other parts of the city is not being considered. Thus, cycling is not seen as
a mode of transport, but more as a means of recreation and leisure (Hagson
2004). While modernism had an impact on planning even in Denmark, it is
remarkable that Sweden applied modernism to the SCAFT regulations. Thus,
the SCAFT idea and modernism in Stockholm made investments in
infrastructure of motorized traffic possible (see Statens planverk 1967).
Furthermore, urban structures and distances affect travel behaviour (Nss
2012), and therefore the SCAFT planning ideal, which has been realized in
Sweden, affects transport, travel and also the use of the bike or the car, and
planning practises (Jonsson 2008).
Due to the close relation of SCAFT to the ideas of Le Corbusier and
modernism, the effects on traffic and transport planning have resulted in a
prioritization of motorized traffic under the cover of traffic safety and better
flow of traffic. The figures below exemplify very clearly what is seen as right
and wrong in transport planning and how it should be done. They were
developed in a publication after SCAFT was introduced to exemplify how
SCAFT should be applied in transport planning in Sweden (Gunnarsson och
Lindstrm 1970).


9 0
t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t . I n o r d e r t o r e d u c e f a t a l i t i e s , t h e i d e a w a s t o b u i l d o r
d e s i g n a t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m w h e r e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t n e v e r h a v e t o
i n t e r a c t . T h i s s h o u l d a t t h e s a m e t i m e c r e a t e a g o o d f l o w f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
w i t h f a i r l y h i g h s p e e d s f o r c a r t r a f f i c . T h e r e s u l t s o f S C A F T i n c l u d e d t r a f f i c
s e p a r a t i o n , w h i c h m a k e s s e n s e w h e n m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t o t h e r w i s e a r e m i x e d
o n s t r e e t s w i t h s p e e d l e v e l s a t 5 0 k m / h o r h i g h e r , t h e r e i s a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
g e n e r a t i n g m o r e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , a n d a f o c u s o n t h e f l o w o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
a n d t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s a n d p e d e s t r i a n s ( S t a t e n s p l a n v e r k 1 9 6 7 ) .
T h u s , t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f S C A F T w e r e o f c o u r s e g o o d , b u t t h e r e s u l t s o f i t s
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w e r e , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , a m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f b i c y c l e s a s a
m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t , b u i l t - i n p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d a s e l f -
g e n e r a t i n g s t r u c t u r e t h a t m e a n s m o r e m o b i l i t y f o r p e o p l e w h o h a v e a c c e s s t o
m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d l e s s f o r t h e r e s t . T h i s c r e a t e s a s t r u c t u r e w e r e
t h e c a r i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r p e o p l e s e v e r y d a y m o b i l i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , c y c l i n g
w i t h i n a r e a s p l a n n e d a c c o r d i n g t o S C A F T i s q u i t e g o o d , b u t t h e c o n n e c t i v i t y
w i t h o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e c i t y i s n o t b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d . T h u s , c y c l i n g i s n o t s e e n a s
a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t , b u t m o r e a s a m e a n s o f r e c r e a t i o n a n d l e i s u r e ( H a g s o n
2 0 0 4 ) . W h i l e m o d e r n i s m h a d a n i m p a c t o n p l a n n i n g e v e n i n D e n m a r k , i t i s
r e m a r k a b l e t h a t S w e d e n a p p l i e d m o d e r n i s m t o t h e S C A F T r e g u l a t i o n s . T h u s ,
t h e S C A F T i d e a a n d m o d e r n i s m i n S t o c k h o l m m a d e i n v e s t m e n t s i n
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f m o t o r i z e d t r a f f i c p o s s i b l e ( s e e S t a t e n s p l a n v e r k 1 9 6 7 ) .
F u r t h e r m o r e , u r b a n s t r u c t u r e s a n d d i s t a n c e s a f f e c t t r a v e l b e h a v i o u r ( N s s
2 0 1 2 ) , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e S C A F T p l a n n i n g i d e a l , w h i c h h a s b e e n r e a l i z e d i n
S w e d e n , a f f e c t s t r a n s p o r t , t r a v e l a n d a l s o t h e u s e o f t h e b i k e o r t h e c a r , a n d
p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e s ( J o n s s o n 2 0 0 8 ) .
D u e t o t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n o f S C A F T t o t h e i d e a s o f L e C o r b u s i e r a n d
m o d e r n i s m , t h e e f f e c t s o n t r a f f i c a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g h a v e r e s u l t e d i n a
p r i o r i t i z a t i o n o f m o t o r i z e d t r a f f i c u n d e r t h e c o v e r o f t r a f f i c s a f e t y a n d b e t t e r
f l o w o f t r a f f i c . T h e f i g u r e s b e l o w e x e m p l i f y v e r y c l e a r l y w h a t i s s e e n a s r i g h t
a n d w r o n g i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d h o w i t s h o u l d b e d o n e . T h e y w e r e
d e v e l o p e d i n a p u b l i c a t i o n a f t e r S C A F T w a s i n t r o d u c e d t o e x e m p l i f y h o w
S C A F T s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n S w e d e n ( G u n n a r s s o n o c h
L i n d s t r m 1 9 7 0 ) .

9 0

9 1

F i g u r e 2 : P r i n c i p l e s o f D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
S o u r c e : G u n n a r s s o n o c h L i n d s t r m 1 9 7 0


F i g u r e 3 : P r i n c i p l e s o f S e p a r a t i o n
S o u r c e : G u n n a r s s o n o c h L i n d s t r m 1 9 7 0


F i g u r e 4 : P r i n c i p l e s o f L o c a t i o n
S o u r c e : G u n n a r s s o n o c h L i n d s t r m 1 9 7 0
W r o n g
R i g h t
R i g h t
W r o n g
W r o n g
R i g h t
S c h o o l
S c h o o l

91

Figure 2: Principles of Differentiation
Source: Gunnarsson och Lindstrm 1970


Figure 3: Principles of Separation
Source: Gunnarsson och Lindstrm 1970


Figure 4: Principles of Location
Source: Gunnarsson och Lindstrm 1970
Wrong
Right
Right
Wrong
Wrong
Right
School
School
9 1

92

Figure 5: Principles of easiness and better overview
Source: Gunnarsson och Lindstrm 1970

Those SCAFT images show how the flow of motorised traffic can be increased
through different types of roads and highways in the cities, better easiness and
overviews on rural roads, right location of residences and services, and
separation of the different modes of transport. Although the initial idea builds
on traffic safety, it leads to increased motorised traffic. The ideas of modernism
and, hence, of SCAFT, see pedestrians and cyclists as traffic safety problems
and problems for (motorised) traffic flows. Those ideas, when implemented,
lead to a marginalisation of cyclists and to built-in power relations that favour
motorised traffic. Similar to SCAFT are ideas from e.g. Germany, where Die
Autogerechte Stadt ein Weg aus dem Verkehrschaos (Reichow 1959) was
published even earlier then SCAFT. This publication builds on similar
modernistic ideas as SCAFT, and has led to marginalisation of cyclists in many
cities in Germany (Nuhr and Hesse 2006, Reichow 1959).
Furthermore, the development of modernist thinking was also influenced by
the increased production of cars, something I will come back to in the next
section. Increased production, decreased unit costs and increased sales triggered
the field of transport and traffic research. Development of theoretical planning
models in favour of motorised traffic increased, and together with the Fordist
production of cars and modernism, among other things, the redesign of urban
areas for motorised traffic pushed other modes of transport, such as cycling,
aside (Nuhn and Hesse 2006 and Hagson 2004, Urry 2004). Thus, planners
changed their direction as the motorisation of society increased, which was
continuously supported by the Fordist production of cars and the evolving
Wrong
Right

9 2

F i g u r e 5 : P r i n c i p l e s o f e a s i n e s s a n d b e t t e r o v e r v i e w
S o u r c e : G u n n a r s s o n o c h L i n d s t r m 1 9 7 0

T h o s e S C A F T i m a g e s s h o w h o w t h e f l o w o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c c a n b e i n c r e a s e d
t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f r o a d s a n d h i g h w a y s i n t h e c i t i e s , b e t t e r e a s i n e s s a n d
o v e r v i e w s o n r u r a l r o a d s , r i g h t l o c a t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e s a n d s e r v i c e s , a n d
s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t . A l t h o u g h t h e i n i t i a l i d e a b u i l d s
o n t r a f f i c s a f e t y , i t l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h e i d e a s o f m o d e r n i s m
a n d , h e n c e , o f S C A F T , s e e p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s a s t r a f f i c s a f e t y p r o b l e m s
a n d p r o b l e m s f o r ( m o t o r i s e d ) t r a f f i c f l o w s . T h o s e i d e a s , w h e n i m p l e m e n t e d ,
l e a d t o a m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s a n d t o b u i l t - i n p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t f a v o u r
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . S i m i l a r t o S C A F T a r e i d e a s f r o m e . g . G e r m a n y , w h e r e D i e
A u t o g e r e c h t e S t a d t e i n W e g a u s d e m V e r k e h r s c h a o s ( R e i c h o w 1 9 5 9 ) w a s
p u b l i s h e d e v e n e a r l i e r t h e n S C A F T . T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n b u i l d s o n s i m i l a r
m o d e r n i s t i c i d e a s a s S C A F T , a n d h a s l e d t o m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n m a n y
c i t i e s i n G e r m a n y ( N u h r a n d H e s s e 2 0 0 6 , R e i c h o w 1 9 5 9 ) .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o d e r n i s t t h i n k i n g w a s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d b y
t h e i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s , s o m e t h i n g I w i l l c o m e b a c k t o i n t h e n e x t
s e c t i o n . I n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n , d e c r e a s e d u n i t c o s t s a n d i n c r e a s e d s a l e s t r i g g e r e d
t h e f i e l d o f t r a n s p o r t a n d t r a f f i c r e s e a r c h . D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e o r e t i c a l p l a n n i n g
m o d e l s i n f a v o u r o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n c r e a s e d , a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e F o r d i s t
p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s a n d m o d e r n i s m , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e r e d e s i g n o f u r b a n
a r e a s f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c p u s h e d o t h e r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , s u c h a s c y c l i n g ,
a s i d e ( N u h n a n d H e s s e 2 0 0 6 a n d H a g s o n 2 0 0 4 , U r r y 2 0 0 4 ) . T h u s , p l a n n e r s
c h a n g e d t h e i r d i r e c t i o n a s t h e m o t o r i s a t i o n o f s o c i e t y i n c r e a s e d , w h i c h w a s
c o n t i n u o u s l y s u p p o r t e d b y t h e F o r d i s t p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s a n d t h e e v o l v i n g
W r o n g
R i g h t
9 2

9 3
a u t o m o b i l e l o b b y ( s e e G a r t m a n 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t r e q u i r e d h i g h e r
d e g r e e s o f m o d e l a n d t h e o r y s o p h i s t i c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f p l a n n i n g .
G r a d u a l l y , b u t m o r e a n d m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y , u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s
p r i o r i t i z e d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d m a r g i n a l i s e d n o n - m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , s u c h a s
c y c l i n g . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s , t h e o r i e s o n t r a f f i c f l o w w e r e d e v e l o p e d a t H a r v a r d
U n i v e r s i t y , p a r t l y d r i v e n b y n e w t r a f f i c r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t w e r e i m p l e m e n t e d i n
m a n y c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h o s e r e g u l a t i o n s p r o m o t e d t r a f f i c
s e p a r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e s p e e d o f t r a f f i c . S i m i l a r d e v e l o p m e n t s c a n
a l s o b e s e e n i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , s u c h a s S w e d e n ( H a g s o n 2 0 0 4 ) . D u e t o t h e
i n c r e a s e i n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , b e t t e r ( s t a t i s t i c a l ) d a t a n e e d e d t o b e c o l l e c t e d ,
w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o r e e l a b o r a t e a n d e m p i r i c a l l y b a s e d
p l a n n i n g t h e o r i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , d u r i n g t h e 1 9 3 0 s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n
f r e e w a y s w a s o n e i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r c r e a t i n g b e t t e r f l o w s a n d h i g h e r s p e e d o f
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c t h r o u g h u r b a n a r e a s a n d c i t i e s . A s t h e s t r e e t s a t t h e t i m e
s e r v e d t h e n e e d s o f p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c a r r i a g e s , t h e y h a d t o b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
r o a d s ( u r b a n f r e e w a y s ) t o b e t t e r f u l f i l t h e n e e d s o f c a r s . E v e n a f t e r t h e S C A F T
r e g u l a t i o n , s i m i l a r i d e a s w e r e p r o m o t e d , a c c o r d i n g t o H a g s o n ( 2 0 0 4 ) . T h a t
s h o w s t h a t t h o s e u t o p i a n i d e a s o f m o d e r n i s m h a v e i n f l u e n c e d p l a n n i n g , b o t h
u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , t o a v e r y h i g h d e g r e e . D u r i n g a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h
a n u r b a n p l a n n e r i n S t o c k h o l m I a s k e d a b o u t t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e
d e p a r t m e n t o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h e a n s w e r w a s q u i t e l o n g b u t t h e p l a n n e r
m e n t i o n e d t h a t s o m e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s d i d n o t l i k e t h e n e w z o n i n g p l a n ,
b e c a u s e i t i s i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e S C A F T g u i d e l i n e s ( i n t e r v i e w T e d e s j ) .
M o r e o v e r , t h r o u g h t h e i n c r e a s e d m o t o r i s a t i o n o f w e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s , o t h e r
m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t b e c a m e l e s s a n d l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e i n c r e a s e d m o t o r i s a t i o n
g r o w t h , a n d t h e p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h e s t h a t w e r e u s e d , c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e
c o n t i n u o u s m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ( B r o w n
e t a l . 2 0 0 9 , K n o f l a c h e r 2 0 0 9 , D i M e n t o 2 0 0 9 , I a c o n o e t a l . 2 0 0 8 , H o r t o n
2 0 0 6 ) .
A c c e s s i b i l i t y h a s a l w a y s b e e n a t t h e h e a r t o f i n f r a s t r u c t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t . O n e o f
t h e e a r l i e s t a i m s o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g w a s t h e e f f i c i e n t a n d f a s t t r a n s p o r t o f
p e o p l e a n d g o o d s ( J o h n s t o n 2 0 0 4 , W a c h s 2 0 0 4 , a n d B a e 2 0 0 4 ) . T o a c h i e v e
t h i s g o a l , t h e f i n a n c i n g o f u r b a n t r a n s p o r t w a s e a r l y f o c u s e d o n r a i l w a y
s y s t e m s . I n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s w a s
p r i o r i t i z e d . T h e r e f o r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , p r o j e c t s f o r c y c l i s t s a n d
p e d e s t r i a n s r e c e i v e d m u c h l e s s f u n d i n g . T h i s m a d e i t m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o
d e v e l o p p o l i c i e s a n d i m p l e m e n t t h e m t o p r o m o t e g o o d c y c l e p l a n n i n g p o l i c i e s

93
automobile lobby (see Gartman 2004). The development required higher
degrees of model and theory sophistication within the field of planning.
Gradually, but more and more efficiently, urban and transport planners
prioritized motorised traffic and marginalised non-motorised traffic, such as
cycling. In the late 1920s, theories on traffic flow were developed at Harvard
University, partly driven by new traffic regulations that were implemented in
many cities around the United States. Those regulations promoted traffic
separation in order to increase the speed of traffic. Similar developments can
also be seen in other countries, such as Sweden (Hagson 2004). Due to the
increase in motorised traffic, better (statistical) data needed to be collected,
which facilitated the development of more elaborate and empirically based
planning theories. Furthermore, during the 1930s the development of urban
freeways was one important tool for creating better flows and higher speed of
motorised traffic through urban areas and cities. As the streets at the time
served the needs of pedestrians and carriages, they had to be transformed into
roads (urban freeways) to better fulfil the needs of cars. Even after the SCAFT
regulation, similar ideas were promoted, according to Hagson (2004). That
shows that those utopian ideas of modernism have influenced planning, both
urban and transport planning, to a very high degree. During an interview with
an urban planner in Stockholm I asked about the collaboration with the
department of transport planning. The answer was quite long but the planner
mentioned that some transport planners did not like the new zoning plan,
because it is in conflict with the SCAFT guidelines (interview Tedesj).
Moreover, through the increased motorisation of western societies, other
modes of transport became less and less significant. The increased motorisation
growth, and the planning approaches that were used, contributed to the
continuous marginalisation of cyclists in urban and transport planning (Brown
et al. 2009, Knoflacher 2009, DiMento 2009, Iacono et al. 2008, Horton
2006).
Accessibility has always been at the heart of infrastructure development. One of
the earliest aims of transport planning was the efficient and fast transport of
people and goods (Johnston 2004, Wachs 2004, and Bae 2004). To achieve
this goal, the financing of urban transport was early focused on railway
systems. In the beginning of the 20
th
century, the construction of roads was
prioritized. Therefore, especially in the United States, projects for cyclists and
pedestrians received much less funding. This made it much more difficult to
develop policies and implement them to promote good cycle planning policies
9 3

94
and infrastructure (Taylor 2004, Guiliana and Hanson 2004). The investments
in infrastructure for cyclists differ of course from country to country. Some
countries have invested more, like the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany,
and others much less (Pucher and Buehler 2007, 2008, Buehler and Pucher
2009, Buehler, et al. 2009). One important factor in this context is that (rapid)
changes in land use and infrastructure are very difficult to achieve, due to the
fact that cities are already built; it is hard to change the existing physical
structure of cities. Moreover, this also has long term implications, because the
existing physical structure will exist for 20, 30 or 40 years (or more) (Bae 2004,
Guiliana and Hanson 2004).
To sum up, the development of the ideas of the modern city influenced both
urban and transport planning, and research in transport planning, for a long
time. Within the field of transport planning, models and theories were
developed to meet the needs of the emerging motorised traffic already during
its early years (during the 1950s, 60s and 70s) and to plan the modern city,
which at the same time marginalised other modes of transport, such as cycling
(Horton 2006, Nuhn and Hesse 2006, Hagson 2004, Featherstone 2004,
Inglis 2004). Planners, together with other actors, such as private organisations
or politicians, have contributed to an ever-increasing use of cars and created the
right infrastructure for motor vehicles (Beckmann 2001). As mentioned above,
the built infrastructure is very difficult to change, and unfortunately this
infrastructure is almost solely designed for automobile accessibility. The result
is that we have built-in power relations in the infrastructure that favour
motorised traffic and marginalise cycle traffic, which can be analysed in
connection with the theoretical outline from the previous chapter.
The visualisation of the relations should help to understand the difficulties
when dealing with transport planning and vlomobility. What can be
concluded is that ideas such as SCAFT, utopian thinking like modernism and
the structures of the political economy of the car and car-related industries are
exactly how the third dimension of power according to Lukes (2005) works.
Young transport planners today in Sweden might not know directly what
SCAFT is, but the effects of it are still visible in many areas from the 1960s
and 1970s and also in the way transport planners (as the example mentioned
above) think about planning today. Furthermore, more examples of
modernistic planning, such as urban highways, are still on the agenda today in
Sweden (Lundin 2008, Chapter 7 below). Such planning can be seen for
example in Stockholm at the inner-city highway at Klaraberg (see Figure 6

9 4
a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ( T a y l o r 2 0 0 4 , G u i l i a n a a n d H a n s o n 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e i n v e s t m e n t s
i n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s d i f f e r o f c o u r s e f r o m c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y . S o m e
c o u n t r i e s h a v e i n v e s t e d m o r e , l i k e t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , D e n m a r k a n d G e r m a n y ,
a n d o t h e r s m u c h l e s s ( P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r 2 0 0 7 , 2 0 0 8 , B u e h l e r a n d P u c h e r
2 0 0 9 , B u e h l e r , e t a l . 2 0 0 9 ) . O n e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h i s c o n t e x t i s t h a t ( r a p i d )
c h a n g e s i n l a n d u s e a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a r e v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e , d u e t o t h e
f a c t t h a t c i t i e s a r e a l r e a d y b u i l t ; i t i s h a r d t o c h a n g e t h e e x i s t i n g p h y s i c a l
s t r u c t u r e o f c i t i e s . M o r e o v e r , t h i s a l s o h a s l o n g t e r m i m p l i c a t i o n s , b e c a u s e t h e
e x i s t i n g p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e w i l l e x i s t f o r 2 0 , 3 0 o r 4 0 y e a r s ( o r m o r e ) ( B a e 2 0 0 4 ,
G u i l i a n a a n d H a n s o n 2 0 0 4 ) .
T o s u m u p , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i d e a s o f t h e m o d e r n c i t y i n f l u e n c e d b o t h
u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , a n d r e s e a r c h i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , f o r a l o n g
t i m e . W i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , m o d e l s a n d t h e o r i e s w e r e
d e v e l o p e d t o m e e t t h e n e e d s o f t h e e m e r g i n g m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a l r e a d y d u r i n g
i t s e a r l y y e a r s ( d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s , 6 0 s a n d 7 0 s ) a n d t o p l a n t h e m o d e r n c i t y ,
w h i c h a t t h e s a m e t i m e m a r g i n a l i s e d o t h e r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , s u c h a s c y c l i n g
( H o r t o n 2 0 0 6 , N u h n a n d H e s s e 2 0 0 6 , H a g s o n 2 0 0 4 , F e a t h e r s t o n e 2 0 0 4 ,
I n g l i s 2 0 0 4 ) . P l a n n e r s , t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r a c t o r s , s u c h a s p r i v a t e o r g a n i s a t i o n s
o r p o l i t i c i a n s , h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o a n e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g u s e o f c a r s a n d c r e a t e d t h e
r i g h t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r m o t o r v e h i c l e s ( B e c k m a n n 2 0 0 1 ) . A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ,
t h e b u i l t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o c h a n g e , a n d u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s a l m o s t s o l e l y d e s i g n e d f o r a u t o m o b i l e a c c e s s i b i l i t y . T h e r e s u l t
i s t h a t w e h a v e b u i l t - i n p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e t h a t f a v o u r
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d m a r g i n a l i s e c y c l e t r a f f i c , w h i c h c a n b e a n a l y s e d i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r .
T h e v i s u a l i s a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s s h o u l d h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s
w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d v l o m o b i l i t y . W h a t c a n b e
c o n c l u d e d i s t h a t i d e a s s u c h a s S C A F T , u t o p i a n t h i n k i n g l i k e m o d e r n i s m a n d
t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f t h e c a r a n d c a r - r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s a r e
e x a c t l y h o w t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r a c c o r d i n g t o L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) w o r k s .
Y o u n g t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s t o d a y i n S w e d e n m i g h t n o t k n o w d i r e c t l y w h a t
S C A F T i s , b u t t h e e f f e c t s o f i t a r e s t i l l v i s i b l e i n m a n y a r e a s f r o m t h e 1 9 6 0 s
a n d 1 9 7 0 s a n d a l s o i n t h e w a y t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s ( a s t h e e x a m p l e m e n t i o n e d
a b o v e ) t h i n k a b o u t p l a n n i n g t o d a y . F u r t h e r m o r e , m o r e e x a m p l e s o f
m o d e r n i s t i c p l a n n i n g , s u c h a s u r b a n h i g h w a y s , a r e s t i l l o n t h e a g e n d a t o d a y i n
S w e d e n ( L u n d i n 2 0 0 8 , C h a p t e r 7 b e l o w ) . S u c h p l a n n i n g c a n b e s e e n f o r
e x a m p l e i n S t o c k h o l m a t t h e i n n e r - c i t y h i g h w a y a t K l a r a b e r g ( s e e F i g u r e 6
9 4

9 5
b e l o w ) . A l r e a d y i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s t h e r e w a s c r i t i c i s m f r o m r a d i c a l a r c h i t e c t s , m a i n l y
i n t h e U K , w h o s a w t h e s t a t i c u t o p i a o f m o d e r n i s m a n d m o d e r n i s t i c p l a n n i n g
a s p r o b l e m a t i c f o r u r b a n l i f e a n d f o r u r b a n m o v e m e n t ( P i n d e r 2 0 1 3 ) .


F i g u r e 6 : K l a r a b e r g , S t o c k h o l m
S o u r c e : C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m 2 0 1 3 a

M o r e o v e r , m o d e r n i s t i c p l a n n i n g h a d a n d s t i l l h a s a l s o a n i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g i n D e n m a r k a s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e n e w l y d e v e l o p e d d i s t r i c t o f r e s t a d
i n C o p e n h a g e n s h o w s t h a t s i m i l a r i d e a s a l s o w o r k t o d a y . T h e r e i s n o r e a l t r a f f i c
s e p a r a t i o n i n r e s t a d a s S C A F T s u g g e s t s a n d a s w e f i n d i n t o w n s l i k e
S t e v e n a g e , A l m e r e a n d A l b e r t s l u n d t h a t w e r e b u i l t i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s .
T h e r e a r e t r a d i t i o n a l b i k e l a n e s a n d s i d e w a l k s . H o w e v e r , y o u d o h a v e a
r e m i n i s c e n c e o f ( s o m e w h a t l a t e ) m o d e r n i s t i c p l a n n i n g : f u n c t i o n a l z o n i n g . T h a t
m e a n s s h o p p i n g a n d w o r k p l a c e s ( o f f i c e s ) i n o n e l o c a t i o n a n d l i v i n g o r h o u s i n g
s p a c e s i n a d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n . S i n c e t h e r o a d f o r c a r s f o l l o w s t h e s a m e d i a g r a m
a s t h e m e t r o , a n d p e d e s t r i a n a n d b i k e t r a n s p o r t a r e n o t p r i o r i t i s e d i n t h e l o c a l
n e i g h b o u r h o o d , t h e r e s u l t i s p r i o r i t i s i n g c a r t r a n s p o r t . M o r e o v e r , t h e a r e a i s
s u r r o u n d e d b y m a i n r o a d s / h i g h w a y s a n d p a r k i n g , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e s h o p p i n g
c e n t r e F i e l d s , i s q u i t e d o m i n a n t ( B y & H a v n 2 0 1 1 ) . T h o s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
h a v e b e e n a f f e c t i n g t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g i n a s t r u c t u r a l w a y , h a r d t o
n o t i c e f o r t h e p e r s o n s s u b j e c t e d t o i t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r
w o r k s e f f e c t i v e l y i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g t o d a y w i t h a m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s

95
below). Already in the 1970s there was criticism from radical architects, mainly
in the UK, who saw the static utopia of modernism and modernistic planning
as problematic for urban life and for urban movement (Pinder 2013).


Figure 6: Klaraberg, Stockholm
Source: City of Stockholm 2013a

Moreover, modernistic planning had and still has also an impact on transport
planning in Denmark as, for example, the newly developed district of restad
in Copenhagen shows that similar ideas also work today. There is no real traffic
separation in restad as SCAFT suggests and as we find in towns like
Stevenage, Almere and Albertslund that were built in the 1960s and 1970s.
There are traditional bike lanes and sidewalks. However, you do have a
reminiscence of (somewhat late) modernistic planning: functional zoning. That
means shopping and workplaces (offices) in one location and living or housing
spaces in a different location. Since the road for cars follows the same diagram
as the metro, and pedestrian and bike transport are not prioritised in the local
neighbourhood, the result is prioritising car transport. Moreover, the area is
surrounded by main roads/highways and parking, especially at the shopping
centre Fields, is quite dominant (By & Havn 2011). Those power relations
have been affecting transport and urban planning in a structural way, hard to
notice for the persons subjected to it. Therefore, the third dimension of power
works effectively in transport planning today with a marginalisation of cyclists
9 5

96
and urban space wars as a result. Thus, modernism and the effects of it are still
visible in todays planning approaches. The complexity of the situation needs a
broad approach for empirical analysis. In the next chapter the cases for the
empirical data collection (Stockholm and Copenhagen) are introduced, and the
empirical data collected with such a complexity in mind are analysed in the
following chapter.
Through the focus on motorised traffic, conflicts and injustices appear in
urban areas between non-motorised traffic, such as cyclists, and motorised
traffic. Space in cities is often distributed to the advantage of motorised traffic.
Those conflicts and injustices in urban spaces have generated protests and
activism in many cities around the world, like the critical mass movement or
resistance movements against car traffic in the form of different practises in
public space (see Furness 2007, Spinney 2010 and Wray 2008). However,
taking the political economy of the car industry (mentioned in the previous
chapter) into account, such movements and protests have not been very
effective and have so far not produced different or more just city spaces. The
marginalisation of cyclists must be seen in a broader view, and in order to
change that marginalisation and create fewer conflicts and more just city
spaces, the perspective of the right to the city could be helpful.
There are different meanings of the concept of the right to the city. Mayer
(2012) talks about those different meanings in two ways: in terms of
revolutionary change, the right to transform the city in a Lefebvreian sense,
and in terms of different actual rights to the city, such as housing, public
transportation etc. Mayer criticises the second definition of the right to the
city, because it does not really involve social change and has also been hijacked
by neo-liberal think tanks and other organisations, which do not work for real
social change, but only for improvements within the existing exclusive
capitalist system (Mayer 2012). In order to understand the problematic
situation of urban mobility, a radical view of the right to the city offers a
deeper understanding of what is needed. Peter Marcuse asks the question of
whose and what right to what city. Marcuse answers the question of whose right
with the deprived, the alienated and the excluded (Marcuse 2012).
He makes it clear that the right to the city is not concerned with everybodys
right, because as he puts it:
Some already have the right to the city, are running it now, have it well in hand
(although well might not be just the right word, today!). They are financial

9 6
a n d u r b a n s p a c e w a r s a s a r e s u l t . T h u s , m o d e r n i s m a n d t h e e f f e c t s o f i t a r e s t i l l
v i s i b l e i n t o d a y s p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h e s . T h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n n e e d s a
b r o a d a p p r o a c h f o r e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s . I n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r t h e c a s e s f o r t h e
e m p i r i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t i o n ( S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n ) a r e i n t r o d u c e d , a n d t h e
e m p i r i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t e d w i t h s u c h a c o m p l e x i t y i n m i n d a r e a n a l y s e d i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r .
T h r o u g h t h e f o c u s o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , c o n f l i c t s a n d i n j u s t i c e s a p p e a r i n
u r b a n a r e a s b e t w e e n n o n - m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , s u c h a s c y c l i s t s , a n d m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c . S p a c e i n c i t i e s i s o f t e n d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e a d v a n t a g e o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c .
T h o s e c o n f l i c t s a n d i n j u s t i c e s i n u r b a n s p a c e s h a v e g e n e r a t e d p r o t e s t s a n d
a c t i v i s m i n m a n y c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , l i k e t h e c r i t i c a l m a s s m o v e m e n t o r
r e s i s t a n c e m o v e m e n t s a g a i n s t c a r t r a f f i c i n t h e f o r m o f d i f f e r e n t p r a c t i s e s i n
p u b l i c s p a c e ( s e e F u r n e s s 2 0 0 7 , S p i n n e y 2 0 1 0 a n d W r a y 2 0 0 8 ) . H o w e v e r ,
t a k i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f t h e c a r i n d u s t r y ( m e n t i o n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s
c h a p t e r ) i n t o a c c o u n t , s u c h m o v e m e n t s a n d p r o t e s t s h a v e n o t b e e n v e r y
e f f e c t i v e a n d h a v e s o f a r n o t p r o d u c e d d i f f e r e n t o r m o r e j u s t c i t y s p a c e s . T h e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s m u s t b e s e e n i n a b r o a d e r v i e w , a n d i n o r d e r t o
c h a n g e t h a t m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n a n d c r e a t e f e w e r c o n f l i c t s a n d m o r e j u s t c i t y
s p a c e s , t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y c o u l d b e h e l p f u l .
T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y . M a y e r
( 2 0 1 2 ) t a l k s a b o u t t h o s e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s i n t w o w a y s : i n t e r m s o f
r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e , t h e r i g h t t o t r a n s f o r m t h e c i t y i n a L e f e b v r e i a n s e n s e ,
a n d i n t e r m s o f d i f f e r e n t a c t u a l r i g h t s t o t h e c i t y , s u c h a s h o u s i n g , p u b l i c
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e t c . M a y e r c r i t i c i s e s t h e s e c o n d d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e
c i t y , b e c a u s e i t d o e s n o t r e a l l y i n v o l v e s o c i a l c h a n g e a n d h a s a l s o b e e n h i j a c k e d
b y n e o - l i b e r a l t h i n k t a n k s a n d o t h e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s , w h i c h d o n o t w o r k f o r r e a l
s o c i a l c h a n g e , b u t o n l y f o r i m p r o v e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g e x c l u s i v e
c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m ( M a y e r 2 0 1 2 ) . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o b l e m a t i c
s i t u a t i o n o f u r b a n m o b i l i t y , a r a d i c a l v i e w o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y o f f e r s a
d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t i s n e e d e d . P e t e r M a r c u s e a s k s t h e q u e s t i o n o f
w h o s e a n d w h a t r i g h t t o w h a t c i t y . M a r c u s e a n s w e r s t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h o s e r i g h t
w i t h t h e d e p r i v e d , t h e a l i e n a t e d a n d t h e e x c l u d e d ( M a r c u s e 2 0 1 2 ) .
H e m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y i s n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h e v e r y b o d y s
r i g h t , b e c a u s e a s h e p u t s i t :
S o m e a l r e a d y h a v e t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y , a r e r u n n i n g i t n o w , h a v e i t w e l l i n h a n d
( a l t h o u g h w e l l m i g h t n o t b e j u s t t h e r i g h t w o r d , t o d a y ! ) . T h e y a r e f i n a n c i a l
9 6

9 7
p o w e r s , t h e r e a l e s t a t e o w n e r s a n d s p e c u l a t o r s , t h e k e y p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y o f t h e s t a t e
p o w e r , t h e o w n e r s o f t h e m e d i a . ( M a r c u s e 2 0 1 2 : 3 2 )
W h e n i t c o m e s t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t r i g h t , t h e a n s w e r s s e e m a t f i r s t g l a n c e
q u i t e s i m p l e , l i k e t h e r i g h t t o w a t e r , m o b i l i t y , h o u s i n g e t c . H o w e v e r , t h i s
w o u l d s i m p l i f y a c o m p l e x i s s u e . T h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y e x c e e d s t h e i n d i v i d u a l
r i g h t s a n d i n v o l v e s a b r o a d e r v i e w . M a r c u s e p u t s i t l i k e t h i s :
I t i s t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y a n d n o t r i g h t s t o t h e c i t y . I t i s a r i g h t t o s o c i a l j u s t i c e ,
w h i c h i n c l u d e s b u t f a r e x c e e d s t h e r i g h t t o i n d i v i d u a l j u s t i c e . ( M a r c u s e 2 0 1 2 : 3 4 )
I t i s i n t h i s s e n s e t h a t M a r c u s e s v i e w o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y i s c l o s e l y
c o n n e c t e d t o M a y e r s v i e w . H o w e v e r , t h e l a s t q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s , w h i c h i s t o
w h a t c i t y . A c c o r d i n g t o L e f e b v r e i t i s t h e r i g h t t o t h e f u t u r e c i t y , a d i f f e r e n t
c i t y f r o m w h a t w e c a n s e e t o d a y . T h e r e a r e s o m e s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t w h a t t h a t
c i t y m i g h t b e l i k e , , b u t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s h e r e t h a t i t i s a d i f f e r e n t f o r m o f
u r b a n l i f e a n d t h a t i s t h e r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i v e v i e w o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y
( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 6 8 ] , M a r c u s e 2 0 1 2 , M a y e r 2 0 1 2 ) .
I n c o n n e c t i o n t o m o b i l i t y , v l o m o b i l i t y a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f t h e
a u t o m o b i l e i n d u s t r y t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y c o n c e p t , a s o u t l i n e d b y M a y e r a n d
M a r c u s e , o f f e r s a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r a n a l y s i n g c o n f l i c t s i n u r b a n ( t r a f f i c )
s p a c e s , w h e r e s o m e g r o u p s a r e m a r g i n a l i s e d a n d e x c l u d e d a n d s o m e f o r m s o f
m o b i l i t y a r e d o m i n a n t . T h e c o n c e p t o f f e r s a n a n a l y t i c a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e
c o n f l i c t s c o n n e c t e d t o m o b i l i t y , s u c h a s p o l l u t i o n , d i s p l a c e m e n t , a c c i d e n t s o r
c o n f l i c t s i n a s a f e t y p e r s p e c t i v e ( s e e S v e n s s o n 1 9 9 8 a n d H y d n 1 9 8 7 ) . T h i s
c o n n e c t i o n o f f e r s a b r o a d e r v i e w t h a n t h e c l a s s i c a l t r a n s p o r t r e s e a r c h
p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e c l a s s i c a l t r a n s p o r t p e r s p e c t i v e i s d o m i n a t e d b y e n g i n e e r s a n d
d o e s n o t p r o b l e m a t i z e m o b i l i t y o r t h e c o m m o n m o b i l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e o f
s o c i o l o g i s t s l i k e U r r y . T h e m o b i l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e t e n d s t o f o c u s m o r e o n t h e
e x p e r i e n c e o f m o b i l i t y , t h e c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s , b u t n o t s o m u c h o n c o n f l i c t s o r
p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , a n d d o e s n o t m u c h p r o b l e m a t i z e t h e b r o a d e r p r o b l e m s w i t h
c e r t a i n f o r m o f m o b i l i t y ( F r e u d e n d a l - P e d e r s e n 2 0 0 9 , U r r y 2 0 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 4 a n d
P a t e r s o n 2 0 0 7 ) . T h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y , a u t o m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y t e n d
t o t o u c h o n t h o s e p r o b l e m s ( a n d t h e r e f o r e a l s o U r r y a n d o t h e r s ) , b u t t h e
p r o b l e m s o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y s e e m t o g o d e e p e r t h a n t h i s
r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s , w h i c h i s w h y m o r e r e s e a r c h a b o u t p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e
p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s i s n e e d e d .
I t c a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s k i n d o f c o n n e c t i o n , n a m e l y p o w e r , p o l i t i c a l
e c o n o m y , m o b i l i t y a n d s p a c e , o f f e r s a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s e s

97
powers, the real estate owners and speculators, the key political hierarchy of the state
power, the owners of the media. (Marcuse 2012:32)
When it comes to the question of what right, the answers seem at first glance
quite simple, like the right to water, mobility, housing etc. However, this
would simplify a complex issue. The right to the city exceeds the individual
rights and involves a broader view. Marcuse puts it like this:
It is the right to the city and not rights to the city. It is a right to social justice,
which includes but far exceeds the right to individual justice. (Marcuse 2012:34)
It is in this sense that Marcuses view of the right to the city is closely
connected to Mayers view. However, the last question remains, which is to
what city. According to Lefebvre it is the right to the future city, a different
city from what we can see today. There are some suggestions about what that
city might be like,, but it is important to stress here that it is a different form of
urban life and that is the radical transformative view of the right to the city
(Lefebvre 1996 [1968], Marcuse 2012, Mayer 2012).
In connection to mobility, vlomobility and the political economy of the
automobile industry the right to the city concept, as outlined by Mayer and
Marcuse, offers a theoretical basis for analysing conflicts in urban (traffic)
spaces, where some groups are marginalised and excluded and some forms of
mobility are dominant. The concept offers an analytical starting point of the
conflicts connected to mobility, such as pollution, displacement, accidents or
conflicts in a safety perspective (see Svensson 1998 and Hydn 1987). This
connection offers a broader view than the classical transport research
perspective. The classical transport perspective is dominated by engineers and
does not problematize mobility or the common mobility perspective of
sociologists like Urry. The mobility perspective tends to focus more on the
experience of mobility, the cultural aspects, but not so much on conflicts or
political economy, and does not much problematize the broader problems with
certain form of mobility (Freudendal-Pedersen 2009, Urry 2000 and 2004 and
Paterson 2007). The politics of mobility, automobility and vlomobility tend
to touch on those problems (and therefore also Urry and others), but the
problems of power relations and political economy seem to go deeper than this
research suggests, which is why more research about planning processes and the
political process is needed.
It can be concluded that this kind of connection, namely power, political
economy, mobility and space, offers a deeper understanding of the processes
9 7

98
affecting urban mobility and vlomobility and resulting in the materialities that
promote motorised modes of transport and urban mobile conflicts one can
observe in many cities around the world. It is this kind of relations that can be
identified as Lukes (2005) third dimension of power and that results in the
urban space wars described in Chapter 4.


9 8
a f f e c t i n g u r b a n m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y a n d r e s u l t i n g i n t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s t h a t
p r o m o t e m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n m o b i l e c o n f l i c t s o n e c a n
o b s e r v e i n m a n y c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . I t i s t h i s k i n d o f r e l a t i o n s t h a t c a n b e
i d e n t i f i e d a s L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r a n d t h a t r e s u l t s i n t h e
u r b a n s p a c e w a r s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 4 .

9 8

9 9
6 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e c a s e s :
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n

C o p e n h a g e n i s k n o w n f a r a n d w i d e a s t h e C i t y o f C y c l i s t s d u e t o i t s
l o n g s t a n d i n g a n d l i v e l y c y c l i n g t r a d i t i o n a n d , i n r e c e n t y e a r s , i t s C i t y B i k e s . ( C i t y
o f C o p e n h a g e n 2 0 0 2 : 5 )

T h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e b i c y c l e n e t w o r k a n d a n i n c r e a s e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
b i c y c l e s c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o
a h e a v y i n c r e a s e o f t h e n u m b e r s o f c y c l i s t s i n t h e i n n e r c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m d u r i n g t h e
l a s t d e c a d e . ( v e r s i k t s p l a n S t o c k h o l m 2 0 1 0 : 2 1 )

S i n c e i t i s m y i n t e n t i o n t o i n c l u d e c y c l i s t s , t h e h i t h e r t o m a r g i n a l i s e d g r o u p o f
r o a d - u s e r s , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a n e e d t o e x p l o r e t h e p l a n n i n g m a d e f o r t h i s
g r o u p a n d h o w i t c a n b e i n t e g r a t e d i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a
p l a n n i n g s y s t e m t h a t t a k e s t h e n e e d s o f c y c l i s t s i n t o a c c o u n t a n d t h e r e b y a l s o
c o n t r i b u t e t o a m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m i n c i t i e s . S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n h a v e b e e n c h o s e n a s c a s e c i t i e s f o r a d e e p a n a l y s i s o f p l a n n i n g f o r
c y c l i s t s . B o t h c i t i e s a r e S c a n d i n a v i a n c a p i t a l s , w i t h g o o d p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m s . A s m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r 2 , S w e d e n a n d D e n m a r k h a v e a s i m i l a r
t r a d i t i o n o f w e l f a r e s y s t e m s a n d p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , b o t h c o u n t r i e s
h a v e g o o d p u b l i c i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , e . g . s c h o o l s , h e a l t h c a r e e t c . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
D e n m a r k a n d S w e d e n a r e w e l f a r e s t a t e s w i t h a s t r o n g p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
a n d a t r a d i t i o n o f s t r o n g g o v e r n m e n t i n v o l v e m e n t i n s o c i e t y ( B e n n e r a n d V a d
2 0 0 0 ) . A l t h o u g h b o t h C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m d i s p l a y e d a h i g h s h a r e o f
c y c l i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y , t h e i r c y c l i n g s t o r i e s t u r n e d o u t
d i f f e r e n t l y . S i n c e t h e 1 9 2 0 s c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m h a s b e e n a n
i m p o r t a n t m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s ( E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) .

99
6 Introduction to the cases:
Stockholm and Copenhagen

Copenhagen is known far and wide as the City of Cyclists due to its
longstanding and lively cycling tradition and, in recent years, its City Bikes. (City
of Copenhagen 2002:5)

The expansion of the bicycle network and an increased understanding of the
bicycles competitiveness in relation to other modes of transport have contributed to
a heavy increase of the numbers of cyclists in the inner city of Stockholm during the
last decade. (versiktsplan Stockholm 2010:21)

Since it is my intention to include cyclists, the hitherto marginalised group of
road-users, there seems to be a need to explore the planning made for this
group and how it can be integrated in transport planning in order to create a
planning system that takes the needs of cyclists into account and thereby also
contribute to a more sustainable transport system in cities. Stockholm and
Copenhagen have been chosen as case cities for a deep analysis of planning for
cyclists. Both cities are Scandinavian capitals, with good public transport
systems. As mentioned in Chapter 2, Sweden and Denmark have a similar
tradition of welfare systems and public participation. Moreover, both countries
have good public infrastructures, e.g. schools, health care etc. In other words,
Denmark and Sweden are welfare states with a strong public administration
and a tradition of strong government involvement in society (Benner and Vad
2000). Although both Copenhagen and Stockholm displayed a high share of
cycling at the beginning of the 20
th
century, their cycling stories turned out
differently. Since the 1920s cycling in Copenhagen and Stockholm has been an
important mode of transport, especially for the working class (Emanuel 2012).
9 9

100
Plans for cyclists have been on the agenda in Copenhagen for a long time, and
the first bicycle track was built in the late 19
th
century to reduce the conflicts
between cyclists and horses and carriages (see more in the next section). Ever
since then, the city of Copenhagen has had a more or less strong focus on
cycling. However, during the 1960s and 1970s transport planning in
Copenhagen focused a great deal on motorised traffic as well. Nevertheless, the
existing infrastructure for cycling was built, and from the 1980s on the focus
on cycling has been expanding (interview Rhl and Jensen). When cycling
through Copenhagen, one can see that there is a good infrastructure for
cyclists, as can also be seen in Figure 2. In Stockholm cycling took place more
on cobblestone streets mixed with other modes of transport. With the entrance
of the car into the city, cycling was neglected in transport planning (Emanuel
2012). Although a historical perspective will also be included in this thesis, the
interviews and survey data are from the time period between 2010 and 2011.
Those are analysed in greater detail in Chapter 7. Thus, there are similarities as
well as differences between the two case cities. The next section will present
some facts about Copenhagen and Stockholm in order to give a clearer picture
of their transport systems.
Stockholm has an area of 188 km and Copenhagen of 89.78 km. The
population density in Copenhagen is 6,200 inhabitants/km and Stockholms
population density is 4,309 inhabitants/km (City of Copenhagen 2013a, b,
City of Stockholm 2013b) Moreover, as shown in Table 2, Stockholm has
more inhabitants than Copenhagen. Thus, Stockholm is larger than
Copenhagen in terms of both area and population and has a lower population
density. One other major difference between Copenhagen and Stockholm is
that many more people use their bikes in Copenhagen than in Stockholm.
Depending on how the share of trips by bicycle is calculated, it can be
established that about 31% of all trips in Copenhagen are by bike, compared
to only 5% in Stockholm (see Table 2). Furthermore, Stockholm has a higher
share of public transport than Copenhagen and a slightly higher share of
walking. The trend of using a bicycle is increasing in both cities. Moreover,
both cities display high shares of transport by car (see Table 2) (RES 2006,
RES 2005). There is also a difference in car ownership between Stockholm and
Copenhagen. In Stockholm car ownership in 2010 was 359 cars/1,000
inhabitants and in Copenhagen 236 cars/1,000 inhabitants the same year
(Stockholms miljbarometer 2011, Statistics Denmark 2011). These
differences in modal split between Copenhagen and Stockholm might to a

1 0 0
P l a n s f o r c y c l i s t s h a v e b e e n o n t h e a g e n d a i n C o p e n h a g e n f o r a l o n g t i m e , a n d
t h e f i r s t b i c y c l e t r a c k w a s b u i l t i n t h e l a t e 1 9
t h
c e n t u r y t o r e d u c e t h e c o n f l i c t s
b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d h o r s e s a n d c a r r i a g e s ( s e e m o r e i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n ) . E v e r
s i n c e t h e n , t h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n h a s h a d a m o r e o r l e s s s t r o n g f o c u s o n
c y c l i n g . H o w e v e r , d u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n
C o p e n h a g e n f o c u s e d a g r e a t d e a l o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a s w e l l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i n g w a s b u i l t , a n d f r o m t h e 1 9 8 0 s o n t h e f o c u s
o n c y c l i n g h a s b e e n e x p a n d i n g ( i n t e r v i e w R h l a n d J e n s e n ) . W h e n c y c l i n g
t h r o u g h C o p e n h a g e n , o n e c a n s e e t h a t t h e r e i s a g o o d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r
c y c l i s t s , a s c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n F i g u r e 2 . I n S t o c k h o l m c y c l i n g t o o k p l a c e m o r e
o n c o b b l e s t o n e s t r e e t s m i x e d w i t h o t h e r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t . W i t h t h e e n t r a n c e
o f t h e c a r i n t o t h e c i t y , c y c l i n g w a s n e g l e c t e d i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ( E m a n u e l
2 0 1 2 ) . A l t h o u g h a h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e w i l l a l s o b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s t h e s i s , t h e
i n t e r v i e w s a n d s u r v e y d a t a a r e f r o m t h e t i m e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 2 0 1 0 a n d 2 0 1 1 .
T h o s e a r e a n a l y s e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r 7 . T h u s , t h e r e a r e s i m i l a r i t i e s a s
w e l l a s d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o c a s e c i t i e s . T h e n e x t s e c t i o n w i l l p r e s e n t
s o m e f a c t s a b o u t C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m i n o r d e r t o g i v e a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e
o f t h e i r t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s .
S t o c k h o l m h a s a n a r e a o f 1 8 8 k m a n d C o p e n h a g e n o f 8 9 . 7 8 k m . T h e
p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i n C o p e n h a g e n i s 6 , 2 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s / k m a n d S t o c k h o l m s
p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s 4 , 3 0 9 i n h a b i t a n t s / k m ( C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n 2 0 1 3 a , b ,
C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m 2 0 1 3 b ) M o r e o v e r , a s s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 , S t o c k h o l m h a s
m o r e i n h a b i t a n t s t h a n C o p e n h a g e n . T h u s , S t o c k h o l m i s l a r g e r t h a n
C o p e n h a g e n i n t e r m s o f b o t h a r e a a n d p o p u l a t i o n a n d h a s a l o w e r p o p u l a t i o n
d e n s i t y . O n e o t h e r m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m i s
t h a t m a n y m o r e p e o p l e u s e t h e i r b i k e s i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m .
D e p e n d i n g o n h o w t h e s h a r e o f t r i p s b y b i c y c l e i s c a l c u l a t e d , i t c a n b e
e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t a b o u t 3 1 % o f a l l t r i p s i n C o p e n h a g e n a r e b y b i k e , c o m p a r e d
t o o n l y 5 % i n S t o c k h o l m ( s e e T a b l e 2 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , S t o c k h o l m h a s a h i g h e r
s h a r e o f p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t t h a n C o p e n h a g e n a n d a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r s h a r e o f
w a l k i n g . T h e t r e n d o f u s i n g a b i c y c l e i s i n c r e a s i n g i n b o t h c i t i e s . M o r e o v e r ,
b o t h c i t i e s d i s p l a y h i g h s h a r e s o f t r a n s p o r t b y c a r ( s e e T a b l e 2 ) ( R E S 2 0 0 6 ,
R E S 2 0 0 5 ) . T h e r e i s a l s o a d i f f e r e n c e i n c a r o w n e r s h i p b e t w e e n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n . I n S t o c k h o l m c a r o w n e r s h i p i n 2 0 1 0 w a s 3 5 9 c a r s / 1 , 0 0 0
i n h a b i t a n t s a n d i n C o p e n h a g e n 2 3 6 c a r s / 1 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s t h e s a m e y e a r
( S t o c k h o l m s m i l j b a r o m e t e r 2 0 1 1 , S t a t i s t i c s D e n m a r k 2 0 1 1 ) . T h e s e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n m o d a l s p l i t b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m m i g h t t o a
1 0 0

1 0 1
c e r t a i n d e g r e e b e d u e t o g e o g r a p h i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , e . g . d e n s i t y a n d d i s t a n c e s ,
a n d m i g h t a l s o h a v e a n i m p a c t o n t h e p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h e s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s .
H o w e v e r , r e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n t h a t t h o s e f a c t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y d e n s i t y , o n l y a f f e c t
t r a v e l b e h a v i o u r a n d u s e o f d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t t o a r a t h e r s m a l l
d e g r e e ( H a u g e n 2 0 1 2 ) . O n e f a c t o r t h a t d o e s i n f l u e n c e t r a v e l b e h a v i o u r i s
u r b a n d e s i g n o n a s t r u c t u r a l l e v e l ( N s s 2 0 1 2 ) .

T a b l e 2 : M o d a l S p l i t S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n
S o u r c e : R E S 2 0 0 5 , R E S 2 0 0 6
S t o c k h o l m C o p e n h a g e n
I n h a b i t a n t s 8 4 0 , 0 0 0 5 3 0 , 0 0 0
C a r s h a r e i n % 3 5 . 7 % 2 8 %
B i c y c l e s h a r e i n % 3 . 7 % 3 1 %
W a l k i n g s h a r e i n % 3 1 . 2 % 2 6 . 8 %
P u b l i c t r a n s p o r t s h a r e i n % 2 9 . 1 % 1 3 . 8 %
O t h e r ( i . e . s c o o t e r ) % 0 . 3 % 0 . 4 %
T o t a l % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %

T h e f i g u r e s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 j u s t i f y l o o k i n g i n t o t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d t h e s e
s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e y s e e m t o
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f o c u s i n S t o c k h o l m h a s b e e n o n p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a n d c a r
t r a f f i c , w h e r e a s t h e f o c u s i n C o p e n h a g e n h a s b e e n o n c y c l i n g a n d c a r t r a f f i c
T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e t w o i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s f o r c y c l i s t s i s v e r y s t r i k i n g . T h e
f o l l o w i n g p i c t u r e s t a k e n b y m e d u r i n g m y o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s i n C o p e n h a g e n
a n d S t o c k h o l m w i l l f u r t h e r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s f o r c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s ( s e e F i g u r e s 8 a n d 9 ) .





101
certain degree be due to geographical circumstances, e.g. density and distances,
and might also have an impact on the planning approaches in the two cities.
However, research has shown that those factors, especially density, only affect
travel behaviour and use of different modes of transport to a rather small
degree (Haugen 2012). One factor that does influence travel behaviour is
urban design on a structural level (Nss 2012).

Table 2: Modal Split Stockholm and Copenhagen
Source: RES 2005, RES 2006
Stockholm Copenhagen
Inhabitants 840,000 530,000
Car share in % 35.7% 28%
Bicycle share in % 3.7% 31%
Walking share in % 31.2% 26.8%
Public transport share in % 29.1% 13.8%
Other (i.e. scooter)% 0.3% 0.4%
Total % 100% 100 %

The figures presented in Table 2 justify looking into the reasons behind these
similarities and differences between Stockholm and Copenhagen. They seem to
indicate that the focus in Stockholm has been on public transport and car
traffic, whereas the focus in Copenhagen has been on cycling and car traffic
The difference in the two infrastructures for cyclists is very striking. The
following pictures taken by me during my observational studies in Copenhagen
and Stockholm will further an understanding of the differences in the
infrastructures for cyclists in the two cities (see Figures 8 and 9).




1 0 1

102


Figure 7: Stockholm
Source: Till Koglin



Figure 8: Copenhagen
Source: Till Koglin

1 0 2


F i g u r e 7 : S t o c k h o l m
S o u r c e : T i l l K o g l i n



F i g u r e 8 : C o p e n h a g e n
S o u r c e : T i l l K o g l i n
1 0 2

1 0 3
I n C o p e n h a g e n t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s t h e c y c l e t r a c k s ,
w h i c h a r e t r a c k s s e p a r a t e d f r o m m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , l i k e a p a v e m e n t . I n
C o p e n h a g e n t h o s e t r a c k s o f t e n r u n b e s i d e s t r e e t s a n d r o a d s f o r m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c a n d a r e a l s o s e p a r a t e d f r o m p e d e s t r i a n s . C y c l e t r a c k s a r e o n e o f t h e b e s t
s o l u t i o n s t o i m p r o v e t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y a n d t h e l e v e l o f s e r v i c e a n d s a f e t y o f
c y c l i s t s ( N i l s s o n 2 0 0 3 ) . A t c r o s s r o a d s t h e r e a r e s p e c i a l t r a f f i c l i g h t s f o r c y c l i s t s ,
w h i c h t u r n g r e e n b e f o r e t h e t r a f f i c l i g h t s f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c t u r n g r e e n a n d
w h i c h c o n s e q u e n t l y g i v e p r i o r i t y t o c y c l i s t s . B e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e t r a f f i c s i g n a l s
t h e s e c y c l e t r a c k s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o c y c l e l a n e s ( m a r k e d o n t h e s t r e e t , o f t e n
i n a d i f f e r e n t c o l o u r , a n d n o t r e a l l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c ) , w h i c h
a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s c o n s i d e r a b l y t o t h e s a f e t y o f a n d a c c e s s i b i l i t y f o r c y c l i s t s ( E l v i k
a n d V a a 2 0 0 5 ) . M o r e o v e r , c y c l i n g a g a i n s t o n e - w a y t r a f f i c i s a l l o w e d i n
C o p e n h a g e n , w h i c h a l s o i n c r e a s e s t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y f o r c y c l i s t s a n d , i f c o r r e c t l y
i m p l e m e n t e d a s i n C o p e n h a g e n , h a s n o k n o w n n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o n t r a f f i c s a f e t y
( A l r u t z e t a l . 2 0 0 2 , i n t e r v i e w R h l a n d E l l e ) . C o r r e c t l y i m p l e m e n t e d m e a n s
t h a t i t s h o u l d b e i m p l e m e n t e d o n s t r e e t s w i t h a s p e e d l i m i t o f 3 0 k m / h a n d
t h a t v i s u a l i n t e r a c t i o n s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e ( A l r u t z e t a l . 2 0 0 2 ) . A n o t h e r a s p e c t
t h a t b i c y c l e p l a n n e r s t a l k a b o u t i n C o p e n h a g e n b u t t h a t h a s n o t y e t b e e n
i m p l e m e n t e d i s g r e e n w a v e s f o r c y c l i s t s , i . e . t h a t c y c l i s t s o n c e r t a i n t r a c k s w i l l
h a v e g r e e n l i g h t s w h e n a p p r o a c h i n g t r a f f i c l i g h t s ( i n t e r v i e w E l l e ) . A l t h o u g h
t h i s m e a s u r e i s v e r y c o m m o n i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f s e r v i c e f o r
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e K l i j n h o u t 1 9 8 6 ) , i t i s n o t s o c o m m o n f o r
b i c y c l e t r a f f i c , w h i c h c o u l d b e c o n n e c t e d t o p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e s
a n d s p a c e w a r s / c o n f l i c t s , s i n c e p l a n n e r s i m p l e m e n t t h i s f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
b u t n o t f o r b i c y c l e t r a f f i c .
H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t p l a n n e r s i n C o p e n h a g e n a r e d i s c u s s i n g t h i s m e a s u r e
m i g h t s h o w t h a t a s h i f t o f p o w e r t o w a r d s c y c l i s t s i s a t h a n d . T h i s i s , h o w e v e r ,
n o t o n l y t h e c a s e i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t p l a n s a n d p o l i c i e s i n
C o p e n h a g e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f w h i c h
a r e t h e C o p e n h a g e n C y c l e P o l i c y 2 0 0 2 - 2 0 1 2 a n d t h e C y c l e P r i o r i t y P l a n
2 0 0 6 - 1 6 ( C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n 2 0 0 2 , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n 2 0 0 9 ) . O f t h e s e t w o
m a i n d o c u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n , t h e C y c l e P o l i c y i s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e g o a l s a n d d i r e c t i o n s f o r p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s , w h e r e a s t h e
P r i o r i t y P l a n f o c u s e s o n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p o l i c y a n d c o n c r e t e
m e a s u r e s f o r i m p r o v i n g a c c e s s i b i l i t y , s a f e t y , e t c . f o r c y c l i s t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e
i s d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n h o w c y c l i n g w i l l b e p l a n n e d a n d t h e a m o u n t o f
m o n e y t o b e i n v e s t e d i n c y c l i n g i n t h e T r a f f i c a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l P l a n f r o m

103
In Copenhagen the backbone of the cycling infrastructure is the cycle tracks,
which are tracks separated from motorised traffic, like a pavement. In
Copenhagen those tracks often run beside streets and roads for motorised
traffic and are also separated from pedestrians. Cycle tracks are one of the best
solutions to improve the accessibility and the level of service and safety of
cyclists (Nilsson 2003). At crossroads there are special traffic lights for cyclists,
which turn green before the traffic lights for motorised traffic turn green and
which consequently give priority to cyclists. Before reaching the traffic signals
these cycle tracks are transformed into cycle lanes (marked on the street, often
in a different colour, and not really separated from motorised traffic), which
also contributes considerably to the safety of and accessibility for cyclists (Elvik
and Vaa 2005). Moreover, cycling against one-way traffic is allowed in
Copenhagen, which also increases the accessibility for cyclists and, if correctly
implemented as in Copenhagen, has no known negative effects on traffic safety
(Alrutz et al. 2002, interview Rhl and Elle). Correctly implemented means
that it should be implemented on streets with a speed limit of 30 km/h and
that visual interaction should be possible (Alrutz et al. 2002). Another aspect
that bicycle planners talk about in Copenhagen but that has not yet been
implemented is green waves for cyclists, i.e. that cyclists on certain tracks will
have green lights when approaching traffic lights (interview Elle). Although
this measure is very common in order to increase the level of service for
motorised traffic (see for example Klijnhout 1986), it is not so common for
bicycle traffic, which could be connected to power relations in urban spaces
and space wars/conflicts, since planners implement this for motorised traffic
but not for bicycle traffic.
However, the fact that planners in Copenhagen are discussing this measure
might show that a shift of power towards cyclists is at hand. This is, however,
not only the case in Copenhagen. There are different plans and policies in
Copenhagen concerned with bicycle planning, the most important of which
are the Copenhagen Cycle Policy 2002-2012 and the Cycle Priority Plan
2006-16 (City of Copenhagen 2002, City of Copenhagen 2009). Of these two
main documents concerning cycling in Copenhagen, the Cycle Policy is
concerned with the goals and directions for planning for cyclists, whereas the
Priority Plan focuses on the implementation of the policy and concrete
measures for improving accessibility, safety, etc. for cyclists. Furthermore, there
is detailed information on how cycling will be planned and the amount of
money to be invested in cycling in the Traffic and Environmental Plan from
1 0 3

104
2004 (City of Copenhagen 2005). What is striking in the documents about
traffic published by the city of Copenhagen is that cycling is integrated in all
the documents, which implies that cycling is also integrated in transport
planning in general. During a bicycle trip through Copenhagen and from
interviews with planners (interviews with Rhl, Jensen, Trslv and Elle) I got
the impression that Copenhagen focuses a great deal on planning for cyclists
and on the infrastructure for cyclists in order to prioritise cyclists and make
cycling safer and more accessible.
Planning for cyclists has a shorter history in Stockholm. The first bicycle plan,
which was adopted in 1976, was more of a design manual than a plan, and not
much of it was implemented (interviews with Isaksson and Spolander). Very
little happened before 1998, and the first real plan was adopted in 1998 in
order to create a systematic plan for implementing measures for cycling
(interview with Isaksson). Nevertheless, the infrastructure in Stockholm leads
to conflicts between motorised traffic and cyclists, as seen in Figure one. Much
of the infrastructure in Stockholm is based on cycle lanes (painted on the
streets), and since there is rarely any separate infrastructure for cyclists, they are
forced to mix with motorised traffic on streets and roads where the speed limit
is 50 km/h or higher. Cycle lanes can be seen as a cheap way of investing in a
bicycling infrastructure. They are better than no infrastructure at all but cannot
be compared to cycle tracks, which are a much better way of improving the
infrastructure for cyclists (Nilsson 2003). Furthermore, cycling against one-way
traffic is not allowed in Stockholm, and cyclists are hardly prioritised at
crossroads, which makes accessibility for cyclists quite low in Stockholm
(Alrutz et al. 2002, Elvik and Vaa 2005). Although Stockholm has a cycle plan,
it mainly focuses on cycling in the inner city and along special cycle routes (see
Trafikkontoret 2009 Trafikkontoret 2006, Gatu- och Fastighetskontoret
2004a, b). This, however, is not a major problem, since most problems for
cyclists occur in the inner city of Stockholm, while the cycling infrastructure in
the outskirts of Stockholm is quite good (Trafikkontoret 2010). In the
documents, the focus on Stockholms inner city is much more pronounced
than the focus on the outer parts of the city. The only existing bicycle plan for
the outer parts of Stockholm contains much less information and fewer
proposals, which is due to a better infrastructure in the outskirts, observable
when one is cycling through them (Trafikkontoret 2005).
Moreover, many good ideas and proposals in the plans, such as in-depth cycle
planning, building of cycle tracks etc., do not seem to be implemented in the

1 0 4
2 0 0 4 ( C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n 2 0 0 5 ) . W h a t i s s t r i k i n g i n t h e d o c u m e n t s a b o u t
t r a f f i c p u b l i s h e d b y t h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n i s t h a t c y c l i n g i s i n t e g r a t e d i n a l l
t h e d o c u m e n t s , w h i c h i m p l i e s t h a t c y c l i n g i s a l s o i n t e g r a t e d i n t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g i n g e n e r a l . D u r i n g a b i c y c l e t r i p t h r o u g h C o p e n h a g e n a n d f r o m
i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s ( i n t e r v i e w s w i t h R h l , J e n s e n , T r s l v a n d E l l e ) I g o t
t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t C o p e n h a g e n f o c u s e s a g r e a t d e a l o n p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s
a n d o n t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s i n o r d e r t o p r i o r i t i s e c y c l i s t s a n d m a k e
c y c l i n g s a f e r a n d m o r e a c c e s s i b l e .
P l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s h a s a s h o r t e r h i s t o r y i n S t o c k h o l m . T h e f i r s t b i c y c l e p l a n ,
w h i c h w a s a d o p t e d i n 1 9 7 6 , w a s m o r e o f a d e s i g n m a n u a l t h a n a p l a n , a n d n o t
m u c h o f i t w a s i m p l e m e n t e d ( i n t e r v i e w s w i t h I s a k s s o n a n d S p o l a n d e r ) . V e r y
l i t t l e h a p p e n e d b e f o r e 1 9 9 8 , a n d t h e f i r s t r e a l p l a n w a s a d o p t e d i n 1 9 9 8 i n
o r d e r t o c r e a t e a s y s t e m a t i c p l a n f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g m e a s u r e s f o r c y c l i n g
( i n t e r v i e w w i t h I s a k s s o n ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n S t o c k h o l m l e a d s
t o c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d c y c l i s t s , a s s e e n i n F i g u r e o n e . M u c h
o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n S t o c k h o l m i s b a s e d o n c y c l e l a n e s ( p a i n t e d o n t h e
s t r e e t s ) , a n d s i n c e t h e r e i s r a r e l y a n y s e p a r a t e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s , t h e y a r e
f o r c e d t o m i x w i t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c o n s t r e e t s a n d r o a d s w h e r e t h e s p e e d l i m i t
i s 5 0 k m / h o r h i g h e r . C y c l e l a n e s c a n b e s e e n a s a c h e a p w a y o f i n v e s t i n g i n a
b i c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h e y a r e b e t t e r t h a n n o i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a t a l l b u t c a n n o t
b e c o m p a r e d t o c y c l e t r a c k s , w h i c h a r e a m u c h b e t t e r w a y o f i m p r o v i n g t h e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s ( N i l s s o n 2 0 0 3 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , c y c l i n g a g a i n s t o n e - w a y
t r a f f i c i s n o t a l l o w e d i n S t o c k h o l m , a n d c y c l i s t s a r e h a r d l y p r i o r i t i s e d a t
c r o s s r o a d s , w h i c h m a k e s a c c e s s i b i l i t y f o r c y c l i s t s q u i t e l o w i n S t o c k h o l m
( A l r u t z e t a l . 2 0 0 2 , E l v i k a n d V a a 2 0 0 5 ) . A l t h o u g h S t o c k h o l m h a s a c y c l e p l a n ,
i t m a i n l y f o c u s e s o n c y c l i n g i n t h e i n n e r c i t y a n d a l o n g s p e c i a l c y c l e r o u t e s ( s e e
T r a f i k k o n t o r e t 2 0 0 9 T r a f i k k o n t o r e t 2 0 0 6 , G a t u - o c h F a s t i g h e t s k o n t o r e t
2 0 0 4 a , b ) . T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t a m a j o r p r o b l e m , s i n c e m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r
c y c l i s t s o c c u r i n t h e i n n e r c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m , w h i l e t h e c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n
t h e o u t s k i r t s o f S t o c k h o l m i s q u i t e g o o d ( T r a f i k k o n t o r e t 2 0 1 0 ) . I n t h e
d o c u m e n t s , t h e f o c u s o n S t o c k h o l m s i n n e r c i t y i s m u c h m o r e p r o n o u n c e d
t h a n t h e f o c u s o n t h e o u t e r p a r t s o f t h e c i t y . T h e o n l y e x i s t i n g b i c y c l e p l a n f o r
t h e o u t e r p a r t s o f S t o c k h o l m c o n t a i n s m u c h l e s s i n f o r m a t i o n a n d f e w e r
p r o p o s a l s , w h i c h i s d u e t o a b e t t e r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n t h e o u t s k i r t s , o b s e r v a b l e
w h e n o n e i s c y c l i n g t h r o u g h t h e m ( T r a f i k k o n t o r e t 2 0 0 5 ) .
M o r e o v e r , m a n y g o o d i d e a s a n d p r o p o s a l s i n t h e p l a n s , s u c h a s i n - d e p t h c y c l e
p l a n n i n g , b u i l d i n g o f c y c l e t r a c k s e t c . , d o n o t s e e m t o b e i m p l e m e n t e d i n t h e
1 0 4

1 0 5
u r b a n s p a c e s i n S t o c k h o l m , w h i c h c a n b e o b s e r v e d b y c y c l i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y
a n d w h i c h i s a l s o m e n t i o n e d b y p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n S t o c k h o l m ( i n t e r v i e w s w i t h
I s a k s s o n a n d S p o l a n d e r ) . H o w e v e r , s o m e i d e a s a n d m e a s u r e s h a v e a c t u a l l y
b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d a n d a l s o s h o w g o o d r e s u l t s ( G a t u - o c h F a s t i g h e t s k o n t o r e t
2 0 0 4 a , b , T r a f i k k o n t o r e t 2 0 0 5 , T r a f i k k o n t o r e t 2 0 0 6 ) . G r e e n w a v e s a r e a l s o
b e i n g d i s c u s s e d f o r c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m ( G a t u - o c h F a s t i g h e t s k o n t o r e t
2 0 0 4 b ) .
T h i s c h a p t e r h a s p r e s e n t e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s o f t h e t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e r e
a r e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f D e n m a r k a n d S w e d e n a n d
o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . I n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l
f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s w i l l b e a n a l y s e d .


105
urban spaces in Stockholm, which can be observed by cycling through the city
and which is also mentioned by practitioners in Stockholm (interviews with
Isaksson and Spolander). However, some ideas and measures have actually
been implemented and also show good results (Gatu- och Fastighetskontoret
2004a, b, Trafikkontoret 2005, Trafikkontoret 2006). Green waves are also
being discussed for cyclists in Stockholm (Gatu- och Fastighetskontoret
2004b).
This chapter has presented the differences and similarities of the transport
systems in Copenhagen and Stockholm. Furthermore, it has shown that there
are social and political similarities in the history of Denmark and Sweden and
of Copenhagen and Stockholm. In the next chapter the empirical material
from the interview studies will be analysed.

1 0 5

106
7 Vlomobility, planning and
politics The practitioners view

Der Strukturwandel der ffentlichkeit ist eingebettet in die Transformation von
Staat und konomie. (Habermas 1990 [1962]:21) (The structural change of
the public sphere is embedded in the transformation of state and economy.
Authors translation)

The aim of this chapter is to investigate the reason why some cities have a very
good infrastructure for cyclists and some do not. In order to do that, this
chapter examines planning for cycling and the politics of planning in
Copenhagen and Stockholm. The purpose is to analyse the different planning
perspectives in the two cities and develop a deeper understanding of how and
why transport planning can differ in two similar cities in two similar countries,
what affected and affects transport planning and why the results are so different
with a high share of cycling in Copenhagen and a low share in Stockholm. The
planning processes and the political processes in the cities have, of course, been
influenced by aspects mentioned before in this dissertation. Thus, the question
is why Copenhagen has such a good infrastructure for cyclists and such a high
share of cycling in the modal split and Stockholm has not. Although
Copenhagen has a good infrastructure and planning for cyclists, they have also
not managed to break the trend of high car ownership and a high share of car
traffic in the modal split. However, the car ownership per capita is less in
Copenhagen than in Stockholm and the modal split shows fewer car trips in
Copenhagen. That could mean that, to a certain degree, Copenhagen has
advanced a bit further than Stockholm when it comes to sustainable mobility
and vlomobility. Nevertheless, planning for cycling was not a sustainability
issue from the beginning, as will be shown later. The analysis of the data in this
chapter is connected to the theoretical discussions about power, space, political

1 0 6
7 V l o m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g a n d
p o l i t i c s T h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s v i e w

D e r S t r u k t u r w a n d e l d e r f f e n t l i c h k e i t i s t e i n g e b e t t e t i n d i e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n v o n
S t a a t u n d k o n o m i e . ( H a b e r m a s 1 9 9 0 [ 1 9 6 2 ] : 2 1 ) ( T h e s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e o f
t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e i s e m b e d d e d i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s t a t e a n d e c o n o m y .
A u t h o r s t r a n s l a t i o n )

T h e a i m o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e a s o n w h y s o m e c i t i e s h a v e a v e r y
g o o d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s a n d s o m e d o n o t . I n o r d e r t o d o t h a t , t h i s
c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h e p u r p o s e i s t o a n a l y s e t h e d i f f e r e n t p l a n n i n g
p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s a n d d e v e l o p a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w a n d
w h y t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g c a n d i f f e r i n t w o s i m i l a r c i t i e s i n t w o s i m i l a r c o u n t r i e s ,
w h a t a f f e c t e d a n d a f f e c t s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d w h y t h e r e s u l t s a r e s o d i f f e r e n t
w i t h a h i g h s h a r e o f c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d a l o w s h a r e i n S t o c k h o l m . T h e
p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n t h e c i t i e s h a v e , o f c o u r s e , b e e n
i n f l u e n c e d b y a s p e c t s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . T h u s , t h e q u e s t i o n
i s w h y C o p e n h a g e n h a s s u c h a g o o d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s a n d s u c h a h i g h
s h a r e o f c y c l i n g i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t a n d S t o c k h o l m h a s n o t . A l t h o u g h
C o p e n h a g e n h a s a g o o d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s , t h e y h a v e a l s o
n o t m a n a g e d t o b r e a k t h e t r e n d o f h i g h c a r o w n e r s h i p a n d a h i g h s h a r e o f c a r
t r a f f i c i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t . H o w e v e r , t h e c a r o w n e r s h i p p e r c a p i t a i s l e s s i n
C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m a n d t h e m o d a l s p l i t s h o w s f e w e r c a r t r i p s i n
C o p e n h a g e n . T h a t c o u l d m e a n t h a t , t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , C o p e n h a g e n h a s
a d v a n c e d a b i t f u r t h e r t h a n S t o c k h o l m w h e n i t c o m e s t o s u s t a i n a b l e m o b i l i t y
a n d v l o m o b i l i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g w a s n o t a s u s t a i n a b i l i t y
i s s u e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , a s w i l l b e s h o w n l a t e r . T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a i n t h i s
c h a p t e r i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t p o w e r , s p a c e , p o l i t i c a l
1 0 6

1 0 7
e c o n o m y a n d m o b i l i t y i n p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s . B y d o i n g t h i s I h o p e t o d e v e l o p a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m s i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s .
T h e f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e a f f e c t e d a n d c o n t i n u e t o a f f e c t p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s o r a s p e c t s .
I n t h i s c h a p t e r t h r e e m a i n a s p e c t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d a n d a n a l y s e d : ( i ) e c o n o m i c ,
s p a t i a l , c u l t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s , ( i i ) o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e
p l a n n i n g s y s t e m s a n d ( i i i ) t h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g i n t h e t w o c i t i e s .
7 . 1 S p a t i a l , e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l
a s p e c t s t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r a n d t h e
p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f m o b i l e s p a c e s
T r a n s p o r t a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i s d e p e n d e n t o n s t r u c t u r e s b e c a u s e p l a n n e r s a r e
p a r t o f t h e c u l t u r e a n d e c o n o m y t h e y a r e p l a n n i n g i n a n d t h e r e f o r e a f f e c t e d b y
t h o s e a s p e c t s . O n e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n b i c y c l e
p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m i s t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n t h e 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y , w h i c h i s d e p e n d e n t o n b o t h e c o n o m i c
a n d c u l t u r a l f o r c e s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e m a n y s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e c i t i e s , s u c h
a s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d d o m i n a n c e o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d t h e b u i l d i n g o f
r o a d s , t h e r e a r e , p r e c i s e l y w h e n i t c o m e s t o t h o s e a s p e c t s , a l s o i m p o r t a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s . T h o s e a s p e c t s a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k a b o u t
p o w e r , s p a c e , p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y a n d m o d e r n i s m d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r s 4 a n d 5
a b o v e .
I n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y , i t w a s c o m m o n i n S t o c k h o l m t o m i x t r a f f i c .
H o w e v e r , a l r e a d y i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s c a r t r a f f i c b e c a m e m o r e d o m i n a n t o n t h e
s t r e e t s o f S t o c k h o l m . D u r i n g a l o n g p e r i o d ( r o u g h l y f r o m t h e 1 9 4 0 s u n t i l t h e
l a t e 1 9 9 0 s ) n o n e w c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w a s b u i l t . T h e e c o n o m y o f S w e d e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m w a s g r o w i n g i n t h e p e r i o d a f t e r W o r l d W a r T w o . P e o p l e d i d n o t
l e a v e S t o c k h o l m d u r i n g t h e p o s t - w a r p e r i o d ( e x c e p t d u r i n g t h e g r e e n w a v e i n
t h e 1 9 7 0 s ) , b u t w e r e i n s t e a d m o v i n g t o S t o c k h o l m , g i v i n g t h e c i t y g o v e r n m e n t
h i g h t a x i n c o m e s a n d a b e t t e r b u d g e t t h a n i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h e d i f f e r e n t
d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t w o c i t i e s l e f t S t o c k h o l m w i t h
m o r e f i n a n c i a l m e a n s t h a n C o p e n h a g e n , w h i c h S t o c k h o l m i n v e s t e d i n t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s u b w a y a n d s e v e r a l h i g h w a y s a n d r o a d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c i t y

107
economy and mobility in previous chapters. By doing this I hope to develop an
understanding of the problems in transport planning that contributed to the
marginalisation of cyclists.
The factors that have affected and continue to affect planning for cycling in
Stockholm and Copenhagen can be divided into different categories or aspects.
In this chapter three main aspects are identified and analysed: (i) economic,
spatial, cultural and historical aspects, (ii) organizational features of the
planning systems and (iii) the politics of planning for cycling in the two cities.
7.1 Spatial, economic, cultural and historical
aspects the third dimension of power and the
political economy of mobile spaces
Transport and bicycle planning is dependent on structures because planners are
part of the culture and economy they are planning in and therefore affected by
those aspects. One important factor in explaining the differences in bicycle
planning in Copenhagen and Stockholm is the historical development of urban
transport planning in the 20
th
century, which is dependent on both economic
and cultural forces. While there are many similarities between the cities, such
as the introduction and dominance of motorised traffic and the building of
roads, there are, precisely when it comes to those aspects, also important
differences. Those aspects are closely related to the more theoretical work about
power, space, political economy and modernism described in Chapters 4 and 5
above.
In the first half of the 20
th
century, it was common in Stockholm to mix traffic.
However, already in the early 1950s car traffic became more dominant on the
streets of Stockholm. During a long period (roughly from the 1940s until the
late 1990s) no new cycle infrastructure was built. The economy of Sweden and
Stockholm was growing in the period after World War Two. People did not
leave Stockholm during the post-war period (except during the green wave in
the 1970s), but were instead moving to Stockholm, giving the city government
high tax incomes and a better budget than in Copenhagen. The different
developments of the economic structure of the two cities left Stockholm with
more financial means than Copenhagen, which Stockholm invested in the
construction of the subway and several highways and roads throughout the city
1 0 7

108
(interview Fager, Isaksson, Elle, Emanuel 2012). As Elle, the transport planner
with long involvement interviewed in Copenhagen explained:
Denmark and Copenhagen were poorer than Sweden and Stockholm after the
Second World War. We had small properties and still have in Copenhagen. Typical
is 50-60 m. And so the taxes on cars are quite high. We pay for three cars when
we buy one. So we pay twice as much as in Sweden when we buy a car. So we were
poorer then the Swedes and cars are more expensive than in Sweden. That is why
car ownership was quite low in Copenhagen. So we did not have the money to plan
for a city for cars, like Stockholm did. We did, during the 1950s and 1960s, have a
discussion about a subway system, but it was not realised, because we could not
come to an agreement with the national government. (interview Elle)
The transport planner Fager in Stockholm, who has long experience with
planning in Stockholm, described transport planning in Stockholm as follows:
When it comes to road traffic, the largest problem is that Stockholm is divided into
two parts of water and we can say that we have not built anything new since the
1960s, where we had several road projects. During that period the cenrtalbron
[central bridge] and Essingeleden [an inner city highway], which is today Swedens
most used road, were built and today we plan Frbifarten [a ring highway around
the inner city], which should be ready 2020/2022. (interview Fager)
The city of Copenhagen thought of cyclists already before modernism became
a dominant form within urban and transport planning. In the late 19
th
century
and early 20
th
century Copenhagen experienced conflicts between cyclists and
horses and carriages. Therefore, the planners planned for the first cycle tracks
and built them as well. The building of cycle infrastructure continued until car
traffic became more dominant in the 1960s. As Jensen, a bicycle planner in
Copenhagen with long experience of planning described it:
Copenhagen is quite different from other cities. Because the first bicycle track,
originally a bridle path, which the cyclists started to use, because there were bumpy
cobblestones on the street itself, was turned into a cycle track around 1905, and the
car, in relation to other cities, came into the picture quite late in Copenhagen. It
came first in the beginning of the 1960s. Then people in Denmark began to drive
more cars. (interview Jensen)
And he continued:
Even cycling decreased during the 1960s, but it never disappeared from
Copenhagen. This had much to do with the fact that Copenhagen already had an

1 0 8
( i n t e r v i e w F a g e r , I s a k s s o n , E l l e , E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . A s E l l e , t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r
w i t h l o n g i n v o l v e m e n t i n t e r v i e w e d i n C o p e n h a g e n e x p l a i n e d :
D e n m a r k a n d C o p e n h a g e n w e r e p o o r e r t h a n S w e d e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a f t e r t h e
S e c o n d W o r l d W a r . W e h a d s m a l l p r o p e r t i e s a n d s t i l l h a v e i n C o p e n h a g e n . T y p i c a l
i s 5 0 - 6 0 m . A n d s o t h e t a x e s o n c a r s a r e q u i t e h i g h . W e p a y f o r t h r e e c a r s w h e n
w e b u y o n e . S o w e p a y t w i c e a s m u c h a s i n S w e d e n w h e n w e b u y a c a r . S o w e w e r e
p o o r e r t h e n t h e S w e d e s a n d c a r s a r e m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n i n S w e d e n . T h a t i s w h y
c a r o w n e r s h i p w a s q u i t e l o w i n C o p e n h a g e n . S o w e d i d n o t h a v e t h e m o n e y t o p l a n
f o r a c i t y f o r c a r s , l i k e S t o c k h o l m d i d . W e d i d , d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s , h a v e a
d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t a s u b w a y s y s t e m , b u t i t w a s n o t r e a l i s e d , b e c a u s e w e c o u l d n o t
c o m e t o a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t . ( i n t e r v i e w E l l e )
T h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r F a g e r i n S t o c k h o l m , w h o h a s l o n g e x p e r i e n c e w i t h
p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m , d e s c r i b e d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a s f o l l o w s :
W h e n i t c o m e s t o r o a d t r a f f i c , t h e l a r g e s t p r o b l e m i s t h a t S t o c k h o l m i s d i v i d e d i n t o
t w o p a r t s o f w a t e r a n d w e c a n s a y t h a t w e h a v e n o t b u i l t a n y t h i n g n e w s i n c e t h e
1 9 6 0 s , w h e r e w e h a d s e v e r a l r o a d p r o j e c t s . D u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d t h e c e n r t a l b r o n
[ c e n t r a l b r i d g e ] a n d E s s i n g e l e d e n [ a n i n n e r c i t y h i g h w a y ] , w h i c h i s t o d a y S w e d e n s
m o s t u s e d r o a d , w e r e b u i l t a n d t o d a y w e p l a n F r b i f a r t e n [ a r i n g h i g h w a y a r o u n d
t h e i n n e r c i t y ] , w h i c h s h o u l d b e r e a d y 2 0 2 0 / 2 0 2 2 . ( i n t e r v i e w F a g e r )
T h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n t h o u g h t o f c y c l i s t s a l r e a d y b e f o r e m o d e r n i s m b e c a m e
a d o m i n a n t f o r m w i t h i n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . I n t h e l a t e 1 9
t h
c e n t u r y
a n d e a r l y 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y C o p e n h a g e n e x p e r i e n c e d c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d
h o r s e s a n d c a r r i a g e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p l a n n e r s p l a n n e d f o r t h e f i r s t c y c l e t r a c k s
a n d b u i l t t h e m a s w e l l . T h e b u i l d i n g o f c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e c o n t i n u e d u n t i l c a r
t r a f f i c b e c a m e m o r e d o m i n a n t i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s . A s J e n s e n , a b i c y c l e p l a n n e r i n
C o p e n h a g e n w i t h l o n g e x p e r i e n c e o f p l a n n i n g d e s c r i b e d i t :
C o p e n h a g e n i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r c i t i e s . B e c a u s e t h e f i r s t b i c y c l e t r a c k ,
o r i g i n a l l y a b r i d l e p a t h , w h i c h t h e c y c l i s t s s t a r t e d t o u s e , b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e b u m p y
c o b b l e s t o n e s o n t h e s t r e e t i t s e l f , w a s t u r n e d i n t o a c y c l e t r a c k a r o u n d 1 9 0 5 , a n d t h e
c a r , i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r c i t i e s , c a m e i n t o t h e p i c t u r e q u i t e l a t e i n C o p e n h a g e n . I t
c a m e f i r s t i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s . T h e n p e o p l e i n D e n m a r k b e g a n t o d r i v e
m o r e c a r s . ( i n t e r v i e w J e n s e n )
A n d h e c o n t i n u e d :
E v e n c y c l i n g d e c r e a s e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 s , b u t i t n e v e r d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m
C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s h a d m u c h t o d o w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t C o p e n h a g e n a l r e a d y h a d a n
1 0 8

1 0 9
e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r b i c y c l i n g , w h i c h w a s b u i l t b e f o r e t h e c a r c a m e i n t o t h e
p i c t u r e . T h i s i n f r a s t r u c t u r e h e l p e d t o k e e p t h e b i c y c l e a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t .
( i n t e r v i e w J e n s e n )
T h e S C A F T g u i d e l i n e s w e r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o D a n i s h i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s , b u t n e v e r
h a d t h e s a m e e f f e c t o n p l a n n i n g a s i n S w e d e n , e x c e p t i n s u b u r b a n a r e a s
p l a n n e d a n d b u i l t i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s , a s i n S w e d e n . S C A F T w a s
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o D a n i s h a n d t h e r e w e r e a t t e m p t s f r o m t h e p l a n n e r s t o
i m p l e m e n t t h e S C A F T g u i d e l i n e s a l s o i n C o p e n h a g e n , b u t t h e s a m e p l a n n e r s
t h o u g h t t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c i t y d i d n o t a l l o w t h a t ; t h u s i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s
t h e p l a n n e r s o f C o p e n h a g e n s t o p p e d s u c h a t t e m p t s . I n s t e a d t h e t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n e r s o f C o p e n h a g e n a d o p t e d t h e D u t c h p l a n n i n g i d e a l o f t h e w o o n e r f ,
s p e c i a l t r a f f i c c a l m i n g z o n e s w h e r e t r a f f i c i s i n t e g r a t e d . T h i s i d e a l w a s m u c h
l a t e r a d o p t e d i n S w e d e n a n d S t o c k h o l m ( i n t e r v i e w E l l e ) . T h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r
E l l e e x p l a i n s t h e s i t u a t i o n a s f o l l o w i n g :
w e l o o k e d a t h o w w e c a n u s e S C A F T . C a n w e r e b u i l d t h e e x i s t i n g s t r e e t s y s t e m ,
l i k e i t w a s d o n e i n s t e r m a l m i n S t o c k h o l m a r o u n d 1 9 7 5 , I t h i n k i t w a s . B u t
i t w a s v e r y , v e r y d i f f i c u l t . W i t h o u r s m a l l s t r e e t s . S o w h a t d o w e d o w i t h t h e
S C A F T s y s t e m ? I t w a s n o t a s u c c e s s . W e b u i l t t u n n e l s f o r p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s
u n d e r r o a d s a n d s t r e e t s f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , b u t t h a t w a s n o s u c c e s s e i t h e r . S o w h e n
t h e w o o n e r f ( h o m e z o n e ) w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n H o l l a n d w e t h o u g h t t h a t m i g h t b e
m o r e o f a t h i n g f o r C o p e n h a g e n . T h e n w e i n t r o d u c e d s p e e d l i m i t s a t 5 0 a n d 3 0
k m / h a n d m a d e c l e a r i n c e r t a i n s t r e e t s w h a t t h e r u l e s a r e . I t w a s a b o u t t h e
c o e x i s t e n c e o f p e d e s t r i a n s , c y c l i s t s a n d c a r s . A c e r t a i n l a w w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 7 6
a n d t h a t w a s i m p l e m e n t e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . H o w e v e r , i n 1 9 6 7 / 6 8 d i s c u s s i o n s
c a m e u p t o b u i l d h i g h w a y s t h r o u g h C o p e n h a g e n . B u t t h o s e i d e a s w e r e n o t p o p u l a r
a n d d i e d o u t i n 1 9 7 2 w h e n t h e D a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t d e c i d e d t h a t a l l s t r e e t s a n d
r o a d s w i t h i n t h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n a r e m u n i c i p a l s t r e e t s a n d r o a d s . ( i n t e r v i e w
E l l e )
E v e n t h o u g h C o p e n h a g e n s f o c u s o n c y c l i n g d e c r e a s e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d
1 9 7 0 s t h e e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s w a s t h e r e , w h i c h w a s a n a d v a n t a g e
t h a t S t o c k h o l m d i d n o t h a v e . B e c a u s e o f t h e l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f p l a n n i n g f o r
c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n ( f r o m t h e l a t e 1 9
t h
c e n t u r y ) a b i c y c l e c u l t u r e c o u l d ,
g r a d u a l l y , d e v e l o p i n C o p e n h a g e n , a n d a l s o , t o a l e s s e r e x t e n d t h o u g h , i n
D e n m a r k i n g e n e r a l . T h i s c a n b e e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e s t a t u s o f c y c l i n g a s a
p r o f e s s i o n a l s p o r t , w h i c h i s h i g h e r i n D e n m a r k t h a n i n S w e d e n . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
s o m e o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s h a d a n i m p a c t o n c y c l i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s
i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . O n e s u c h a s p e c t w a s t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r . S w e d e n w a s

109
existing infrastructure for bicycling, which was built before the car came into the
picture. This infrastructure helped to keep the bicycle as a mode of transport.
(interview Jensen)
The SCAFT guidelines were translated into Danish in the 1970s, but never
had the same effect on planning as in Sweden, except in suburban areas
planned and built in the 1960s and 1970s, as in Sweden. SCAFT was
translated into Danish and there were attempts from the planners to
implement the SCAFT guidelines also in Copenhagen, but the same planners
thought the physical structure of the city did not allow that; thus in the 1970s
the planners of Copenhagen stopped such attempts. Instead the transport
planners of Copenhagen adopted the Dutch planning ideal of the woonerf,
special traffic calming zones where traffic is integrated. This ideal was much
later adopted in Sweden and Stockholm (interview Elle). The transport planner
Elle explains the situation as following:
we looked at how we can use SCAFT. Can we rebuild the existing street system,
like it was done in stermalm in Stockholm around 1975, I think it was. But
it was very, very difficult. With our small streets. So what do we do with the
SCAFT system? It was not a success. We built tunnels for pedestrians and cyclists
under roads and streets for motorised traffic, but that was no success either. So when
the woonerf (home zone) was introduced in Holland we thought that might be
more of a thing for Copenhagen. Then we introduced speed limits at 50 and 30
km/h and made clear in certain streets what the rules are. It was about the
coexistence of pedestrians, cyclists and cars. A certain law was introduced in 1976
and that was implemented in the early 1980s. However, in 1967/68 discussions
came up to build highways through Copenhagen. But those ideas were not popular
and died out in 1972 when the Danish government decided that all streets and
roads within the city of Copenhagen are municipal streets and roads. (interview
Elle)
Even though Copenhagens focus on cycling decreased during the 1960s and
1970s the existing infrastructure for cyclists was there, which was an advantage
that Stockholm did not have. Because of the long tradition of planning for
cyclists in Copenhagen (from the late 19
th
century) a bicycle culture could,
gradually, develop in Copenhagen, and also, to a lesser extend though, in
Denmark in general. This can be exemplified by the status of cycling as a
professional sport, which is higher in Denmark than in Sweden. Furthermore,
some other historical aspects had an impact on cycling and planning for cyclists
in the two cities. One such aspect was the Second World War. Sweden was
1 0 9

110
neutral during the war, whereas Denmark was attacked and occupied by the
Germans, which affected the economy of Denmark and Copenhagen. During
the period after the war, Copenhagen was characterized by decline. People were
leaving the city for a better life in the suburbs or the countryside, which led
to a decrease of tax income for the city of Copenhagen. The planners of
Copenhagen, in fact, did propose some ideas for road and highway building
and also for a subway, but those ideas were financially not possible (interview
Elle and Rhl). As one transport planner, with long experience of transport and
urban planning in Copenhagen, puts it:
Copenhagen had no money to build a subway or highways, like Stockholm did,
which is why we continued our culture of planning for cyclists. (interview Elle)
The occupation of Denmark by the Germans also had an effect on the Danish
culture. The bike, already seen as a national symbol in Denmark, became even
more a symbol of freedom and Danish culture during the period of
occupation. It was seen as very Danish and was developed further after the
Second World War (interview Elle). However, until the early 1930s the way
bicycle traffic was handled was similar between Stockholm and Copenhagen.
Although Copenhagen was earlier in constructing bicycle paths, Stockholm
started with the same in the early 1900s as well. Thus, the negative turn for
bicycle traffic and planning in Stockholm came mainly after the Second World
War. It was also during that time many Swedish cities adapted the SCAFT
ideas and a delegation from Stockholm went to the USA to study the transport
systems. At that time Sweden had one of the highest densities of cars in Europe
and wanted to build the truly car-oriented city (Emanuel 2012 and Lundin
2010). Accordingly, Copenhagen has created the space or the materialities for
cycling. The production of such spaces in Copenhagen and the space for
motorised traffic in Stockholm are examples of how the cities have created two
different forms of urban space. Affected by different cultural and economic
structures, the planners and politicians have, consciously or not, created cities
for biking and motorised transport. The power relations at work for this
outcome can be seen in light of Lukes (2002) different dimensions of power
discussed in Chapter 4. Certain decisions can be observed, but certainly the
planners and politicians were unaware of some of the aspects behind the
decisions. However, as will be shown below, the space produced affects the
choice of mode of transport, and also shapes the power relations in urban
transport spaces and the mobility of the people.

1 1 0
n e u t r a l d u r i n g t h e w a r , w h e r e a s D e n m a r k w a s a t t a c k e d a n d o c c u p i e d b y t h e
G e r m a n s , w h i c h a f f e c t e d t h e e c o n o m y o f D e n m a r k a n d C o p e n h a g e n . D u r i n g
t h e p e r i o d a f t e r t h e w a r , C o p e n h a g e n w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y d e c l i n e . P e o p l e w e r e
l e a v i n g t h e c i t y f o r a b e t t e r l i f e i n t h e s u b u r b s o r t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , w h i c h l e d
t o a d e c r e a s e o f t a x i n c o m e f o r t h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n . T h e p l a n n e r s o f
C o p e n h a g e n , i n f a c t , d i d p r o p o s e s o m e i d e a s f o r r o a d a n d h i g h w a y b u i l d i n g
a n d a l s o f o r a s u b w a y , b u t t h o s e i d e a s w e r e f i n a n c i a l l y n o t p o s s i b l e ( i n t e r v i e w
E l l e a n d R h l ) . A s o n e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r , w i t h l o n g e x p e r i e n c e o f t r a n s p o r t a n d
u r b a n p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n , p u t s i t :
C o p e n h a g e n h a d n o m o n e y t o b u i l d a s u b w a y o r h i g h w a y s , l i k e S t o c k h o l m d i d ,
w h i c h i s w h y w e c o n t i n u e d o u r c u l t u r e o f p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s . ( i n t e r v i e w E l l e )
T h e o c c u p a t i o n o f D e n m a r k b y t h e G e r m a n s a l s o h a d a n e f f e c t o n t h e D a n i s h
c u l t u r e . T h e b i k e , a l r e a d y s e e n a s a n a t i o n a l s y m b o l i n D e n m a r k , b e c a m e e v e n
m o r e a s y m b o l o f f r e e d o m a n d D a n i s h c u l t u r e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f
o c c u p a t i o n . I t w a s s e e n a s v e r y D a n i s h a n d w a s d e v e l o p e d f u r t h e r a f t e r t h e
S e c o n d W o r l d W a r ( i n t e r v i e w E l l e ) . H o w e v e r , u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s t h e w a y
b i c y c l e t r a f f i c w a s h a n d l e d w a s s i m i l a r b e t w e e n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n .
A l t h o u g h C o p e n h a g e n w a s e a r l i e r i n c o n s t r u c t i n g b i c y c l e p a t h s , S t o c k h o l m
s t a r t e d w i t h t h e s a m e i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 s a s w e l l . T h u s , t h e n e g a t i v e t u r n f o r
b i c y c l e t r a f f i c a n d p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m c a m e m a i n l y a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d
W a r . I t w a s a l s o d u r i n g t h a t t i m e m a n y S w e d i s h c i t i e s a d a p t e d t h e S C A F T
i d e a s a n d a d e l e g a t i o n f r o m S t o c k h o l m w e n t t o t h e U S A t o s t u d y t h e t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m s . A t t h a t t i m e S w e d e n h a d o n e o f t h e h i g h e s t d e n s i t i e s o f c a r s i n E u r o p e
a n d w a n t e d t o b u i l d t h e t r u l y c a r - o r i e n t e d c i t y ( E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 a n d L u n d i n
2 0 1 0 ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , C o p e n h a g e n h a s c r e a t e d t h e s p a c e o r t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s f o r
c y c l i n g . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u c h s p a c e s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d t h e s p a c e f o r
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n S t o c k h o l m a r e e x a m p l e s o f h o w t h e c i t i e s h a v e c r e a t e d t w o
d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f u r b a n s p a c e . A f f e c t e d b y d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m i c
s t r u c t u r e s , t h e p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s h a v e , c o n s c i o u s l y o r n o t , c r e a t e d c i t i e s
f o r b i k i n g a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a n s p o r t . T h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a t w o r k f o r t h i s
o u t c o m e c a n b e s e e n i n l i g h t o f L u k e s ( 2 0 0 2 ) d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r
d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 4 . C e r t a i n d e c i s i o n s c a n b e o b s e r v e d , b u t c e r t a i n l y t h e
p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s w e r e u n a w a r e o f s o m e o f t h e a s p e c t s b e h i n d t h e
d e c i s i o n s . H o w e v e r , a s w i l l b e s h o w n b e l o w , t h e s p a c e p r o d u c e d a f f e c t s t h e
c h o i c e o f m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t , a n d a l s o s h a p e s t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n
t r a n s p o r t s p a c e s a n d t h e m o b i l i t y o f t h e p e o p l e .
1 1 0

1 1 1
A s s h o w n a b o v e , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s t h a t i n f l u e n c e p l a n n e r s
p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f u r b a n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r
c y c l i s t s . O n e o t h e r a s p e c t i s s t r u c t u r e s o u t o f r e a c h f o r t o d a y s p l a n n e r s , s u c h a s
t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s , w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e F o r d i s t
p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s a n d t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n m a n y c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e
w o r l d ( s e e F o s t e r 2 0 0 2 , G a r t m a n 2 0 0 4 , P a t e r s o n 2 0 0 7 ) . T h i s h a s b e e n
e x p l a i n e d a n d e x e m p l i f i e d i n C h a p t e r 5 . T h o s e a s p e c t s h a v e a f f e c t e d p l a n n e r s
a n d p o l i t i c i a n s a l s o o n t h e u r b a n l e v e l . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h o s e
e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s e x i s t a n d t h a t , a s M a r c u s e ( 2 0 0 2 [ 1 9 6 4 ] ) ( s e e a l s o C h a p t e r
5 ) s e e s i t , l e a d t o o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l s o c i e t i e s , w h e r e i n t h e c a s e o f t r a n s p o r t a n d
v l o m o b i l i t y , c y c l i s t s a r e m a r g i n a l i s e d a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i s s t i l l v e r y
d o m i n a n t . T h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f a u t o m o b i l i t y s e e m s t o h a v e a l a r g e r
i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n a c o u n t r y l i k e S w e d e n w i t h a c a r i n d u s t r y
( M e l i n 2 0 0 0 ) . H o w e v e r , m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i s a l s o v e r y d o m i n a n t i n
C o p e n h a g e n ( s e e T a b l e 2 i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r ) . T h e e f f e c t s o f t h a t c a n a l s o
b e s e e n i n t h e s t a t i s t i c s o f t h e s u r v e y s t u d y i n C h a p t e r 8 .
F u r t h e r m o r e , c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a r e o f
i m p o r t a n c e . T h r o u g h t h e f a c t t h a t D e n m a r k h a s n o c a r i n d u s t r y t h e c o u n t r y ,
b u t e s p e c i a l l y C o p e n h a g e n , i s m o r e e a g e r t o s t a n d u p f o r c y c l i s t s r i g h t s a n d t o
r e s t r i c t c a r d r i v i n g , t h a n S w e d e n a n d S t o c k h o l m f o r e x a m p l e b y a l l o w i n g
c y c l i s t s t o b i k e a g a i n s t o n e - w a y t r a f f i c o r b y h a v i n g h i g h t a x e s o n c a r p u r c h a s e s .
T h e r e f o r e , a c y c l i n g c u l t u r e c o u l d d e v e l o p i n C o p e n h a g e n .
A s E l l e s a i d , w h e n a s k e d i f t h e f a c t t h a t D e n m a r k d o e s n o t h a v e a c a r - i n d u s t r y
m a t t e r s :
I d o n t k n o w i f D e n m a r k w o u l d h a v e h a d s u c h h i g h t a x e s o n c a r s i f w e h a d o u r
o w n c a r i n d u s t r y . P r o b a b l y n o t . S o t h e r e f o r e i t i s o f i m p o r t a n c e . I t w a s m u c h e a s i e r
t o h a v e h i g h t a x e s o n c a r s s i n c e t h e y a r e n o t p r o d u c e d i n D e n m a r k . ( i n t e r v i e w E l l e ) .
S p o l a n d e r , a s e n i o r c o n s u l t a n t i n S t o c k h o l m w h o w o r k s w i t h t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g , s a i d , w h e n a s k e d t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n a b o u t S t o c k h o l m a n d S w e d e n :
A l s o , t h e c o s t s f o r d r i v i n g a n d p u r c h a s i n g a c a r a r e q u i t e l o w i n S w e d e n a n d t h a t
h a s o f c o u r s e a n i m p a c t o n s o c i e t y , p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s . B u t i t i s h a r d t o
s a y e x a c t l y t o w h a t e x t e n t . ( i n t e r v i e w S p o l a n d e r )
F u r t h e r m o r e , S p o l a n d e r w r i t e s i n h i s b o o k a b o u t c a r s i n S w e d e n ( 2 0 0 7 ) :

111
As shown above, there are several historical aspects that influence planners
perspectives and the outcome of urban transport planning and planning for
cyclists. One other aspect is structures out of reach for todays planners, such as
the economic structures of the capitalist societies, which include the Fordist
production of cars and the marginalisation of cyclists in many cities around the
world (see Foster 2002, Gartman 2004, Paterson 2007). This has been
explained and exemplified in Chapter 5. Those aspects have affected planners
and politicians also on the urban level. It is important to understand that those
economic structures exist and that, as Marcuse (2002 [1964]) (see also Chapter
5) sees it, lead to one-dimensional societies, where in the case of transport and
vlomobility, cyclists are marginalised and motorised traffic is still very
dominant. The political economy of automobility seems to have a larger
impact on transport planning in a country like Sweden with a car industry
(Melin 2000). However, motorised traffic is also very dominant in
Copenhagen (see Table 2 in the previous chapter). The effects of that can also
be seen in the statistics of the survey study in Chapter 8.
Furthermore, cultural differences between Copenhagen and Stockholm are of
importance. Through the fact that Denmark has no car industry the country,
but especially Copenhagen, is more eager to stand up for cyclists rights and to
restrict car driving, than Sweden and Stockholm for example by allowing
cyclists to bike against one-way traffic or by having high taxes on car purchases.
Therefore, a cycling culture could develop in Copenhagen.
As Elle said, when asked if the fact that Denmark does not have a car-industry
matters:
I dont know if Denmark would have had such high taxes on cars if we had our
own car industry. Probably not. So therefore it is of importance. It was much easier
to have high taxes on cars since they are not produced in Denmark.(interview Elle).
Spolander, a senior consultant in Stockholm who works with transport
planning, said, when asked the same question about Stockholm and Sweden:
Also, the costs for driving and purchasing a car are quite low in Sweden and that
has of course an impact on society, planning and political decisions. But it is hard to
say exactly to what extent. (interview Spolander)
Furthermore, Spolander writes in his book about cars in Sweden (2007):
1 1 1

112
Volvo and Saab have dominated the Swedish car market. By that dominance
Volvo and Saab have during the years influenced our impression of cars, how they
should be and how they should be driven. (Spolander 2007: 62-63)
Thus, it seems that having a car-industry or not has an impact on our societies
and how we plan our transport systems, but as Spolander said in the interview,
one cannot say for sure to what extent the car industry matters.
In Sweden the car was seen as a tool for gaining freedom for the working class
and could therefore, due to a strong working class movement in the 1950s, 60s
and 70s, inhabit a very strong position in the Swedish culture. Due to the fact
that workers could afford a car they could take trips out of the dirty industrial
areas and cities into the countryside. This can also partly be said about
Denmark, especially when looking at the movements to the suburbs.
Moreover, the connection between freedom and the car is similar in Denmark
and Sweden. However, there are differences between Sweden/Stockholm and
Denmark/Copenhagen. The city of Copenhagen is quite different from the rest
of Denmark, where cycling does not have such a dominant position. Cycling
has been and still is important in Copenhagen, but this focus is not comparable
in the rest of Denmark. Similar the city of Stockholm is quite different from
the rest of Sweden in terms of public transport and cycling. As Trslv, the
head of the centre of transport in Copenhagen put it when I interviewed him:
It is special in Copenhagen. Although other larger Danish cities, rhus, Aalborg,
Odense, also have strong bicycle cultures and a good infrastructure. But what we
do in Copenhagen leads other cities and shows the way. We find our partners rather
in other big cities like Stockholm, Hamburg and the like. Not so much in
Denmark, where Copenhagen, as it is, is special. (interview Trslv)
That is different in Sweden, where the domination of motorised traffic and the
marginalisation of bicycling cannot only be limited to Stockholm. Similar
trends happened in other urban areas around Sweden (interview Spolander,
Emanuel 2012). However, these structures are not easy to observe, which is
why they are also very effective. This is what Lukes sees as the third dimension
of power, where people are influenced without recognising it (Lukes 2005, see
quote by Spolander above). The structures at work influence planners,
politicians and also the people moving around in the cities, which has led to
the marginalisation of cyclists in the urban space of Stockholm. The behaviour
of people might also be influenced by the power relations and structures in the
city and lead to the use of certain modes of transport. However, Lukes

1 1 2
V o l v o a n d S a a b h a v e d o m i n a t e d t h e S w e d i s h c a r m a r k e t . B y t h a t d o m i n a n c e
V o l v o a n d S a a b h a v e d u r i n g t h e y e a r s i n f l u e n c e d o u r i m p r e s s i o n o f c a r s , h o w t h e y
s h o u l d b e a n d h o w t h e y s h o u l d b e d r i v e n . ( S p o l a n d e r 2 0 0 7 : 6 2 - 6 3 )
T h u s , i t s e e m s t h a t h a v i n g a c a r - i n d u s t r y o r n o t h a s a n i m p a c t o n o u r s o c i e t i e s
a n d h o w w e p l a n o u r t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , b u t a s S p o l a n d e r s a i d i n t h e i n t e r v i e w ,
o n e c a n n o t s a y f o r s u r e t o w h a t e x t e n t t h e c a r i n d u s t r y m a t t e r s .
I n S w e d e n t h e c a r w a s s e e n a s a t o o l f o r g a i n i n g f r e e d o m f o r t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s
a n d c o u l d t h e r e f o r e , d u e t o a s t r o n g w o r k i n g c l a s s m o v e m e n t i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , 6 0 s
a n d 7 0 s , i n h a b i t a v e r y s t r o n g p o s i t i o n i n t h e S w e d i s h c u l t u r e . D u e t o t h e f a c t
t h a t w o r k e r s c o u l d a f f o r d a c a r t h e y c o u l d t a k e t r i p s o u t o f t h e d i r t y i n d u s t r i a l
a r e a s a n d c i t i e s i n t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h i s c a n a l s o p a r t l y b e s a i d a b o u t
D e n m a r k , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n l o o k i n g a t t h e m o v e m e n t s t o t h e s u b u r b s .
M o r e o v e r , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n f r e e d o m a n d t h e c a r i s s i m i l a r i n D e n m a r k
a n d S w e d e n . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n S w e d e n / S t o c k h o l m a n d
D e n m a r k / C o p e n h a g e n . T h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r e s t
o f D e n m a r k , w h e r e c y c l i n g d o e s n o t h a v e s u c h a d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n . C y c l i n g
h a s b e e n a n d s t i l l i s i m p o r t a n t i n C o p e n h a g e n , b u t t h i s f o c u s i s n o t c o m p a r a b l e
i n t h e r e s t o f D e n m a r k . S i m i l a r t h e c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m
t h e r e s t o f S w e d e n i n t e r m s o f p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a n d c y c l i n g . A s T r s l v , t h e
h e a d o f t h e c e n t r e o f t r a n s p o r t i n C o p e n h a g e n p u t i t w h e n I i n t e r v i e w e d h i m :
I t i s s p e c i a l i n C o p e n h a g e n . A l t h o u g h o t h e r l a r g e r D a n i s h c i t i e s , r h u s , A a l b o r g ,
O d e n s e , a l s o h a v e s t r o n g b i c y c l e c u l t u r e s a n d a g o o d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . B u t w h a t w e
d o i n C o p e n h a g e n l e a d s o t h e r c i t i e s a n d s h o w s t h e w a y . W e f i n d o u r p a r t n e r s r a t h e r
i n o t h e r b i g c i t i e s l i k e S t o c k h o l m , H a m b u r g a n d t h e l i k e . N o t s o m u c h i n
D e n m a r k , w h e r e C o p e n h a g e n , a s i t i s , i s s p e c i a l . ( i n t e r v i e w T r s l v )
T h a t i s d i f f e r e n t i n S w e d e n , w h e r e t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d t h e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f b i c y c l i n g c a n n o t o n l y b e l i m i t e d t o S t o c k h o l m . S i m i l a r
t r e n d s h a p p e n e d i n o t h e r u r b a n a r e a s a r o u n d S w e d e n ( i n t e r v i e w S p o l a n d e r ,
E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e n o t e a s y t o o b s e r v e , w h i c h i s
w h y t h e y a r e a l s o v e r y e f f e c t i v e . T h i s i s w h a t L u k e s s e e s a s t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n
o f p o w e r , w h e r e p e o p l e a r e i n f l u e n c e d w i t h o u t r e c o g n i s i n g i t ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 , s e e
q u o t e b y S p o l a n d e r a b o v e ) . T h e s t r u c t u r e s a t w o r k i n f l u e n c e p l a n n e r s ,
p o l i t i c i a n s a n d a l s o t h e p e o p l e m o v i n g a r o u n d i n t h e c i t i e s , w h i c h h a s l e d t o
t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n t h e u r b a n s p a c e o f S t o c k h o l m . T h e b e h a v i o u r
o f p e o p l e m i g h t a l s o b e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e
c i t y a n d l e a d t o t h e u s e o f c e r t a i n m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t . H o w e v e r , L u k e s
1 1 2

1 1 3
p e r s p e c t i v e l a c k s a s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n , w h i c h i s w h y f o r a m o r e t h o r o u g h
a n a l y s i s o f s u c h s t r u c t u r a l f o r m s o f p o w e r t h a t a f f e c t t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g A l l e n s
t h e o r y o f s e d u c t i v e a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l p o w e r c a n e x p l a i n t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n
u r b a n p u b l i c s p a c e m o r e t h o r o u g h l y ( A l l e n 2 0 0 3 , 2 0 0 6 ) . P o w e r , a c c o r d i n g t o
b o t h A l l e n a n d L u k e s , i s n o t a t h i n g , b u t i s c r e a t e d i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s .
T h e r e f o r e , s o m e f o r m s o f p o w e r a r e h a r d t o o b s e r v e , a n d t h o s e u n o b s e r v a b l e
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e f o r m o f t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s o f , f o r e x a m p l e t h e c a r
i n d u s t r y , a r e e v e n m o r e e f f e c t i v e ( A l l e n 2 0 0 3 , L u k e s 2 0 0 5 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , c u l t u r a l , s p a t i a l a n d e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s f o r m p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n
b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n t h a t f o c u s o n a n d f a v o u r d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f
t r a n s p o r t . I n S t o c k h o l m t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s l e a d t o p l a n n i n g f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
p u b l i c t r a n s i t , w h e r e a s C o p e n h a g e n h a s b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y s u c h r e l a t i o n s a n d
s t r u c t u r e s t o p l a n f o r c y c l i s t s . T h a t m e a n s f o r e x a m p l e t h a t d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t
C o p e n h a g e n a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r w a s q u i t e p o o r c o m p a r e d t o
S t o c k h o l m , i d e a s o f m a j o r m o d e r n i s t i c p l a n n i n g c o u l d n o t b e r e a l i s e d .
M o r e o v e r , t h e l a c k o f a d o m e s t i c c a r i n d u s t r y a l s o a f f e c t e d t h e p l a n n i n g
o u t c o m e i n C o p e n h a g e n . I t i s i n t h o s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , b o t h o b s e r v a b l e a n d
u n o b s e r v a b l e , o n e f i n d s e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r w h y t h e u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s o f
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n d i f f e r f r o m e a c h o t h e r , a n d w h y C o p e n h a g e n h a s
s u c h a g o o d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s a n d S t o c k h o l m h a s n o t . A s E l l e e x p l a i n s
i t :
B e c a u s e o f t h e e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , C o p e n h a g e n a n d
a l s o D e n m a r k w a s q u i t e p o o r T h e r e f o r e , p e o p l e i n C o p e n h a g e n d i d n o t b u y c a r s
a n d c a r o w n e r s h i p w a s v e r y l o w a n d i s q u i t e l o w t o d a y . B e c a u s e o f t h a t t h e
g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d i n t r o d u c e h i g h t a x e s o n p u r c h a s e s o f c a r s . W e p a y f o r t h r e e c a r s i n
D e n m a r k , w h e n w e b u y o n e c a r a n d w e p a y t w i c e a s m u c h f o r r e g i s t e r i n g a c a r a s
i n S w e d e n . S o w e h a d n o m o n e y a n d i t w a s m u c h m o r e e x p a n s i v e t o b u y a c a r i n
D e n m a r k t h a n i t w a s i n S w e d e n . T h u s , w e h a d f e w e r c a r s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
t h e r e f o r e n e v e r p l a n n e d f o r a c a r - c e n t r i c c i t y l i k e S t o c k h o l m d i d . ( i n t e r v i e w E l l e )
T h e e c o n o m i c a n d t h e d e v e l o p e d c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e s i n S w e d e n a n d D e n m a r k
a l s o a f f e c t t h e t h i n k i n g a b o u t u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . A l t h o u g h t h e r e
a r e s i m i l a r i t i e s w h e n i t c o m e s t o p l a n n i n g i n g e n e r a l i n S w e d e n a n d D e n m a r k ,
a n d a l s o i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n , t h e r e a r e n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s .
M o d e r n i s m f o r e x a m p l e h a s , v e r y e f f e c t i v e l y , i n f l u e n c e d p l a n n i n g a n d
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d d u r i n g t h e 2 0
t h
c e n t u r y . A l t h o u g h
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m h a v e a s i m i l a r s h a r e o f c a r t r i p s i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t ,
t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s a n d t h u s t h e c a r i n d u s t r y c a n e x p l a i n t h e

113
perspective lacks a spatial dimension, which is why for a more thorough
analysis of such structural forms of power that affect transport planning Allens
theory of seductive and geographical power can explain the power relations in
urban public space more thoroughly (Allen 2003, 2006). Power, according to
both Allen and Lukes, is not a thing, but is created in social relations.
Therefore, some forms of power are hard to observe, and those unobservable
power relations in the form of the economic structures of, for example the car
industry, are even more effective (Allen 2003, Lukes 2005). Furthermore, the
social relations, cultural, spatial and economic aspects form power relations in
both Stockholm and Copenhagen that focus on and favour different modes of
transport. In Stockholm those structures lead to planning for motorised traffic
public transit, whereas Copenhagen has been influenced by such relations and
structures to plan for cyclists. That means for example that due to the fact that
Copenhagen after the Second World War was quite poor compared to
Stockholm, ideas of major modernistic planning could not be realised.
Moreover, the lack of a domestic car industry also affected the planning
outcome in Copenhagen. It is in those power relations, both observable and
unobservable, one finds explanations for why the urban transport systems of
Stockholm and Copenhagen differ from each other, and why Copenhagen has
such a good infrastructure for cyclists and Stockholm has not. As Elle explains
it:
Because of the economic situation after the Second World War, Copenhagen and
also Denmark was quite poor Therefore, people in Copenhagen did not buy cars
and car ownership was very low and is quite low today. Because of that the
government could introduce high taxes on purchases of cars. We pay for three cars in
Denmark, when we buy one car and we pay twice as much for registering a car as
in Sweden. So we had no money and it was much more expansive to buy a car in
Denmark than it was in Sweden. Thus, we had fewer cars in Copenhagen and
therefore never planned for a car-centric city like Stockholm did. (interview Elle)
The economic and the developed cultural structures in Sweden and Denmark
also affect the thinking about urban and transport planning. Although there
are similarities when it comes to planning in general in Sweden and Denmark,
and also in Stockholm and Copenhagen, there are noticeable differences.
Modernism for example has, very effectively, influenced planning and
transport planning all over the world during the 20
th
century. Although
Copenhagen and Stockholm have a similar share of car trips in the modal split,
the economic structures and thus the car industry can explain the
1 1 3

114
marginalisation, in Sweden in general and Stockholm in particular, of planning
for cycling than generally in Denmark and particularly in Copenhagen (for
more details on the power of the car industry see Paterson 2007). These
economic structures that affect transport planning can be connected to
Harveys analysis of capitalism and urban planning. He sees similar structures
that shape urban design, urban developments and urban planning, leaving
several groups outside of the planning processes and thereby outside of shaping
the city (Harvey 1989, 2005, 2006a, 2008). The same seems to be happening
in transport planning when more infrastructure for motorised traffic is being
built, or has been built, leaving groups, like cyclists, marginalized in urban
spaces. The system of automobility, as Urry (2004) calls it, can therefore be
seen as a dominant form of transport, which has formed urban settings and our
culture. Therefore, this system has influenced planning in both Denmark and
Sweden. However, the influence is greater in countries with a car industry (see
quotes from interviews above, Spolander 2006 and Melin 2000).
The historical aspects mentioned above, together with the cultural and
economic differences, explain why Copenhagen did not invest in new
infrastructure for motorised traffic or for public transport, but continued to
plan for cyclists, after World War Two. Thus, in conclusion the focus in
Stockholm has long been on public transport and motorised traffic, whereas
the focus in Copenhagen has long been on cycling. This can, partly, also be
explained by the economic structures of the two cities and Sweden and
Denmark. Moreover, the politics in Copenhagen and Stockholm also had an
impact on the planning of the transport system and the fact that Copenhagen
has planned more for cyclists than Stockholm. This is analysed in Chapter 7.3.
7.2 Organisational aspects
During the research on Copenhagen and Stockholm and during the analysis of
the interviews it became clear that there are organisational differences between
Copenhagen and Stockholm, which affect transport planning in general and
bicycle planning in particular.
In Stockholm there is one administration for transport planning, one for urban
planning, one for environmental questions etc. The department of transport
planning is part of urban planning more as a consulting authority, to take a

1 1 4
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n , i n S w e d e n i n g e n e r a l a n d S t o c k h o l m i n p a r t i c u l a r , o f p l a n n i n g
f o r c y c l i n g t h a n g e n e r a l l y i n D e n m a r k a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n C o p e n h a g e n ( f o r
m o r e d e t a i l s o n t h e p o w e r o f t h e c a r i n d u s t r y s e e P a t e r s o n 2 0 0 7 ) . T h e s e
e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a f f e c t t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g c a n b e c o n n e c t e d t o
H a r v e y s a n a l y s i s o f c a p i t a l i s m a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g . H e s e e s s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e s
t h a t s h a p e u r b a n d e s i g n , u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g , l e a v i n g
s e v e r a l g r o u p s o u t s i d e o f t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e r e b y o u t s i d e o f s h a p i n g
t h e c i t y ( H a r v e y 1 9 8 9 , 2 0 0 5 , 2 0 0 6 a , 2 0 0 8 ) . T h e s a m e s e e m s t o b e h a p p e n i n g
i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g w h e n m o r e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i s b e i n g
b u i l t , o r h a s b e e n b u i l t , l e a v i n g g r o u p s , l i k e c y c l i s t s , m a r g i n a l i z e d i n u r b a n
s p a c e s . T h e s y s t e m o f a u t o m o b i l i t y , a s U r r y ( 2 0 0 4 ) c a l l s i t , c a n t h e r e f o r e b e
s e e n a s a d o m i n a n t f o r m o f t r a n s p o r t , w h i c h h a s f o r m e d u r b a n s e t t i n g s a n d o u r
c u l t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s s y s t e m h a s i n f l u e n c e d p l a n n i n g i n b o t h D e n m a r k a n d
S w e d e n . H o w e v e r , t h e i n f l u e n c e i s g r e a t e r i n c o u n t r i e s w i t h a c a r i n d u s t r y ( s e e
q u o t e s f r o m i n t e r v i e w s a b o v e , S p o l a n d e r 2 0 0 6 a n d M e l i n 2 0 0 0 ) .
T h e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c u l t u r a l a n d
e c o n o m i c d i f f e r e n c e s , e x p l a i n w h y C o p e n h a g e n d i d n o t i n v e s t i n n e w
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c o r f o r p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t , b u t c o n t i n u e d t o
p l a n f o r c y c l i s t s , a f t e r W o r l d W a r T w o . T h u s , i n c o n c l u s i o n t h e f o c u s i n
S t o c k h o l m h a s l o n g b e e n o n p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , w h e r e a s
t h e f o c u s i n C o p e n h a g e n h a s l o n g b e e n o n c y c l i n g . T h i s c a n , p a r t l y , a l s o b e
e x p l a i n e d b y t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e t w o c i t i e s a n d S w e d e n a n d
D e n m a r k . M o r e o v e r , t h e p o l i t i c s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a l s o h a d a n
i m p a c t o n t h e p l a n n i n g o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m a n d t h e f a c t t h a t C o p e n h a g e n
h a s p l a n n e d m o r e f o r c y c l i s t s t h a n S t o c k h o l m . T h i s i s a n a l y s e d i n C h a p t e r 7 . 3 .
7 . 2 O r g a n i s a t i o n a l a s p e c t s
D u r i n g t h e r e s e a r c h o n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a n d d u r i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f
t h e i n t e r v i e w s i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e r e a r e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , w h i c h a f f e c t t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n g e n e r a l a n d
b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r .
I n S t o c k h o l m t h e r e i s o n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , o n e f o r u r b a n
p l a n n i n g , o n e f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s e t c . T h e d e p a r t m e n t o f t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g i s p a r t o f u r b a n p l a n n i n g m o r e a s a c o n s u l t i n g a u t h o r i t y , t o t a k e a
1 1 4

1 1 5
l o o k a t t h e w o r k o f t h e u r b a n p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t w h e n t h e y f i n i s h e d t h e i r
w o r k , i n o r d e r t o m a k e s o m e r e m a r k s . I n t h e s e p r o c e s s e s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i s
n e g l e c t e d , a n d e v e n m o r e p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s , w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e t h e l o w e s t
p r i o r i t y w i t h i n t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t i n S t o c k h o l m . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
d u r i n g t h e t i m e o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r t h i s t h e s i s ( 2 0 1 0 - 2 0 1 1 ) S t o c k h o l m
h a d o n l y o n e p e r s o n w o r k i n g f u l l t i m e w i t h b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g , K r i s t e r I s a k s s o n ,
w h e r e a s C o p e n h a g e n h a s a w h o l e d i v i s i o n w o r k i n g o n p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s .
M o r e o v e r , I s a k s s o n , w h o w a s w o r k i n g i n S t o c k h o l m w i t h b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g ,
c h a n g e d j o b s a n d d o e s n o t w o r k f o r t h e c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m a n y m o r e . A t t h e
t i m e o f w r i t i n g t h e r e a r e n o p l a n s t o r e p l a c e t h i s p e r s o n w i t h a n e w b i c y c l e
p l a n n e r . T h a t c o u l d b e a s i g n o f l o w a p p r e c i a t i o n o f p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s , b u t
c o u l d a l s o b e s e e n a s a s t a r t t o g e t b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n t o a l l p a r t s o f t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m , w h i c h w o u l d b e v e r y g o o d , e s p e c i a l l y i n a t i m e w h e r e
c y c l i n g i s i n c r e a s i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i s
v e r y i m p o r t a n t . A s I s a k s s o n , t h e b i c y c l e p l a n n e r f r o m S t o c k h o l m , p u t s i t i n t h e
i n t e r v i e w :
I n p r i n c i p l e i t i s o n l y m e w h o w o r k s w i t h b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g f u l l t i m e . B u t I h a v e
c o l l e a g u e s w h o h e l p m e i n d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s . T h e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r
d e p a r t m e n t s , f o r e x a m p l e t h e u r b a n p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t , e x i s t s , b u t t o a f a r t o o
l i t t l e e x t e n t . I t i s o f t e n t h e c a s e t h a t a r e a s a r e p l a n n e d f i r s t a n d l a t e r c y c l i n g c o m e s
i n , w h i c h i s f a r t o o l a t e . I t i s a l s o f i r s t d u r i n g t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s t h a t b i c y c l e
p l a n n i n g h a s c o m e o n t h e m a p f o r u r b a n p l a n n e r s a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s .
M o r e o v e r , t h e r e i s a l a c k o f c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a n d t h e r e g i o n .
T h e r e a r e m a n y w h o l i k e t o b i k e i n t o S t o c k h o l m f r o m o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , b u t t h e
c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n S t o c k h o l m a n d o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s i s i n p r i n c i p l e n o t e x i s t e n t .
F o r e x a m p l e , i t d o e s n o t a t a l l g o w e l l f o r b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g b e t w e e n S t o c k h o l m a n d
S o l n a . ( i n t e r v i e w I s a k s s o n )
I n C o p e n h a g e n t h e u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t s a r e u n d e r t h e
s a m e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r T e c h n o l o g y a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a n d h a v e t o w o r k i n
c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h i s k i n d o f o r g a n i s a t i o n o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g h a s r o u g h l y a l w a y s b e e n a s i t i s t o d a y . A s t h e h e a d o f t h e T e c h n i c a l
a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n C o p e n h a g e n p u t s i t :
T h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p a l o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n h a s a l w a y s b e e n a s i t i s t o d a y . T h i s
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n [ T e c h n o l o g y a n d E n v i r o n m e n t ] t o d a y w a s a m e r g e r o f s m a l l e r
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , b u t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s b e e n t h i s w a y f o r r e a l l y m a n y , m a n y
y e a r s . ( i n t e r v i e w A a b e r g )

115
look at the work of the urban planning department when they finished their
work, in order to make some remarks. In these processes transport planning is
neglected, and even more planning for cyclists, which seems to have the lowest
priority within the transport planning department in Stockholm. Furthermore,
during the time of the data collection for this thesis (2010-2011) Stockholm
had only one person working fulltime with bicycle planning, Krister Isaksson,
whereas Copenhagen has a whole division working on planning for cyclists.
Moreover, Isaksson, who was working in Stockholm with bicycle planning,
changed jobs and does not work for the city of Stockholm anymore. At the
time of writing there are no plans to replace this person with a new bicycle
planner. That could be a sign of low appreciation of planning for cyclists, but
could also be seen as a start to get bicycle planning into all parts of transport
planning in Stockholm, which would be very good, especially in a time where
cycling is increasing in Stockholm and comprehensive planning for cyclists is
very important. As Isaksson, the bicycle planner from Stockholm, puts it in the
interview:
In principle it is only me who works with bicycle planning fulltime. But I have
colleagues who help me in different projects. The cooperation with other
departments, for example the urban planning department, exists, but to a far too
little extent. It is often the case that areas are planned first and later cycling comes
in, which is far too late. It is also first during the last few years that bicycle
planning has come on the map for urban planners and transport planners.
Moreover, there is a lack of cooperation between the municipalities and the region.
There are many who like to bike into Stockholm from other municipalities, but the
cooperation between Stockholm and other municipalities is in principle not existent.
For example, it does not at all go well for bicycle planning between Stockholm and
Solna. (interview Isaksson)
In Copenhagen the urban and transport planning departments are under the
same administration for Technology and Environment and have to work in
cooperation with each other. This kind of organisation of urban and transport
planning has roughly always been as it is today. As the head of the Technical
and Environmental Administration in Copenhagen puts it:
The general principal of the organisation has always been as it is today. This
administration [Technology and Environment] today was a merger of smaller
administrations, but the administration has been this way for really many, many
years. (interview Aaberg)
1 1 5

116
However, it was not my impression from the interviews that this kind of
organisation was a decision taken in order to create a better environment for
urban and transport planning. Nevertheless, this kind of organising planning
might prevent conflicts between the different divisions/departments. Trslv
explains it the as follows:
Every time when we have a new project, regardless if it is an urban or transport
planning project, all should sit together and the project leader explains shortly what
the project is about. Then he or she gets comments and viewpoints from the heads of
all divisions, from the head of transport, from the head of green spaces, etc. And this
should ensure that there will not be conflicts, for example between transport and
urban planning, in later stages of the planning process. A bit of reconciliation one
could say. Then all heads of the divisions have meetings once a week, where we talk
more concretely about how we plan our work within different projects and look at
the advantages in the different projects. And this leads the way for the rest of the
work in the divisions. Here we discuss the development of the whole city and how
the different projects affect the whole city and not just the smaller local projects.
(interview Trslv)
At the urban comprehensive planning level transport planners are part of the
administration both in Copenhagen and Stockholm, and at that level
cooperation with the department for transport planning seems good in both
cities. However, there seem to be problems when it comes to the new strategy
for urban planning in Stockholm. In the new comprehensive plan the urban
planners in Stockholm developed a vision of the walkable city, which, among
other things, promotes traffic integration, dense urban living and walkable
distances (versiktsplan Stockholm 2010, interview Tedesj). According to
the interview with Tedesj, an urban planner in Stockholm focusing on
transport issues in zoning planning, this was not easy to communicate to the
transport planning department, due to the focus in transport planning on the
SCAFT regulations (see previous section 5.1, interview Tedesj).
When it comes to the strategic level of planning, which is what I mostly work with,
I have good contacts with my colleagues at the department of transport planning,
like in the Frbifart Stockholm project When it comes to more detailed questions
of urban design etc. when our architects draw the development plans, it is very
mixed, I would say. I think that has to do with personal issues, different
expectations, like #you at the urban planning department dont get it and the like.
We have different educations and different points of view A seminar about
bicycling we had exemplifies it. Our new zoning plan wants to tear up the old street

1 1 6
H o w e v e r , i t w a s n o t m y i m p r e s s i o n f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s t h a t t h i s k i n d o f
o r g a n i s a t i o n w a s a d e c i s i o n t a k e n i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a b e t t e r e n v i r o n m e n t f o r
u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s k i n d o f o r g a n i s i n g p l a n n i n g
m i g h t p r e v e n t c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t d i v i s i o n s / d e p a r t m e n t s . T r s l v
e x p l a i n s i t t h e a s f o l l o w s :
E v e r y t i m e w h e n w e h a v e a n e w p r o j e c t , r e g a r d l e s s i f i t i s a n u r b a n o r t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g p r o j e c t , a l l s h o u l d s i t t o g e t h e r a n d t h e p r o j e c t l e a d e r e x p l a i n s s h o r t l y w h a t
t h e p r o j e c t i s a b o u t . T h e n h e o r s h e g e t s c o m m e n t s a n d v i e w p o i n t s f r o m t h e h e a d s o f
a l l d i v i s i o n s , f r o m t h e h e a d o f t r a n s p o r t , f r o m t h e h e a d o f g r e e n s p a c e s , e t c . A n d t h i s
s h o u l d e n s u r e t h a t t h e r e w i l l n o t b e c o n f l i c t s , f o r e x a m p l e b e t w e e n t r a n s p o r t a n d
u r b a n p l a n n i n g , i n l a t e r s t a g e s o f t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s . A b i t o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o n e
c o u l d s a y . T h e n a l l h e a d s o f t h e d i v i s i o n s h a v e m e e t i n g s o n c e a w e e k , w h e r e w e t a l k
m o r e c o n c r e t e l y a b o u t h o w w e p l a n o u r w o r k w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s a n d l o o k a t
t h e a d v a n t a g e s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s . A n d t h i s l e a d s t h e w a y f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e
w o r k i n t h e d i v i s i o n s . H e r e w e d i s c u s s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e w h o l e c i t y a n d h o w
t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s a f f e c t t h e w h o l e c i t y a n d n o t j u s t t h e s m a l l e r l o c a l p r o j e c t s .
( i n t e r v i e w T r s l v )
A t t h e u r b a n c o m p r e h e n s i v e p l a n n i n g l e v e l t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s a r e p a r t o f t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b o t h i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , a n d a t t h a t l e v e l
c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e d e p a r t m e n t f o r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g s e e m s g o o d i n b o t h
c i t i e s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e s e e m t o b e p r o b l e m s w h e n i t c o m e s t o t h e n e w s t r a t e g y
f o r u r b a n p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m . I n t h e n e w c o m p r e h e n s i v e p l a n t h e u r b a n
p l a n n e r s i n S t o c k h o l m d e v e l o p e d a v i s i o n o f t h e w a l k a b l e c i t y , w h i c h , a m o n g
o t h e r t h i n g s , p r o m o t e s t r a f f i c i n t e g r a t i o n , d e n s e u r b a n l i v i n g a n d w a l k a b l e
d i s t a n c e s ( v e r s i k t s p l a n S t o c k h o l m 2 0 1 0 , i n t e r v i e w T e d e s j ) . A c c o r d i n g t o
t h e i n t e r v i e w w i t h T e d e s j , a n u r b a n p l a n n e r i n S t o c k h o l m f o c u s i n g o n
t r a n s p o r t i s s u e s i n z o n i n g p l a n n i n g , t h i s w a s n o t e a s y t o c o m m u n i c a t e t o t h e
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t , d u e t o t h e f o c u s i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g o n t h e
S C A F T r e g u l a t i o n s ( s e e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n 5 . 1 , i n t e r v i e w T e d e s j ) .
W h e n i t c o m e s t o t h e s t r a t e g i c l e v e l o f p l a n n i n g , w h i c h i s w h a t I m o s t l y w o r k w i t h ,
I h a v e g o o d c o n t a c t s w i t h m y c o l l e a g u e s a t t h e d e p a r t m e n t o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ,
l i k e i n t h e F r b i f a r t S t o c k h o l m p r o j e c t W h e n i t c o m e s t o m o r e d e t a i l e d q u e s t i o n s
o f u r b a n d e s i g n e t c . w h e n o u r a r c h i t e c t s d r a w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s , i t i s v e r y
m i x e d , I w o u l d s a y . I t h i n k t h a t h a s t o d o w i t h p e r s o n a l i s s u e s , d i f f e r e n t
e x p e c t a t i o n s , l i k e # y o u a t t h e u r b a n p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t d o n t g e t i t a n d t h e l i k e .
W e h a v e d i f f e r e n t e d u c a t i o n s a n d d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f v i e w A s e m i n a r a b o u t
b i c y c l i n g w e h a d e x e m p l i f i e s i t . O u r n e w z o n i n g p l a n w a n t s t o t e a r u p t h e o l d s t r e e t
1 1 6

1 1 7
s t r u c t u r e b u i l t o n t h e S C A F T p r i n c i p l e s . B u t h e r e w e c o u l d s e e t h e c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n
o u r t h i n k i n g a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s q u i t e c l e a r l y . T h e n e w p l a n i s g o o d f o r
c y c l i n g , b e c a u s e i t b u i l d s o n t h e d e n s e c i t y , i n t e g r a t i o n e t c . B u t i t l e d t o c o n f l i c t s
w h e n w e w a n t t o s e l l i t t o t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s . ( i n t e r v i e w T e d e s j )
H e r e o n e c a n s e e t h e c o n f l i c t s i n S t o c k h o l m b e t w e e n p l a n n i n g f o r v u l n e r a b l e
r o a d u s e r s a n d p l a n n i n g f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h e f o c u s o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n
S t o c k h o l m s t i l l s e e m s h i g h a n d i t d o e s n o t s e e m e a s y t o i n t r o d u c e i d e a s t o
c h a n g e t h a t . A s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , t h e r e a r e s e p a r a t e d e p a r t m e n t s i n
S t o c k h o l m d e a l i n g w i t h u r b a n p l a n n i n g , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d
e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s a n d t h e r e a r e a l s o t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l h e a d s o f t h o s e
d e p a r t m e n t s , d e v e l o p i n g d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l v i s i o n s a n d d i r e c t i o n s f o r t h e
d e p a r t m e n t s , w h i c h l e a d s t o l e s s c o o p e r a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e s t a f f h a s t o r e a l i z e t h e
p o l i t i c a l v i s i o n s a n d d i r e c t i o n s f o r t h e i r o w n d e p a r t m e n t . I t i s a l r e a d y h e r e
w h e r e c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g o c c u r , w h i c h l e a d t o
d i f f e r e n t p l a n n i n g d i r e c t i o n s a n d a l s o , a p p a r e n t l y , t o t h e m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n o f
s o m e t r a n s p o r t q u e s t i o n s . C y c l i n g , a s o n e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r i n S t o c k h o l m
e x p l a i n s , o f t e n c o m e s a t t h e e n d o f t r a f f i c p r o j e c t s a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g p r o j e c t s .
T h i s i s o f t e n t o o l a t e f o r g o o d s o l u t i o n s f o r c y c l i s t s a s w e l l a s f o r o t h e r m o d e s
o f t r a n s p o r t ( s e e q u o t e I s a k s s o n a b o v e ) .
I n C o p e n h a g e n t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d
e n v i r o n m e n t a l p l a n n i n g w i t h i n t h e s a m e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s p a r t o f t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n . D u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d e p a r t m e n t s f o r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d
f o r u r b a n p l a n n i n g a r e u n d e r t h e s a m e r o o f i n C o p e n h a g e n t h e c o o p e r a t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e m i s v e r y c l o s e . T h e o u t c o m e o f t h i s i s t h a t t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i s
o f t e n a p a r t o f u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d t h e o t h e r w a y a r o u n d . E v e n t h o u g h
c o n f l i c t s m i g h t a r i s e b e t w e e n t h e d i s c i p l i n e s e t c . i t s e e m s l i k e a b e t t e r s o l u t i o n
t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m . I n C o p e n h a g e n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r p l a n n i n g ( b o t h u r b a n
a n d t r a n s p o r t ) i s b u i l t a r o u n d t h e d i v i s i o n s f o r t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n
p l a n n i n g / d e s i g n a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i v i s i o n . T h e h e a d s o f t h e s e d i v i s i o n s
m e e t r e g u l a r l y o n c e a w e e k t o d i s c u s s t h e w o r k a n d f u t u r e p l a n s . T h i s , o f
c o u r s e , t i g h t e n s t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e d i v i s i o n s a n d d i r e c t s p l a n n i n g t o w a r d s
m o r e c o o p e r a t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e i s o n e p o l i t i c a l h e a d o f t h e w h o l e
d e p a r t m e n t w h o d e v e l o p s t h e v i s i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l d i r e c t i o n s f o r a l l ( u r b a n a n d
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t a f f ) . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s t h u s
c l e a r l y a f f e c t t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d m a k e i t e a s i e r o r m o r e d i f f i c u l t
t o i n t e g r a t e b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n t h e p r o c e s s e s o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g .
H o w e v e r , e v e n i n C o p e n h a g e n p r o b l e m s o f i n t e g r a t i n g b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g c a n

117
structure built on the SCAFT principles. But here we could see the conflicts between
our thinking and the transport planners quite clearly. The new plan is good for
cycling, because it builds on the dense city, integration etc. But it led to conflicts
when we want to sell it to the transport planners. (interview Tedesj)
Here one can see the conflicts in Stockholm between planning for vulnerable
road users and planning for motorised traffic. The focus on motorised traffic in
Stockholm still seems high and it does not seem easy to introduce ideas to
change that. As mentioned before, there are separate departments in
Stockholm dealing with urban planning, transport planning and
environmental issues and there are also three different political heads of those
departments, developing different political visions and directions for the
departments, which leads to less cooperation, because the staff has to realize the
political visions and directions for their own department. It is already here
where conflicts between urban and transport planning occur, which lead to
different planning directions and also, apparently, to the marginalization of
some transport questions. Cycling, as one transport planner in Stockholm
explains, often comes at the end of traffic projects and urban planning projects.
This is often too late for good solutions for cyclists as well as for other modes
of transport (see quote Isaksson above).
In Copenhagen the inclusion of transport planning, urban planning and
environmental planning within the same administration is part of the
organization. Due to the fact that the departments for transport planning and
for urban planning are under the same roof in Copenhagen the cooperation
between them is very close. The outcome of this is that transport planning is
often a part of urban planning and the other way around. Even though
conflicts might arise between the disciplines etc. it seems like a better solution
than in Stockholm. In Copenhagen the organization for planning (both urban
and transport) is built around the divisions for transport and urban
planning/design and the environmental division. The heads of these divisions
meet regularly once a week to discuss the work and future plans. This, of
course, tightens the cooperation of the divisions and directs planning towards
more cooperation. Furthermore, there is one political head of the whole
department who develops the visions and political directions for all (urban and
transport planners and the environmental staff). Organizational aspects thus
clearly affect transport and urban planning and make it easier or more difficult
to integrate bicycle planning in the processes of urban and transport planning.
However, even in Copenhagen problems of integrating bicycle planning can
1 1 7

118
emerge, but due to the regular meetings and organisation of the administration
those difficulties can more easily be handled (interview Trslv, Aaberg, Rhl
and Hjortskov Jensen). It seems that the integration of urban and transport
planning is important, both since bicycle and transport aspects are part of the
planning processes from the beginning and in order to show that those aspects
are of importance. This can also be seen in the organisation schemes of
Stockholm (Figure 9) and Copenhagen (Figure 10).


Figure 9: Organization scheme Stockholm
Source: City of Stockholm (2011)

1 1 8
e m e r g e , b u t d u e t o t h e r e g u l a r m e e t i n g s a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
t h o s e d i f f i c u l t i e s c a n m o r e e a s i l y b e h a n d l e d ( i n t e r v i e w T r s l v , A a b e r g , R h l
a n d H j o r t s k o v J e n s e n ) . I t s e e m s t h a t t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g i s i m p o r t a n t , b o t h s i n c e b i c y c l e a n d t r a n s p o r t a s p e c t s a r e p a r t o f t h e
p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d i n o r d e r t o s h o w t h a t t h o s e a s p e c t s
a r e o f i m p o r t a n c e . T h i s c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n s c h e m e s o f
S t o c k h o l m ( F i g u r e 9 ) a n d C o p e n h a g e n ( F i g u r e 1 0 ) .


F i g u r e 9 : O r g a n i z a t i o n s c h e m e S t o c k h o l m
S o u r c e : C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 1 1 )
1 1 8


1 1 9

F
i
g
u
r
e

1
0
:

O
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

s
c
h
e
m
e

C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

S
o
u
r
c
e
:

C
i
t
y

o
f

C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

(
2
0
1
0
)



119

F
i
g
u
r
e

1
0
:

O
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

s
c
h
e
m
e

C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

S
o
u
r
c
e
:

C
i
t
y

o
f

C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

(
2
0
1
0
)

1 1 9

120
The integration of the urban and transport planning departments in
Copenhagen can be seen as a step towards an integrated transport policy,
which could lead to a more sustainable transport system. In this step political
integration is very important, along with technological and social integration.
This is often hard to achieve and Germany, for example, has not managed to
do so, although many attempts have been made in the direction of. It therefore
seems difficult to achieve transport integration in which close cooperation
between different departments is one important aspect (Schller-Schwedes
2010). A weak cooperation between the departments leads to less transport
integration and makes it harder to create an integrated transport system for
sustainable transport. There are barriers for integrating transport planning with
urban planning, such as different professions, different methods and different
cultures (Te Brmmelstroet and Bertolini 2010, Tornberg 2011). Nevertheless,
the concept in Copenhagen seems a step closer to integrated transport policy,
than that in Stockholm. Copenhagen has managed to find a way to get the
professions of urban and transport planners under the same roof and has
created an integrated environment of urban and transport planning, which is
also shown in the professions, where for example some cycle planners are
geographers, a profession otherwise often concerned with urban planning.
Knowledge, planning and power are closely connected to the questions of
organization. Planning projects and decisions are based on specific knowledge,
which knowingly or not can shape power relations. This can be seen in close
relation to Lukes three dimensions of power (Lukes 2002). Lukes draws on the
work of Foucault in order to show how knowledge is part of power plays and
of the three dimensions of power (Lukes 2002, Foucault 1980). Here, a
connection can be made to the case studies in Copenhagen and Stockholm.
The organisation of the urban and transport planning departments in
Copenhagen seems to foster planning for cyclists and a common approach to
urban and transport planning. That could be explained by the power of
knowledge. Knowledge is spread and organized within the department
including both urban and transport planning, which creates a better
understanding of all parts of planning, contributing to solutions which are
good for cyclists. The way these departments are organized in Stockholm, on
the contrary, seems to make urban planning and planning for cyclists much
harder. The division of the departments prevents the spread of knowledge, and
the knowledge stays at the different departments. This form of power, I think,

1 2 0
T h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n c a n b e s e e n a s a s t e p t o w a r d s a n i n t e g r a t e d t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y ,
w h i c h c o u l d l e a d t o a m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m . I n t h i s s t e p p o l i t i c a l
i n t e g r a t i o n i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t , a l o n g w i t h t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n .
T h i s i s o f t e n h a r d t o a c h i e v e a n d G e r m a n y , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s n o t m a n a g e d t o
d o s o , a l t h o u g h m a n y a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n m a d e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f . I t t h e r e f o r e
s e e m s d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e t r a n s p o r t i n t e g r a t i o n i n w h i c h c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t m e n t s i s o n e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t ( S c h l l e r - S c h w e d e s
2 0 1 0 ) . A w e a k c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d e p a r t m e n t s l e a d s t o l e s s t r a n s p o r t
i n t e g r a t i o n a n d m a k e s i t h a r d e r t o c r e a t e a n i n t e g r a t e d t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m f o r
s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t . T h e r e a r e b a r r i e r s f o r i n t e g r a t i n g t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g w i t h
u r b a n p l a n n i n g , s u c h a s d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n s , d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s a n d d i f f e r e n t
c u l t u r e s ( T e B r m m e l s t r o e t a n d B e r t o l i n i 2 0 1 0 , T o r n b e r g 2 0 1 1 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
t h e c o n c e p t i n C o p e n h a g e n s e e m s a s t e p c l o s e r t o i n t e g r a t e d t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y ,
t h a n t h a t i n S t o c k h o l m . C o p e n h a g e n h a s m a n a g e d t o f i n d a w a y t o g e t t h e
p r o f e s s i o n s o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s u n d e r t h e s a m e r o o f a n d h a s
c r e a t e d a n i n t e g r a t e d e n v i r o n m e n t o f u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , w h i c h i s
a l s o s h o w n i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n s , w h e r e f o r e x a m p l e s o m e c y c l e p l a n n e r s a r e
g e o g r a p h e r s , a p r o f e s s i o n o t h e r w i s e o f t e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h u r b a n p l a n n i n g .
K n o w l e d g e , p l a n n i n g a n d p o w e r a r e c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n s o f
o r g a n i z a t i o n . P l a n n i n g p r o j e c t s a n d d e c i s i o n s a r e b a s e d o n s p e c i f i c k n o w l e d g e ,
w h i c h k n o w i n g l y o r n o t c a n s h a p e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s . T h i s c a n b e s e e n i n c l o s e
r e l a t i o n t o L u k e s t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r ( L u k e s 2 0 0 2 ) . L u k e s d r a w s o n t h e
w o r k o f F o u c a u l t i n o r d e r t o s h o w h o w k n o w l e d g e i s p a r t o f p o w e r p l a y s a n d
o f t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r ( L u k e s 2 0 0 2 , F o u c a u l t 1 9 8 0 ) . H e r e , a
c o n n e c t i o n c a n b e m a d e t o t h e c a s e s t u d i e s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m .
T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n s e e m s t o f o s t e r p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a n d a c o m m o n a p p r o a c h t o
u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h a t c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e p o w e r o f
k n o w l e d g e . K n o w l e d g e i s s p r e a d a n d o r g a n i z e d w i t h i n t h e d e p a r t m e n t
i n c l u d i n g b o t h u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , w h i c h c r e a t e s a b e t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a l l p a r t s o f p l a n n i n g , c o n t r i b u t i n g t o s o l u t i o n s w h i c h a r e
g o o d f o r c y c l i s t s . T h e w a y t h e s e d e p a r t m e n t s a r e o r g a n i z e d i n S t o c k h o l m , o n
t h e c o n t r a r y , s e e m s t o m a k e u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s m u c h
h a r d e r . T h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e d e p a r t m e n t s p r e v e n t s t h e s p r e a d o f k n o w l e d g e , a n d
t h e k n o w l e d g e s t a y s a t t h e d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t m e n t s . T h i s f o r m o f p o w e r , I t h i n k ,
1 2 0

1 2 1
i s e m b e d d e d i n s e v e r a l a s p e c t s t h a t L u k e s c o n n e c t s t o t h e w o r k o f F o u c a u l t . H e
s t a t e s t h a t F o u c a u l t w a s d e a l i n g w i t h
s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i n s t i t u t i o n s , s t r a t e g i e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s r a t h e r t h a n w i t h
c o n c r e t e p o l i t i c s a n d t h e a c t u a l p e o p l e t h e y i n v o l v e . ( L u k e s 2 0 0 2 : 8 9 )
T h o s e a s p e c t s a l s o h a v e b e a r i n g o n t h e w a y p l a n n i n g a n d t h e k n o w l e d g e o f
p l a n n i n g i s o r g a n i s e d . T h e k i n d o f o r g a n i s a t i o n o f p l a n n i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e
s h a p e s t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e c i t i e s a n d s h a p e s a l s o t h e o u t c o m e t h a t i s
m a t e r i a l i s e d i n t h e u r b a n s p a c e . H o w e v e r , c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h i s m i g h t b e p a r t
o f t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r ( L u k e s 2 0 0 2 ) w h e r e t h e p l a n n e r s a n d
p o l i t i c i a n s m i g h t n o t b e a w a r e o f t h e e f f e c t s , a n d t h a t m i g h t b e h a r d t o
o b s e r v e , b u t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n s a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e p l a n n i n g
p r o c e s s e s a r e e a s y t o o b s e r v e a n d s o m e p l a n n e r s a r e v e r y w e l l a w a r e o f t h e e f f e c t
t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n h a s o n p l a n n i n g ( i n t e r v i e w I s a k s s o n ) . T h e s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s ,
t h e p l a n n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d s t r a t e g i e s a r e p a r t o f t h i s p o w e r p l a y a n d t h u s
l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e t h a t c a n m a r g i n a l i s e c y c l i n g o r
i m p r o v e t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r c y c l i s t s .
M o r e o v e r , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n s e e m t o c r e a t e
d i f f e r e n t p l a n n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s . O n e c a n s e e t h a t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n
C o p e n h a g e n c r e a t e s a n e n v i r o n m e n t o f p l a n n i n g , w h e r e d e c i s i o n s a r e b a s e d o n
c o n s e n s u s . T h e r e g u l a r m e e t i n g s b e t w e e n a l l p a r t s o f p l a n n i n g c o n t r i b u t e t o a
b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o t h e r p a r t s . F o r e x a m p l e t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s c a n
u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o b l e m s u r b a n p l a n n e r s f a c e a n d v i c e v e r s a . I n o r d e r t o p l a n
c o m p r e h e n s i b l y a c o n s e n s u s h a s t h e n t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d , b e c a u s e a l l p a r t i e s a r e
i n v o l v e d i n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . A n a d d i t i o n a l e x a m p l e
f o r s u c h c o n s e n s u s i s t h a t a l l p l a n n e r s i n t e r v i e w e d f o r t h i s c a s e s t u d y a g r e e t h a t
t r a n s p o r t i s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d t h a t t h e f i r s t p r i o r i t y i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i s p l a n n i n g f o r
c y c l i s t s a n d p e d e s t r i a n s ( i n t e r v i e w R h l , J e n s e n , T r s l v , A a b e r g , E l l e a n d
H j o r t s k o v J e n s e n ) . T h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e i n S t o c k h o l m . S i n c e t h e u r b a n a n d
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t s a r e d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t m e n t s , t h e p l a n n e r s d o n o t
w o r k a s c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r a s i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h t h e
p l a n n e r s i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e r e a r e c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e d e p a r t m e n t s a n d
a l s o b e t w e e n t h e m a i n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s a n d t h o s e s p e c i a l i z i n g o n
b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g ( s e e q u o t e s f o r m t h e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h T e d e s j a n d I s a k s s o n ) .
T r a n s p o r t i s a l s o a v e r y i m p o r t a n t i s s u e i n S t o c k h o l m , b u t t r e a t e d v e r y
d i f f e r e n t l y i n t h e d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t m e n t s ( i n t e r v i e w I s a k s s o n , F a g e r a n d
T e d e s j ) .

121
is embedded in several aspects that Lukes connects to the work of Foucault. He
states that Foucault was dealing with
structural relationships, institutions, strategies and techniques rather than with
concrete politics and the actual people they involve. (Lukes 2002:89)
Those aspects also have bearing on the way planning and the knowledge of
planning is organised. The kind of organisation of planning and knowledge
shapes the power relations with the cities and shapes also the outcome that is
materialised in the urban space. However, certain aspects of this might be part
of the third dimension of power (Lukes 2002) where the planners and
politicians might not be aware of the effects, and that might be hard to
observe, but on the other hand organisations and the outcome of the planning
processes are easy to observe and some planners are very well aware of the effect
the organisation has on planning (interview Isaksson). The structural relations,
the planning institutions and strategies are part of this power play and thus
lead to different materialisations in urban space that can marginalise cycling or
improve the conditions for cyclists.
Moreover, the organization of Stockholm and Copenhagen seem to create
different planning environments. One can see that the organization in
Copenhagen creates an environment of planning, where decisions are based on
consensus. The regular meetings between all parts of planning contribute to a
better understanding of other parts. For example the transport planners can
understand the problems urban planners face and vice versa. In order to plan
comprehensibly a consensus has then to be established, because all parties are
involved in the planning process from the beginning. An additional example
for such consensus is that all planners interviewed for this case study agree that
transport is one of the most important aspects of the development in
Copenhagen and that the first priority in transport planning is planning for
cyclists and pedestrians (interview Rhl, Jensen, Trslv, Aaberg, Elle and
Hjortskov Jensen). This is not the case in Stockholm. Since the urban and
transport planning departments are different departments, the planners do not
work as closely together as in Copenhagen. Through the interviews with the
planners it became clear that there are conflicts between the departments and
also between the mainstream transport planners and those specializing on
bicycle planning (see quotes form the interviews with Tedesj and Isaksson).
Transport is also a very important issue in Stockholm, but treated very
differently in the different departments (interview Isaksson, Fager and
Tedesj).
1 2 1

122
Due to the different organisations, Copenhagen seems more favourable than
Stockholm towards planning for cyclists and towards a comprehensive
planning approach that involves both urban and transport planning. Thus, one
can conclude that knowledge is spread more effectively in an integrated
organization, such as in Copenhagen, then in a divided organization, such as in
Stockholm. That also leads to different power relations within the
organisations. Those aspects, as mentioned before, might be hidden from the
official plan material, and since they are hard to observe we are back to Lukes
third dimension of power (see Lukes 2005 and Chapter 4). By integrating all
planners in planning processes, as in Copenhagen, bicycle planners get more
power in the processes because they are involved from the beginning. The
organisational structures therefore create different opportunities for cycling,
which lead to different solutions in the urban transport spaces. Therefore,
power relations are created, without planners or politicians recognising them,
resulting in different planning systems that can be observed in Copenhagen
and Stockholm. Power relations are effective within the systems in different
directions; in Copenhagen more in favour of cycling and in Stockholm more of
public transport and motorised traffic. Lukes and Allen both understand power
as forms of social relations, and this is exactly what can be observed in the
different systems of Stockholm and Copenhagen. It is not necessarily the case
that transport planners in Stockholm intentionally want to favour motorised
traffic, but the organisation with its social relations creates power relations that
lead to less power for bicycle planning and therefor also to an unsatisfactory
infrastructure for cyclists.
7.3 The politics of planning practise
It seems there is a difference between Copenhagen and Stockholm when it
comes to planning practice and direction relating to the politics of planning.
Some of those aspects are tightly connected to spatial, economic, historical,
cultural and organizational aspects discussed in the previous sections. However,
much of the planning practise can be connected to actual political decisions in
Copenhagen and Stockholm.
Despite or maybe due to the structures, it was a political decision in
Copenhagen in the 1970s to focus much more on cycling. During the 1960s
and early 1970s the city of Copenhagen focused intensively on motorised

1 2 2
D u e t o t h e d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i s a t i o n s , C o p e n h a g e n s e e m s m o r e f a v o u r a b l e t h a n
S t o c k h o l m t o w a r d s p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a n d t o w a r d s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e
p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h t h a t i n v o l v e s b o t h u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h u s , o n e
c a n c o n c l u d e t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s s p r e a d m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y i n a n i n t e g r a t e d
o r g a n i z a t i o n , s u c h a s i n C o p e n h a g e n , t h e n i n a d i v i d e d o r g a n i z a t i o n , s u c h a s i n
S t o c k h o l m . T h a t a l s o l e a d s t o d i f f e r e n t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e
o r g a n i s a t i o n s . T h o s e a s p e c t s , a s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , m i g h t b e h i d d e n f r o m t h e
o f f i c i a l p l a n m a t e r i a l , a n d s i n c e t h e y a r e h a r d t o o b s e r v e w e a r e b a c k t o L u k e s
t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r ( s e e L u k e s 2 0 0 5 a n d C h a p t e r 4 ) . B y i n t e g r a t i n g a l l
p l a n n e r s i n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s , a s i n C o p e n h a g e n , b i c y c l e p l a n n e r s g e t m o r e
p o w e r i n t h e p r o c e s s e s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e i n v o l v e d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . T h e
o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s t h e r e f o r e c r e a t e d i f f e r e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c y c l i n g ,
w h i c h l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s i n t h e u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s p a c e s . T h e r e f o r e ,
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e c r e a t e d , w i t h o u t p l a n n e r s o r p o l i t i c i a n s r e c o g n i s i n g t h e m ,
r e s u l t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t p l a n n i n g s y s t e m s t h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d i n C o p e n h a g e n
a n d S t o c k h o l m . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e e f f e c t i v e w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m s i n d i f f e r e n t
d i r e c t i o n s ; i n C o p e n h a g e n m o r e i n f a v o u r o f c y c l i n g a n d i n S t o c k h o l m m o r e o f
p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . L u k e s a n d A l l e n b o t h u n d e r s t a n d p o w e r
a s f o r m s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , a n d t h i s i s e x a c t l y w h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d i n t h e
d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s o f S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e c a s e
t h a t t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s i n S t o c k h o l m i n t e n t i o n a l l y w a n t t o f a v o u r m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c , b u t t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h i t s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s c r e a t e s p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t
l e a d t o l e s s p o w e r f o r b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e r e f o r a l s o t o a n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s .
7 . 3 T h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e
I t s e e m s t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m w h e n i t
c o m e s t o p l a n n i n g p r a c t i c e a n d d i r e c t i o n r e l a t i n g t o t h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g .
S o m e o f t h o s e a s p e c t s a r e t i g h t l y c o n n e c t e d t o s p a t i a l , e c o n o m i c , h i s t o r i c a l ,
c u l t u r a l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s . H o w e v e r ,
m u c h o f t h e p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e c a n b e c o n n e c t e d t o a c t u a l p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m .
D e s p i t e o r m a y b e d u e t o t h e s t r u c t u r e s , i t w a s a p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n i n
C o p e n h a g e n i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s t o f o c u s m u c h m o r e o n c y c l i n g . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 s
a n d e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s t h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n f o c u s e d i n t e n s i v e l y o n m o t o r i s e d
1 2 2

1 2 3
t r a f f i c a n d m a r g i n a l i s e d c y c l i s t s t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . T h e r e s u l t o f t h a t w a s
m a s s i v e p r o t e s t s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s . E n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e s t s w e r e , i n t h a t t i m e ,
v e r y c o m m o n d u e t o t h e o i l c r i s i s a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s , s u c h a s C a r s o n s b o o k
S i l e n t S p r i n g f r o m 1 9 6 2 . I n C o p e n h a g e n t h o s e p r o t e s t s f o c u s e d o n t h e
s i t u a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . F r o m t h e n o n p o l i t i c i a n s
f o c u s e d m o r e a n d m o r e o n c y c l i n g w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f t r a n s p o r t , b e c a u s e t h e y
c o u l d g a i n v o t e s f r o m t h e f o c u s o n b i c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ( i n t e r v i e w J e n s e n a n d
E l l e ) . A l t h o u g h s o m e p r o t e s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a l s o f o c u s e d o n t h e t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m a n d s o m e m o v e m e n t s w a n t e d t o s e e a n a l t e r n a t i v e c i t y w i t h o u t c a r
t r a f f i c ( S t a h r e 1 9 9 9 ) , t h a t h a s n o t l e d t o l a r g e r p r o t e s t s t h a t c o u l d c h a n g e t h e
p o l i t i c s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d m o b i l i t y . T h i s s h o w s t h a t t h e s h a p i n g o f u r b a n s p a c e
c a n b e p a r t o f c i t i z e n s a c t i v e p r o t e s t i n g a n d t h a t t h i s c a n h a v e a n e f f e c t o n t h e
a c t u a l u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g .
O n e a s p e c t a l l t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s i n b o t h c i t i e s m e n t i o n e d w h e n a s k e d w h a t
i n f l u e n c e s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g t h e m o s t w a s : p o l i t i c i a n s . H e r e o n e c a n s e e a
c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e w o r k o f S u s a n F e i n s t e i n ( 2 0 0 1 ) . F e i n s t e i n a n a l y s e d t h e
i m p a c t c e r t a i n p e r s o n s h a d o n t h e u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p l a n n i n g i n f o r
e x a m p l e N e w Y o r k . P a r t o f h e r c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t i n f l u e n t i a l p e r s o n s , l i k e
R o b e r t M o s e s i n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n m a k e a n i m p o r t a n t i m p a c t o n u r b a n
p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e p o w e r o f p o l i t i c s a n d p o l i t i c a l l y i n f l u e n t i a l
p e r s o n s i s o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c a l
d e c i s i o n s ( F e i n s t e i n 2 0 0 1 ) . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s , d e c i s i o n
m a k i n g a n d w i l l t o c h a n g e u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i s v e r y r e l e v a n t i n
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . I n t h e 1 9 9 8 e l e c t i o n
t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y w a s e l e c t e d t o b e p a r t o f a c o n s e r v a t i v e c o a l i t i o n . T h e i r
f o c u s w a s c y c l i n g . D u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d t h e i n v e s t m e n t s i n c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
w e r e s k y r o c k e t i n g a n d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e c y c l e p l a n f r o m 1 9 9 8 w a s
d r i v e n b y t h e p o l i t i c i a n S t e l l a F a r e , c a u s i n g p r o t e s t s i n t h e m e d i a , a n d f r o m t h e
s o c i a l d e m o c r a t s a n d o t h e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e t a x i o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d
a m o n g S t o c k h o l m s o w n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s ( B e c k m a n a n d L i n u s s o n 2 0 0 9 ,
i n t e r v i e w F a r e ) . F a r e , p o l i t i c i a n f o r t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y ( n o w L i b e r a l P a r t y )
a n d v i c e m a y o r f o r u r b a n p o l i t i c s 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 2 , e x p l a i n s t h e o p i n i o n d u r i n g
h e r t i m e i n S t o c k h o l m a s f o l l o w s :
A f t e r w e h a d i m p l e m e n t e d t h e f i r s t m e a s u r e s t h e t h i r d w o r l d w a r h a d s t a r t e d ; a b o u t
b i c y c l e t r a c k s a n d a b o u t b i c y c l e l a n e s o n S v e a v g e n . I t o o k i t a s a n o p p o r t u n i t y
t o e x p l a i n w h a t w e a r e d o i n g , b u t t h e n e g a t i v e s i d e s w e r e t h e o n e s t h a t t h e m e d i a
j u m p e d o n . A l l t h e m a j o r n e w s p a p e r s a n d t h e i r m o t o r j o u r n a l i s t s h a d t h e i r w a r

123
traffic and marginalised cyclists to a certain extent. The result of that was
massive protests during the 1970s. Environmental protests were, in that time,
very common due to the oil crisis and publications, such as Carsons book
Silent Spring from 1962. In Copenhagen those protests focused on the
situation of cyclists and the transport infrastructure. From then on politicians
focused more and more on cycling within the field of transport, because they
could gain votes from the focus on bicycle infrastructure (interview Jensen and
Elle). Although some protests in Stockholm also focused on the transport
system and some movements wanted to see an alternative city without car
traffic (Stahre 1999), that has not led to larger protests that could change the
politics of transport and mobility. This shows that the shaping of urban space
can be part of citizens active protesting and that this can have an effect on the
actual urban and transport planning.
One aspect all the interviewees in both cities mentioned when asked what
influences transport planning the most was: politicians. Here one can see a
clear connection to the work of Susan Feinstein (2001). Feinstein analysed the
impact certain persons had on the urban development and planning in for
example New York. Part of her conclusion is that influential persons, like
Robert Moses in New York, often make an important impact on urban
planning and development. The power of politics and politically influential
persons is of great importance for the outcome of planning and political
decisions (Feinstein 2001). The importance of political actions, decision
making and will to change urban and transport planning is very relevant in
transport planning in both Stockholm and Copenhagen. In the 1998 election
the Stockholm Party was elected to be part of a conservative coalition. Their
focus was cycling. During that period the investments in cycling infrastructure
were skyrocketing and the implementation of the cycle plan from 1998 was
driven by the politician Stella Fare, causing protests in the media, and from the
social democrats and other organisations, such as the taxi organisation and
among Stockholms own transport planners (Beckman and Linusson 2009,
interview Fare). Fare, politician for the Stockholm Party (now Liberal Party)
and vice mayor for urban politics 1998 2002, explains the opinion during
her time in Stockholm as follows:
After we had implemented the first measures the third world war had started; about
bicycle tracks and about bicycle lanes on Sveavgen. I took it as an opportunity
to explain what we are doing, but the negative sides were the ones that the media
jumped on. All the major newspapers and their motor journalists had their war
1 2 3

124
headlines against bicycle tracks and lanes, like Aftonbladet, Expressen and so on.
Also DN. They had their negative motor journalist. But it was not only motor
journalists. The newspapers had affected the whole debate on cycling and the public
opinion was against the measures. The Social Democrats were also against those
projects. The administration was also radically against the plans. It was also
therefore the implementation took as long as it took. They tried as hard as they
could to prevent the plans, as they always did. So if you are not a very strong
politician nothing happens for four years. It was quite often a whole delegation that
came into my office and said this is not possible. (interview Fare)
Despite these protests, the conditions for cyclists were improved, and from the
early years of 2000 until today cycling has been increasing in Stockholm. Here,
one can clearly see a connection to the work of Feinstein (2001). Individuals
and actors do highly affect the planning processes and the shaping of the
transport system, for good or bad (Feinstein 2001). The political influence of
Fare and her will to develop cycling in Stockholm were of tremendous
importance for the fact that cycling had a boost in the late 1990s. This is what
Feinstein has analysed in her book from 2001, as mentioned above. It was a
political decision in Stockholm to build the subway and the highways during
the 1950s and 1960s. In the story of the Stockholm Party one can also see
another aspect: planning for motorised traffic. Although the infrastructure for
cyclists has been improved due to the political action of the Stockholm Party,
the protests and resistance of the transport planners against cycling
infrastructure show how deeply rooted the priority of motorised traffic is. The
planners protested against bicycle infrastructure, because they saw conflicts
between motorised traffic and bicyclists, because the spaces for cars would
decrease and the spaces for cyclists would increase, something that was not seen
as possible. However, Stella Fare stood her ground and pushed the planners to
find solutions (interview Fare). In the interview she explains the political
situation in Stockholm:
The more time that went on the more important became questions about transport.
And during the period the Stockholm Party was part of the government
bicycling had come up on the agenda. So there have been changes. The main
investments, however, go to public transport. We have never had this much money
put into the public transport system. But some old habits are still there, like
statements that we need both cars and cyclists etc. from both the conservative parties
and the Social Democrats. So unfortunately those arguments are still there.
(interview Fare)

1 2 4
h e a d l i n e s a g a i n s t b i c y c l e t r a c k s a n d l a n e s , l i k e A f t o n b l a d e t , E x p r e s s e n a n d s o o n .
A l s o D N . T h e y h a d t h e i r n e g a t i v e m o t o r j o u r n a l i s t . B u t i t w a s n o t o n l y m o t o r
j o u r n a l i s t s . T h e n e w s p a p e r s h a d a f f e c t e d t h e w h o l e d e b a t e o n c y c l i n g a n d t h e p u b l i c
o p i n i o n w a s a g a i n s t t h e m e a s u r e s . T h e S o c i a l D e m o c r a t s w e r e a l s o a g a i n s t t h o s e
p r o j e c t s . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s a l s o r a d i c a l l y a g a i n s t t h e p l a n s . I t w a s a l s o
t h e r e f o r e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n t o o k a s l o n g a s i t t o o k . T h e y t r i e d a s h a r d a s t h e y
c o u l d t o p r e v e n t t h e p l a n s , a s t h e y a l w a y s d i d . S o i f y o u a r e n o t a v e r y s t r o n g
p o l i t i c i a n n o t h i n g h a p p e n s f o r f o u r y e a r s . I t w a s q u i t e o f t e n a w h o l e d e l e g a t i o n t h a t
c a m e i n t o m y o f f i c e a n d s a i d t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e . ( i n t e r v i e w F a r e )
D e s p i t e t h e s e p r o t e s t s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r c y c l i s t s w e r e i m p r o v e d , a n d f r o m t h e
e a r l y y e a r s o f 2 0 0 0 u n t i l t o d a y c y c l i n g h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g i n S t o c k h o l m . H e r e ,
o n e c a n c l e a r l y s e e a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e w o r k o f F e i n s t e i n ( 2 0 0 1 ) . I n d i v i d u a l s
a n d a c t o r s d o h i g h l y a f f e c t t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e s h a p i n g o f t h e
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , f o r g o o d o r b a d ( F e i n s t e i n 2 0 0 1 ) . T h e p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o f
F a r e a n d h e r w i l l t o d e v e l o p c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m w e r e o f t r e m e n d o u s
i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e f a c t t h a t c y c l i n g h a d a b o o s t i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s . T h i s i s w h a t
F e i n s t e i n h a s a n a l y s e d i n h e r b o o k f r o m 2 0 0 1 , a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . I t w a s a
p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n i n S t o c k h o l m t o b u i l d t h e s u b w a y a n d t h e h i g h w a y s d u r i n g
t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s . I n t h e s t o r y o f t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y o n e c a n a l s o s e e
a n o t h e r a s p e c t : p l a n n i n g f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . A l t h o u g h t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r
c y c l i s t s h a s b e e n i m p r o v e d d u e t o t h e p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n o f t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y ,
t h e p r o t e s t s a n d r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s a g a i n s t c y c l i n g
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s h o w h o w d e e p l y r o o t e d t h e p r i o r i t y o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i s . T h e
p l a n n e r s p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t b i c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , b e c a u s e t h e y s a w c o n f l i c t s
b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d b i c y c l i s t s , b e c a u s e t h e s p a c e s f o r c a r s w o u l d
d e c r e a s e a n d t h e s p a c e s f o r c y c l i s t s w o u l d i n c r e a s e , s o m e t h i n g t h a t w a s n o t s e e n
a s p o s s i b l e . H o w e v e r , S t e l l a F a r e s t o o d h e r g r o u n d a n d p u s h e d t h e p l a n n e r s t o
f i n d s o l u t i o n s ( i n t e r v i e w F a r e ) . I n t h e i n t e r v i e w s h e e x p l a i n s t h e p o l i t i c a l
s i t u a t i o n i n S t o c k h o l m :
T h e m o r e t i m e t h a t w e n t o n t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a m e q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t r a n s p o r t .
A n d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y w a s p a r t o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t
b i c y c l i n g h a d c o m e u p o n t h e a g e n d a . S o t h e r e h a v e b e e n c h a n g e s . T h e m a i n
i n v e s t m e n t s , h o w e v e r , g o t o p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t . W e h a v e n e v e r h a d t h i s m u c h m o n e y
p u t i n t o t h e p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m . B u t s o m e o l d h a b i t s a r e s t i l l t h e r e , l i k e
s t a t e m e n t s t h a t w e n e e d b o t h c a r s a n d c y c l i s t s e t c . f r o m b o t h t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e p a r t i e s
a n d t h e S o c i a l D e m o c r a t s . S o u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h o s e a r g u m e n t s a r e s t i l l t h e r e .
( i n t e r v i e w F a r e )
1 2 4

1 2 5
A n o t h e r a s p e c t i n S t o c k h o l m s p l a n n i n g p r a c t i c e i s t h a t S t o c k h o l m h a s t h e
a m b i t i o n t o b e c o m e t h e w o r l d s b e s t c i t y i n p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t o r , a s o n e p l a n n e r ,
w h o w a n t s t o r e m a i n a n o n y m o u s , p u t s i t :
T h e r e i s t h e v i s i o n f o r S t o c k h o l m c a l l e d V i s i o n 2 0 3 0 , w h i c h i s a g e n e r a l p o l i c y
d o c u m e n t f o r t h e w h o l e c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m a t a v i s i o n a r y l e v e l . B u t i t i n c l u d e s
c e r t a i n t r a n s p o r t o b j e c t i v e s t h a t s h o u l d l e a d t h e w a y f o r w a r d f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m . A n d t h e m i s s i o n i s , t h e n , h o w c a n w e g o t h a t w a y a n d h o w c a n w e r e a c h t h e
g o a l s , w h i c h , i n p r i n c i p a l , i n v o l v e s t h a t S t o c k h o l m s h o u l d b e t h e c i t y t h a t i s b e s t i n
t h e w o r l d i n u s i n g p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t . ( i n t e r v i e w a n o n y m o u s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r )
T h i s i s w h y t h e r e a r e p l a n s f o r n e w t r a m s a n d t r a m l i n e s , a s w e l l a s m o r e
s u b w a y t r a f f i c i n S t o c k h o l m , l e a v i n g f e w e r i n v e s t m e n t s f o r c y c l i n g . M o r e o v e r ,
t h i s p o l i c y g o e s e v e n f u r t h e r a n d i n c l u d e s l a r g e p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t p r o j e c t s a s w e l l
a s p r o j e c t s f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h e p l a n n e r c o n t i n u e s a n d e x p l a i n s :
A n d i n t h i s s t r a t e g y w e w i l l a l s o t r y t o i l l u m i n a t e w h a t h a p p e n s w i t h t r a f f i c i f w e
c h a n g e t h i n g s a n d s t e e r t o w a r d s a b e t t e r t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m . A n d w h a t h a p p e n s i f w e
d o n t d o t h a t , i f w e c o n t i n u e w i t h o u t c o r r e c t i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n . A n d t h i s i s v e r y h a r d
o f c o u r s e . A n d t h i s i s n o t d o n e i n a j i f f y , b u t i f y o u t r y t o b e m o r e c o n c r e t e a n d a r e
c a r e f u l w i t h i f w e b u i l d F r b i f a r t S t o c k h o l m a n d N o r r a L n k e n [ h i g h w a y
p r o j e c t s ] a n d t h o s e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e p r o j e c t s t h a t w i l l e x i s t f o r t h e n e x t 2 0 y e a r s a n d
C i t y b a n a n a n d S p r v g C i t y [ p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t ] a n d s o o n , s o i t i s n o t a b o u t
( i n t e r v i e w a n o n y m o u s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r )
H e r e t h e p l a n n e r s t o p p e d a n d , I b e l i e v e , i t w a s b e c a u s e m a n y o f t h e p l a n s d o
n o t r e a l l y f i t i n t o t h e v i s i o n o f p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t . H o w e v e r , t h e p l a n n e r g o e s o n :
P u b l i c t r a n s p o r t o b j e c t i v e s , t h e y a r e c i t y o r i e n t e d , t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s t o
t r a v e l w i t h i n t h e c i t y c e n t r e a n d t o g e t , l i k e , t o t h e c i t y c e n t r e . C i t y b a n a n w i l l b e a
g i g a n t i c c a p a c i t y a d d i t i o n , w h e r e w e , r o u g h l y , d o u b l e t h e c a p a c i t y o n t h e r a i l s y s t e m
i n S t o c k h o l m . ( i n t e r v i e w a n o n y m o u s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r )
T h i s s h o w s h o w m u c h S t o c k h o l m f o c u s e s o n p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t , b u t a l s o o n
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h o s e l a r g e - s c a l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e p r o j e c t s , a s t h e p l a n n e r
m e n t i o n e d , w i l l b e i n p l a c e f o r m a n y y e a r s a n d t h i s i s w h y o n e s h o u l d b e
c a r e f u l i n p l a n n i n g s u c h p r o j e c t s . O t h e r w i s e u r b a n s p a c e s c a n l e a d t o t h e k i n d
o f s p a c e s m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r 5 i n t h i s t h e s i s . H o w e v e r , t h e b u d g e t f o r t h e
c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m f r o m 2 0 1 2 p r o m i s e s t h a t m o r e m o n e y w i l l b e a l l o c a t e d t o
c y c l i n g . T h i s m o n e y w i l l b e u s e d f o r e x a m p l e t o i m p r o v e t h e b i c y c l i n g
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d c y c l i s t s s a f e t y . I n t h e b u d g e t i t i s p r o m i s e d t o s p e n d 1

125
Another aspect in Stockholms planning practice is that Stockholm has the
ambition to become the worlds best city in public transport or, as one planner,
who wants to remain anonymous, puts it:
There is the vision for Stockholm called Vision 2030, which is a general policy
document for the whole city of Stockholm at a visionary level. But it includes
certain transport objectives that should lead the way forward for the transport
system. And the mission is, then, how can we go that way and how can we reach the
goals, which, in principal, involves that Stockholm should be the city that is best in
the world in using public transport. (interview anonymous transport planner)
This is why there are plans for new trams and tramlines, as well as more
subway traffic in Stockholm, leaving fewer investments for cycling. Moreover,
this policy goes even further and includes large public transport projects as well
as projects for motorised traffic. The planner continues and explains:
And in this strategy we will also try to illuminate what happens with traffic if we
change things and steer towards a better transport system. And what happens if we
dont do that, if we continue without correcting the direction. And this is very hard
of course. And this is not done in a jiffy, but if you try to be more concrete and are
careful with if we build Frbifart Stockholm and Norra Lnken [highway
projects] and those infrastructure projects that will exist for the next 20 years and
Citybanan and Sprvg City [public transport] and so on, so it is not about
(interview anonymous transport planner)
Here the planner stopped and, I believe, it was because many of the plans do
not really fit into the vision of public transport. However, the planner goes on:
Public transport objectives, they are city oriented, to strengthen the possibilities to
travel within the city centre and to get, like, to the city centre. Citybanan will be a
gigantic capacity addition, where we, roughly, double the capacity on the rail system
in Stockholm. (interview anonymous transport planner)
This shows how much Stockholm focuses on public transport, but also on
motorised traffic. Those large-scale infrastructure projects, as the planner
mentioned, will be in place for many years and this is why one should be
careful in planning such projects. Otherwise urban spaces can lead to the kind
of spaces mentioned in Chapter 5 in this thesis. However, the budget for the
city of Stockholm from 2012 promises that more money will be allocated to
cycling. This money will be used for example to improve the bicycling
infrastructure and cyclists safety. In the budget it is promised to spend 1
1 2 5

126
billion Swedish Kronor (ca. 115 million Euros) from 2012 to 2018 for such
measures. Further, Stockholm has developed a strategy for increasing the level
of service of public transport and cycling. In this strategy it is for example said
that the city will allocate more space to busses and cyclists (City of Stockholm
2013c and d). However, how much of those projects will be realised and how
much of that money really ends up in the cycling infrastructure is a different
question. Because as Spolander puts it in the interview:
Planners and politicians are often good at making plans and policies, but bad at
implementing them. Moreover, large car-oriented projects are often underfunded
and later take money from bicycle projects. (interview Spolander)
Moreover, car related projects acquire much higher funding. The highway
project Frbifart Stockholm rests on a budget of 28 billion Swedish Kronor
(ca. 3 billion Euros) (Trafikverket 2013a), and for the road tunnel project for
motorised traffic Norra Lnken ca. 15.5 billion Swedish Kronor (1.8 billion
Euros) are allocated (Trafikverket 2013b). The city of Stockholm does not
stand for the costs alone. Much of the costs are coming from the national
government. Nevertheless, Stockholm stands for 4.5 billion kronor (ca. 518
million Euros) for Norra Lnken (Trafikverket 2013b), and Frbifart
Stockholm is financed by the congestion charge in Stockholm (80 %), which is
administrated by the city of Stockholm and the national government (20 %)
(Trafikverket 2013a).
It seems that the politics of planning practises are slightly different in
Copenhagen. In the 2000s the campaign of the politician Klaus Bondam, who
built his campaign on cycling in Copenhagen and won the election, led to an
even larger focus on cycling in transport planning in Copenhagen (interview
Bondam and Rhl).
As Rhl, head of the bicycle planning program at the centre for transport in
Copenhagen, explains:
2005 was the first time a mainstream politician went into the election with a
bicycle program and won the election with specific bicycle projects. It was a well-
established mainstream politician within the area of environmental and transport
questions. And now even conservative and liberal politicians take up bicycle projects
in elections. You see now all politicians in general, independent of party
membership, take bicycle politics and bicycle planning serious today. There is a
decision that sees the bicycle not as a goal, but as a means to create a more effective

1 2 6
b i l l i o n S w e d i s h K r o n o r ( c a . 1 1 5 m i l l i o n E u r o s ) f r o m 2 0 1 2 t o 2 0 1 8 f o r s u c h
m e a s u r e s . F u r t h e r , S t o c k h o l m h a s d e v e l o p e d a s t r a t e g y f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e l e v e l
o f s e r v i c e o f p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a n d c y c l i n g . I n t h i s s t r a t e g y i t i s f o r e x a m p l e s a i d
t h a t t h e c i t y w i l l a l l o c a t e m o r e s p a c e t o b u s s e s a n d c y c l i s t s ( C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m
2 0 1 3 c a n d d ) . H o w e v e r , h o w m u c h o f t h o s e p r o j e c t s w i l l b e r e a l i s e d a n d h o w
m u c h o f t h a t m o n e y r e a l l y e n d s u p i n t h e c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s a d i f f e r e n t
q u e s t i o n . B e c a u s e a s S p o l a n d e r p u t s i t i n t h e i n t e r v i e w :
P l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s a r e o f t e n g o o d a t m a k i n g p l a n s a n d p o l i c i e s , b u t b a d a t
i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e m . M o r e o v e r , l a r g e c a r - o r i e n t e d p r o j e c t s a r e o f t e n u n d e r f u n d e d
a n d l a t e r t a k e m o n e y f r o m b i c y c l e p r o j e c t s . ( i n t e r v i e w S p o l a n d e r )
M o r e o v e r , c a r r e l a t e d p r o j e c t s a c q u i r e m u c h h i g h e r f u n d i n g . T h e h i g h w a y
p r o j e c t F r b i f a r t S t o c k h o l m r e s t s o n a b u d g e t o f 2 8 b i l l i o n S w e d i s h K r o n o r
( c a . 3 b i l l i o n E u r o s ) ( T r a f i k v e r k e t 2 0 1 3 a ) , a n d f o r t h e r o a d t u n n e l p r o j e c t f o r
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c N o r r a L n k e n c a . 1 5 . 5 b i l l i o n S w e d i s h K r o n o r ( 1 . 8 b i l l i o n
E u r o s ) a r e a l l o c a t e d ( T r a f i k v e r k e t 2 0 1 3 b ) . T h e c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m d o e s n o t
s t a n d f o r t h e c o s t s a l o n e . M u c h o f t h e c o s t s a r e c o m i n g f r o m t h e n a t i o n a l
g o v e r n m e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , S t o c k h o l m s t a n d s f o r 4 . 5 b i l l i o n k r o n o r ( c a . 5 1 8
m i l l i o n E u r o s ) f o r N o r r a L n k e n ( T r a f i k v e r k e t 2 0 1 3 b ) , a n d F r b i f a r t
S t o c k h o l m i s f i n a n c e d b y t h e c o n g e s t i o n c h a r g e i n S t o c k h o l m ( 8 0 % ) , w h i c h i s
a d m i n i s t r a t e d b y t h e c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m a n d t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t ( 2 0 % )
( T r a f i k v e r k e t 2 0 1 3 a ) .
I t s e e m s t h a t t h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e s a r e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t i n
C o p e n h a g e n . I n t h e 2 0 0 0 s t h e c a m p a i g n o f t h e p o l i t i c i a n K l a u s B o n d a m , w h o
b u i l t h i s c a m p a i g n o n c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d w o n t h e e l e c t i o n , l e d t o a n
e v e n l a r g e r f o c u s o n c y c l i n g i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n ( i n t e r v i e w
B o n d a m a n d R h l ) .
A s R h l , h e a d o f t h e b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g p r o g r a m a t t h e c e n t r e f o r t r a n s p o r t i n
C o p e n h a g e n , e x p l a i n s :
2 0 0 5 w a s t h e f i r s t t i m e a m a i n s t r e a m p o l i t i c i a n w e n t i n t o t h e e l e c t i o n w i t h a
b i c y c l e p r o g r a m a n d w o n t h e e l e c t i o n w i t h s p e c i f i c b i c y c l e p r o j e c t s . I t w a s a w e l l -
e s t a b l i s h e d m a i n s t r e a m p o l i t i c i a n w i t h i n t h e a r e a o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d t r a n s p o r t
q u e s t i o n s . A n d n o w e v e n c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d l i b e r a l p o l i t i c i a n s t a k e u p b i c y c l e p r o j e c t s
i n e l e c t i o n s . Y o u s e e n o w a l l p o l i t i c i a n s i n g e n e r a l , i n d e p e n d e n t o f p a r t y
m e m b e r s h i p , t a k e b i c y c l e p o l i t i c s a n d b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g s e r i o u s t o d a y . T h e r e i s a
d e c i s i o n t h a t s e e s t h e b i c y c l e n o t a s a g o a l , b u t a s a m e a n s t o c r e a t e a m o r e e f f e c t i v e
1 2 6

1 2 7
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , a n d t h a t i s b a c k e d u p b y a l l p a r t i e s i n C o p e n h a g e n . ( i n t e r v i e w
R h l )
B o n d a m , t h e p o l i t i c i a n s i n C o p e n h a g e n , w h o h a d b u i l t h i s c a m p a i g n i n
c y c l i n g , p u t s i t t h i s w a y :
I w a s c h a i r m a n o f t h e T e c h n i c a l a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o m m i t t e e b e t w e e n 2 0 0 6
a n d 2 0 1 0 . I t w a s c l e a r t h a t C o p e n h a g e n e r s w a n t e d i n v e s t m e n t s i n b i c y c l i n g . T h e r e
w a s a l r e a d y a f o c u s o n b i c y c l i n g i n t h e p o l i t i c s a n d g o v e r n m e n t i n C o p e n h a g e n . . . .
I t w a s a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n i n 2 0 0 5 a n d b i c y c l e m o b i l i t y w a s v e r y
i m p o r t a n t ( i n t e r v i e w B o n d a m )
T h e f o c u s o n c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n a l l t h e p l a n n e r s a n d
p o l i t i c i a n s s t a t e m e n t s . A l l p e r s o n s i n t e r v i e w e d f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h m e n t i o n e d
q u i c k l y t h a t p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g a n d p e d e s t r i a n s i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t
i n C o p e n h a g e n s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . H o w e v e r , d u e t o t h e m u c h b e t t e r
e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d b e c a u s e o f m o r e s t a t e f u n d i n g , a f o c u s
o n p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t ( t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e M e t r o ) i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t . T h e p r i o r i t y
i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n s e e m s c l e a r : F i r s t c y c l i s t s a n d p e d e s t r i a n s ,
s e c o n d p u b l i c t r a n s i t a n d t h i r d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p l a n n e r s a n d
p o l i t i c i a n s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , C o p e n h a g e n h a s t h e a m b i t i o n t o b e c o m e t h e w o r l d s
b e s t c i t y f o r c y c l i s t s ( i n t e r v i e w R h l , J e n s e n , T r s l v , A a b e r g , E l l e , H j o r t s k o v
J e n s e n a n d B o n d a m ) . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a l i t y s e e m s a b i t d i f f e r e n t w h e n a s k i n g
t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n . M o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c c r e a t e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e m o s t
p r o b l e m s f o r c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n ( a n d f o r c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m ) a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s d o n e f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h . T h i s i s d e a l t w i t h i n t h e n e x t
c h a p t e r .
T h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n s h o w s
t h a t m o b i l i t y , t r a n s p o r t a n d p l a n n i n g a r e h i g h l y p o l i t i c a l a n d i n f l u e n c e d e i t h e r
b y p e o p l e s p r o t e s t s o r b y i n d i v i d u a l p o l i t i c i a n s s h a p i n g u r b a n s p a c e . P l a n n e r s
p r a c t i c e i s h i g h l y i n f l u e n c e d b y p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p l a n n e r s
a l s o t r y t o i n f l u e n c e p o l i t i c i a n s d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d p o l i t i c i a n s a r e , o f c o u r s e ,
s e n s i t i v e t o v o t e r s o p i n i o n s , w h i c h i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e C o p e n h a g e n p r o t e s t s
d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s . T h u s t h e p o l i t i c s o f c y c l i n g m o b i l i t y i s d e v e l o p e d i n a m a s h
o f p o l i t i c a l a n d p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s a n d c i t i z e n s o p i n i o n s . H o w e v e r , t h e
o p i n i o n o f t h e c i t i z e n s i s h i g h l y c o n t e s t e d t o d a y , w h e n l o o k i n g a t r e c e n t
p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t g e n t r i f i c a t i o n , c a p i t a l i s m a n d c a p i t a l p o w e r a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d .
P o l i t i c i a n s s e e m t o s e e t h e p r o t e s t s t o d a y a s a m a r g i n a l i z e d p h e n o m e n o n ,
w h i c h r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r s u c h c y c l i n g p r o t e s t s w o u l d h a v e t h e s a m e

127
transport system, and that is backed up by all parties in Copenhagen. (interview
Rhl)
Bondam, the politicians in Copenhagen, who had built his campaign in
cycling, puts it this way:
I was chairman of the Technical and Environmental Committee between 2006
and 2010. It was clear that Copenhageners wanted investments in bicycling. There
was already a focus on bicycling in the politics and government in Copenhagen. ...
It was a very significant election campaign in 2005 and bicycle mobility was very
important (interview Bondam)
The focus on cycling in Copenhagen is also present in all the planners and
politicians statements. All persons interviewed for this research mentioned
quickly that planning for cycling and pedestrians is the most important aspect
in Copenhagens transport planning. However, due to the much better
economic situation of Copenhagen and because of more state funding, a focus
on public transport (the building of the Metro) is also important. The priority
in transport planning in Copenhagen seems clear: First cyclists and pedestrians,
second public transit and third motorised traffic, according to the planners and
politicians. Additionally, Copenhagen has the ambition to become the worlds
best city for cyclists (interview Rhl, Jensen, Trslv, Aaberg, Elle, Hjortskov
Jensen and Bondam). However, the reality seems a bit different when asking
the cyclists in Copenhagen. Motorised traffic creates, for example, the most
problems for cyclists in Copenhagen (and for cyclists in Stockholm) according
to the survey studies done for this research. This is dealt with in the next
chapter.
The politics of planning practise in both Stockholm and Copenhagen shows
that mobility, transport and planning are highly political and influenced either
by peoples protests or by individual politicians shaping urban space. Planners
practice is highly influenced by political decisions. On the other hand, planners
also try to influence politicians decision making and politicians are, of course,
sensitive to voters opinions, which is exemplified in the Copenhagen protests
during the 1970s. Thus the politics of cycling mobility is developed in a mash
of political and planning decisions and citizens opinions. However, the
opinion of the citizens is highly contested today, when looking at recent
protests against gentrification, capitalism and capital power all over the world.
Politicians seem to see the protests today as a marginalized phenomenon,
which raises the question whether such cycling protests would have the same
1 2 7

128
effects today as they had in Copenhagen in the 1970s. There still are cycling
protests around the world, such as the critical mass movement, but they do not
seem to have the same effect on transport planning and transport policy as the
protests had in Copenhagen in the 1970s (Furness 2007).
In the 1970s the residents of Copenhagen developed a new structure of the
public, which meant more public involvement in the planning processes and
decision-making through protests. This is what Habermas (1990 [1962])
described as a new public sphere. The new public sphere brought cyclists
needs into the discussions and political discourses in Copenhagen. Thus, those
protests and the public involvement put planning for cyclists on the political
agenda of, at first, left-wing politicians, but later on (during the 1990s) also of
conservative politicians. This development opened up for a new public sphere,
where cycling plays an important part and which makes it difficult today to do
anything that is against cycling. The public sphere goes through many different
transformations in general, according to Habermas (1990 [1962]). However,
the transformation is always embedded within changes of the state and the
political economy. It was the change of the political economy in Denmark,
even without a car industry, towards more car traffic, and, at the same time, no
financial means to create a better public transport system, which created the
mass demonstrations in Copenhagen for better planning for cyclists, since in
this period the focus in Copenhagens transport planning was more on
motorised traffic (interview Rhl and Elle, Habermas 1990 [1962]).
Bicycling went down in the 1960s. But during the 1970s came large protests, not
only in Copenhagen, which can be seen as grass-root movements that pressured the
politicians not only to invest in the car. Those movements had their origin in
environmental movements. The oil crisis surely played its part in making people
want more bicycles and fewer cars. To leave the bicycle out of the politics is wrong.
The car took more and more space and people opposed that. So there were huge
protests outside the city hall with many people who advocated for bicycle traffic.
This way it came into the political system. Politicians saw an advantage to do
something for bicycling. And the turning point came in the end of the 1970s and
early 1980s (interview Rhl).
And as Jensen puts it:
Since the beginning of the 1970s more activist groups like the Danish Cyclists
Association, which was a quite slow organisation but became more activist, began
to organise themselves in order to create a resistance against the progression of the

1 2 8
e f f e c t s t o d a y a s t h e y h a d i n C o p e n h a g e n i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . T h e r e s t i l l a r e c y c l i n g
p r o t e s t s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , s u c h a s t h e c r i t i c a l m a s s m o v e m e n t , b u t t h e y d o n o t
s e e m t o h a v e t h e s a m e e f f e c t o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y a s t h e
p r o t e s t s h a d i n C o p e n h a g e n i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s ( F u r n e s s 2 0 0 7 ) .
I n t h e 1 9 7 0 s t h e r e s i d e n t s o f C o p e n h a g e n d e v e l o p e d a n e w s t r u c t u r e o f t h e
p u b l i c , w h i c h m e a n t m o r e p u b l i c i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d
d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g t h r o u g h p r o t e s t s . T h i s i s w h a t H a b e r m a s ( 1 9 9 0 [ 1 9 6 2 ] )
d e s c r i b e d a s a n e w p u b l i c s p h e r e . T h e n e w p u b l i c s p h e r e b r o u g h t c y c l i s t s
n e e d s i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e s i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h u s , t h o s e
p r o t e s t s a n d t h e p u b l i c i n v o l v e m e n t p u t p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s o n t h e p o l i t i c a l
a g e n d a o f , a t f i r s t , l e f t - w i n g p o l i t i c i a n s , b u t l a t e r o n ( d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 0 s ) a l s o o f
c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c i a n s . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t o p e n e d u p f o r a n e w p u b l i c s p h e r e ,
w h e r e c y c l i n g p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t a n d w h i c h m a k e s i t d i f f i c u l t t o d a y t o d o
a n y t h i n g t h a t i s a g a i n s t c y c l i n g . T h e p u b l i c s p h e r e g o e s t h r o u g h m a n y d i f f e r e n t
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l , a c c o r d i n g t o H a b e r m a s ( 1 9 9 0 [ 1 9 6 2 ] ) . H o w e v e r ,
t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s a l w a y s e m b e d d e d w i t h i n c h a n g e s o f t h e s t a t e a n d t h e
p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y . I t w a s t h e c h a n g e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y i n D e n m a r k ,
e v e n w i t h o u t a c a r i n d u s t r y , t o w a r d s m o r e c a r t r a f f i c , a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , n o
f i n a n c i a l m e a n s t o c r e a t e a b e t t e r p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , w h i c h c r e a t e d t h e
m a s s d e m o n s t r a t i o n s i n C o p e n h a g e n f o r b e t t e r p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s , s i n c e i n
t h i s p e r i o d t h e f o c u s i n C o p e n h a g e n s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g w a s m o r e o n
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c ( i n t e r v i e w R h l a n d E l l e , H a b e r m a s 1 9 9 0 [ 1 9 6 2 ] ) .
B i c y c l i n g w e n t d o w n i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s . B u t d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s c a m e l a r g e p r o t e s t s , n o t
o n l y i n C o p e n h a g e n , w h i c h c a n b e s e e n a s g r a s s - r o o t m o v e m e n t s t h a t p r e s s u r e d t h e
p o l i t i c i a n s n o t o n l y t o i n v e s t i n t h e c a r . T h o s e m o v e m e n t s h a d t h e i r o r i g i n i n
e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o v e m e n t s . T h e o i l c r i s i s s u r e l y p l a y e d i t s p a r t i n m a k i n g p e o p l e
w a n t m o r e b i c y c l e s a n d f e w e r c a r s . T o l e a v e t h e b i c y c l e o u t o f t h e p o l i t i c s i s w r o n g .
T h e c a r t o o k m o r e a n d m o r e s p a c e a n d p e o p l e o p p o s e d t h a t . S o t h e r e w e r e h u g e
p r o t e s t s o u t s i d e t h e c i t y h a l l w i t h m a n y p e o p l e w h o a d v o c a t e d f o r b i c y c l e t r a f f i c .
T h i s w a y i t c a m e i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . P o l i t i c i a n s s a w a n a d v a n t a g e t o d o
s o m e t h i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g . A n d t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t c a m e i n t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s a n d
e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s ( i n t e r v i e w R h l ) .
A n d a s J e n s e n p u t s i t :
S i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s m o r e a c t i v i s t g r o u p s l i k e t h e D a n i s h C y c l i s t s
A s s o c i a t i o n , w h i c h w a s a q u i t e s l o w o r g a n i s a t i o n b u t b e c a m e m o r e a c t i v i s t , b e g a n
t o o r g a n i s e t h e m s e l v e s i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t h e
1 2 8

1 2 9
c a r a n d m a n i f e s t e d m o r e a n d m o r e f o r t h e b i c y c l e . T h e r e w e r e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d
p r o t e s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n . A n d t h e r e w e r e m a n y m o r e p e o p l e t h a n e x p e c t e d T h e
a c t i v i s t s c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e i r p r o t e s t s a n d p u s h e d t h e p o l i t i c i a n s t o a c t i o n s w h i c h
a l s o a f f e c t e d t h e p l a n n e r s ( i n t e r v i e w J e n s e n ) .
I n S t o c k h o l m t h e r e w e r e a l s o m a s s p r o t e s t s i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h
t h e r e w e r e s o m e c y c l e p r o t e s t s , t h e g e n e r a l c o n c e r n f o r p r o t e s t e r s w a s n o t
c y c l i n g . T h e p r o t e s t w a s m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h s a v i n g t r e e s a n d a n t i - w a r , b u t
a l s o , a s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , w i t h t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , b u t t h o s e p r o t e s t s d i d n o t
i n v o l v e b i c y c l e q u e s t i o n s i n p a r t i c u l a r ( S t a h r e 1 9 9 9 ) . S t o c k h o l m h e r e m i s s e d
t h e c h a n c e t o c r e a t e a n e w p r o - b i k e p u b l i c s t r u c t u r e . T r a n s p o r t r e l a t e d p r o t e s t s
i n S t o c k h o l m c a m e l a t e r , i n t h e 8 0 s a n d 9 0 s , a n d w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h
c o n c r e t e p r o j e c t s s u c h a s s o m e h i g h w a y p r o j e c t s o r t h e s o - c a l l e d D e n n i s -
p a c k a g e ( I s a k s s o n 2 0 0 1 ) . H o w e v e r , t h o s e p r o t e s t s d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e p l a n n i n g
o u t c o m e o r t h e o v e r a l l u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d i r e c t i o n s .
W h a t i s s t r i k i n g i n S t o c k h o l m i s t h a t w e s e e m t o b e w i t n e s s i n g a c h a n g e i n t h e
p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e o n c y c l i n g a n d t o w a r d s m o r e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y , w h i c h c a n a l s o b e
s e e n i n t h e n e w z o n i n g p l a n ( v e r s i k t s p l a n S t o c k h o l m 2 0 1 0 ) a n d t h e
c o n g e s t i o n c h a r g e . T h e p u b l i c o p i n i o n e x p r e s s e d i n t h e n e w s p a p e r s h a s
c h a n g e d f r o m p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t t h e b i c y c l e m e a s u r e s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e l a t e
1 9 9 0 s b y t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y ( B e c k m a n a n d L i n u s s o n 2 0 0 9 ) t o p o s i t i v e
a r t i c l e s t o d a y ( m a i n l y i n 2 0 1 1 ) a b o u t h o w S t o c k h o l m i s d o i n g m o r e a n d m o r e
f o r c y c l i s t s ( s e e f o r e x a m p l e S u n d s t r m 2 0 1 1 ) . T h i s c o u l d b e a s i g n o f a
t r a n s i t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a l s o i n S t o c k h o l m ( H a b e r m a s 1 9 9 0 [ 1 9 6 2 ] ) .
M o r e o v e r , t h i s c o u l d a l s o i m p l y a n e w f o c u s o n m o b i l i t y q u e s t i o n s , w h i c h
c o u l d b e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e n e w m o b i l i t y p a r a d i g m w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s
( S h e l l e r a n d U r r y 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e p o s i t i v e a r t i c l e s c o u l d a t l e a s t b e s e e n a s t h e
a r i s i n g o f a n e w p a r a d i g m i n m o b i l i t y t o w a r d s m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e m o d e s i n
S t o c k h o l m . M o b i l i t y i s n o t o n l y f o c u s e d o n m o r e a n d m o r e i n t h e s o c i a l
s c i e n c e s b e c a u s e o f i t s i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e w o r l d t o d a y , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e o f i t s
r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t n o t e v e r y o n e h a s t h e
s a m e a c c e s s t o m o b i l i t y ( S h e l l e r a n d U r r y 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e s a m e s h i f t c a n b e
o b s e r v e d i n t h e p o l i t i c s o f c y c l i n g , w h i c h f o c u s e d , i n S t o c k h o l m a s w e l l a s i n
C o p e n h a g e n , o n t h e o n e h a n d o n t h e e x i s t i n g m o b i l i t y o f t h e c i t i z e n s a n d o n
t h e o t h e r h a n d o n t h e f a c t t h a t c y c l i s t s a r e m a r g i n a l i z e d i n t h e u r b a n t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m a n d t h a t p e o p l e w h o u s e t h e b i k e a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t d o n o t h a v e
t h e s a m e a c c e s s t o m o b i l i t y a s p e o p l e w h o u s e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c .

129
car and manifested more and more for the bicycle. There were demonstrations and
protests in Copenhagen. And there were many more people than expectedThe
activists continued with their protests and pushed the politicians to actions which
also affected the planners (interview Jensen).
In Stockholm there were also mass protests in the 1970s. However, although
there were some cycle protests, the general concern for protesters was not
cycling. The protest was more concerned with saving trees and anti-war, but
also, as mentioned before, with the transport system, but those protests did not
involve bicycle questions in particular (Stahre 1999). Stockholm here missed
the chance to create a new pro-bike public structure. Transport related protests
in Stockholm came later, in the 80s and 90s, and were concerned with
concrete projects such as some highway projects or the so-called Dennis-
package (Isaksson 2001). However, those protests did not affect the planning
outcome or the overall urban and transport planning directions.
What is striking in Stockholm is that we seem to be witnessing a change in the
public discourse on cycling and towards more sustainability, which can also be
seen in the new zoning plan (versiktsplan Stockholm 2010) and the
congestion charge. The public opinion expressed in the newspapers has
changed from protests against the bicycle measures introduced in the late
1990s by the Stockholm Party (Beckman and Linusson 2009) to positive
articles today (mainly in 2011) about how Stockholm is doing more and more
for cyclists (see for example Sundstrm 2011). This could be a sign of a
transition of the public sphere also in Stockholm (Habermas 1990 [1962]).
Moreover, this could also imply a new focus on mobility questions, which
could be connected to the new mobility paradigm within the social sciences
(Sheller and Urry 2006). The positive articles could at least be seen as the
arising of a new paradigm in mobility towards more sustainable modes in
Stockholm. Mobility is not only focused on more and more in the social
sciences because of its importance in the world today, but also because of its
reinforcement of power relations, due to the fact that not everyone has the
same access to mobility (Sheller and Urry 2006). The same shift can be
observed in the politics of cycling, which focused, in Stockholm as well as in
Copenhagen, on the one hand on the existing mobility of the citizens and on
the other hand on the fact that cyclists are marginalized in the urban transport
system and that people who use the bike as a mode of transport do not have
the same access to mobility as people who use motorised traffic.
1 2 9

130
A fair and sustainable transport system is the goal of both Copenhagen and
Stockholm. In comparison one has to say that Copenhagen has come a bit
farther in their political actions than Stockholm. The political actions in
Copenhagen were more progressive than in Stockholm. Furthermore, those
actions created a new public sphere much earlier in Copenhagen than in
Stockholm, and were therefore embedded in the planning practises at an earlier
stage. This led the way for Copenhagen to become one of the worlds leading
cities when it comes to planning for cyclists. Hopefully, with the emerging
change of attitudes, a new public sphere can also be created in Stockholm to
follow Copenhagens example of a politics for vlomobility.
7.4 Planning, politics and the differences
between Copenhagen and Stockholm
This chapter has shown that there are many differences between Copenhagen
and Stockholm when it comes to planning for cyclists. It was shown that five
aspects seem to be of special importance. Those are economical, spatial,
historical and cultural aspects, organizational aspects and the politics of
planning. In all five aspects Copenhagen and Stockholm are very different, and
they seem to push Copenhagen more towards cycling and planning for cyclists,
than Stockholm. Stockholm on the other hand seems more eager to plan for
public transit, which is also shown in the modal split in Table 2. In conclusion
one can say that the different economic, cultural and historical structures in
Copenhagen affected the planning system and favoured planning for cyclists,
whereas in Stockholm those structures favoured planning for motorised traffic
and public transport.
The political discussion on cycling in both Stockholm and Copenhagen,
mentioned in section 7.3, can be framed within the mobilities research put
forward by Urry, Sheller and Cresswell (see Urry 2000, Sheller and Urry 2006
and Cresswell 2010). However, Urry and Sheller are not quite involved in the
politics of mobility, which is taken up by Cresswell (2010). Mobility has, to a
very large degree, to do with politics, political decisions and political economy.
The politics of mobility, according to Cresswell (2010), involves the movement
from A to B, but also the representation of movements and the embodiment of
movements. Through the different political decisions concerning cycling and

1 3 0
A f a i r a n d s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m i s t h e g o a l o f b o t h C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m . I n c o m p a r i s o n o n e h a s t o s a y t h a t C o p e n h a g e n h a s c o m e a b i t
f a r t h e r i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s t h a n S t o c k h o l m . T h e p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s i n
C o p e n h a g e n w e r e m o r e p r o g r e s s i v e t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h o s e
a c t i o n s c r e a t e d a n e w p u b l i c s p h e r e m u c h e a r l i e r i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n
S t o c k h o l m , a n d w e r e t h e r e f o r e e m b e d d e d i n t h e p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e s a t a n e a r l i e r
s t a g e . T h i s l e d t h e w a y f o r C o p e n h a g e n t o b e c o m e o n e o f t h e w o r l d s l e a d i n g
c i t i e s w h e n i t c o m e s t o p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s . H o p e f u l l y , w i t h t h e e m e r g i n g
c h a n g e o f a t t i t u d e s , a n e w p u b l i c s p h e r e c a n a l s o b e c r e a t e d i n S t o c k h o l m t o
f o l l o w C o p e n h a g e n s e x a m p l e o f a p o l i t i c s f o r v l o m o b i l i t y .
7 . 4 P l a n n i n g , p o l i t i c s a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m
T h i s c h a p t e r h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e r e a r e m a n y d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n
a n d S t o c k h o l m w h e n i t c o m e s t o p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s . I t w a s s h o w n t h a t f i v e
a s p e c t s s e e m t o b e o f s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e . T h o s e a r e e c o n o m i c a l , s p a t i a l ,
h i s t o r i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f
p l a n n i n g . I n a l l f i v e a s p e c t s C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t , a n d
t h e y s e e m t o p u s h C o p e n h a g e n m o r e t o w a r d s c y c l i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s ,
t h a n S t o c k h o l m . S t o c k h o l m o n t h e o t h e r h a n d s e e m s m o r e e a g e r t o p l a n f o r
p u b l i c t r a n s i t , w h i c h i s a l s o s h o w n i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t i n T a b l e 2 . I n c o n c l u s i o n
o n e c a n s a y t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l s t r u c t u r e s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a f f e c t e d t h e p l a n n i n g s y s t e m a n d f a v o u r e d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s ,
w h e r e a s i n S t o c k h o l m t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s f a v o u r e d p l a n n i n g f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
a n d p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t .
T h e p o l i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n o n c y c l i n g i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n ,
m e n t i o n e d i n s e c t i o n 7 . 3 , c a n b e f r a m e d w i t h i n t h e m o b i l i t i e s r e s e a r c h p u t
f o r w a r d b y U r r y , S h e l l e r a n d C r e s s w e l l ( s e e U r r y 2 0 0 0 , S h e l l e r a n d U r r y 2 0 0 6
a n d C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) . H o w e v e r , U r r y a n d S h e l l e r a r e n o t q u i t e i n v o l v e d i n t h e
p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y , w h i c h i s t a k e n u p b y C r e s s w e l l ( 2 0 1 0 ) . M o b i l i t y h a s , t o a
v e r y l a r g e d e g r e e , t o d o w i t h p o l i t i c s , p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y .
T h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y , a c c o r d i n g t o C r e s s w e l l ( 2 0 1 0 ) , i n v o l v e s t h e m o v e m e n t
f r o m A t o B , b u t a l s o t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m o v e m e n t s a n d t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f
m o v e m e n t s . T h r o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g c y c l i n g a n d
1 3 0

1 3 1
b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f c y c l i n g
a n d t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f c y c l i n g h a v e b e c o m e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . F o r e x a m p l e i n
C o p e n h a g e n a l l p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s i n t e r v i e w e d m e n t i o n e d c y c l i n g a s t h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t r a n s p o r t i n t h e c i t y , a n d c y c l i n g w a s a l w a y s v i e w e d a s
p o s i t i v e ( i n t e r v i e w R h l , J e n s e n , T r s l v , A a b e r g , E l l e , H j o r t s k o v J e n s e n a n d
B o n d a m ) . I n S t o c k h o l m , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h e n i n t e r v i e w i n g t h e t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n e r s t h e y m e n t i o n e d t h a t t r a n s p o r t i s c o m p l i c a t e d , b u t f e w p l a n n e r s
m e n t i o n e d c y c l i n g w i t h o u t m y b r i n g i n g i t u p . D u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s , b i c y c l i n g
w a s m o r e a p a r t o f t h e g r e a t e r t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m t h a t d o e s n o t n e e d v e r y m u c h
c o n s i d e r a t i o n ( i n t e r v i e w a n o n y m o u s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r , F a g e r a n d T e d e s j ) .
T h e e x c e p t i o n w a s o f c o u r s e t h e b i c y c l e p l a n n e r K r i s t e r I s a k s s o n w h o s t a r t e d t o
t a l k a b o u t c y c l i n g f r o m t h e s t a r t ( i n t e r v i e w I s a k s s o n ) . H o w e v e r , o n e p l a n n e r
e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m i s c o m p l e x a n d t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n n e e d s t o
b e i m p r o v e d f o r a l l , w h i c h d o e s n o t l e a d , I b e l i e v e , t o a n i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e
s i t u a t i o n f o r b i c y c l i s t s :
W e g e t m u c h s u p p o r t t h a t t h i s i s v e r y c o m p l e x ; t h a t t o i m p r o v e t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r
p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t , y o u n e e d a l s o t o d e v e l o p b i c y c l i n g a n d w a l k i n g ; w e h a v e t o
p r i o r i t i s e t h e t r a n s p o r t m o d e s w i t h h i g h c a p a c i t y . F o r a c o u p l e o f y e a r s a g o t h e
f o c u s w a s m a i n l y o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h a t w e c o u l d s a v e t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m b y
p r i o r i t i s i n g t h e c a r s a c c e s s i b i l i t y . A n d I t h i n k t h a t t h i s i s n o t a s o u t s p o k e n a n y m o r e
a s i t w a s a c o u p l e o f y e a r s a g o . T h e r e h a s b e e n a n i n c r e a s e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t w e
h a v e a c o m p l e x t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m t h a t n e e d s t o n u r t u r e t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f a l l m o d e s
o f t r a n s p o r t , a n d t h i s i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n t h e b u d g e t t h a t w e g o t a f t e r t h e e l e c t i o n . I t i s
p u s h e d f o r w a r d i n t h a t b u d g e t t h a t w e s h o u l d t a k e c a r e o f a l l m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t
a n d p r o v i d e a l l m o d e s w i t h g o o d c o n d i t i o n s . ( i n t e r v i e w a n o n y m o u s t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n e r ) .
I t s e e m s t h a t i n r e a l i t y t h e p r i o r i t i e s g o t o m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d p u b l i c
t r a n s p o r t , w h e n a l l m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t s h o u l d b e e q u a l l y p r i o r i t i s e d . I n r e l a t i o n
t o C o p e n h a g e n , w h e r e t h e p r i o r i t y a m o n g p o l i t i c i a n s a n d p l a n n e r s a l i k e i s o n
b i c y c l i n g , t h e e f f e c t i s a b e t t e r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s .
T h i s c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r o f t h i s t h e s i s , w h e r e t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s
a r e a n a l y s e d . T h u s , t h e p o l i t i c s o f , w h a t I w o u l d l i k e t o c a l l , v l o m o b i l i t y i n t h e
t w o c a s e c i t i e s o f t h i s t h e s i s a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , w h i c h h a s r e s u l t e d i n d i f f e r e n t
u r b a n s p a c e s , d i f f e r e n t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f d e a l i n g w i t h i s s u e s
i n v o l v i n g c y c l i n g . T h e m o v e m e n t s o f c y c l i s t s a r e m o r e l i m i t e d o r r e s t r i c t e d i n
S t o c k h o l m t h a n i n C o p e n h a g e n , b e c a u s e t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s
a n d p o l i t i c s d i f f e r b e t w e e n t h e t w o c i t i e s . T h a t a l s o l e a d s t o t h e f a c t t h a t

131
bicycle planning in Stockholm and Copenhagen, the representations of cycling
and the embodiment of cycling have become quite different. For example in
Copenhagen all planners and politicians interviewed mentioned cycling as the
most important part of transport in the city, and cycling was always viewed as
positive (interview Rhl, Jensen, Trslv, Aaberg, Elle, Hjortskov Jensen and
Bondam). In Stockholm, on the other hand, when interviewing the transport
planners they mentioned that transport is complicated, but few planners
mentioned cycling without my bringing it up. During the interviews, bicycling
was more a part of the greater transport system that does not need very much
consideration (interview anonymous transport planner, Fager and Tedesj).
The exception was of course the bicycle planner Krister Isaksson who started to
talk about cycling from the start (interview Isaksson). However, one planner
explained that the transport system is complex and that the situation needs to
be improved for all, which does not lead, I believe, to an improvement of the
situation for bicyclists:
We get much support that this is very complex; that to improve the conditions for
public transport, you need also to develop bicycling and walking; we have to
prioritise the transport modes with high capacity. For a couple of years ago the
focus was mainly on motorised traffic. That we could save the transport system by
prioritising the cars accessibility. And I think that this is not as outspoken any more
as it was a couple of years ago. There has been an increased understanding that we
have a complex transport system that needs to nurture the accessibility of all modes
of transport, and this is also present in the budget that we got after the election. It is
pushed forward in that budget that we should take care of all modes of transport
and provide all modes with good conditions. (interview anonymous transport
planner).
It seems that in reality the priorities go to motorised traffic and public
transport, when all modes of transport should be equally prioritised. In relation
to Copenhagen, where the priority among politicians and planners alike is on
bicycling, the effect is a better infrastructure for cyclists.
This can also be seen in the next chapter of this thesis, where the survey studies
are analysed. Thus, the politics of, what I would like to call, vlomobility in the
two case cities of this thesis are quite different, which has resulted in different
urban spaces, different power relations and different ways of dealing with issues
involving cycling. The movements of cyclists are more limited or restricted in
Stockholm than in Copenhagen, because the infrastructure, planning decisions
and politics differ between the two cities. That also leads to the fact that
1 3 1

132
motorised traffic in Stockholm has more power in the public space, than in
Copenhagen. The space is produced with motorised traffic in mind, even
though planners and politicians might not directly be aware of that. Through
the social relations in the urban spaces in Stockholm, power relations in favour
of motorised traffic are in place, which marginalises cyclists. This is not the
case in Copenhagen. Through planning and political decisions, cyclists
movements are not as limited or restricted as in Stockholm, and motorised
traffic is more restricted, which is also represented in the modal split. However,
as one can see in the analysis of the survey study in the next chapter, motorised
traffic still creates problems for cyclists, also in Copenhagen. The vlomobility
world seems better in Copenhagen than in Stockholm, but is far from perfect.
The representations of cycling (cycling movements) are clearly different
between Stockholm and Copenhagen. As mentioned earlier, investments in
bicycle infrastructure have been represented rather negatively in Stockholm,
whereas the media in Copenhagen seemed much more positive towards such
investments (see above, interview Elle). This picture, however, has changed in
recent years in Stockholm as well, towards more positive reactions of the
media. Cycling is represented more positively, which could be a start for a
different and generally better or more positive representation of cycling and
movements of cyclists and could perhaps lead to more positive reactions of the
politicians and the planners. It can also be shown in the case of Copenhagen
that positive representation of mobility or vlomobility can lead to changes,
and that the representation is an important aspect for better conditions for
cyclists.
Here the connection to critical social theory and theories about power relations
(Marcuse, Lefebvre, Lukes etc.) helps us understand the effect of planning
decisions. The rationality of planning is closely linked to Marcuses analysis of
rationality in the social sciences explained in Chapter 5 and also to the way he
described needs as false or true (Marcuse 1999 [1941] and 2002 [1964]). The
rationality planners use in the planning processes and the satisfaction of the
needs of the motorised traffic are linked to todays marginalisation of cyclists
and to urban mobility and the problems connected to it. Moreover, the
planning decisions have produced certain spaces, quite often motorised spaces.
However, the way people in Copenhagen demanded a different way of
planning and also to a certain degree a different city could be related to
Lefebvres right to the city (Lefebvre 1996 [1968]), as well as to the production
of space through social relations, as seen in Lefebvres analysis of the

1 3 2
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n S t o c k h o l m h a s m o r e p o w e r i n t h e p u b l i c s p a c e , t h a n i n
C o p e n h a g e n . T h e s p a c e i s p r o d u c e d w i t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n m i n d , e v e n
t h o u g h p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s m i g h t n o t d i r e c t l y b e a w a r e o f t h a t . T h r o u g h
t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n t h e u r b a n s p a c e s i n S t o c k h o l m , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n f a v o u r
o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a r e i n p l a c e , w h i c h m a r g i n a l i s e s c y c l i s t s . T h i s i s n o t t h e
c a s e i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h r o u g h p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s , c y c l i s t s
m o v e m e n t s a r e n o t a s l i m i t e d o r r e s t r i c t e d a s i n S t o c k h o l m , a n d m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c i s m o r e r e s t r i c t e d , w h i c h i s a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t . H o w e v e r ,
a s o n e c a n s e e i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y s t u d y i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c s t i l l c r e a t e s p r o b l e m s f o r c y c l i s t s , a l s o i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h e v l o m o b i l i t y
w o r l d s e e m s b e t t e r i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m , b u t i s f a r f r o m p e r f e c t .
T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f c y c l i n g ( c y c l i n g m o v e m e n t s ) a r e c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t
b e t w e e n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . A s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , i n v e s t m e n t s i n
b i c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e h a v e b e e n r e p r e s e n t e d r a t h e r n e g a t i v e l y i n S t o c k h o l m ,
w h e r e a s t h e m e d i a i n C o p e n h a g e n s e e m e d m u c h m o r e p o s i t i v e t o w a r d s s u c h
i n v e s t m e n t s ( s e e a b o v e , i n t e r v i e w E l l e ) . T h i s p i c t u r e , h o w e v e r , h a s c h a n g e d i n
r e c e n t y e a r s i n S t o c k h o l m a s w e l l , t o w a r d s m o r e p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e
m e d i a . C y c l i n g i s r e p r e s e n t e d m o r e p o s i t i v e l y , w h i c h c o u l d b e a s t a r t f o r a
d i f f e r e n t a n d g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r o r m o r e p o s i t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c y c l i n g a n d
m o v e m e n t s o f c y c l i s t s a n d c o u l d p e r h a p s l e a d t o m o r e p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e
p o l i t i c i a n s a n d t h e p l a n n e r s . I t c a n a l s o b e s h o w n i n t h e c a s e o f C o p e n h a g e n
t h a t p o s i t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m o b i l i t y o r v l o m o b i l i t y c a n l e a d t o c h a n g e s ,
a n d t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t f o r b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n s f o r
c y c l i s t s .
H e r e t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o c r i t i c a l s o c i a l t h e o r y a n d t h e o r i e s a b o u t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
( M a r c u s e , L e f e b v r e , L u k e s e t c . ) h e l p s u s u n d e r s t a n d t h e e f f e c t o f p l a n n i n g
d e c i s i o n s . T h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f p l a n n i n g i s c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o M a r c u s e s a n a l y s i s o f
r a t i o n a l i t y i n t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p t e r 5 a n d a l s o t o t h e w a y h e
d e s c r i b e d n e e d s a s f a l s e o r t r u e ( M a r c u s e 1 9 9 9 [ 1 9 4 1 ] a n d 2 0 0 2 [ 1 9 6 4 ] ) . T h e
r a t i o n a l i t y p l a n n e r s u s e i n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e
n e e d s o f t h e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a r e l i n k e d t o t o d a y s m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s
a n d t o u r b a n m o b i l i t y a n d t h e p r o b l e m s c o n n e c t e d t o i t . M o r e o v e r , t h e
p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s h a v e p r o d u c e d c e r t a i n s p a c e s , q u i t e o f t e n m o t o r i s e d s p a c e s .
H o w e v e r , t h e w a y p e o p l e i n C o p e n h a g e n d e m a n d e d a d i f f e r e n t w a y o f
p l a n n i n g a n d a l s o t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e a d i f f e r e n t c i t y c o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o
L e f e b v r e s r i g h t t o t h e c i t y ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 6 8 ] ) , a s w e l l a s t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f s p a c e t h r o u g h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , a s s e e n i n L e f e b v r e s a n a l y s i s o f t h e
1 3 2

1 3 3
p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) . T h e s p a c e s p r o d u c e d i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , d u e t o d i f f e r e n t i n f l u e n c e s , b u t
m a n y a s p e c t s i n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e s c a n b e
c o n n e c t e d t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p t e r 5 i n t h i s t h e s i s . T h e
p o l i t i c s o f b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n t h e t w o c i t i e s c a n a l s o b e c o n n e c t e d t o c e r t a i n
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , s u c h a s u n a b a s h e d p o l i t i c a l p o w e r , a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e
S t o c k h o l m P a r t y , a n d a l s o i n p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s l e s s v i s i b l e , s u c h a s t h e
e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d p l a n n i n g a n d
p o l i t i c s . I n t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s o n e c a n s e e t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r d e s c r i b e d
b y L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) a n d e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p t e r 5 . T h o s e c o n n e c t i o n s a n d t h e
e m p i r i c a l d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s l e a d t o f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s , s u c h a s h o w
c y c l i s t s s e e t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n .
T h a t i s d e a l t w i t h i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , w h e r e t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s a r e a n a l y s e d .

133
production of space (Lefebvre 1991 [1974]). The spaces produced in
Stockholm and Copenhagen are quite different, due to different influences, but
many aspects in the planning processes and the production of spaces can be
connected to the theoretical work explained in Chapter 5 in this thesis. The
politics of bicycle planning in the two cities can also be connected to certain
power relations, such as unabashed political power, as in the case of the
Stockholm Party, and also in power structures less visible, such as the
economic and cultural structures in the two cities that influenced planning and
politics. In those structures one can see the third dimension of power described
by Lukes (2005) and explained in Chapter 5. Those connections and the
empirical data from the interviews lead to further questions, such as how
cyclists see the planning and the situation in Stockholm and Copenhagen.
That is dealt with in the next chapter, where the survey studies are analysed.
1 3 3

134
8 Mobility and cycling The
cyclists view

When studying the bicycle, one must avoid the romantic images of the eco-friendly,
civic-minded rider who chooses to resist the car. (Pesses 2010:19)

The empirical data in this chapter build on a survey study in Copenhagen
1
and
Stockholm. As mentioned in the previous chapter on method, the study was
conducted in the spring of 2011. 3,012 surveys where sent out in Stockholm
and 3,005 in Copenhagen. The response rate was 39.54 % in Stockholm (i.e.
1,191 responses) and 36.61 % in Copenhagen (i.e. 1,100 responses). The
selection was stratified, i.e. the same amount of surveys was sent to each city
district in Stockholm and Copenhagen. Furthermore, the selection was
designed to be representative in terms of age and sex. The survey was sent to a
representative population of all citizens in Copenhagen and Stockholm and not
to cyclists exclusively. A more detailed description of who answered the survey
and of the data collected in Stockholm and Copenhagen is outlined in Chapter
2.
The survey was developed along the lines of Cresswells politics of mobility
mentioned above. Since the term mobility includes such values as justice,
feelings/experiences of movement and infrastructure, it can be used for
analysing the experiences of cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm in a

1
The survey includes the municipality of Frederiksberg located in the central parts of
Copenhagen, which means that it is practically a district of Copenhagen. The cooperation
with the two municipalities is very close, and their policies concerning cycling, traffic and
urban planning are very similar (interview with K). The municipality of Frederiksberg is
henceforth included in the term Copenhagen.

1 3 4
8 M o b i l i t y a n d c y c l i n g T h e
c y c l i s t s v i e w

W h e n s t u d y i n g t h e b i c y c l e , o n e m u s t a v o i d t h e r o m a n t i c i m a g e s o f t h e e c o - f r i e n d l y ,
c i v i c - m i n d e d r i d e r w h o c h o o s e s t o r e s i s t t h e c a r . ( P e s s e s 2 0 1 0 : 1 9 )

T h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a i n t h i s c h a p t e r b u i l d o n a s u r v e y s t u d y i n C o p e n h a g e n
1
a n d
S t o c k h o l m . A s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r o n m e t h o d , t h e s t u d y w a s
c o n d u c t e d i n t h e s p r i n g o f 2 0 1 1 . 3 , 0 1 2 s u r v e y s w h e r e s e n t o u t i n S t o c k h o l m
a n d 3 , 0 0 5 i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h e r e s p o n s e r a t e w a s 3 9 . 5 4 % i n S t o c k h o l m ( i . e .
1 , 1 9 1 r e s p o n s e s ) a n d 3 6 . 6 1 % i n C o p e n h a g e n ( i . e . 1 , 1 0 0 r e s p o n s e s ) . T h e
s e l e c t i o n w a s s t r a t i f i e d , i . e . t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f s u r v e y s w a s s e n t t o e a c h c i t y
d i s t r i c t i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e l e c t i o n w a s
d e s i g n e d t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n t e r m s o f a g e a n d s e x . T h e s u r v e y w a s s e n t t o a
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n o f a l l c i t i z e n s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a n d n o t
t o c y c l i s t s e x c l u s i v e l y . A m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h o a n s w e r e d t h e s u r v e y
a n d o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n i s o u t l i n e d i n C h a p t e r
2 .
T h e s u r v e y w a s d e v e l o p e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f C r e s s w e l l s p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y
m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . S i n c e t h e t e r m m o b i l i t y i n c l u d e s s u c h v a l u e s a s j u s t i c e ,
f e e l i n g s / e x p e r i e n c e s o f m o v e m e n t a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , i t c a n b e u s e d f o r
a n a l y s i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m i n a

1
T h e s u r v e y i n c l u d e s t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y o f F r e d e r i k s b e r g l o c a t e d i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t s o f
C o p e n h a g e n , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y a d i s t r i c t o f C o p e n h a g e n . T h e c o o p e r a t i o n
w i t h t h e t w o m u n i c i p a l i t i e s i s v e r y c l o s e , a n d t h e i r p o l i c i e s c o n c e r n i n g c y c l i n g , t r a f f i c a n d
u r b a n p l a n n i n g a r e v e r y s i m i l a r ( i n t e r v i e w w i t h K ) . T h e m u n i c i p a l i t y o f F r e d e r i k s b e r g i s
h e n c e f o r t h i n c l u d e d i n t h e t e r m C o p e n h a g e n .
1 3 4

1 3 5
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y . T h e c o n c e p t a l s o f o r m s a l i n k
w i t h p l a n n i n g . P l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i n v o l v e s f a c i l i t a t i n g a n d i n c r e a s i n g t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c y c l i s t s t o u s e t h e i r c y c l e s s a f e l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e c i t y , w i t h o u t
b e i n g m a r g i n a l i s e d a n d a l s o w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o f i g h t f o r s p a c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
c o n c e p t o f m o b i l i t y c a n a l s o b e a f r a m e w o r k f o r a t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e m p i r i c a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n e e d s o f c y c l i s t s a n d t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s f o r c y c l i s t s i n
c i t i e s ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) . C y c l i n g c a n b e c o n n e c t e d t o a l l t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s o f t h e
p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y d e v e l o p e d b y C r e s s w e l l . I t i s f i r s t o f a l l a w a y o f g e t t i n g
f r o m A t o B , a n d i t i s o f t e n s a i d t h a t i t c r e a t e s a s h a r e d m e a n i n g . T h e r e i s , f o r
e x a m p l e , m u c h a c t i v i s m g o i n g o n a r o u n d t h e s u b j e c t o f c y c l i n g ( s e e f o r
e x a m p l e S p i n n e y 2 0 1 0 , F u r n e s s 2 0 0 7 o r W r a y 2 0 0 8 ) . M o r e o v e r , c y c l i n g i s a l s o
a v e r y p h y s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , a n d t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f c y c l i n g i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y s e r v e s a s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r b o t h
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s u r v e y a n d t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a , i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a
d e e p e r a n d m o r e t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c y c l i n g a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f c y c l i n g
i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . M o r e o v e r , t h e s u r v e y d a t a a r e c o l l e c t e d
i n o r d e r t o g e t a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w p e o p l e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m e x p e r i e n c e b i c y c l i n g . M a p p i n g w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g i n t h e t w o c i t i e s
a n d h o w c y c l i s t s v i e w t h e p l a n n i n g , t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e e t c . , c o n t r i b u t e s t o a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r o c e s s e s . T h e s u r v e y s t u d y a l s o
b u i l d s o n a n i d e a t h a t e v o l v e d f r o m t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n , n a m e l y t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f c y c l i n g m u s t b e d i f f e r e n t f o r
c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m . D u r i n g t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l
s t u d i e s m y o w n e x p e r i e n c e o f c y c l i n g w a s v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n t h e t w o c i t i e s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n i s b e t t e r t h a n t h e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n S t o c k h o l m ( s e e C h a p t e r 6 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , s i n c e c y c l i s t s
e x p e r i e n c e s o f c y c l i n g m i g h t d i f f e r i n t h e t w o c i t i e s , t h a t i s a n o t h e r a s p e c t t h e
s u r v e y s t u d y s h o u l d a n a l y s e .
I n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y I f i r s t a n a l y s e t h e v i e w s o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n b o t h
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a n d c o m p a r e t h e m w i t h e a c h o t h e r . S e c o n d l y , I
c o m p a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h a t a n a l y s i s w i t h t h e q u a l i t a t i v e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l , i . e .
w i t h t h e i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d w i t h t h e p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s i s t o g e t a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e
i m p a c t o f p l a n n i n g , a s e x p l a i n e d t o m e b y t h e p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s , o n
c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e o f c y c l i n g i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . I n b o t h c a s e s , c o n n e c t i o n s a r e
m a d e t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k b y C r e s s w e l l p r e s e n t e d a b o v e . T h i s a n a l y s i s

135
theoretical framework of the politics of mobility. The concept also forms a link
with planning. Planning for cyclists involves facilitating and increasing the
possibility for cyclists to use their cycles safely throughout the city, without
being marginalised and also without having to fight for space. Therefore, the
concept of mobility can also be a framework for a theoretical and empirical
understanding of the needs of cyclists and the planning processes for cyclists in
cities (Cresswell 2010). Cycling can be connected to all the three aspects of the
politics of mobility developed by Cresswell. It is first of all a way of getting
from A to B, and it is often said that it creates a shared meaning. There is, for
example, much activism going on around the subject of cycling (see for
example Spinney 2010, Furness 2007 or Wray 2008). Moreover, cycling is also
a very physical experience, and the embodiment of cycling is very important.
Therefore, the politics of mobility serves as the theoretical framework for both
the development of the survey and the analysis of the data, in order to obtain a
deeper and more thorough understanding of cycling and the politics of cycling
in both Stockholm and Copenhagen. Moreover, the survey data are collected
in order to get a deeper understanding of how people in Copenhagen and
Stockholm experience bicycling. Mapping what is happening in the two cities
and how cyclists view the planning, the infrastructure etc., contributes to an
understanding of the development of the processes. The survey study also
builds on an idea that evolved from the observational studies in Stockholm and
Copenhagen, namely that the experience of cycling must be different for
cyclists in Copenhagen and cyclists in Stockholm. During the observational
studies my own experience of cycling was very different in the two cities.
Furthermore, the infrastructure for cyclists in Copenhagen is better than the
infrastructure in Stockholm (see Chapter 6). Consequently, since cyclists
experiences of cycling might differ in the two cities, that is another aspect the
survey study should analyse.
In the analysis of the survey I first analyse the views of the cyclists in both
Stockholm and Copenhagen and compare them with each other. Secondly, I
compare the results of that analysis with the qualitative empirical material, i.e.
with the interviews conducted with the planners and politicians in
Copenhagen and Stockholm. The purpose of this is to get an insight into the
impact of planning, as explained to me by the planners and politicians, on
cyclists experience of cycling in the two cities. In both cases, connections are
made to the theoretical framework by Cresswell presented above. This analysis
1 3 5

136
of the politics of mobility allows for a deeper understanding of cycling,
vlomobility and the processes involved in planning for bicycle traffic.
8.1 Cycling in Stockholm and Copenhagen a
question of mobility and space
The survey distributed to the residents of Copenhagen and Stockholm was
concerned with the use of different modes of transport in their daily
movements, their movements during weekends in both summer and winter
and how they experience of these movements. The respondents had to estimate
how much time, in minutes, they spend on a regular weekday and a regular
Saturday and Sunday on different modes of transport, i.e. by car, walking,
biking, by public transport or other modes, e.g. by motorbike. Different
intervals ranging from 0 min., 1-20 min., 21-40 min. up to > 100 were
suggested. The first part of the survey covers general background questions
about age, sex, household composition, education level, occupation, income
and what district the respondent lives in. Moreover, the respondents are asked
if they have a drivers license, a functional bicycle and if they have access to a
car and, if so, to what extent. In the last part of the survey the respondents are
asked to agree or disagree with a number of statements on a scale from 1 Do
not agree at all to 5 Agree completely. Those statements refer to issues like
safety, perceived security, transport planning, prioritisation in traffic and
accessibility. All of these statements were to be answered from the perspective
of the mode of transport used. If, for example, respondents did not cycle at all,
they could choose the alternative Never use this mode of transport.
Moreover, the last statements dealt with issues of prioritisation among the
modes of public transport, cars, bicycles and walking. Here the respondents
had to rank, for example, what mode of transport they see as most prioritised
in transport planning, ranging from one, the most, to four, the least.





1 3 6
o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y a l l o w s f o r a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c y c l i n g ,
v l o m o b i l i t y a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l e t r a f f i c .
8 . 1 C y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a
q u e s t i o n o f m o b i l i t y a n d s p a c e
T h e s u r v e y d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e s i d e n t s o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m w a s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e u s e o f d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t i n t h e i r d a i l y
m o v e m e n t s , t h e i r m o v e m e n t s d u r i n g w e e k e n d s i n b o t h s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r
a n d h o w t h e y e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s e m o v e m e n t s . T h e r e s p o n d e n t s h a d t o e s t i m a t e
h o w m u c h t i m e , i n m i n u t e s , t h e y s p e n d o n a r e g u l a r w e e k d a y a n d a r e g u l a r
S a t u r d a y a n d S u n d a y o n d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , i . e . b y c a r , w a l k i n g ,
b i k i n g , b y p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t o r o t h e r m o d e s , e . g . b y m o t o r b i k e . D i f f e r e n t
i n t e r v a l s r a n g i n g f r o m 0 m i n . , 1 - 2 0 m i n . , 2 1 - 4 0 m i n . u p t o > 1 0 0 w e r e
s u g g e s t e d . T h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e s u r v e y c o v e r s g e n e r a l b a c k g r o u n d q u e s t i o n s
a b o u t a g e , s e x , h o u s e h o l d c o m p o s i t i o n , e d u c a t i o n l e v e l , o c c u p a t i o n , i n c o m e
a n d w h a t d i s t r i c t t h e r e s p o n d e n t l i v e s i n . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a r e a s k e d
i f t h e y h a v e a d r i v e r s l i c e n s e , a f u n c t i o n a l b i c y c l e a n d i f t h e y h a v e a c c e s s t o a
c a r a n d , i f s o , t o w h a t e x t e n t . I n t h e l a s t p a r t o f t h e s u r v e y t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a r e
a s k e d t o a g r e e o r d i s a g r e e w i t h a n u m b e r o f s t a t e m e n t s o n a s c a l e f r o m 1 D o
n o t a g r e e a t a l l t o 5 A g r e e c o m p l e t e l y . T h o s e s t a t e m e n t s r e f e r t o i s s u e s l i k e
s a f e t y , p e r c e i v e d s e c u r i t y , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , p r i o r i t i s a t i o n i n t r a f f i c a n d
a c c e s s i b i l i t y . A l l o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s w e r e t o b e a n s w e r e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e
o f t h e m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t u s e d . I f , f o r e x a m p l e , r e s p o n d e n t s d i d n o t c y c l e a t a l l ,
t h e y c o u l d c h o o s e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e N e v e r u s e t h i s m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t .
M o r e o v e r , t h e l a s t s t a t e m e n t s d e a l t w i t h i s s u e s o f p r i o r i t i s a t i o n a m o n g t h e
m o d e s o f p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t , c a r s , b i c y c l e s a n d w a l k i n g . H e r e t h e r e s p o n d e n t s
h a d t o r a n k , f o r e x a m p l e , w h a t m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t t h e y s e e a s m o s t p r i o r i t i s e d
i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , r a n g i n g f r o m o n e , t h e m o s t , t o f o u r , t h e l e a s t .




1 3 6

1 3 7
T h e l a s t s t a t e m e n t i n t h e s u r v e y d e a l t w i t h t h e i s s u e o f h o w t h e r e s p o n d e n t s
i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s . I n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e f o r t h e r e s p o n d e n t s , e i g h t a l t e r n a t i v e s
w e r e g i v e n , a s f o r e x a m p l e C a r d r i v e r , C y c l i s t a n d s o o n . F o r m o r e d e t a i l e d
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e q u e s t i o n s , s t a t e m e n t s a n d t h e d e s i g n o f t h e s u r v e y , s e e
A p p e n d i x 2 .
T o b e g i n w i t h I s e l e c t e d a l l i n d i v i d u a l s w h o c y c l e d 1 m i n . o r m o r e o n a r e g u l a r
w e e k d a y , S a t u r d a y o r S u n d a y i n e i t h e r s u m m e r o r w i n t e r . T h i s s e l e c t i o n w a s
m a d e o u t o f a l l r e s p o n s e s a n d w a s d r a w n f r o m t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t h o w m u c h
t i m e a r e s p o n d e n t s p e n d s o n t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d d a y s o n t h e d i f f e r e n t
m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t . T h e r e s u l t s w h e n t h e c y c l i s t s w e r e s e l e c t e d i n t h e r e s p o n s e s
w e r e 9 5 2 o u t o f 1 , 1 0 0 r e s p o n s e s i n C o p e n h a g e n w h o c y c l e a n d 4 8 5 o u t o f
1 , 1 9 1 r e s p o n s e s i n S t o c k h o l m . T h i s r e s u l t i s n o t v e r y s u r p r i s i n g , s i n c e , a s
m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r 6 , t h e m o d a l s p l i t f o r c y c l i n g i s 3 . 7 % i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
3 1 % i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h e n e x t s t e p w a s t o c r e a t e f r e q u e n c y t a b l e s a n d
d i a g r a m s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w t h e c y c l i s t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a n s w e r e d t h e q u e s t i o n s i n t h e s u r v e y , b u t a l s o
b a s e d o n t h e o v e r a l l d a t a , i . e . b e f o r e s e l e c t i n g o n l y t h e c y c l i s t s . T h e o v e r a l l d a t a
s h o w t h a t t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n C o p e n h a g e n c y c l e m o r e t h a n t h o s e i n
S t o c k h o l m . R e s p o n d e n t s i n C o p e n h a g e n c y c l e f o r a l o n g e r t i m e o n a r e g u l a r
w e e k d a y , a n d c y c l i n g o n a r e g u l a r w e e k d a y i s l e s s a f f e c t e d b y w i n t e r w e a t h e r
t h a n i t i s i n S t o c k h o l m ( s e e G r a p h s 1 a n d 2 ) .












137
The last statement in the survey dealt with the issue of how the respondents
identify themselves. In order to facilitate for the respondents, eight alternatives
were given, as for example Car driver, Cyclist and so on. For more detailed
information about the questions, statements and the design of the survey, see
Appendix 2.
To begin with I selected all individuals who cycled 1 min. or more on a regular
weekday, Saturday or Sunday in either summer or winter. This selection was
made out of all responses and was drawn from the question about how much
time a respondent spends on the above- mentioned days on the different
modes of transport. The results when the cyclists were selected in the responses
were 952 out of 1,100 responses in Copenhagen who cycle and 485 out of
1,191 responses in Stockholm. This result is not very surprising, since, as
mentioned in Chapter 6, the modal split for cycling is 3.7 % in Stockholm and
31 % in Copenhagen. The next step was to create frequency tables and
diagrams in order to obtain an understanding of how the cyclists in
Copenhagen and Stockholm answered the questions in the survey, but also
based on the overall data, i.e. before selecting only the cyclists. The overall data
show that the respondents in Copenhagen cycle more than those in
Stockholm. Respondents in Copenhagen cycle for a longer time on a regular
weekday, and cycling on a regular weekday is less affected by winter weather
than it is in Stockholm (see Graphs 1 and 2).











1 3 7

138
Graph 1: Cycling frequencies/time in Copenhagen







1 3 8
G r a p h 1 : C y c l i n g f r e q u e n c i e s / t i m e i n C o p e n h a g e n






1 3 8

1 3 9
G r a p h 2 : C y c l i n g f r e q u e n c i e s / t i m e i n S t o c k h o l m


139
Graph 2: Cycling frequencies/time in Stockholm

1 3 9

140

The background of the respondents who cycle in Copenhagen and Stockholm
varies to a certain degree. The data show that the cyclists in Stockholm have a
slightly higher income than their counterparts in Copenhagen, whereas the
majority of the cyclists in both cities have a higher education (college or
university degree) (see Graphs 3 and 4 below). This is quite interesting,
because it might indicate that different groups of people use the bike in the two
case cities.

Graph 3: Income per year and before taxes for all respondents and cyclists in
Copenhagen, KDDK


Graph 4: Income per year and before taxes for all respondents and cyclists in
Stockholm, KSSK

0
5
10
15
20
25
< 100 100 -
200
200 -
300
300 -
400
400 -
500
500-
600
> 600
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Income per year, before taxes
Bicyclists
All
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
< 100100 -
200
200 -
300
300 -
400
400 -
500
500 -
600
> 600
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Income per year, before taxes
Bicyclists
All

1 4 0

T h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w h o c y c l e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m
v a r i e s t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e . T h e d a t a s h o w t h a t t h e c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m h a v e a
s l i g h t l y h i g h e r i n c o m e t h a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n C o p e n h a g e n , w h e r e a s t h e
m a j o r i t y o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s h a v e a h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ( c o l l e g e o r
u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e ) ( s e e G r a p h s 3 a n d 4 b e l o w ) . T h i s i s q u i t e i n t e r e s t i n g ,
b e c a u s e i t m i g h t i n d i c a t e t h a t d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f p e o p l e u s e t h e b i k e i n t h e t w o
c a s e c i t i e s .

G r a p h 3 : I n c o m e p e r y e a r a n d b e f o r e t a x e s f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n , K D D K


G r a p h 4 : I n c o m e p e r y e a r a n d b e f o r e t a x e s f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s i n
S t o c k h o l m , K S S K

0
5
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
< 1 0 0 1 0 0 -
2 0 0
2 0 0 -
3 0 0
3 0 0 -
4 0 0
4 0 0 -
5 0 0
5 0 0 -
6 0 0
> 6 0 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
I n c o m e p e r y e a r , b e f o r e t a x e s
B i c y c l i s t s
A l l
0
5
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
< 1 0 0 1 0 0 -
2 0 0
2 0 0 -
3 0 0
3 0 0 -
4 0 0
4 0 0 -
5 0 0
5 0 0 -
6 0 0
> 6 0 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
I n c o m e p e r y e a r , b e f o r e t a x e s
B i c y c l i s t s
A l l
1 4 0

1 4 1

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p o i n t o u t h e r e t h a t t h e D a n i s h k r o n a ( D K K ) i s s o m e w h a t
s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e S w e d i s h k r o n a ( S E K ) . O n e D D K c o s t s c a . 1 . 1 8 S E K , w h i c h
m e a n s t h a t o n e S E K c o s t s c a . 0 . 1 2 E u r o s .
T h e g r a p h s a b o v e a l s o s h o w t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f t h e c y c l i s t s w h o r e s p o n d e d
t o t h e s u r v e y a n d o f a l l t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h e s u r v e y d o n o t d i f f e r v e r y m u c h
( s e e G r a p h 3 a n d G r a p h 4 ) .
W h e n i t c o m e s t o e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d , i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e r e s p o n d e n t s
b o t h i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m w e r e m a i n l y p e o p l e w i t h a h i g h e r
e d u c a t i o n ( c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y ) . I n S t o c k h o l m t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f p e o p l e w i t h a
h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i s s l i g h t l y h i g h e r a m o n g c y c l i s t s t h a n i n t h e g e n e r a l r e s p o n s e s
o f t h e s u r v e y ( s e e G r a p h 5 ) .

G r a p h 5 : E d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m


T h e s i t u a t i o n i n C o p e n h a g e n i s b a s i c a l l y l i k e t h e o n e i n S t o c k h o l m . T h e
e d u c a t i o n l e v e l i s s l i g h t l y h i g h e r a m o n g t h e c y c l i s t s t h a n a m o n g a l l t h e
r e s p o n d e n t s ( s e e G r a p h 6 ) .


0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
E l e m e n t a r y
S c h o o l ( 1 - 9
g r a d e )
H i g h s c h o o l
( 1 0 - 1 2
g r a d e )
H i g h e r
e d u c a t i o n
( i . e .
u n i v e r s i t y )
O t h e r
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
E d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d
B i c y c l i s t s
A l l

141

It is important to point out here that the Danish krona (DKK) is somewhat
stronger than the Swedish krona (SEK). One DDK costs ca. 1.18 SEK, which
means that one SEK costs ca. 0.12 Euros.
The graphs above also show that the percentages of the cyclists who responded
to the survey and of all the respondents in the survey do not differ very much
(see Graph 3 and Graph 4).
When it comes to educational background, it can be said that the respondents
both in Copenhagen and Stockholm were mainly people with a higher
education (college or university). In Stockholm the percentage of people with a
higher education is slightly higher among cyclists than in the general responses
of the survey (see Graph 5).

Graph 5: Educational background of all respondents and cyclists in Stockholm


The situation in Copenhagen is basically like the one in Stockholm. The
education level is slightly higher among the cyclists than among all the
respondents (see Graph 6).


0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Elementary
School (1-9
grade)
High school
(10-12
grade)
Higher
education
(i.e.
university)
Other
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Educational background
Bicyclists
All
1 4 1

142
Graph 6: Educational background of all respondents and cyclists in Copenhagen


The graphs indicate that the respondents in Stockholm and Copenhagen have
a similar socio-economic background when education and income are
compared. It seems that the respondents in general and also the respondents
who cycle belong to the middle class or the upper middle class. According to
statistics from the city of Stockholm, this is also in accordance with the general
population (City of Stockholm 2012).
However, the general population in Copenhagen differs from the respondents
of the survey. According to statistics provided by the city of Copenhagen, the
majority of Copenhagens population does not have such a high income and
does not have such a high educational background (City of Copenhagen
2012).
Other background data collected in the surveys were the place where the
respondents live, other socio-economic background than income and level of
education, such as household structure or occupation, whether they have a
drivers licence or have access to a car or to a functional bicycle. Although the
distribution of gender among the respondents could be of interest, those data
have not been analysed. This background data can be found in Appendix 3 for
Copenhagen and Appendix 4 for Stockholm. These data show that there are
respondents from all districts in both Stockholm and Copenhagen and that the
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Elementary
School (1-
10 grade)
High school
(10-13
grade)
Vocational
education
(i.e. trade
school)
Shorter
education
(i.e. data
mechanics)
Higher
education
(i.e.
university)
Other
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Educational background
Bicyclists
All

1 4 2
G r a p h 6 : E d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n


T h e g r a p h s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n h a v e
a s i m i l a r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d w h e n e d u c a t i o n a n d i n c o m e a r e
c o m p a r e d . I t s e e m s t h a t t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n g e n e r a l a n d a l s o t h e r e s p o n d e n t s
w h o c y c l e b e l o n g t o t h e m i d d l e c l a s s o r t h e u p p e r m i d d l e c l a s s . A c c o r d i n g t o
s t a t i s t i c s f r o m t h e c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m , t h i s i s a l s o i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e g e n e r a l
p o p u l a t i o n ( C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m 2 0 1 2 ) .
H o w e v e r , t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n i n C o p e n h a g e n d i f f e r s f r o m t h e r e s p o n d e n t s
o f t h e s u r v e y . A c c o r d i n g t o s t a t i s t i c s p r o v i d e d b y t h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n , t h e
m a j o r i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n s p o p u l a t i o n d o e s n o t h a v e s u c h a h i g h i n c o m e a n d
d o e s n o t h a v e s u c h a h i g h e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d ( C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n
2 0 1 2 ) .
O t h e r b a c k g r o u n d d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h e s u r v e y s w e r e t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e
r e s p o n d e n t s l i v e , o t h e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d t h a n i n c o m e a n d l e v e l o f
e d u c a t i o n , s u c h a s h o u s e h o l d s t r u c t u r e o r o c c u p a t i o n , w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e a
d r i v e r s l i c e n c e o r h a v e a c c e s s t o a c a r o r t o a f u n c t i o n a l b i c y c l e . A l t h o u g h t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g e n d e r a m o n g t h e r e s p o n d e n t s c o u l d b e o f i n t e r e s t , t h o s e d a t a
h a v e n o t b e e n a n a l y s e d . T h i s b a c k g r o u n d d a t a c a n b e f o u n d i n A p p e n d i x 3 f o r
C o p e n h a g e n a n d A p p e n d i x 4 f o r S t o c k h o l m . T h e s e d a t a s h o w t h a t t h e r e a r e
r e s p o n d e n t s f r o m a l l d i s t r i c t s i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a n d t h a t t h e
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
E l e m e n t a r y
S c h o o l ( 1 -
1 0 g r a d e )
H i g h s c h o o l
( 1 0 - 1 3
g r a d e )
V o c a t i o n a l
e d u c a t i o n
( i . e . t r a d e
s c h o o l )
S h o r t e r
e d u c a t i o n
( i . e . d a t a
m e c h a n i c s )
H i g h e r
e d u c a t i o n
( i . e .
u n i v e r s i t y )
O t h e r
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
E d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d
B i c y c l i s t s
A l l
1 4 2

1 4 3
g e n d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a l m o s t 5 0 : 5 0 / e v e n . T h e b a c k g r o u n d d a t a d o n o t i n d i c a t e
a l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d r e s p o n d e n t s w h o u s e t h e b i c y c l e .
O v e r a l l , i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s s u r v e y s t u d y a r e q u i t e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n m a n y a s p e c t s w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e
t w o c i t i e s .
T h e b a c k g r o u n d d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e c o n s t i t u t e t h e b a s i c s t a t i s t i c s a b o u t w h o
a n s w e r e d t h e s u r v e y a n d w h o u s e s t h e b i c y c l e i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . T h e
r e s p o n d e n t s f r o m S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n s e e m s i m i l a r , w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e s
t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e t w o s u r v e y s t u d i e s . T h e b a c k g r o u n d d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t
m o r e p e o p l e w i t h a h i g h e r i n c o m e a n d a h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l u s e t h e b i k e
i n b o t h c i t i e s . T h a t i m p r e s s i o n w a s c o n f i r m e d i n S t o c k h o l m b y m y o w n
o b s e r v a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , t h e i m p r e s s i o n I g o t w h e n c y c l i n g t h r o u g h
C o p e n h a g e n w a s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t , w h e r e i t r a t h e r s e e m s t h a t a l l c a t e g o r i e s o f
p e o p l e u s e t h e b i k e . M o r e o v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e t h a t p e o p l e
c y c l e m o r e i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m a n d a l s o t e n d t o b i k e m o r e
d u r i n g w i n t e r s h o w s t h a t c y c l i n g i s a m o r e d o m i n a n t p h e n o m e n o n i n
C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m . T h i s m i g h t a l s o h a v e a n i m p a c t o n t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s a n d t h e i r m o v e m e n t s a n d t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f t h e i r
m o v e m e n t s , w h i c h c o n n e c t s t o C r e s s w e l l s t h e o r y a b o u t t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y
( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) . S i n c e p e o p l e t e n d t o b i k e m o r e i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n
S t o c k h o l m , p o l i t i c i a n s a n d p l a n n e r s v i e w s o f c y c l i s t s m i g h t v a r y , a s c a n b e
s e e n i n t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r . T h i s c a n a l s o l e a d t o a c h a n g e i n
t h e u s e o f s p a c e a n d t h e r e f o r e l e a d t o a d i f f e r e n t f o r m o f s p a c e p r o d u c e d b y
c y c l i s t s ( s e e L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e m o d a l s p l i t p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e 2 s h o w s t h a t m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i s s t i l l v e r y d o m i n a n t i n C o p e n h a g e n ,
e v e n t h o u g h t h e t r a f f i c s p a c e i n C o p e n h a g e n m a y l o o k d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o n e
i n S t o c k h o l m .
T h e m a i n p a r t o f t h e s u r v e y c o n s i s t s o f t e n s t a t e m e n t s c h o s e n f o r v a r i o u s
r e a s o n s . F i r s t o f a l l t h e r e i s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s a n d t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r t h i s t h e s i s . T h e a i m i s t o o b t a i n a d e e p e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t c y c l i s t s t h i n k a n d f e e l a b o u t c y c l i n g i n t h e t w o c i t i e s
a n d a b o u t p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . A s m e n t i o n e d
b e f o r e , t h e s t a t e m e n t s a r e t h e r e f o r e b a s e d o n m y o w n o b s e r v a t i o n s a s w e l l a s
t h e i m p r e s s i o n s I h a d a n d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g I d e v e l o p e d f o r c y c l i n g i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e i n t e r v i e w
m a t e r i a l f r o m m y e a r l i e r i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a n d f r o m s t u d i e s o f r e p o r t s a n d p l a n s f r o m t h e

143
gender distribution is almost 50:50/even. The background data do not indicate
a large difference between all respondents and respondents who use the bicycle.
Overall, it can be said that the data collected in this survey study are quite
representative in many aspects when compared to the general population of the
two cities.
The background data presented here constitute the basic statistics about who
answered the survey and who uses the bicycle in the two cities. The
respondents from Stockholm and Copenhagen seem similar, which facilitates
the comparison of the two survey studies. The background data indicate that
more people with a higher income and a higher educational level use the bike
in both cities. That impression was confirmed in Stockholm by my own
observations. However, the impression I got when cycling through
Copenhagen was slightly different, where it rather seems that all categories of
people use the bike. Moreover, the fact that the responses indicate that people
cycle more in Copenhagen than in Stockholm and also tend to bike more
during winter shows that cycling is a more dominant phenomenon in
Copenhagen than in Stockholm. This might also have an impact on the
representation of cyclists and their movements and the embodiment of their
movements, which connects to Cresswells theory about the politics of mobility
(Cresswell 2010). Since people tend to bike more in Copenhagen than in
Stockholm, politicians and planners views of cyclists might vary, as can be
seen in the analysis in the previous chapter. This can also lead to a change in
the use of space and therefore lead to a different form of space produced by
cyclists (see Lefebvre 1991 [1974]). Nevertheless, the modal split presented in
Table 2 shows that motorised traffic is still very dominant in Copenhagen,
even though the traffic space in Copenhagen may look different from the one
in Stockholm.
The main part of the survey consists of ten statements chosen for various
reasons. First of all there is a connection to the earlier studies and the
theoretical framework for this thesis. The aim is to obtain a deeper
understanding of what cyclists think and feel about cycling in the two cities
and about planning for cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm. As mentioned
before, the statements are therefore based on my own observations as well as
the impressions I had and the understanding I developed for cycling in
Stockholm and Copenhagen. Furthermore, they are connected to the interview
material from my earlier interview studies with planners and politicians in
Copenhagen and Stockholm and from studies of reports and plans from the
1 4 3

144
two cities. The statements are also inspired by Cresswells politics of mobility
(2010), in the sense that through my own observations, the interviews and the
study of the official reports etc. I began to see that there seem to be differences
in cycling patterns between Copenhagen and Stockholm and that there seems
to be a different politics of mobility at work in the two cities. Therefore, the
connection to Cresswell seemed reasonable (as can be seen in the previous
paragraph). Since the focus of this doctoral thesis is on vlomobility and
bicycling and on the comparison and analysis of the experiences of cyclists in
both Copenhagen and Stockholm, I want to emphasize that those cyclists who
spent at least one minute cycling were selected for the analysis of the
statements.
As mentioned earlier, the survey study builds, among other things, on the idea
that there are differences between cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm. To
find out if there are differences between how cyclists in Stockholm and
Copenhagen perceive their traffic environments, the following ten statements
were formulated:

1. It is fast and efficient to cycle

2. I am able to reach most of my important destinations by bike

3. I experience stress as problematic when cycling in the city

4. As a cyclist I perceive that I am prioritised in traffic

5. I find it safe to cycle

6. As a cyclist I think that planning for bicycle traffic is good

7. As a cyclist I perceive that cooperation with other modes of transport
works well

8. As a cyclist I feel that bicycles are prioritised as a mode of transport


1 4 4
t w o c i t i e s . T h e s t a t e m e n t s a r e a l s o i n s p i r e d b y C r e s s w e l l s p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y
( 2 0 1 0 ) , i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h r o u g h m y o w n o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e i n t e r v i e w s a n d t h e
s t u d y o f t h e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s e t c . I b e g a n t o s e e t h a t t h e r e s e e m t o b e d i f f e r e n c e s
i n c y c l i n g p a t t e r n s b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m a n d t h a t t h e r e s e e m s
t o b e a d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y a t w o r k i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
c o n n e c t i o n t o C r e s s w e l l s e e m e d r e a s o n a b l e ( a s c a n b e s e e n i n t h e p r e v i o u s
p a r a g r a p h ) . S i n c e t h e f o c u s o f t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s i s o n v l o m o b i l i t y a n d
b i c y c l i n g a n d o n t h e c o m p a r i s o n a n d a n a l y s i s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f c y c l i s t s i n
b o t h C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , I w a n t t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h o s e c y c l i s t s w h o
s p e n t a t l e a s t o n e m i n u t e c y c l i n g w e r e s e l e c t e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e
s t a t e m e n t s .
A s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , t h e s u r v e y s t u d y b u i l d s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , o n t h e i d e a
t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T o
f i n d o u t i f t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n h o w c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n p e r c e i v e t h e i r t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t s , t h e f o l l o w i n g t e n s t a t e m e n t s
w e r e f o r m u l a t e d :

1 . I t i s f a s t a n d e f f i c i e n t t o c y c l e

2 . I a m a b l e t o r e a c h m o s t o f m y i m p o r t a n t d e s t i n a t i o n s b y b i k e

3 . I e x p e r i e n c e s t r e s s a s p r o b l e m a t i c w h e n c y c l i n g i n t h e c i t y

4 . A s a c y c l i s t I p e r c e i v e t h a t I a m p r i o r i t i s e d i n t r a f f i c

5 . I f i n d i t s a f e t o c y c l e

6 . A s a c y c l i s t I t h i n k t h a t p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l e t r a f f i c i s g o o d

7 . A s a c y c l i s t I p e r c e i v e t h a t c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t
w o r k s w e l l

8 . A s a c y c l i s t I f e e l t h a t b i c y c l e s a r e p r i o r i t i s e d a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t

1 4 4

1 4 5
9 . A s a c y c l i s t I f e e l t h a t c y c l i n g s h o u l d b e p r i o r i t i s e d

1 0 . A s a c y c l i s t I f e e l t h a t c a r t r a f f i c c r e a t e s m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r m e

T h e s t a t e m e n t s h a v e b e e n s o m e w h a t r e w r i t t e n h e r e a s c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e
p r e s e n t e d i n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , s i n c e t h e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
r e f e r r e d t o a l l t r a n s p o r t m o d e s b u t a r e h e r e f o r m u l a t e d f o r b i c y c l e s o n l y . I n
o r d e r t o t e s t m y s t a t e m e n t s , a C h i 2 t e s t w a s p e r f o r m e d . T h e C h i 2 t e s t i s a
s t a t i s t i c a l m e t h o d f o r t e s t i n g h o w s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t w o g r o u p s
a r e ( E d l i n g a n d H e d s t r m 2 0 0 3 ) .
T h e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e s u r v e y s c o u l d b e a n s w e r e d b y t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g w a y s :

- A g r e e c o m p l e t e l y
- A g r e e
- N e i t h e r / n o r
- D o n o t a g r e e
- D o n o t a g r e e a t a l l

S i n c e t h e C h i 2 t e s t o n l y w o r k s f o r t w o g r o u p s , i t w a s i m p o r t a n t t o m e r g e
g r o u p s A g r e e c o m p l e t e l y a n d A g r e e i n t o o n e g r o u p a n d D o n o t a g r e e a n d D o
n o t a g r e e a t a l l i n t o a n o t h e r . T h i s m e a n s t h e t e s t d o e s n o t t a k e t h e N e i t h e r / n o r
r e s p o n s e s i n t o a c c o u n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s i n c e t h o s e r e s p o n s e s w e r e f e w a n d o f n o
i n t e r e s t f o r m y s t a t e m e n t s , t h e l o s s o f t h o s e r e s p o n s e s i s o f n o c o n c e r n .
M o r e o v e r , s t a t e m e n t s 8 , 9 a n d 1 0 a r e s t a t e m e n t s w h e r e t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ( t h e
c y c l i s t s ) w e r e a s k e d t o r a n k f r o m 1 ( m o s t ) t o 4 ( l e a s t ) w h a t m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t ,
f o r e x a m p l e , c r e a t e s m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r t h e m . A M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t w a s
p e r f o r m e d o n t h o s e t h r e e s t a t e m e n t s . T h i s t e s t i s a n o n - p a r a m e t r i c m e t h o d f o r
t e s t i n g s t a t e m e n t s w h e r e t h e r e a r e r a n k s i n v o l v e d ( f o r t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s t e s t , s e e
G r a p h s 7 , 8 a n d 9 b e l o w ) . I w i l l f i r s t d i s c u s s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e C h i 2 t e s t a n d
s u b s e q u e n t l y t h o s e o f t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t .
T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t e s t o f t e n c o n f i r m e d m y i m p r e s s i o n t h a t a g r e a t d e a l i s b e t t e r
w h e n i t c o m e s t o c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m , w h i c h c a n b e
s e e n i n T a b l e 3 o n t h e n e x t p a g e .

145
9. As a cyclist I feel that cycling should be prioritised

10. As a cyclist I feel that car traffic creates most problems for me

The statements have been somewhat rewritten here as compared to those
presented in the questionnaire, since the statements in the questionnaire
referred to all transport modes but are here formulated for bicycles only. In
order to test my statements, a Chi 2 test was performed. The Chi 2 test is a
statistical method for testing how significant differences between two groups
are (Edling and Hedstrm 2003).
The statements in the surveys could be answered by the respondents in the
following ways:

- Agree completely
- Agree
- Neither/nor
- Do not agree
- Do not agree at all

Since the Chi 2 test only works for two groups, it was important to merge
groups Agree completely and Agree into one group and Do not agree and Do
not agree at all into another. This means the test does not take the Neither/nor
responses into account. Nevertheless, since those responses were few and of no
interest for my statements, the loss of those responses is of no concern.
Moreover, statements 8, 9 and 10 are statements where the respondents (the
cyclists) were asked to rank from 1 (most) to 4 (least) what mode of transport,
for example, creates most problems for them. A Mann-Whitney test was
performed on those three statements. This test is a non-parametric method for
testing statements where there are ranks involved (for the results of this test, see
Graphs 7, 8 and 9 below). I will first discuss the results of the Chi2 test and
subsequently those of the Mann-Whitney test.
The results of the test often confirmed my impression that a great deal is better
when it comes to cycling in Copenhagen than in Stockholm, which can be
seen in Table 3 on the next page.
1 4 5

146
Table 3: Results of the Chi 2 test
Statements
Results from Chi 2 test

Agree or agree
completely
Do not agree or do
not agree at all
Sig.
Statement 1:
Efficient
Stockholm 88% 12%
Copenhagen 96% 5% 0.000 ***

Statement 2:
Destination Stockholm
88% 12%

Copenhagen
75% 25% 0.000 ***

Statement 3:
Stress Stockholm
52% 48%

Copenhagen 54% 46% 0.682 n.s.

Statement 4:
Prioritisation Stockholm 36% 64%
Copenhagen 72% 28%
0.000 ***

Statement 5:
Safety Stockholm 42% 58%
Copenhagen 67% 33%
0.000 ***

Statement 6:
Good
planning Stockholm 39% 61%
Copenhagen 71% 29%
0.000 ***

Statement 7:
Cooperation
with others Stockholm 49% 51%
Copenhagen 61% 39%
0.001 ***


1 4 6
T a b l e 3 : R e s u l t s o f t h e C h i 2 t e s t
S t a t e m e n t s
R e s u l t s f r o m C h i 2 t e s t

A g r e e o r a g r e e
c o m p l e t e l y
D o n o t a g r e e o r d o
n o t a g r e e a t a l l
S i g .
S t a t e m e n t 1 :
E f f i c i e n t
S t o c k h o l m 8 8 % 1 2 %
C o p e n h a g e n 9 6 % 5 % 0 . 0 0 0 * * *

S t a t e m e n t 2 :
D e s t i n a t i o n S t o c k h o l m
8 8 % 1 2 %

C o p e n h a g e n
7 5 % 2 5 % 0 . 0 0 0 * * *

S t a t e m e n t 3 :
S t r e s s S t o c k h o l m
5 2 % 4 8 %

C o p e n h a g e n 5 4 % 4 6 % 0 . 6 8 2 n . s .

S t a t e m e n t 4 :
P r i o r i t i s a t i o n S t o c k h o l m 3 6 % 6 4 %
C o p e n h a g e n 7 2 % 2 8 %
0 . 0 0 0 * * *

S t a t e m e n t 5 :
S a f e t y S t o c k h o l m 4 2 % 5 8 %
C o p e n h a g e n 6 7 % 3 3 %
0 . 0 0 0 * * *

S t a t e m e n t 6 :
G o o d
p l a n n i n g S t o c k h o l m 3 9 % 6 1 %
C o p e n h a g e n 7 1 % 2 9 %
0 . 0 0 0 * * *

S t a t e m e n t 7 :
C o o p e r a t i o n
w i t h o t h e r s S t o c k h o l m 4 9 % 5 1 %
C o p e n h a g e n 6 1 % 3 9 %
0 . 0 0 1 * * *

1 4 6

1 4 7
T h e C h i 2 t e s t m e a s u r e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n n e a r l y a l l t h e a n s w e r s
b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d i n S t o c k h o l m . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r a l l t h e
s t a t e m e n t s w a s v e r y h i g h . I n a l l c a s e s i t w a s 0 . 0 0 0 * * * ( p - v a l u e ) e x c e p t o n e
( S t a t e m e n t 7 ) , w h e r e i t w a s 0 . 0 0 1 * * * . F o r S t a t e m e n t 3 , w h i c h w a s n o t
s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n f i r m e d , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s 0 . 6 8 2 n . s . I t i s w o r t h p o i n t i n g o u t
t h a t t h e C h i 2 t e s t o n l y t e s t s s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s .
B o t h g r o u p s c a n s t i l l s h o w s i m i l a r r e s u l t s , h o w e v e r ; i . e . c y c l i s t s i n b o t h
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n c a n f e e l t h a t i t i s f a s t a n d e f f i c i e n t t o c y c l e i n t h e i r
c i t y , b u t t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a r e m o r e p o s i t i v e t h a n t h o s e i n
S t o c k h o l m . T h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e C h i 2 t e s t a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3 b e l o w a n d
d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n A p p e n d i x 5 .

S t a t e m e n t 1 : I t i s f a s t a n d e f f i c i e n t t o c y c l e
C y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s f e e l t h a t i t i s f a s t a n d e f f e c t i v e t o c y c l e i n t h e i r c i t y . T h e
p e r c e n t a g e o f c y c l i s t s w h o a g r e e d o r a g r e e d c o m p l e t e l y w i t h t h i s s t a t e m e n t w a s
8 8 % i n S t o c k h o l m a n d 9 6 % i n C o p e n h a g e n . H o w e v e r , t h i s a l s o s h o w s t h a t
c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a r e m o r e p o s i t i v e t h a n c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m , w h i c h i s
w h y t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e
C h i 2 t e s t , 0 . 0 0 0 * * * . T h u s , t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n h o w c y c l i s t s f e e l a b o u t t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f b i c y c l i n g i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c i t i e s .

S t a t e m e n t 2 : I a m a b l e t o r e a c h m y m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e s t i n a t i o n s b y b i k e
C y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s f e e l t h a t t h e y c a n r e a c h t h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e s t i n a t i o n s
e a s i l y b y b i c y c l e . H o w e v e r , c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a g r e e t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t t h a n
c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m ( 7 5 % a g r e e d o r a g r e e d c o m p l e t e l y i n C o p e n h a g e n a s
c o m p a r e d t o 8 8 % i n S t o c k h o l m ) . T h e C h i 2 t e s t s h o w s t h a t t h e r e i s a
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( 0 . 0 0 0 * * * ) w h e n c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m
r e s p o n d t o t h e s t a t e m e n t w h e t h e r t h e y c a n r e a c h t h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t
d e s t i n a t i o n s e a s i l y b y b i c y c l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f a c t t h a t c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m
a g r e e t o a l a r g e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e i n C o p e n h a g e n w a s a b i t s u r p r i s i n g .

S t a t e m e n t 3 : I e x p e r i e n c e s t r e s s a s p r o b l e m a t i c w h e n c y c l i n g i n t h e c i t y
A b o u t h a l f o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n b o t h c i t i e s a g r e e d o r a g r e e d c o m p l e t e l y t h a t
t h e y e x p e r i e n c e s t r e s s w h i l e c y c l i n g i n t h e c i t y ( 5 2 % i n S t o c k h o l m a n d 5 4 %
i n C o p e n h a g e n ) . T h e C h i 2 t e s t d o e s n o t s h o w a n y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( p -

147
The Chi 2 test measured significant differences in nearly all the answers
between cyclists in Copenhagen and in Stockholm. The significance for all the
statements was very high. In all cases it was 0.000*** (p-value) except one
(Statement 7), where it was 0.001***. For Statement 3, which was not
statistically confirmed, the significance was 0.682 n.s. It is worth pointing out
that the Chi2 test only tests significant differences between the two groups.
Both groups can still show similar results, however; i.e. cyclists in both
Stockholm and Copenhagen can feel that it is fast and efficient to cycle in their
city, but the cyclists in Copenhagen are more positive than those in
Stockholm. The results from the Chi 2 test are presented in Table 3 below and
discussed in greater detail in Appendix 5.

Statement 1: It is fast and efficient to cycle
Cyclists in both cities feel that it is fast and effective to cycle in their city. The
percentage of cyclists who agreed or agreed completely with this statement was
88 % in Stockholm and 96 % in Copenhagen. However, this also shows that
cyclists in Copenhagen are more positive than cyclists in Stockholm, which is
why the difference between Copenhagen and Stockholm is significant in the
Chi 2 test, 0.000***. Thus, there is a difference in how cyclists feel about the
effectiveness of bicycling in their respective cities.

Statement 2: I am able to reach my most important destinations by bike
Cyclists in both cities feel that they can reach their most important destinations
easily by bicycle. However, cyclists in Copenhagen agree to a lesser extent than
cyclists in Stockholm (75 % agreed or agreed completely in Copenhagen as
compared to 88 % in Stockholm). The Chi 2 test shows that there is a
significant difference (0.000***) when cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm
respond to the statement whether they can reach their most important
destinations easily by bicycle. Nevertheless, the fact that cyclists in Stockholm
agree to a larger extent than those in Copenhagen was a bit surprising.

Statement 3: I experience stress as problematic when cycling in the city
About half of the respondents in both cities agreed or agreed completely that
they experience stress while cycling in the city (52 % in Stockholm and 54 %
in Copenhagen). The Chi 2 test does not show any significant difference (p-
1 4 7

148
value 0.682 n.s.) between cyclists in Copenhagen and in Stockholm.
Therefore, there is no difference in the extent to which cyclists feel stressed
while cycling in Stockholm and Copenhagen.

Statement 4: As a cyclist I perceive I am prioritised in traffic
The responses to this statement revealed a clear difference between
Copenhagen and Stockholm. The majority of the cyclists in Copenhagen (72
%) feel that they are prioritised, whereas the majority of the cyclists in
Stockholm (64 %) feel that they are not prioritised. This difference is also
statistically significant according to the Chi 2 test. The p-value is 0.000***.
Accordingly, there is a difference in the extent to which cyclists in Stockholm
and Copenhagen feel that they are prioritised in traffic in the two cities. This
might have something to do with the discourse of cycling in Copenhagen. As
can be seen from the analysis of the interviews in the previous chapter, great
attention is paid to cycling in Copenhagen, which might have influenced the
answers of the cyclists. Some results shown below, however, indicate that
cyclists still feel that motorised traffic creates most problems for them. Thus,
cyclists would perhaps not have been as positive in an interview or focus group
study as they were in the survey. The case of Stockholm seems a bit different.
Cyclists there seem to have accepted the conditions and to cope with them.
Due to the improvements made in the cycling infrastructure in Stockholm, the
views of cyclists are quite positive. However, an interview or focus group study
might yield different results here as well. This, I would say, would be a good
research idea in order to follow up the research in this thesis.

Statement 5: I find it safe to cycle
When it comes to safety, cyclists in Stockholm and Copenhagen have different
experiences. While the majority of cyclists feel it is safe to use their bikes in
Copenhagen (67 %), the majority of cyclists in Stockholm feel it is not safe (58
%). This is also a statistically significant difference, with a p-value of 0.000 ***.
Here too, it can thus be concluded that there is a difference in how cyclists in
Stockholm and Copenhagen feel about safety.




1 4 8
v a l u e 0 . 6 8 2 n . s . ) b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d i n S t o c k h o l m .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s n o d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h c y c l i s t s f e e l s t r e s s e d
w h i l e c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n .

S t a t e m e n t 4 : A s a c y c l i s t I p e r c e i v e I a m p r i o r i t i s e d i n t r a f f i c
T h e r e s p o n s e s t o t h i s s t a t e m e n t r e v e a l e d a c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n ( 7 2
% ) f e e l t h a t t h e y a r e p r i o r i t i s e d , w h e r e a s t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n
S t o c k h o l m ( 6 4 % ) f e e l t h a t t h e y a r e n o t p r i o r i t i s e d . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s a l s o
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e C h i 2 t e s t . T h e p - v a l u e i s 0 . 0 0 0 * * * .
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m
a n d C o p e n h a g e n f e e l t h a t t h e y a r e p r i o r i t i s e d i n t r a f f i c i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . T h i s
m i g h t h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e d i s c o u r s e o f c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n . A s
c a n b e s e e n f r o m t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , g r e a t
a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n , w h i c h m i g h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e
a n s w e r s o f t h e c y c l i s t s . S o m e r e s u l t s s h o w n b e l o w , h o w e v e r , i n d i c a t e t h a t
c y c l i s t s s t i l l f e e l t h a t m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c c r e a t e s m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r t h e m . T h u s ,
c y c l i s t s w o u l d p e r h a p s n o t h a v e b e e n a s p o s i t i v e i n a n i n t e r v i e w o r f o c u s g r o u p
s t u d y a s t h e y w e r e i n t h e s u r v e y . T h e c a s e o f S t o c k h o l m s e e m s a b i t d i f f e r e n t .
C y c l i s t s t h e r e s e e m t o h a v e a c c e p t e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s a n d t o c o p e w i t h t h e m .
D u e t o t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s m a d e i n t h e c y c l i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n S t o c k h o l m , t h e
v i e w s o f c y c l i s t s a r e q u i t e p o s i t i v e . H o w e v e r , a n i n t e r v i e w o r f o c u s g r o u p s t u d y
m i g h t y i e l d d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s h e r e a s w e l l . T h i s , I w o u l d s a y , w o u l d b e a g o o d
r e s e a r c h i d e a i n o r d e r t o f o l l o w u p t h e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s t h e s i s .

S t a t e m e n t 5 : I f i n d i t s a f e t o c y c l e
W h e n i t c o m e s t o s a f e t y , c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n h a v e d i f f e r e n t
e x p e r i e n c e s . W h i l e t h e m a j o r i t y o f c y c l i s t s f e e l i t i s s a f e t o u s e t h e i r b i k e s i n
C o p e n h a g e n ( 6 7 % ) , t h e m a j o r i t y o f c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m f e e l i t i s n o t s a f e ( 5 8
% ) . T h i s i s a l s o a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e , w i t h a p - v a l u e o f 0 . 0 0 0 * * * .
H e r e t o o , i t c a n t h u s b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n h o w c y c l i s t s i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n f e e l a b o u t s a f e t y .



1 4 8

1 4 9
S t a t e m e n t 6 : A s a c y c l i s t I t h i n k t h a t p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i s g o o d
P l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i s a l s o j u d g e d d i f f e r e n t l y b y r e s p o n d e n t s i n S t o c k h o l m
a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e m a j o r i t y o f c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m d o n o t a g r e e t h a t
p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m i s g o o d ( 6 1 % ) , w h e r e a s t h e m a j o r i t y a g r e e
t h a t i t i s g o o d i n C o p e n h a g e n ( 7 1 % ) . T h e C h i 2 t e s t c o n f i r m s t h a t t h i s i s a
s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e , w i t h a p - v a l u e o f 0 . 0 0 0 * * * . T h u s , t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m w h e n r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e
s t a t e m e n t t h a t p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i s g o o d .

S t a t e m e n t 7 : A s a c y c l i s t I p e r c e i v e t h a t c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t
w o r k s w e l l .
T h e l a s t s t a t e m e n t w h e r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n w a s t e s t e d w i t h t h e C h i 2 t e s t c o n c e r n e d t h e c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n
c y c l i s t s a n d o t h e r r o a d u s e r s . 6 1 % o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a g r e e d o r
a g r e e d c o m p l e t e l y t h a t t h e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r r o a d u s e r s w o r k s w e l l . I n
S t o c k h o l m , h o w e v e r , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i g u r e i s 4 9 % . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e w a s
a l s o c o n f i r m e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n t h e C h i 2 t e s t , w i t h a p - v a l u e o f 0 . 0 0 1 * * * . H e n c e ,
t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n h o w c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s e x p e r i e n c e c o o p e r a t i o n
w i t h o t h e r r o a d u s e r s .
A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , s t a t e m e n t s 8 , 9 a n d 1 0 a r e t e s t e d , w i t h a M a n n - W h i t n e y
t e s t . T h e r e s u l t o f t h i s t e s t c a n b e s e e n i n t h e t a b l e s a n d g r a p h s b e l o w . T h e f i r s t
t a b l e s a r e f r e q u e n c y t a b l e s t h a t s h o w h o w t h e c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n h a v e r e s p o n d e d t o t h e s t a t e m e n t s , a n d t h e n t h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e
M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t a r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e s u r v e y s t u d y a l s o d e l i v e r e d o t h e r
i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s , e . g . t h e f a c t t h a t c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s s e e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
a s t h e m a i n p r o b l e m .








149
Statement 6: As a cyclist I think that planning for cyclists is good
Planning for cyclists is also judged differently by respondents in Stockholm
and Copenhagen. The majority of cyclists in Stockholm do not agree that
planning for cyclists in Stockholm is good (61 %), whereas the majority agree
that it is good in Copenhagen (71 %). The Chi 2 test confirms that this is a
statistical difference, with a p-value of 0.000 ***. Thus, there is a difference
between cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm when responding to the
statement that planning for cyclists is good.

Statement 7: As a cyclist I perceive that cooperation with other modes of transport
works well.
The last statement where the difference between cyclists in Stockholm and
Copenhagen was tested with the Chi 2 test concerned the cooperation between
cyclists and other road users. 61 % of the cyclists in Copenhagen agreed or
agreed completely that the cooperation with other road users works well. In
Stockholm, however, the corresponding figure is 49 %. This difference was
also confirmed statistically in the Chi 2 test, with a p-value of 0.001***. Hence,
there is a difference in how cyclists in the two cities experience cooperation
with other road users.
As mentioned above, statements 8, 9 and 10 are tested, with a Mann-Whitney
test. The result of this test can be seen in the tables and graphs below. The first
tables are frequency tables that show how the cyclists in Stockholm and
Copenhagen have responded to the statements, and then the results from the
Mann-Whitney test are presented. The survey study also delivered other
interesting results, e.g. the fact that cyclists in both cities see motorised traffic
as the main problem.







1 4 9

150
Graph 7: Results of the Mann-Whitney test for statement 8: As a cyclist I feel that
bicycles are prioritised as a mode of transport


Graph 8: Results of the Mann-Whitney test for statement 9: As a cyclist I feel that
cycling should be prioritised


1 5 0
G r a p h 7 : R e s u l t s o f t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t f o r s t a t e m e n t 8 : A s a c y c l i s t I f e e l t h a t
b i c y c l e s a r e p r i o r i t i s e d a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t


G r a p h 8 : R e s u l t s o f t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t f o r s t a t e m e n t 9 : A s a c y c l i s t I f e e l t h a t
c y c l i n g s h o u l d b e p r i o r i t i s e d

1 5 0

1 5 1
G r a p h 9 : C o m p a r i s o n o f S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n f o r s t a t e m e n t 1 0 : A s a c y c l i s t I
f e e l t h a t c a r t r a f f i c c r e a t e s m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r m e



151
Graph 9: Comparison of Stockholm and Copenhagen for statement 10: As a cyclist I
feel that car traffic creates most problems for me


1 5 1

152



What does the Mann-Whitney test applied to statements 8, 9 and 10 show? I
will discuss the three statements in a similar way as the results of the Chi 2 test
above.

1 5 2



W h a t d o e s t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t a p p l i e d t o s t a t e m e n t s 8 , 9 a n d 1 0 s h o w ? I
w i l l d i s c u s s t h e t h r e e s t a t e m e n t s i n a s i m i l a r w a y a s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e C h i 2 t e s t
a b o v e .
1 5 2

1 5 3
S t a t e m e n t 8 : A s a c y c l i s t I f e e l t h a t b i c y c l e s a r e p r i o r i t i s e d a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t
T h e f r e q u e n c y t a b l e i n A p p e n d i x 7 s h o w s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n
S t o c k h o l m ( 4 2 % S e c o n d l e a s t , 3 0 % L e a s t ) d o n o t t h i n k t h a t t h e b i c y c l e i s
p r i o r i t i s e d i n g e n e r a l i n S t o c k h o l m . T h e s a m e t a b l e s h o w s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f
t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n ( 3 0 % M o s t , 3 1 % S e c o n d m o s t ) t h i n k t h a t t h e
b i c y c l e i s p r i o r i t i s e d i n g e n e r a l i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s i s a l s o s h o w n i n G r a p h 9 .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t a l s o c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e a n s w e r s o f c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d i n S t o c k h o l m i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t ( p - v a l u e 0 . 0 0 0 ) .

S t a t e m e n t 9 : A s a c y c l i s t I f e e l t h a t c y c l i n g s h o u l d b e p r i o r i t i s e d .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e f i g u r e s f o r S t a t e m e n t 9 , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n b o t h
C o p e n h a g e n ( 4 6 % M o s t , 3 9 % S e c o n d m o s t ) a n d S t o c k h o l m ( 1 8 % M o s t , 4 7
% S e c o n d m o s t ) t h i n k t h a t b i c y c l i n g s h o u l d b e p r i o r i t i s e d . H o w e v e r , a n e v e n
l a r g e r m a j o r i t y o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n t h i n k t h a t t h e b i c y c l e s h o u l d b e
p r i o r i t i s e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t a l s o c a l c u l a t e s a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a n s w e r s o f c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d i n
S t o c k h o l m ( p - v a l u e 0 . 0 0 0 ) .

S t a t e m e n t s 1 0 : A s a c y c l i s t I f e e l t h a t c a r t r a f f i c c r e a t e s t h e m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r m e .
I n S t a t e m e n t 1 0 , i . e . w h i c h m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t c r e a t e s m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r
c y c l i s t s , t h e c y c l i s t s i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n f e e l t h a t c a r t r a f f i c
a n d b i c y c l e t r a f f i c c r e a t e m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r t h e m . A s f o r t h e o t h e r m o d e s o f
t r a n s p o r t , p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a n d p e d e s t r i a n s d o n o t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a n s w e r s o f
t h e c y c l i s t s , c r e a t e m a n y p r o b l e m s f o r c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m ;
s e e G r a p h 9 a n d , f o r d e t a i l s , t h e f r e q u e n c y t a b l e i n A p p e n d i x 5 .

T h e a c c o u n t o f t h e r e s u l t s g i v e n i n T a b l e 3 s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a g e n e r a l
o v e r v i e w . T h e t e s t s h o w s t h a t c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c a s e c i t i e s e x p e r i e n c e p r o b l e m s t o
a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , f o r e x a m p l e s t r e s s w h i l e c y c l i n g . T h a t m a y b e d u e t o
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c c r e a t i n g m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d
C o p e n h a g e n ( s e e a n a l y s i s b e l o w i n t h i s c h a p t e r ) . M o r e o v e r , i t m a y a l s o b e d u e
t o c y c l i s t s f e e l i n g t h a t c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r r o a d u s e r s d o e s n o t w o r k o r t h a t
p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n S t o c k h o l m , i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d v e r y g o o d . A l l
t h o s e p r o b l e m s c a n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t c y c l i s t s h a v e t o f i g h t f o r t h e i r

153
Statement 8: As a cyclist I feel that bicycles are prioritised as a mode of transport
The frequency table in Appendix 7 shows that the majority of the cyclists in
Stockholm (42 % Second least, 30 % Least) do not think that the bicycle is
prioritised in general in Stockholm. The same table shows that the majority of
the cyclists in Copenhagen (30 % Most, 31 % Second most) think that the
bicycle is prioritised in general in Copenhagen. This is also shown in Graph 9.
Furthermore, the Mann-Whitney test also confirmed that the difference
between the answers of cyclists in Copenhagen and in Stockholm is statistically
significant (p-value 0.000).

Statement 9: As a cyclist I feel that cycling should be prioritised.
According to the figures for Statement 9, the majority of the cyclists in both
Copenhagen (46 % Most, 39 % Second most) and Stockholm (18 % Most, 47
% Second most) think that bicycling should be prioritised. However, an even
larger majority of the cyclists in Copenhagen think that the bicycle should be
prioritised. Therefore, the Mann-Whitney test also calculates a statistically
significant difference between the answers of cyclists in Copenhagen and in
Stockholm (p-value 0.000).

Statements 10: As a cyclist I feel that car traffic creates the most problems for me.
In Statement 10, i.e. which mode of transport creates most problems for
cyclists, the cyclists in both Stockholm and Copenhagen feel that car traffic
and bicycle traffic create most problems for them. As for the other modes of
transport, public transport and pedestrians do not, according to the answers of
the cyclists, create many problems for cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm;
see Graph 9 and, for details, the frequency table in Appendix 5.

The account of the results given in Table 3 should be understood as a general
overview. The test shows that cyclists in both case cities experience problems to
a certain degree, for example stress while cycling. That may be due to
motorised traffic creating most problems for cyclists in Stockholm and
Copenhagen (see analysis below in this chapter). Moreover, it may also be due
to cyclists feeling that cooperation with other road users does not work or that
planning for cyclists, especially in Stockholm, is not considered very good. All
those problems can be related to the fact that cyclists have to fight for their
1 5 3

154
right to be on the streets or in public space in general, which calls the space
war concept to mind. The survey, however, does not provide any deeper
insights into why cyclists feel the way they do, which is why an interview
and/or a focus group study would be required to further investigate the topic in
order to offer deeper insights. This would be a good way of collecting more
data about how cyclists experience bicycling. However, the connection between
the theoretical outline of this thesis, especially of the politics of mobility put
forward by Cresswell (2010), the production of space suggested by Lefebvre
(1991 [1974]) and the different dimensions of power submitted by Lukes
(2005) is visible in the analysis of the survey studies. To a certain degree the
cyclists do not seem quite satisfied with the situation, which can be associated
with all three theoretical dimensions mentioned before. Power relations are at
the core of this, because it seems that the infrastructure is not built for cyclists
(due to certain power relations in planning, as analysed in the previous
chapter). Moreover, this can be associated with Cresswells politics of mobility
in terms of moving from A to B, but also with the embodiment of cycling and
with Lefebvres production of space, because the social relations in urban space
produce certain spaces and, especially in the case of Stockholm, a space for
motorised traffic. This becomes even more evident in the analysis of
Statements 8 to 10 later in this chapter, where, for example, cyclists state that
motorised traffic and other cyclists create most of the problems in traffic for
them, which in turn has to do with the infrastructure and the space built for
motorised traffic. Those aspects also lead to the fight for public or transport
spaces in the two cities, which, according to Bauman (1998), ends in urban
space wars. The space wars in the case of cyclists in Copenhagen and
Stockholm are fought over concrete space, where cyclists, even in Copenhagen,
seem to have less space and therefore can be seen as marginalised. In order to
give a more detailed overview of the statements submitted above and the
results, I will go through all the statements tested with the Chi 2 test.
The overall results of the survey study are very interesting in the light of the
theoretical framework of political mobility by Cresswell mentioned above.
Cresswell describes politics of mobility in terms of physical movement from A
to B, the representation of the movement and the practise of movement
(Cresswell 2010). It seems that in a city that works a great deal to promote
cycling, like Copenhagen, physical movement on a bike is slightly easier than
in a city that does not, such as Stockholm. However, the difference between
Stockholm and Copenhagen is not very large and, for Statement 2, even in

1 5 4
r i g h t t o b e o n t h e s t r e e t s o r i n p u b l i c s p a c e i n g e n e r a l , w h i c h c a l l s t h e s p a c e
w a r c o n c e p t t o m i n d . T h e s u r v e y , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a n y d e e p e r
i n s i g h t s i n t o w h y c y c l i s t s f e e l t h e w a y t h e y d o , w h i c h i s w h y a n i n t e r v i e w
a n d / o r a f o c u s g r o u p s t u d y w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e t h e t o p i c i n
o r d e r t o o f f e r d e e p e r i n s i g h t s . T h i s w o u l d b e a g o o d w a y o f c o l l e c t i n g m o r e
d a t a a b o u t h o w c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e b i c y c l i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e o f t h i s t h e s i s , e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y p u t
f o r w a r d b y C r e s s w e l l ( 2 0 1 0 ) , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e s u g g e s t e d b y L e f e b v r e
( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) a n d t h e d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r s u b m i t t e d b y L u k e s
( 2 0 0 5 ) i s v i s i b l e i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s . T o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e t h e
c y c l i s t s d o n o t s e e m q u i t e s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n , w h i c h c a n b e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h a l l t h r e e t h e o r e t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e a t
t h e c o r e o f t h i s , b e c a u s e i t s e e m s t h a t t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s n o t b u i l t f o r c y c l i s t s
( d u e t o c e r t a i n p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n p l a n n i n g , a s a n a l y s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s
c h a p t e r ) . M o r e o v e r , t h i s c a n b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h C r e s s w e l l s p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y
i n t e r m s o f m o v i n g f r o m A t o B , b u t a l s o w i t h t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f c y c l i n g a n d
w i t h L e f e b v r e s p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e , b e c a u s e t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e
p r o d u c e c e r t a i n s p a c e s a n d , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e c a s e o f S t o c k h o l m , a s p a c e f o r
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h i s b e c o m e s e v e n m o r e e v i d e n t i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f
S t a t e m e n t s 8 t o 1 0 l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r , w h e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , c y c l i s t s s t a t e t h a t
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d o t h e r c y c l i s t s c r e a t e m o s t o f t h e p r o b l e m s i n t r a f f i c f o r
t h e m , w h i c h i n t u r n h a s t o d o w i t h t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e s p a c e b u i l t f o r
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h o s e a s p e c t s a l s o l e a d t o t h e f i g h t f o r p u b l i c o r t r a n s p o r t
s p a c e s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o B a u m a n ( 1 9 9 8 ) , e n d s i n u r b a n
s p a c e w a r s . T h e s p a c e w a r s i n t h e c a s e o f c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m a r e f o u g h t o v e r c o n c r e t e s p a c e , w h e r e c y c l i s t s , e v e n i n C o p e n h a g e n ,
s e e m t o h a v e l e s s s p a c e a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n b e s e e n a s m a r g i n a l i s e d . I n o r d e r t o
g i v e a m o r e d e t a i l e d o v e r v i e w o f t h e s t a t e m e n t s s u b m i t t e d a b o v e a n d t h e
r e s u l t s , I w i l l g o t h r o u g h a l l t h e s t a t e m e n t s t e s t e d w i t h t h e C h i 2 t e s t .
T h e o v e r a l l r e s u l t s o f t h e s u r v e y s t u d y a r e v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k o f p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i t y b y C r e s s w e l l m e n t i o n e d a b o v e .
C r e s s w e l l d e s c r i b e s p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y i n t e r m s o f p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t f r o m A
t o B , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t a n d t h e p r a c t i s e o f m o v e m e n t
( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 ) . I t s e e m s t h a t i n a c i t y t h a t w o r k s a g r e a t d e a l t o p r o m o t e
c y c l i n g , l i k e C o p e n h a g e n , p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t o n a b i k e i s s l i g h t l y e a s i e r t h a n
i n a c i t y t h a t d o e s n o t , s u c h a s S t o c k h o l m . H o w e v e r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n i s n o t v e r y l a r g e a n d , f o r S t a t e m e n t 2 , e v e n i n
1 5 4

1 5 5
f a v o u r o f S t o c k h o l m ( s e e r e s u l t i n T a b l e 3 ) . S t i l l , t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y h a s a n
i m p a c t o n h o w p e o p l e g e t f r o m A t o B a n d w h a t k i n d o f t r a n s p o r t m o d e t h e y
u s e . A s C r e s s w e l l p u t s i t :
P h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t i s , i f y o u l i k e , t h e r a w m a t e r i a l f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o b i l i t y .
( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 1 0 : 1 9 )
T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o b i l i t y c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s i n t i m e a n d s p a c e . H e r e c o n n e c t i o n s t o L e f e b v r e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) c a n
b e m a d e . A s m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r 5 h e r e , s p a c e a n d t h e r e f o r e m o b i l i t y a r e
s o c i a l l y p r o d u c e d b y m e a n s o f r e l a t i o n s , b u t a l s o b y m e a n s o f r h y t h m s a n d
c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n . L i k e s p a c e , m o b i l i t y i s a l s o p r o d u c e d , s i n c e m o b i l i t y
c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m p l a c e a n d s p a c e . T h o s e t w o c o n c e p t s a r e h i g h l y
i n t e r t w i n e d , a n d t h e r e f o r e b o t h a r e s o c i a l l y p r o d u c e d ( C r e s s w e l l 2 0 0 6 ) . T h i s
p r o d u c t i o n , a s s e e n e a r l i e r , i s h i g h l y a f f e c t e d b y c a p i t a l i s m a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s .
C o n s e q u e n t l y c a p i t a l i s m , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d
m o b i l i t y i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a n a l y s i n g d a t a f r o m a s u r v e y . T h e
r e s p o n s e s a r e a l s o i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y , t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f m o b i l i t y a n d s p a c e . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t , i n f l u e n c e d b y
c a p i t a l i s m , s h a p e t h e m e a n i n g o f m o b i l i t y , e . g . u s i n g t h e b i c y c l e a s a m o d e o f
t r a n s p o r t a n d h o w p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n ,
a r e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r w h e n a n a l y s i n g t h e d a t a , f o r e x a m p l e t h a t c y c l i s t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n f e e l t h e y a r e p r i o r i t i s e d i n t r a f f i c , a s o p p o s e d t o c y c l i s t s i n
S t o c k h o l m .
T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m o b i l i t y , o r i n t h e c a s e o f t h i s s u r v e y s t u d y , o f
v l o m o b i l i t y c a n b e s e e n i n t h e s h a r e d v i e w s o f c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m c o n c e r n i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n t r a f f i c a n d t h e f e e l i n g s t h e y
s h a r e w h e n c y c l i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t i e s . S i n c e c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s g i v e v e r y
s i m i l a r a n s w e r s i n t h e s u r v e y , t h o s e a n s w e r s c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a s h a r e d
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f v l o m o b i l i t y i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . V l o m o b i l i t y i s
r e p r e s e n t e d a s m o r e d i f f i c u l t i n S t o c k h o l m t h a n i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s ,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f i n d i n g s i n t h e s u r v e y , i s l i n k e d t o t h e p l a n n i n g o f t h e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i s t s , b u t a l s o t o t h e f a c t t h a t c y c l i n g i s e x p e r i e n c e d a s l e s s
p r i o r i t i s e d i n S t o c k h o l m t h a n i n C o p e n h a g e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e e m b o d i m e n t
o f m o v e m e n t s a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m o b i l i t y b o t h s e e m t o f o s t e r a s h a r e d
e x p e r i e n c e a n d a s h a r e d m e a n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . I t c a n b e
a r g u e d t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n
S t o c k h o l m , w h i c h c a n b e d u e t o d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f p l a n n i n g , t h e t r a f f i c

155
favour of Stockholm (see result in Table 3). Still, the politics of mobility has an
impact on how people get from A to B and what kind of transport mode they
use. As Cresswell puts it:
Physical movement is, if you like, the raw material for the production of mobility.
(Cresswell 2010:19)
The production of mobility can also be seen as the production of power
relations in time and space. Here connections to Lefebvre (1991 [1974]) can
be made. As mentioned in Chapter 5 here, space and therefore mobility are
socially produced by means of relations, but also by means of rhythms and
capitalist production. Like space, mobility is also produced, since mobility
cannot be separated from place and space. Those two concepts are highly
intertwined, and therefore both are socially produced (Cresswell 2006). This
production, as seen earlier, is highly affected by capitalism and power relations.
Consequently capitalism, power relations and the production of space and
mobility illustrate the complexity of analysing data from a survey. The
responses are also influenced by the concepts of the politics of mobility, the
production of mobility and space. Power relations that, influenced by
capitalism, shape the meaning of mobility, e.g. using the bicycle as a mode of
transport and how people experience cycling in Stockholm and Copenhagen,
are an important factor when analysing the data, for example that cyclists in
Copenhagen feel they are prioritised in traffic, as opposed to cyclists in
Stockholm.
The representation of mobility, or in the case of this survey study, of
vlomobility can be seen in the shared views of cyclists in Copenhagen and
Stockholm concerning the situation of cyclists in traffic and the feelings they
share when cycling through the cities. Since cyclists in both cities give very
similar answers in the survey, those answers can be interpreted as a shared
representation of vlomobility in Stockholm and Copenhagen. Vlomobility is
represented as more difficult in Stockholm than in Copenhagen. This,
according to the findings in the survey, is linked to the planning of the
infrastructure for cyclists, but also to the fact that cycling is experienced as less
prioritised in Stockholm than in Copenhagen. Furthermore, the embodiment
of movements and the representation of mobility both seem to foster a shared
experience and a shared meaning in Stockholm and Copenhagen. It can be
argued that the experience is more satisfactory in Copenhagen than in
Stockholm, which can be due to different aspects of planning, the traffic
1 5 5

156
situation, but also to where the cyclists live etc. (see below for more
information on that topic).
The combination of the movement from A to B, i.e. in this case the
representation of vlomobility, and the experience of such a form of mobility
produces two different politics of mobility; one towards prioritising cycling as a
mode of transport and a less prioritising one. The first one is found in
Copenhagen and the second one in Stockholm. The survey data have shown
that Copenhagen has managed to produce a more sustainable form of mobility
and a fairer way of forwarding the rights for cyclists to public space. In other
words Copenhagen seems to have succeeded in breaking, at least to a small
degree, free from the total domination of automobility, although car traffic
remains the most problematic transport mode for cyclists in Copenhagen as
well as in Stockholm. This is also reinforced by the modal split of the two
cities, where the share of bicycle trips is much higher in Copenhagen than in
Stockholm. However, the share of car trips is very similar in both cities.
Copenhagen has not managed to lower its share of car trips but has at least
created a more just environment for bicyclists than Stockholm.
One surprising result of the Mann-Whitney test was that cyclists in both
Stockholm and Copenhagen see other cyclists as a mode of transport that
creates problems for them. This could be due to the high flow of cyclists in
Copenhagen and with a high flow of cyclists along specific routes in
Stockholm. Although the modal split in Stockholm suggests that not many
people use bikes as a mode of transport, some routes in the inner city of
Stockholm experience a high flow of cyclists at rush hour. In Copenhagen the
same effect can be seen along several routes, especially during rush hours. I
have already mentioned that the results can be linked to space wars. There also
seems to be a connection between power relations and the results. Since the
cyclists mention that motorised traffic creates most problems for them, it may
be an overemphasis on motorised traffic in the infrastructure that creates
problems for them. This might be linked to the power relations in transport
planning explained in the previous chapter and in Chapter 5. Power, as Lukes
(2005) sees it, works in different dimensions, and here we can at least discern
the first dimension, where the car seems to have more power than the bicycle.
Other power relations, as explained in Chapter 7, might also affect the
experience of cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm. Further, the connection
to the space war concept becomes quite clear. The urban space or the urban
street space is limited. The limited spaces accessible to cyclists seem to create

1 5 6
s i t u a t i o n , b u t a l s o t o w h e r e t h e c y c l i s t s l i v e e t c . ( s e e b e l o w f o r m o r e
i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h a t t o p i c ) .
T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t f r o m A t o B , i . e . i n t h i s c a s e t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f v l o m o b i l i t y , a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f s u c h a f o r m o f m o b i l i t y
p r o d u c e s t w o d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y ; o n e t o w a r d s p r i o r i t i s i n g c y c l i n g a s a
m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t a n d a l e s s p r i o r i t i s i n g o n e . T h e f i r s t o n e i s f o u n d i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e i n S t o c k h o l m . T h e s u r v e y d a t a h a v e s h o w n
t h a t C o p e n h a g e n h a s m a n a g e d t o p r o d u c e a m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e f o r m o f m o b i l i t y
a n d a f a i r e r w a y o f f o r w a r d i n g t h e r i g h t s f o r c y c l i s t s t o p u b l i c s p a c e . I n o t h e r
w o r d s C o p e n h a g e n s e e m s t o h a v e s u c c e e d e d i n b r e a k i n g , a t l e a s t t o a s m a l l
d e g r e e , f r e e f r o m t h e t o t a l d o m i n a t i o n o f a u t o m o b i l i t y , a l t h o u g h c a r t r a f f i c
r e m a i n s t h e m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c t r a n s p o r t m o d e f o r c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a s
w e l l a s i n S t o c k h o l m . T h i s i s a l s o r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e m o d a l s p l i t o f t h e t w o
c i t i e s , w h e r e t h e s h a r e o f b i c y c l e t r i p s i s m u c h h i g h e r i n C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n
S t o c k h o l m . H o w e v e r , t h e s h a r e o f c a r t r i p s i s v e r y s i m i l a r i n b o t h c i t i e s .
C o p e n h a g e n h a s n o t m a n a g e d t o l o w e r i t s s h a r e o f c a r t r i p s b u t h a s a t l e a s t
c r e a t e d a m o r e j u s t e n v i r o n m e n t f o r b i c y c l i s t s t h a n S t o c k h o l m .
O n e s u r p r i s i n g r e s u l t o f t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t w a s t h a t c y c l i s t s i n b o t h
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n s e e o t h e r c y c l i s t s a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t t h a t
c r e a t e s p r o b l e m s f o r t h e m . T h i s c o u l d b e d u e t o t h e h i g h f l o w o f c y c l i s t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d w i t h a h i g h f l o w o f c y c l i s t s a l o n g s p e c i f i c r o u t e s i n
S t o c k h o l m . A l t h o u g h t h e m o d a l s p l i t i n S t o c k h o l m s u g g e s t s t h a t n o t m a n y
p e o p l e u s e b i k e s a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t , s o m e r o u t e s i n t h e i n n e r c i t y o f
S t o c k h o l m e x p e r i e n c e a h i g h f l o w o f c y c l i s t s a t r u s h h o u r . I n C o p e n h a g e n t h e
s a m e e f f e c t c a n b e s e e n a l o n g s e v e r a l r o u t e s , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g r u s h h o u r s . I
h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s c a n b e l i n k e d t o s p a c e w a r s . T h e r e a l s o
s e e m s t o b e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e r e s u l t s . S i n c e t h e
c y c l i s t s m e n t i o n t h a t m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c c r e a t e s m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r t h e m , i t m a y
b e a n o v e r e m p h a s i s o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e t h a t c r e a t e s
p r o b l e m s f o r t h e m . T h i s m i g h t b e l i n k e d t o t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g e x p l a i n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r a n d i n C h a p t e r 5 . P o w e r , a s L u k e s
( 2 0 0 5 ) s e e s i t , w o r k s i n d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s , a n d h e r e w e c a n a t l e a s t d i s c e r n
t h e f i r s t d i m e n s i o n , w h e r e t h e c a r s e e m s t o h a v e m o r e p o w e r t h a n t h e b i c y c l e .
O t h e r p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , a s e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p t e r 7 , m i g h t a l s o a f f e c t t h e
e x p e r i e n c e o f c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . F u r t h e r , t h e c o n n e c t i o n
t o t h e s p a c e w a r c o n c e p t b e c o m e s q u i t e c l e a r . T h e u r b a n s p a c e o r t h e u r b a n
s t r e e t s p a c e i s l i m i t e d . T h e l i m i t e d s p a c e s a c c e s s i b l e t o c y c l i s t s s e e m t o c r e a t e
1 5 6

1 5 7
p r o b l e m s f o r t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s a n d m o v e m e n t s , a s t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y
a n s w e r s h a s s h o w n . T h e a n a l y s i s c l e a r l y s h o w s t h a t t h e r e i s a l a c k o f s p a c e f o r
c y c l i s t s , w h o h a v e t o f i g h t f o r t h e i r s p a c e , b e i t w i t h o t h e r r o a d u s e r s , e s p e c i a l l y
c a r s , o r w i t h o t h e r c y c l i s t s . T h o s e e v e r y d a y s t r u g g l e s o f c y c l i s t s a r e t h e e s s e n c e
o f u r b a n s p a c e w a r s ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 a n d B a u m a n 1 9 9 8 ) a n d a l s o l e a d t o
o b s e r v a b l e p o w e r s t r u g g l e s o v e r s p a c e t h a t c o u l d e a s i l y f i t i n t o t h e f i r s t
d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r a c c o r d i n g t o L u k e s ( L u k e s 2 0 0 2 ) . T h u s , b o t h S t o c k h o l m
a n d C o p e n h a g e n a r e t h e s c e n e s o f u r b a n s p a c e w a r s o v e r s t r e e t s p a c e , t h e m a i n
p r o b l e m b e i n g m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d t h e l a c k o f s p a c e f o r c y c l i s t s .
I n c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t C o p e n h a g e n c o u l d b e s e e n a s a g o o d e x a m p l e
o f a c i t y t h a t h a s m a n a g e d t o b r e a k f r e e f r o m t h e d o m i n a n c e o f m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c . H o w e v e r , i t m u s t b e s a i d t h a t t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y a r e i n f l u e n c e d b y
d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e s i n s o c i e t y , a s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 5 . T h o s e s t r u c t u r e s a f f e c t
n o t o n l y p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n p u b l i c s p a c e s a n d p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s , b u t a l s o t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y , s i n c e t h o s e p o l i t i c s a r e a
r e s u l t o f t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e f o r e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i s s t i l l a p r o b l e m i n
C o p e n h a g e n , a n d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f c a r o w n e r s h i p h a s b e e n r i s i n g i n t h e l a s t 2 -
3 y e a r s ( i n t e r v i e w w i t h E l l e ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , C o p e n h a g e n h a s m a n a g e d t o
c r e a t e a b e t t e r e n v i r o n m e n t f o r c y c l i s t s i n t h e c i t y t h a n S t o c k h o l m , b u t h a s n o t
b e e n a b l e t o b r e a k c o m p l e t e l y f r e e f r o m t h e d o m i n a n c e o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
a n d i s s t i l l p a r t o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t y . S i n c e c y c l i s t s
a r e s t i l l s t r u g g l i n g f o r s p a c e i n b o t h c i t i e s , s p a c e i s o n e m a j o r a s p e c t t h a t n e e d s
t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t w h e n p l a n n i n g f o r u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s .


157
problems for their experiences and movements, as the analysis of the survey
answers has shown. The analysis clearly shows that there is a lack of space for
cyclists, who have to fight for their space, be it with other road users, especially
cars, or with other cyclists. Those everyday struggles of cyclists are the essence
of urban space wars (see Chapter 4 and Bauman 1998) and also lead to
observable power struggles over space that could easily fit into the first
dimension of power according to Lukes (Lukes 2002). Thus, both Stockholm
and Copenhagen are the scenes of urban space wars over street space, the main
problem being motorised traffic and the lack of space for cyclists.
In conclusion, it is evident that Copenhagen could be seen as a good example
of a city that has managed to break free from the dominance of motorised
traffic. However, it must be said that the politics of mobility are influenced by
different structures in society, as discussed in Chapter 5. Those structures affect
not only power relations in public spaces and planning decisions, but also the
theoretical framework of the politics of mobility, since those politics are a
result of those structures. Therefore motorised traffic is still a problem in
Copenhagen, and the percentage of car ownership has been rising in the last 2-
3 years (interview with Elle). In other words, Copenhagen has managed to
create a better environment for cyclists in the city than Stockholm, but has not
been able to break completely free from the dominance of motorised traffic
and is still part of the capitalist production of space and mobility. Since cyclists
are still struggling for space in both cities, space is one major aspect that needs
to be taken into account when planning for urban transport systems.

1 5 7

158
9 Cyclists, planners, observations

Traditional planning theory does not go beyond the planning system itself, and
therefore cannot be used to analyse the relationship between planning and societal
development. It is necessary to replace the subjective-idealistic conception in
traditional theory by a more materialistic understanding in order to explain why
ideas, methods, and practices of planning and participation appear as they do.
(Flyvbjerg and Petersen 1981:309)

One important remaining aspect is the overall synthesis of the data, i.e. the
comparison of the answers of the cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm with
my qualitative data from the interviews with planners and politicians and with
my own observations.
It seems that there is a difference between how the planners and politicians see
the infrastructures for cyclists, planning for cyclists and transport planning in
general, and how the cyclists experience cycling, the infrastructure and moving
around in the city. The view of the planners in both cities is very clear. In
Copenhagen all planners mentioned that the first priority in transport planning
is cycling, followed by walking, public transport and the least priority goes to
the motorized traffic. In Stockholm it is slightly different. Here it is said that
all modes of transport are equally prioritized. That means that all road users
should experience that they are prioritized in the transport system.






1 5 8
9 C y c l i s t s , p l a n n e r s , o b s e r v a t i o n s

T r a d i t i o n a l p l a n n i n g t h e o r y d o e s n o t g o b e y o n d t h e p l a n n i n g s y s t e m i t s e l f , a n d
t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t b e u s e d t o a n a l y s e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p l a n n i n g a n d s o c i e t a l
d e v e l o p m e n t . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e p l a c e t h e s u b j e c t i v e - i d e a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n i n
t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y b y a m o r e m a t e r i a l i s t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n w h y
i d e a s , m e t h o d s , a n d p r a c t i c e s o f p l a n n i n g a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n a p p e a r a s t h e y d o .
( F l y v b j e r g a n d P e t e r s e n 1 9 8 1 : 3 0 9 )

O n e i m p o r t a n t r e m a i n i n g a s p e c t i s t h e o v e r a l l s y n t h e s i s o f t h e d a t a , i . e . t h e
c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e a n s w e r s o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m w i t h
m y q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s a n d w i t h
m y o w n o b s e r v a t i o n s .
I t s e e m s t h a t t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h o w t h e p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s s e e
t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s f o r c y c l i s t s , p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n
g e n e r a l , a n d h o w t h e c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e c y c l i n g , t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d m o v i n g
a r o u n d i n t h e c i t y . T h e v i e w o f t h e p l a n n e r s i n b o t h c i t i e s i s v e r y c l e a r . I n
C o p e n h a g e n a l l p l a n n e r s m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e f i r s t p r i o r i t y i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g
i s c y c l i n g , f o l l o w e d b y w a l k i n g , p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a n d t h e l e a s t p r i o r i t y g o e s t o
t h e m o t o r i z e d t r a f f i c . I n S t o c k h o l m i t i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . H e r e i t i s s a i d t h a t
a l l m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a r e e q u a l l y p r i o r i t i z e d . T h a t m e a n s t h a t a l l r o a d u s e r s
s h o u l d e x p e r i e n c e t h a t t h e y a r e p r i o r i t i z e d i n t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m .





1 5 8

1 5 9
T h e c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m , h o w e v e r , d o n o t f e e l p r i o r i t i z e d a n d t h e y h a v e m o r e
o r l e s s n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f c y c l i n g i n t h e c i t y , s o m e t h i n g I w i t n e s s e d a s w e l l
d u r i n g m y o b s e r v a t i o n s i n S t o c k h o l m . M o r e o v e r , t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e
p l a n n e r s i n S t o c k h o l m t h a t a l l m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a r e p r i o r i t i z e d i s i n i t s e l f
c o n t r a d i c t o r y , b e c a u s e i f a l l a r e p r i o r i t i z e d n o o n e i s o r s o m e a r e , b u t t h a t i s
n o t t h e o f f i c i a l v i e w o f t h e p l a n n e r s .
T h e f a c t t h a t c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n f e e l p r i o r i t i z e d a n d t h i n k t h a t p l a n n i n g
f o r c y c l i s t s i s g o o d r e f l e c t s t h e v i e w o f t h e p l a n n e r s i n t h e c i t y . T h i s i s a l s o m y
i m p r e s s i o n f r o m t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s I m a d e i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
p r i o r i t i z e s c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n , f o r e x a m p l e a t s o m e t r a f f i c l i g h t s , w h i c h
t u r n g r e e n f i r s t f o r c y c l i s t s a n d t h e n f o r m o t o r i z e d t r a f f i c . H o w e v e r , i t i s a l s o
c o n t r a d i c t o r y t h a t c y c l i s t s s t i l l s e e m o t o r i z e d t r a f f i c a s t h e m a i n p r o b l e m a n d
t h a t c a r o w n e r s h i p i s r i s i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n , a l t h o u g h t h e p l a n n e r s ( f o l l o w t h e
m o n e y ) d o n o t p r i o r i t i z e c a r t r a f f i c i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g .
I n b o t h c i t i e s m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c s t i l l h a s a h i g h s h a r e o f t h e m o d a l s p l i t ( s e e
T a b l e 2 ) a n d c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s f e e l t h a t m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c c r e a t e s m o s t
p r o b l e m s . M o r e o v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m a r e n o t m o r e c r i t i c a l
t o w a r d s t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s m i g h t a l s o d e p e n d o n
t h e s t e p s S t o c k h o l m h a s t a k e n d u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n C o p e n h a g e n , o n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , n o t a l l i s p e r f e c t . T h e p i c t u r e s b e l o w w i l l e x e m p l i f y h o w i t c a n a l s o
l o o k i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , a n d t h a t m i g h t a l s o i n f l u e n c e h o w
c y c l i s t s f e e l a b o u t t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o
c i t i e s .


159
The cyclists in Stockholm, however, do not feel prioritized and they have more
or less negative experience of cycling in the city, something I witnessed as well
during my observations in Stockholm. Moreover, the statements of the
planners in Stockholm that all modes of transport are prioritized is in itself
contradictory, because if all are prioritized no one is or some are, but that is
not the official view of the planners.
The fact that cyclists in Copenhagen feel prioritized and think that planning
for cyclists is good reflects the view of the planners in the city. This is also my
impression from the observations I made in Copenhagen. The infrastructure
prioritizes cyclists in Copenhagen, for example at some traffic lights, which
turn green first for cyclists and then for motorized traffic. However, it is also
contradictory that cyclists still see motorized traffic as the main problem and
that car ownership is rising in Copenhagen, although the planners (follow the
money) do not prioritize car traffic in transport planning.
In both cities motorised traffic still has a high share of the modal split (see
Table 2) and cyclists in both cities feel that motorised traffic creates most
problems. Moreover, the fact that cyclists in Stockholm are not more critical
towards the infrastructure and the planning for cyclists might also depend on
the steps Stockholm has taken during the last decade. In Copenhagen, on the
other hand, not all is perfect. The pictures below will exemplify how it can also
look in Copenhagen and Stockholm, and that might also influence how
cyclists feel about the infrastructure and the planning for cyclists in the two
cities.

1 5 9

160


Figure 11: Copenhagen
Source: Till Koglin


1 6 0


F i g u r e 1 1 : C o p e n h a g e n
S o u r c e : T i l l K o g l i n

1 6 0

1 6 1


F i g u r e 1 2 : S t o c k h o l m
S o u r c e : T i l l K o g l i n

T h i s s h o w s t h a t s i m p l e b e s t p r a c t i s e s t u d i e s a r e n o t e n o u g h . A s a s a y i n g i n
G e r m a n g o e s :
E s i s t n i c h t a l l e s G o l d w a s g l n z t ! ( E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n : A l l t h a t g l i t t e r s i s n o t
g o l d )
B y l o o k i n g a t t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s , t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d t h e
s u r v e y d a t a i t b e c o m e s m o r e e v i d e n t t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t C o p e n h a g e n h a s a m u c h
h i g h e r b i k e s h a r e i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t t h e n S t o c k h o l m d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e
d o m i n a n c e o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c o r t h e c o m p l e t e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s p e r f e c t , o r t h a t
a l l b i c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n S t o c k h o l m i s b a d . T h a t m e a n s t h a t a b r o a d e r
p i c t u r e i s r e v e a l e d t h a t s h o w s t h a t i t i s s i m p l y n o t e n o u g h , a s i t h a s b e e n d o n e

161


Figure 12: Stockholm
Source: Till Koglin

This shows that simple best practise studies are not enough. As a saying in
German goes:
Es ist nicht alles Gold was glnzt! (English translation: All that glitters is not
gold)
By looking at the empirical data from the interviews, the observations and the
survey data it becomes more evident that the fact that Copenhagen has a much
higher bike share in the modal split then Stockholm does not mean that the
dominance of motorised traffic or the complete infrastructure is perfect, or that
all bicycle infrastructure in Stockholm is bad. That means that a broader
picture is revealed that shows that it is simply not enough, as it has been done
1 6 1

162
in some best practise studies (e.g. Pucher and Buehler 2007 and 2008), to take
a look at some aspects of the bicycle infrastructure in Copenhagen and at the
modal split and state that Copenhagens transport system is sustainable and if
other cities would copy Copenhagen their transport system would be
sustainable, too. It is more difficult than that. Power relations in space in both
cities play their role, especially in the everyday struggles of cyclists who try to
get from A to B. It is in those struggles, where, according to the survey studies,
cyclists struggle with motorised traffic and here the connection can be made to
the space wars concept by Bauman (1998) introduced in Chapter 4. The
problems cyclists in both cities seem to face are motorised traffic, and the space
that is fought over seems to me of importance here. From my own observations
it seems that there is in general more space allocated to motorised traffic in
both Stockholm and Copenhagen and that leads to conflicts between
motorised traffic and bicycle traffic. Moreover, due to the fact that there are
many cyclists in Copenhagen, and also on certain tracks in Stockholm, the
fight over space happens also between cyclists. The space wars seem quite
eminent in both case cities, when analysing the survey data and comparing it to
my own observations. Furthermore, the pictures (see Figures 12 and 8) I took
in Copenhagen and Stockholm show that there seem to be conflicts in the
cities between motorised traffic and bicycle traffic, and it is those space wars
the cyclists have to fight when cycling through the urban spaces.
Those conflicts or space wars also stand in conflict with some ideas of the
planners and politicians. The interview studies have shown that in
Copenhagen, planners and politicians want to prioritise cyclists, and in
Stockholm they want to improve the conditions for all transport modes. That
should be reflected in the views of the cyclists in the two cities and to a certain
extent it is. However, the problems cyclists seem to face when biking through
the cities do not reflect the ideas of the planners. The space wars and the
difficulties connected to them are highly problematic and neither city seems to
have come to terms with those problems. That Stockholm is no bicycling city
became quite clear in the beginning of this research. That Copenhagens
cyclists, however, seem to experience similar problems, was a surprising result
to me. I think more detailed studies with interview studies and/or focus group
studies with cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm could contribute to an
even better understanding of the difficulties and the space wars connected to
the mobility of the cyclists in the two cities. However, when Bondam explains

1 6 2
i n s o m e b e s t p r a c t i s e s t u d i e s ( e . g . P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r 2 0 0 7 a n d 2 0 0 8 ) , t o t a k e
a l o o k a t s o m e a s p e c t s o f t h e b i c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d a t t h e
m o d a l s p l i t a n d s t a t e t h a t C o p e n h a g e n s t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m i s s u s t a i n a b l e a n d i f
o t h e r c i t i e s w o u l d c o p y C o p e n h a g e n t h e i r t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m w o u l d b e
s u s t a i n a b l e , t o o . I t i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t h a n t h a t . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n s p a c e i n b o t h
c i t i e s p l a y t h e i r r o l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e v e r y d a y s t r u g g l e s o f c y c l i s t s w h o t r y t o
g e t f r o m A t o B . I t i s i n t h o s e s t r u g g l e s , w h e r e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u r v e y s t u d i e s ,
c y c l i s t s s t r u g g l e w i t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d h e r e t h e c o n n e c t i o n c a n b e m a d e t o
t h e s p a c e w a r s c o n c e p t b y B a u m a n ( 1 9 9 8 ) i n t r o d u c e d i n C h a p t e r 4 . T h e
p r o b l e m s c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s s e e m t o f a c e a r e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , a n d t h e s p a c e
t h a t i s f o u g h t o v e r s e e m s t o m e o f i m p o r t a n c e h e r e . F r o m m y o w n o b s e r v a t i o n s
i t s e e m s t h a t t h e r e i s i n g e n e r a l m o r e s p a c e a l l o c a t e d t o m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n
b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a n d t h a t l e a d s t o c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d b i c y c l e t r a f f i c . M o r e o v e r , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e
m a n y c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n , a n d a l s o o n c e r t a i n t r a c k s i n S t o c k h o l m , t h e
f i g h t o v e r s p a c e h a p p e n s a l s o b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s . T h e s p a c e w a r s s e e m q u i t e
e m i n e n t i n b o t h c a s e c i t i e s , w h e n a n a l y s i n g t h e s u r v e y d a t a a n d c o m p a r i n g i t t o
m y o w n o b s e r v a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p i c t u r e s ( s e e F i g u r e s 1 2 a n d 8 ) I t o o k
i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m s h o w t h a t t h e r e s e e m t o b e c o n f l i c t s i n t h e
c i t i e s b e t w e e n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d b i c y c l e t r a f f i c , a n d i t i s t h o s e s p a c e w a r s
t h e c y c l i s t s h a v e t o f i g h t w h e n c y c l i n g t h r o u g h t h e u r b a n s p a c e s .
T h o s e c o n f l i c t s o r s p a c e w a r s a l s o s t a n d i n c o n f l i c t w i t h s o m e i d e a s o f t h e
p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s . T h e i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t i n
C o p e n h a g e n , p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s w a n t t o p r i o r i t i s e c y c l i s t s , a n d i n
S t o c k h o l m t h e y w a n t t o i m p r o v e t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r a l l t r a n s p o r t m o d e s . T h a t
s h o u l d b e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e v i e w s o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s a n d t o a c e r t a i n
e x t e n t i t i s . H o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m s c y c l i s t s s e e m t o f a c e w h e n b i k i n g t h r o u g h
t h e c i t i e s d o n o t r e f l e c t t h e i d e a s o f t h e p l a n n e r s . T h e s p a c e w a r s a n d t h e
d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e m a r e h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c a n d n e i t h e r c i t y s e e m s t o
h a v e c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h o s e p r o b l e m s . T h a t S t o c k h o l m i s n o b i c y c l i n g c i t y
b e c a m e q u i t e c l e a r i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s r e s e a r c h . T h a t C o p e n h a g e n s
c y c l i s t s , h o w e v e r , s e e m t o e x p e r i e n c e s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s , w a s a s u r p r i s i n g r e s u l t
t o m e . I t h i n k m o r e d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s w i t h i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s a n d / o r f o c u s g r o u p
s t u d i e s w i t h c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o a n
e v e n b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d t h e s p a c e w a r s c o n n e c t e d t o
t h e m o b i l i t y o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s . H o w e v e r , w h e n B o n d a m e x p l a i n s
1 6 2

1 6 3
t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s o f C o p e n h a g e n i t s e e m s t h a t t h e r e a r e
s i m i l a r i s s u e s a t p l a y a s i n S t o c k h o l m , m e a n i n g t h a t t h e c a r i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t .
H e s t a t e s :
T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t w a s t h e m o d e r n i s t i c u r b a n t h i n k i n g t h a t s t a n d s o r s t o o d a b o v e
a l l . T h i s v i e w i s a l s o p a r t o f o u r s o c i a l d e m o c r a t i c w e l f a r e m o d e l t h a t t h e w o r k e r
i s e n t i t l e d t o a c a r . F r e e d o m i s l a r g e r t h r o u g h t h e c a r . T h a t i s a n i d i o t i c o l d -
f a s h i o n e d t h o u g h t . B u t t h e b i k e w a s m o r e s e c o n d a r y . Y e s , y o u c y c l e a l o t a n d i t ' s
n i c e , b u t i n t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i t w a s s e c o n d a r y . A n d t h e r i g h t t o t h e c a r w a s m o r e
i m p o r t a n t . T h i s a l s o m e a n t t h a t t h e b i k e d i d n o t h a v e s u f f i c i e n t s p a c e i n p l a n n i n g
a n d p o l i c y . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t t h e s o c i a l d e m o c r a t i c w e l f a r e r e a s o n i n g w a s t h a t a l l
t h e m o b i l i t y s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e i n c a r s r a t h e r t h a n o n b i k e s . ( i n t e r v i e w B o n d a m )
I t s e e m s t h a t C o p e n h a g e n w a s g o i n g , o r w a n t e d t o g o , i n a s i m i l a r d i r e c t i o n a s
S t o c k h o l m . T h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e s u r v e y s t u d y i n C o p e n h a g e n s h o w t h a t t h i s
k i n d o f t h i n k i n g h a s h a d a n i m p a c t o n t h e u r b a n s p a c e t o d a y , a n d h a s c r e a t e d
u r b a n s p a c e w a r s a m o n g c y c l i s t s a n d c a r s a n d a l s o a m o n g t h e c y c l i s t s , s i n c e
t h e r e i s n o t e n o u g h s p a c e f o r t h e m . S t o c k h o l m , a s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , h a s a l s o
g o n e i n t h e c a r d i r e c t i o n , l e a v i n g f a r t o o l i t t l e s p a c e f o r c y c l i s t s a n d t h u s a l s o
c r e a t i n g u r b a n s p a c e w a r s . T h e u r b a n s p a c e i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t i s s u e h e r e , s i n c e
i t i s i n u r b a n s p a c e w h e r e t h e e v e r y d a y s t r u g g l e s o f m o v i n g i n t h e c i t i e s a r e
f o u g h t , a n d b y c r e a t i n g c e r t a i n s p a c e s c y c l i s t s a r e m a r g i n a l i s e d i n u r b a n s t r e e t
s p a c e , e v e n , a l t h o u g h t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m , i n a b i c y c l e f r i e n d l y
c i t y l i k e C o p e n h a g e n .


163
the transport planning and politics of Copenhagen it seems that there are
similar issues at play as in Stockholm, meaning that the car is very important.
He states:
The starting point was the modernistic urban thinking that stands or stood above
all. This view is also part of our social democratic welfare model that the worker
is entitled to a car. Freedom is larger through the car. That is an idiotic old-
fashioned thought. But the bike was more secondary. Yes, you cycle a lot and it's
nice, but in the considerations it was secondary. And the right to the car was more
important. This also meant that the bike did not have sufficient space in planning
and policy. The problem is that the social democratic welfare reasoning was that all
the mobility should take place in cars rather than on bikes. (interview Bondam)
It seems that Copenhagen was going, or wanted to go, in a similar direction as
Stockholm. The results from the survey study in Copenhagen show that this
kind of thinking has had an impact on the urban space today, and has created
urban space wars among cyclists and cars and also among the cyclists, since
there is not enough space for them. Stockholm, as mentioned before, has also
gone in the car direction, leaving far too little space for cyclists and thus also
creating urban space wars. The urban space is a very important issue here, since
it is in urban space where the everyday struggles of moving in the cities are
fought, and by creating certain spaces cyclists are marginalised in urban street
space, even, although to a lesser degree than in Stockholm, in a bicycle friendly
city like Copenhagen.

1 6 3

164
10 Conclusions
Vlomobility A critical analysis of planning and space is a doctoral thesis that
deals with the marginalisation of cycling in urban space and urban transport
systems. Urban cycling, transport planning, peoples mobility and urban space
are all interrelated, as has been shown in this thesis. I have used theories
concerning mobility, power relations and space in order to explain todays
dominance of motorised modes of transport and the marginalisation of cyclists
in urban spaces. This theoretical discussion was followed by empirical research
in Copenhagen, Denmark and Stockholm, Sweden, where interviews with
planners and politicians have been conducted and surveys of the residents of
the two cities have been analysed.
Moreover, I have described the important factors that contribute to the
development of todays transport infrastructure and the outcome of planning
for cyclists in many cities. Those factors are, among others, the development of
modernism and, with it, a way of performing transport planning that focused
and to a certain degree still focuses on motorised traffic. This is also connected
to the development of the Fordist production of cars. The influence of
economic, social and cultural aspects also contributes to the increased use of
motorised modes of transport and vice versa. In other words this dissertation
has been a research project on the political economy, the power relations and
the space of mobility and the marginalisation of cyclists in an urban context.
The mix of method developed a deep approach to the research question and
offered a broad range of answers to the complexity of the transport systems in
Stockholm and Copenhagen. The qualitative data allowed for broad and deep
analysis of the planning and political processes at work in both case cities.
Furthermore, it gave insights into the complex situations when it comes to
transport and urban planning and the historic, economic, cultural and political
factors that all influence transport planning and the outcome of political and
planning decisions.
From the quantitative data the view of the cyclists could be analysed with the
help of the Chi 2 and Mann-Whitney tests. This data gave generalizable

1 6 4
1 0 C o n c l u s i o n s
V l o m o b i l i t y A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e i s a d o c t o r a l t h e s i s t h a t
d e a l s w i t h t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i n g i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d u r b a n t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m s . U r b a n c y c l i n g , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , p e o p l e s m o b i l i t y a n d u r b a n s p a c e
a r e a l l i n t e r r e l a t e d , a s h a s b e e n s h o w n i n t h i s t h e s i s . I h a v e u s e d t h e o r i e s
c o n c e r n i n g m o b i l i t y , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s p a c e i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t o d a y s
d o m i n a n c e o f m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s
i n u r b a n s p a c e s . T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n w a s f o l l o w e d b y e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h
i n C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k a n d S t o c k h o l m , S w e d e n , w h e r e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h
p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d a n d s u r v e y s o f t h e r e s i d e n t s o f
t h e t w o c i t i e s h a v e b e e n a n a l y s e d .
M o r e o v e r , I h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g
f o r c y c l i s t s i n m a n y c i t i e s . T h o s e f a c t o r s a r e , a m o n g o t h e r s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
m o d e r n i s m a n d , w i t h i t , a w a y o f p e r f o r m i n g t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g t h a t f o c u s e d
a n d t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e s t i l l f o c u s e s o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h i s i s a l s o c o n n e c t e d
t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e F o r d i s t p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f
e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e o f
m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d v i c e v e r s a . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n
h a s b e e n a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t o n t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d
t h e s p a c e o f m o b i l i t y a n d t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n a n u r b a n c o n t e x t .
T h e m i x o f m e t h o d d e v e l o p e d a d e e p a p p r o a c h t o t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n a n d
o f f e r e d a b r o a d r a n g e o f a n s w e r s t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s i n
S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a a l l o w e d f o r b r o a d a n d d e e p
a n a l y s i s o f t h e p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s a t w o r k i n b o t h c a s e c i t i e s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , i t g a v e i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n s w h e n i t c o m e s t o
t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d t h e h i s t o r i c , e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l
f a c t o r s t h a t a l l i n f l u e n c e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f p o l i t i c a l a n d
p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s .
F r o m t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a t h e v i e w o f t h e c y c l i s t s c o u l d b e a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e
h e l p o f t h e C h i 2 a n d M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t s . T h i s d a t a g a v e g e n e r a l i z a b l e
1 6 4

1 6 5
i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d e x p e r i e n c e s o f p e o p l e w h o c y c l e i n S t o c k h o l m
a n d C o p e n h a g e n . A l s o , i t a l l o w e d a s t a t i s t i c a l c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e d a t a b e t w e e n
t h e t w o c i t i e s . B o t h m e t h o d s o f f e r e d v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f d a t a , b u t t h e
c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e v i e w s o f t h e c y c l i s t s a n d o f t h e p l a n n e r s i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m w a s v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . I t s h o w e d t h a t p l a n n e r s
m i g h t h a v e o n e v i e w o f h o w b i c y c l i n g o r t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s p e r c e i v e d , a n d
t h a t c y c l i s t s m i g h t e x p e r i e n c e i t q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y . T h e k n o w l e d g e f r o m a l l d a t a
c r e a t e d a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s i n b o t h c i t i e s w e r e
d e v e l o p e d , w h i c h f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e a n d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , a n d h o w c y c l i s t s s e e t h e s y s t e m a n d t h e p l a n n i n g . T h i s k i n d
o f k n o w l e d g e o f f e r s a n e w w a y o f a n a l y s i n g t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s a n d a d i f f e r e n t
w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y c e r t a i n c i t i e s h a v e m o r e c y c l i s t s o n t h e s t r e e t s t h a n
o t h e r s .
T h e i n c r e a s e d u s e o f m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t t o g e t h e r w i t h m o d e r n i s t
v i s i o n s o f t h e c i t y p a v e d t h e w a y t o w a r d s u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g p o l i c i e s
a n d p r a c t i s e s t h a t f a v o u r e d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d m a r g i n a l i s e d c y c l e t r a f f i c .
U n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f m o d e r n i s m , i n S w e d e n m a t e r i a l i s e d t h r o u g h S C A F T ,
a n d F o r d i s t c a r p r o d u c t i o n , u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s p r i o r i t i s e d m o t o r i s e d
t r a f f i c a n d d e s i g n e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s t h a t c r e a t e d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n f a v o u r o f
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . H o w e v e r , S C A F T w a s a g u i d e l i n e f o r i n c r e a s e d t r a f f i c s a f e t y .
T r a f f i c s a f e t y w a s a l s o i n c r e a s e d , b u t t h e s i d e e f f e c t s w e r e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f
c y c l i s t s a n d a c a r - o r i e n t e d s o c i e t y . W h e n t h a t h a p p e n e d , c y c l i s t s w e r e
m a r g i n a l i s e d a n d e x c l u d e d f r o m u r b a n s p a c e s i n m a n y c i t i e s . T h i s h a s b e e n
a n a l y s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n C h a p t e r 5 i n t h i s t h e s i s . T h e r e s e a r c h s h o w s h o w t h o s e
e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , a l t h o u g h o f t e n b u i l t m a n y d e c a d e s a g o , a r e v e r y h a r d
t o c h a n g e ( o r r e d e s i g n ) . F e w a t t e m p t s t o c h a n g e t h e m h a v e b e e n u n d e r t a k e n
b y u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s . I t i s i n t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h i s t h e
m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s , w h e r e t h e s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n b r i n g s
t o g e t h e r t h e s t r u g g l e o v e r s p a c e a n d t h e m o b i l i t y o f p e o p l e i n t h e c i t i e s . T h e
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n s p a c e i s a v e r y o b v i o u s e f f e c t o f t h o s e
s t r u g g l e s a n d f i g h t s f o r u r b a n s t r e e t s p a c e i n o t h e r w o r d s u r b a n s p a c e w a r s .
T h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s o f t h e p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s s h o w t h a t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e b u i l t
i n t o t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , t h a t c y c l i s t s a r e
m a r g i n a l i s e d i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s a r e c r e a t e d b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t r o a d
u s e r s .
T h e a n a l y s i s i n C h a p t e r 5 a l s o s h o w s t h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n
u r b a n s p a c e , a n d t h i s l e a d s t o f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n

165
insights into the situation and experiences of people who cycle in Stockholm
and Copenhagen. Also, it allowed a statistical comparison of the data between
the two cities. Both methods offered very different kinds of data, but the
comparison between the views of the cyclists and of the planners in
Copenhagen and Stockholm was very interesting. It showed that planners
might have one view of how bicycling or the infrastructure is perceived, and
that cyclists might experience it quite differently. The knowledge from all data
created a deeper understanding of how the transport systems in both cities were
developed, which factors influence and have influenced the planning and the
transport systems, and how cyclists see the system and the planning. This kind
of knowledge offers a new way of analysing transport systems and a different
way of understanding why certain cities have more cyclists on the streets than
others.
The increased use of motorised modes of transport together with modernist
visions of the city paved the way towards urban and transport planning policies
and practises that favoured motorised traffic and marginalised cycle traffic.
Under the influence of modernism, in Sweden materialised through SCAFT,
and Fordist car production, urban and transport planners prioritised motorised
traffic and designed infrastructures that created power relations in favour of
motorised traffic. However, SCAFT was a guideline for increased traffic safety.
Traffic safety was also increased, but the side effects were marginalisation of
cyclists and a car-oriented society. When that happened, cyclists were
marginalised and excluded from urban spaces in many cities. This has been
analysed particularly in Chapter 5 in this thesis. The research shows how those
existing infrastructures, although often built many decades ago, are very hard
to change (or redesign). Few attempts to change them have been undertaken
by urban and transport planners. It is in the infrastructure, which is the
materialisation of planning decisions, where the spatial dimension brings
together the struggle over space and the mobility of people in the cities. The
marginalisation of cyclists in urban space is a very obvious effect of those
struggles and fights for urban street space in other words urban space wars.
The materialities of the planning decisions show that power relations are built
into the infrastructure of todays transport systems, that cyclists are
marginalised in urban space and space wars are created between different road
users.
The analysis in Chapter 5 also shows the materialisation of power relations in
urban space, and this leads to further considerations of power relations in
1 6 5

166
connection with planning and traffic. Planners and decision makers often have
advantages in terms of knowledge that road users do not have, which according
to Foucault gives them more power (and the right to exercise it) (Foucault
1980). They decide what infrastructure should be built and how. Thus, the
decisions taken by planners and decision makers are connected to the power
relations in public spaces, and this is also highly connected to what Lefebvre
calls the production of space (Lefebvre 1991 [1974]). The actions, processes
and politics of planning have been analysed in Chapter 7, via the case studies
in Copenhagen and Stockholm. Through the interviews with planners and
politicians in the two cities, an understanding has developed about what factors
have influenced the planning and the politics of the transport systems in the
two cities. It has become clear throughout the analysis of the interviews, in
connection with the analysis of the materialisation of the marginalisation of
cycling in urban space, that there are power relations that are structured
around culture and economy. The emerging car culture and the economic
structures of the Fordist production system together created power relations
that are not easy to observe, but nevertheless influence peoples daily lives. The
lobbying campaigns and the marketing strategies of the automobile industry
affect not only consumers, but also decision makers and planners, which
deepens the power relations between different road users and between road
users and planners and decision makers.
The cyclists have had very little influence on planning in Stockholm and had a
larger impact on planning in Copenhagen. This became quite clear during the
analysis of the interviews in Chapter 7. An additional factor that has
contributed to the development of the transport systems in the two cities is the
organisation of the planning departments and administrations; the organisation
in Copenhagen is far more cooperative organised than in Stockholm and has
more planners working with bicycle planning. The data from the interviews
have shown that there is more cooperation between different planners in
Copenhagen than in Stockholm, and that bicycling is part of the planning
process right from the start, which is not the fact in Stockholm. This might
lead to the marginalisation of cycling, not only in the urban space, but also
within planning.
The politics of planning are also different between Copenhagen and
Stockholm. As described in Chapter 7, the inhabitants of Copenhagen took the
issue of cycling to the streets and protested in the 1970s for better bicycling
infrastructure. Those protests ultimately resulted in a shift in politics towards

1 6 6
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p l a n n i n g a n d t r a f f i c . P l a n n e r s a n d d e c i s i o n m a k e r s o f t e n h a v e
a d v a n t a g e s i n t e r m s o f k n o w l e d g e t h a t r o a d u s e r s d o n o t h a v e , w h i c h a c c o r d i n g
t o F o u c a u l t g i v e s t h e m m o r e p o w e r ( a n d t h e r i g h t t o e x e r c i s e i t ) ( F o u c a u l t
1 9 8 0 ) . T h e y d e c i d e w h a t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e b u i l t a n d h o w . T h u s , t h e
d e c i s i o n s t a k e n b y p l a n n e r s a n d d e c i s i o n m a k e r s a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s i n p u b l i c s p a c e s , a n d t h i s i s a l s o h i g h l y c o n n e c t e d t o w h a t L e f e b v r e
c a l l s t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e ( L e f e b v r e 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) . T h e a c t i o n s , p r o c e s s e s
a n d p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g h a v e b e e n a n a l y s e d i n C h a p t e r 7 , v i a t h e c a s e s t u d i e s
i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d
p o l i t i c i a n s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s , a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s d e v e l o p e d a b o u t w h a t f a c t o r s
h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s i n t h e
t w o c i t i e s . I t h a s b e c o m e c l e a r t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s , i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f
c y c l i n g i n u r b a n s p a c e , t h a t t h e r e a r e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t a r e s t r u c t u r e d
a r o u n d c u l t u r e a n d e c o n o m y . T h e e m e r g i n g c a r c u l t u r e a n d t h e e c o n o m i c
s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e F o r d i s t p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m t o g e t h e r c r e a t e d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s
t h a t a r e n o t e a s y t o o b s e r v e , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s i n f l u e n c e p e o p l e s d a i l y l i v e s . T h e
l o b b y i n g c a m p a i g n s a n d t h e m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e i n d u s t r y
a f f e c t n o t o n l y c o n s u m e r s , b u t a l s o d e c i s i o n m a k e r s a n d p l a n n e r s , w h i c h
d e e p e n s t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t r o a d u s e r s a n d b e t w e e n r o a d
u s e r s a n d p l a n n e r s a n d d e c i s i o n m a k e r s .
T h e c y c l i s t s h a v e h a d v e r y l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e o n p l a n n i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d h a d a
l a r g e r i m p a c t o n p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s b e c a m e q u i t e c l e a r d u r i n g t h e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s i n C h a p t e r 7 . A n a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r t h a t h a s
c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s i n t h e t w o c i t i e s i s t h e
o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s ; t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n
i n C o p e n h a g e n i s f a r m o r e c o o p e r a t i v e o r g a n i s e d t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m a n d h a s
m o r e p l a n n e r s w o r k i n g w i t h b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g . T h e d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s
h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e r e i s m o r e c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t p l a n n e r s i n
C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i n S t o c k h o l m , a n d t h a t b i c y c l i n g i s p a r t o f t h e p l a n n i n g
p r o c e s s r i g h t f r o m t h e s t a r t , w h i c h i s n o t t h e f a c t i n S t o c k h o l m . T h i s m i g h t
l e a d t o t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i n g , n o t o n l y i n t h e u r b a n s p a c e , b u t a l s o
w i t h i n p l a n n i n g .
T h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n t b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m . A s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 7 , t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f C o p e n h a g e n t o o k t h e
i s s u e o f c y c l i n g t o t h e s t r e e t s a n d p r o t e s t e d i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s f o r b e t t e r b i c y c l i n g
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h o s e p r o t e s t s u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t e d i n a s h i f t i n p o l i t i c s t o w a r d s
1 6 6

1 6 7
b e t t e r c y c l i n g c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s d i d n o t o c c u r i n S t o c k h o l m , a n d t h e f o c u s o f
t h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g r e m a i n e d o n m o t o r i s e d a n d p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t . F i r s t w i t h
t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y a n d i t s p o l i c i e s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s d i d c y c l i n g b e c o m e a n
i s s u e o n t h e p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a , m u c h b e c a u s e o f t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y p o l i t i c i a n ,
S t e l l a F a r e . H e r p o l i c i e s a n d t h o s e o f t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y h a v e l e d t o a f o c u s
o n c y c l i n g a l s o i n S t o c k h o l m . T h a t s h o w s t h a t p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s a r e v e r y
i m p o r t a n t f o r d e a l i n g w i t h a c h a n g e o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m a n d p e o p l e s
m o b i l i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h i s s h o w s a l s o t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s o f u r b a n s p a c e c a n
b e c h a n g e d , a t l e a s t t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , b y p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s .
H o w e v e r , u r b a n s p a c e i s n o t a l w a y s p e r c e i v e d a s i t f i r s t a p p e a r s . T h r o u g h t h e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y d a t a ( s e e C h a p t e r 8 ) f r o m C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m i t
c a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t n e i t h e r c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m n o r i n C o p e n h a g e n a r e
p e r f e c t l y h a p p y w i t h t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , p o l i c i e s a n d p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s .
C y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a r e i n g e n e r a l m o r e s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n t h a n
c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m . B u t w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i m a g e C o p e n h a g e n h a s b u i l t
a s a c y c l i n g c i t y , i t i s q u i t e s u r p r i s i n g t h a t c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a r e n o t m o r e
s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n . T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y d a t a s h o w s t h a t c y c l i s t s
b o t h i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m p e r c e i v e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a s t h e m o d e o f
t r a n s p o r t t h a t c r e a t e s t h e m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r t h e m . O t h e r c y c l i s t s f o l l o w
m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h o s e r e s u l t s s h o w t h a t c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c
a n d o t h e r c y c l i s t s a s p r o b l e m a t i c . F u r t h e r , t h e r e s u l t s l e a d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n
t h a t c y c l i s t s h a v e t o f i g h t f o r t h e s t r e e t s p a c e i n b o t h c i t i e s . T h e s t r u g g l e s c a n b e
d e s c r i b e d a s u r b a n s p a c e w a r s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d
b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s . U r b a n s p a c e i s t h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , a n d
s h o w s h o w c y c l i s t s a r e m a r g i n a l i s e d i n b o t h C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m ,
a l t h o u g h t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e i n C o p e n h a g e n . D u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y p e o p l e i n
C o p e n h a g e n u s e a b i c y c l e a s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t a n d t h a t c e r t a i n r o u t e s i n
S t o c k h o l m h a v e h i g h f l o w s o f c y c l i s t s , t h e l a c k o f s p a c e f o r c y c l i s t s a l s o l e a d s t o
a f i g h t o v e r s p a c e b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s . T h u s , t h e u r b a n m a t e r i a l i t i e s a n d t h e u r b a n
s p a c e , w h i c h h a v e b e e n f a v o u r i n g t h e m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c , c r e a t e u r b a n s p a c e w a r s
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u r v e y
d a t a , p e o p l e b i k e m o r e , a n d l o n g e r d i s t a n c e s , i n C o p e n h a g e n c o m p a r e d t o
p e o p l e i n S t o c k h o l m , a n d c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n a r e m o r e s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m a n d t h e p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s t h a n a r e c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m .
T h i s i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e b e t t e r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n , a n d
o f t h e f a c t t h a t C o p e n h a g e n i n g e n e r a l h a s a m o r e a d v a n c e d c y c l i n g c u l t u r e
t h a n S t o c k h o l m .

167
better cycling conditions. This did not occur in Stockholm, and the focus of
the politics of planning remained on motorised and public transport. First with
the Stockholm Party and its policies in the late 1990s did cycling become an
issue on the political agenda, much because of the Stockholm Party politician,
Stella Fare. Her policies and those of the Stockholm Party have led to a focus
on cycling also in Stockholm. That shows that political decisions are very
important for dealing with a change of the transport system and peoples
mobility. Furthermore, this shows also that the materialities of urban space can
be changed, at least to a certain degree, by political actions.
However, urban space is not always perceived as it first appears. Through the
analysis of the survey data (see Chapter 8) from Copenhagen and Stockholm it
can be concluded that neither cyclists in Stockholm nor in Copenhagen are
perfectly happy with the infrastructure, policies and planning for cyclists.
Cyclists in Copenhagen are in general more satisfied with the situation than
cyclists in Stockholm. But when considering the image Copenhagen has built
as a cycling city, it is quite surprising that cyclists in Copenhagen are not more
satisfied with the situation. The analysis of the survey data shows that cyclists
both in Copenhagen and Stockholm perceive motorised traffic as the mode of
transport that creates the most problems for them. Other cyclists follow
motorised traffic. Those results show that cyclists experience motorised traffic
and other cyclists as problematic. Further, the results lead to the conclusion
that cyclists have to fight for the street space in both cities. The struggles can be
described as urban space wars between cyclists and motorised traffic and
between cyclists. Urban space is the materialisation of power relations, and
shows how cyclists are marginalised in both Copenhagen and Stockholm,
although to a lesser degree in Copenhagen. Due to the fact that many people in
Copenhagen use a bicycle as a mode of transport and that certain routes in
Stockholm have high flows of cyclists, the lack of space for cyclists also leads to
a fight over space between cyclists. Thus, the urban materialities and the urban
space, which have been favouring the motorised traffic, create urban space wars
between different modes of transport. Nevertheless, according to the survey
data, people bike more, and longer distances, in Copenhagen compared to
people in Stockholm, and cyclists in Copenhagen are more satisfied with the
transport system and the planning for cyclists than are cyclists in Stockholm.
This is a reflection of the better infrastructure for cycling in Copenhagen, and
of the fact that Copenhagen in general has a more advanced cycling culture
than Stockholm.
1 6 7

168
It can, thus, be concluded that space and the materialities of the cities create a
self-generating structure, depending on how space and the materialities are
perceived and experienced. If there is focus in planning on public transport this
infrastructure is supported, which, in the case of Stockholm, leads to a higher
share of public transport in the modal split. On the other hand, if a city, like
Copenhagen, focuses on cycling the modal split for cycling is higher than in
cities that do not focus on biking. Space influences the mobility of people and
hence also the social relations in cities, which is one important aspect when
considering the complexity of the transport system.
Lastly, I would like to conclude that the transport system and the infrastructure
in Copenhagen is more in favour of cycling than it is in Stockholm, which also
is reflected in the modal split (see Chapter 6). However, cyclists do experience
difficulties in both cities and the share of the modal split for trips by car is very
high in both Stockholm and Copenhagen. Therefore, neither city has a
sustainable transport system, and both cities have inbuilt power relations in the
system, which are materialised in space and through urban space wars. The
power relations at play are sometimes hard to observe and are influenced, as
shown in this research, by many different aspects. The high share in the modal
split in both cities for car trips, the influence of SCAFT and similar
modernistic planning ideals are connected to the social welfare system in both
Denmark and Sweden. Both, as can be seen in the SCAFT guidelines and the
million program in Sweden, as explained in chapter 5, and the right to the car,
as Bondam sees it (interview Bondam) is one important factor explaining that
the car is still as dominant as it is in both Copenhagen and Stockholm. Here
the connection to the third dimension of power (Lukes 2005) is essential.
Those influences are hard to observe, but in the political and planning
decisions they are still very influential, which makes it hard to change the
system towards a sustainable transport system. I hope this research has
contributed to a broader view of the processes that have led to the transport
systems in Copenhagen and Stockholm, and of the aspects that influence
vlomobility in urban space. Space, power and mobility are connected, and in
order to create a more sustainable transport system those aspects have to be
analysed and visualised. Many cities around the globe try to create a sustainable
transport system. However, in order to create a more just and sustainable
future and a better urban life the transport systems have to change
dramatically. Social, economic and cultural aspects are part of the systems and
one needs to develop an understanding of those matters and the structures that

1 6 8
I t c a n , t h u s , b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t s p a c e a n d t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s o f t h e c i t i e s c r e a t e a
s e l f - g e n e r a t i n g s t r u c t u r e , d e p e n d i n g o n h o w s p a c e a n d t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s a r e
p e r c e i v e d a n d e x p e r i e n c e d . I f t h e r e i s f o c u s i n p l a n n i n g o n p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t t h i s
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s s u p p o r t e d , w h i c h , i n t h e c a s e o f S t o c k h o l m , l e a d s t o a h i g h e r
s h a r e o f p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f a c i t y , l i k e
C o p e n h a g e n , f o c u s e s o n c y c l i n g t h e m o d a l s p l i t f o r c y c l i n g i s h i g h e r t h a n i n
c i t i e s t h a t d o n o t f o c u s o n b i k i n g . S p a c e i n f l u e n c e s t h e m o b i l i t y o f p e o p l e a n d
h e n c e a l s o t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n c i t i e s , w h i c h i s o n e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t w h e n
c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m .
L a s t l y , I w o u l d l i k e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m a n d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
i n C o p e n h a g e n i s m o r e i n f a v o u r o f c y c l i n g t h a n i t i s i n S t o c k h o l m , w h i c h a l s o
i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t ( s e e C h a p t e r 6 ) . H o w e v e r , c y c l i s t s d o e x p e r i e n c e
d i f f i c u l t i e s i n b o t h c i t i e s a n d t h e s h a r e o f t h e m o d a l s p l i t f o r t r i p s b y c a r i s v e r y
h i g h i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e r e f o r e , n e i t h e r c i t y h a s a
s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , a n d b o t h c i t i e s h a v e i n b u i l t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e
s y s t e m , w h i c h a r e m a t e r i a l i s e d i n s p a c e a n d t h r o u g h u r b a n s p a c e w a r s . T h e
p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a t p l a y a r e s o m e t i m e s h a r d t o o b s e r v e a n d a r e i n f l u e n c e d , a s
s h o w n i n t h i s r e s e a r c h , b y m a n y d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s . T h e h i g h s h a r e i n t h e m o d a l
s p l i t i n b o t h c i t i e s f o r c a r t r i p s , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f S C A F T a n d s i m i l a r
m o d e r n i s t i c p l a n n i n g i d e a l s a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e s o c i a l w e l f a r e s y s t e m i n b o t h
D e n m a r k a n d S w e d e n . B o t h , a s c a n b e s e e n i n t h e S C A F T g u i d e l i n e s a n d t h e
m i l l i o n p r o g r a m i n S w e d e n , a s e x p l a i n e d i n c h a p t e r 5 , a n d t h e r i g h t t o t h e c a r ,
a s B o n d a m s e e s i t ( i n t e r v i e w B o n d a m ) i s o n e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r e x p l a i n i n g t h a t
t h e c a r i s s t i l l a s d o m i n a n t a s i t i s i n b o t h C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . H e r e
t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r ( L u k e s 2 0 0 5 ) i s e s s e n t i a l .
T h o s e i n f l u e n c e s a r e h a r d t o o b s e r v e , b u t i n t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d p l a n n i n g
d e c i s i o n s t h e y a r e s t i l l v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l , w h i c h m a k e s i t h a r d t o c h a n g e t h e
s y s t e m t o w a r d s a s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m . I h o p e t h i s r e s e a r c h h a s
c o n t r i b u t e d t o a b r o a d e r v i e w o f t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t h a v e l e d t o t h e t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m s i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , a n d o f t h e a s p e c t s t h a t i n f l u e n c e
v l o m o b i l i t y i n u r b a n s p a c e . S p a c e , p o w e r a n d m o b i l i t y a r e c o n n e c t e d , a n d i n
o r d e r t o c r e a t e a m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m t h o s e a s p e c t s h a v e t o b e
a n a l y s e d a n d v i s u a l i s e d . M a n y c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e g l o b e t r y t o c r e a t e a s u s t a i n a b l e
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m . H o w e v e r , i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a m o r e j u s t a n d s u s t a i n a b l e
f u t u r e a n d a b e t t e r u r b a n l i f e t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s h a v e t o c h a n g e
d r a m a t i c a l l y . S o c i a l , e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s a r e p a r t o f t h e s y s t e m s a n d
o n e n e e d s t o d e v e l o p a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h o s e m a t t e r s a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t
1 6 8

1 6 9
e f f e c t p l a n n i n g , p o l i t i c s a n d p e o p l e s m o b i l i t y . T h u s , r e s e a r c h o n s u c h t o p i c s i n
o t h e r c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s a n d d i f f e r e n t c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d m i g h t i l l u m i n a t e
t h e p r o b l e m s o f d e v e l o p i n g s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s .


169
effect planning, politics and peoples mobility. Thus, research on such topics in
other cultural settings and different cities around the world might illuminate
the problems of developing sustainable transport systems.

1 6 9

170
Epilogue Changes in two cities
Since the research conducted for this doctoral thesis, much has happened in
both Copenhagen and Stockholm, as in many other cities around the world.
During the last stages of writing this thesis I became increasingly aware that
cities see cycling as a way of reduce their environmental impact. The same can
be said for Stockholm, which has invested more and more in bicycle
infrastructure; since the end of the 1990s the opinion in the media and among
the planners and the politicians has changed quite a lot. The media went from
being very negative towards almost all bicycle infrastructure investments in the
late 1990s and early 2000s to being very positive about such investments. It
seems also that the planners have changed their view on cycling and urban
transport. New bicycle plans have been developed and partly implemented.
However, Stockholm still has a long way to go if the city wants to fully
embrace urban cycling and create a good environment for cyclists. Moreover,
the investment in the infrastructure for motorised traffic is still very high, and
the new ring road (Frbifart Stockholm) is not an investment that creates a
sustainable urban transport system. Still, bicycle traffic is rising in Stockholm
and the shift of opinion in the media and among politicians has led to an
improvement of the bicycle infrastructure, even though many problems,
especially with connectivity, remain. However, the new strategy for improving
the level of service for cyclists and the money allocated to cycling in the 2012
budget give hope that changes will happen. Furthermore, the city of
Stockholm invests in the existing subway system and plans to invest and build
a tram system. It seems that Stockholm wants to continue developing public
transport and at the same time try to improve the situation and infrastructure
for cyclists.
Also in Copenhagen things have happened since the research for this thesis was
carried out. One example is the national strategy of the Danish Government
on cycling (Sick Nielsen et al. 2013). One so-called super-highway for cycling
was opened on the 20
th
of April 2013. This highway will connect the city of
Copenhagen with other municipalities in the region, in order to increase

1 7 0
E p i l o g u e C h a n g e s i n t w o c i t i e s
S i n c e t h e r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d f o r t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s , m u c h h a s h a p p e n e d i n
b o t h C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m , a s i n m a n y o t h e r c i t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d .
D u r i n g t h e l a s t s t a g e s o f w r i t i n g t h i s t h e s i s I b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a w a r e t h a t
c i t i e s s e e c y c l i n g a s a w a y o f r e d u c e t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t . T h e s a m e c a n
b e s a i d f o r S t o c k h o l m , w h i c h h a s i n v e s t e d m o r e a n d m o r e i n b i c y c l e
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ; s i n c e t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s t h e o p i n i o n i n t h e m e d i a a n d a m o n g
t h e p l a n n e r s a n d t h e p o l i t i c i a n s h a s c h a n g e d q u i t e a l o t . T h e m e d i a w e n t f r o m
b e i n g v e r y n e g a t i v e t o w a r d s a l m o s t a l l b i c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n v e s t m e n t s i n t h e
l a t e 1 9 9 0 s a n d e a r l y 2 0 0 0 s t o b e i n g v e r y p o s i t i v e a b o u t s u c h i n v e s t m e n t s . I t
s e e m s a l s o t h a t t h e p l a n n e r s h a v e c h a n g e d t h e i r v i e w o n c y c l i n g a n d u r b a n
t r a n s p o r t . N e w b i c y c l e p l a n s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d p a r t l y i m p l e m e n t e d .
H o w e v e r , S t o c k h o l m s t i l l h a s a l o n g w a y t o g o i f t h e c i t y w a n t s t o f u l l y
e m b r a c e u r b a n c y c l i n g a n d c r e a t e a g o o d e n v i r o n m e n t f o r c y c l i s t s . M o r e o v e r ,
t h e i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i s s t i l l v e r y h i g h , a n d
t h e n e w r i n g r o a d ( F r b i f a r t S t o c k h o l m ) i s n o t a n i n v e s t m e n t t h a t c r e a t e s a
s u s t a i n a b l e u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m . S t i l l , b i c y c l e t r a f f i c i s r i s i n g i n S t o c k h o l m
a n d t h e s h i f t o f o p i n i o n i n t h e m e d i a a n d a m o n g p o l i t i c i a n s h a s l e d t o a n
i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e b i c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , e v e n t h o u g h m a n y p r o b l e m s ,
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h c o n n e c t i v i t y , r e m a i n . H o w e v e r , t h e n e w s t r a t e g y f o r i m p r o v i n g
t h e l e v e l o f s e r v i c e f o r c y c l i s t s a n d t h e m o n e y a l l o c a t e d t o c y c l i n g i n t h e 2 0 1 2
b u d g e t g i v e h o p e t h a t c h a n g e s w i l l h a p p e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c i t y o f
S t o c k h o l m i n v e s t s i n t h e e x i s t i n g s u b w a y s y s t e m a n d p l a n s t o i n v e s t a n d b u i l d
a t r a m s y s t e m . I t s e e m s t h a t S t o c k h o l m w a n t s t o c o n t i n u e d e v e l o p i n g p u b l i c
t r a n s p o r t a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t r y t o i m p r o v e t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
f o r c y c l i s t s .
A l s o i n C o p e n h a g e n t h i n g s h a v e h a p p e n e d s i n c e t h e r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s t h e s i s w a s
c a r r i e d o u t . O n e e x a m p l e i s t h e n a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y o f t h e D a n i s h G o v e r n m e n t
o n c y c l i n g ( S i c k N i e l s e n e t a l . 2 0 1 3 ) . O n e s o - c a l l e d s u p e r - h i g h w a y f o r c y c l i n g
w a s o p e n e d o n t h e 2 0
t h
o f A p r i l 2 0 1 3 . T h i s h i g h w a y w i l l c o n n e c t t h e c i t y o f
C o p e n h a g e n w i t h o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n , i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e
1 7 0

1 7 1
b i c y c l i n g b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g m u n i c i p a l i t i e s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , c a r o w n e r s h i p i s r i s i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n , a n d t r i p s w i t h b i k e s a r e
n o t r e a l l y i n c r e a s i n g a s p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s w o u l d l i k e . S i n c e t h e p e o p l e o f
C o p e n h a g e n h a v e b e c o m e r i c h e r t h e c a r s e e m s t o b e a s y m b o l o f f r e e d o m a n d
p r o s p e r i t y . I t s e e m s t h a t t h e c y c l e o f m o t o r d o m i n a t i o n h a s n o t b e e n b r o k e n i n
C o p e n h a g e n , a l t h o u g h c y c l i n g s t i l l i s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m e a n s o f
t r a n s p o r t i n t h e c i t y . M o r e o v e r , d u r i n g r e c e n t y e a r s C o p e n h a g e n h a s i n v e s t e d
i n a M e t r o s y s t e m , w h i c h h a s b e e n i n o p e r a t i o n f o r s o m e y e a r s n o w . T h e c i t y
o f C o p e n h a g e n s t i l l b u i l d s o n t h e M e t r o a n d m o r e s t a t i o n s w i l l o p e n i n t h e
n e x t f e w y e a r s . T h e s e a r e s o m e o f t h e i n v e s t m e n t s S t o c k h o l m m a d e a f t e r
W o r l d W a r I I ( e . g . b u i l d a s u b w a y s y s t e m ) a n d C o p e n h a g e n c o u l d n o t d o d u e
t o t h e l a c k o f f i n a n c i a l m e a n s .
O v e r a l l , c h a n g e s a r e h a p p e n i n g i n b o t h C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m .
H o w e v e r , t r e n d s i n a n d t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a r e n o t r e a l l y
b r o k e n . S t e p s a r e t a k e n i n b o t h c i t i e s i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a b e t t e r s y s t e m f o r
c y c l i s t s a n d a b e t t e r p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m . T h e f u t u r e w i l l s h o w i f t h o s e s t e p s
a r e e n o u g h t o s t o p t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d
S t o c k h o l m a n d c r e a t e a s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m .


171
bicycling between Copenhagen and the surrounding municipalities.
Nevertheless, car ownership is rising in Copenhagen, and trips with bikes are
not really increasing as planners and politicians would like. Since the people of
Copenhagen have become richer the car seems to be a symbol of freedom and
prosperity. It seems that the cycle of motor domination has not been broken in
Copenhagen, although cycling still is one of the most important means of
transport in the city. Moreover, during recent years Copenhagen has invested
in a Metro system, which has been in operation for some years now. The city
of Copenhagen still builds on the Metro and more stations will open in the
next few years. These are some of the investments Stockholm made after
World War II (e.g. build a subway system) and Copenhagen could not do due
to the lack of financial means.
Overall, changes are happening in both Copenhagen and Stockholm.
However, trends in and the domination of motorised traffic are not really
broken. Steps are taken in both cities in order to create a better system for
cyclists and a better public transport system. The future will show if those steps
are enough to stop the domination of motorised traffic in Copenhagen and
Stockholm and create a sustainable transport system.

1 7 1

172
References
Adey, P. (2008) Aeromobilities: Geographies, Subject and Vision, Geography
Compass, Vol. 2, pp. 1318-1336
Agresti, A. and Finlay, B. (2009) Statistical Methods for the social sciences.
Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey
Aldred, R. (2010) On the outside: constructing cycling citizenship, Social
and Cultural Geography, Vol. 11, pp. 35-52
Aldred, R. (2012) Governing transport from welfare state to hollow state: The
case of cycling in the UK, Transport Policy, Vol. 23, pp. 95-102
Allen, J. (2003) Lost Geographies of Power. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford
Allen, J. (2006) Ambient Power: Berlins Potsdamer Platz and the Seductive
Logic of Public Spaces, Urban Studies, Vol. 43, pp 441-455
Alrutz, D., Angenendt, W. and Gndel, D. (2002) Verkehrssicherheit in
Einbahnstraen mit gegengerichtetem Radverkehr. Straenverkehrstechnik Vol.
6, pp. 1-16
Alvesson, M. and Skldberg, K. (2008) Tolkning och Reflektion
Vetenskapsfilosofi och Kvalitativ Metod. Studentlitteratur, Lund
Andersen, L. B., Schnohr, P., Schroll, M., Heoin, H. O. (2000) All-cause
Mortality Associated with Physical Activity During Leisure time, Work, Sports
and Cycling to work, Archives of Internal Medicine, Vol. 160, pp. 1621-1628
Arvastson, G. and Ehn, B. (2009) Observationens dynamik. In Arvastson and
Ehn (eds.) Etnografiska observationer. Studentlitteratur, Lund
Aug, M. (1995) Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity.
Verso, New York

1 7 2
R e f e r e n c e s
A d e y , P . ( 2 0 0 8 ) A e r o m o b i l i t i e s : G e o g r a p h i e s , S u b j e c t a n d V i s i o n , G e o g r a p h y
C o m p a s s , V o l . 2 , p p . 1 3 1 8 - 1 3 3 6
A g r e s t i , A . a n d F i n l a y , B . ( 2 0 0 9 ) S t a t i s t i c a l M e t h o d s f o r t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s .
P r e n t i c e H a l l I n c . , N e w J e r s e y
A l d r e d , R . ( 2 0 1 0 ) O n t h e o u t s i d e : c o n s t r u c t i n g c y c l i n g c i t i z e n s h i p , S o c i a l
a n d C u l t u r a l G e o g r a p h y , V o l . 1 1 , p p . 3 5 - 5 2
A l d r e d , R . ( 2 0 1 2 ) G o v e r n i n g t r a n s p o r t f r o m w e l f a r e s t a t e t o h o l l o w s t a t e : T h e
c a s e o f c y c l i n g i n t h e U K , T r a n s p o r t P o l i c y , V o l . 2 3 , p p . 9 5 - 1 0 2
A l l e n , J . ( 2 0 0 3 ) L o s t G e o g r a p h i e s o f P o w e r . B l a c k w e l l P u b l i s h i n g , O x f o r d
A l l e n , J . ( 2 0 0 6 ) A m b i e n t P o w e r : B e r l i n s P o t s d a m e r P l a t z a n d t h e S e d u c t i v e
L o g i c o f P u b l i c S p a c e s , U r b a n S t u d i e s , V o l . 4 3 , p p 4 4 1 - 4 5 5
A l r u t z , D . , A n g e n e n d t , W . a n d G n d e l , D . ( 2 0 0 2 ) V e r k e h r s s i c h e r h e i t i n
E i n b a h n s t r a e n m i t g e g e n g e r i c h t e t e m R a d v e r k e h r . S t r a e n v e r k e h r s t e c h n i k V o l .
6 , p p . 1 - 1 6
A l v e s s o n , M . a n d S k l d b e r g , K . ( 2 0 0 8 ) T o l k n i n g o c h R e f l e k t i o n
V e t e n s k a p s f i l o s o f i o c h K v a l i t a t i v M e t o d . S t u d e n t l i t t e r a t u r , L u n d
A n d e r s e n , L . B . , S c h n o h r , P . , S c h r o l l , M . , H e o i n , H . O . ( 2 0 0 0 ) A l l - c a u s e
M o r t a l i t y A s s o c i a t e d w i t h P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y D u r i n g L e i s u r e t i m e , W o r k , S p o r t s
a n d C y c l i n g t o w o r k , A r c h i v e s o f I n t e r n a l M e d i c i n e , V o l . 1 6 0 , p p . 1 6 2 1 - 1 6 2 8
A r v a s t s o n , G . a n d E h n , B . ( 2 0 0 9 ) O b s e r v a t i o n e n s d y n a m i k . I n A r v a s t s o n a n d
E h n ( e d s . ) E t n o g r a f i s k a o b s e r v a t i o n e r . S t u d e n t l i t t e r a t u r , L u n d
A u g , M . ( 1 9 9 5 ) N o n - P l a c e s : I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n A n t h r o p o l o g y o f S u p e r m o d e r n i t y .
V e r s o , N e w Y o r k
1 7 2

1 7 3
B a e , C . H . C . ( 2 0 0 4 ) T r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d t h e E n v i r o n m e n t . I n H a n s o n a n d
G i u l i a n o ( e d s . ) T h e G e o g r a p h y o r U r b a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . T h e G u i l f o r d P r e s s ,
N e w Y o r k
B a i l e y , K . D . ( 1 9 8 7 ) M e t h o d s o f S o c i a l R e s e a r c h . T h e F r e e P r e s s , N e w Y o r k
B a n i s t e r , D . ( 2 0 0 5 ) U n s u s t a i n a b l e T r a n s p o r t C i t y t r a n s p o r t i n t h e n e w c e n t u r y .
R o u t l e d g e , L o n d o n
B a n i s t e r , D . ( 2 0 0 6 ) C i t y F u t u r e T r a n s p o r t . K e y n o t e p a p e r f o r T r a n s p o r t
P l a n n i n g A D e s i g n C h a l l e n g e ? C o n f e r e n c e o r g a n i s e d b y A M I D S T a t t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f A m s t e r d a m , A m s t e r d a m 1 4 - 1 6 J u n e 2 0 0 6
B a n i s t e r , D . ( 2 0 0 8 ) T h e s u s t a i n a b l e m o b i l i t y p a r a d i g m , T r a n s p o r t P o l i c y , V o l .
1 5 , p p . 7 3 - 8 0
B a n i s t e r , D . a n d H i c k m a n , R . ( 2 0 0 6 ) H o w t o d e s i g n a m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e a n d
f a i r e r b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n t : t r a n s p o r t a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , I E E P r o c . I n t e l l .
T r a n s p . S y s t . , V o l . 1 5 3 , p p . 2 7 6 - 2 9 1
B a e t e n , G . ( 2 0 0 0 ) T h e T r a g e d y o f t h e H i g h w a y : E m p o w e r m e n t ,
D i s e m p o w e r m e n t a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f S u s t a i n a b i l i t y D i s c o u r s e s a n d P r a c t i c e s ,
E u r o p e a n P l a n n i n g S t u d i e s , V o l . 8 , p p . 6 9 - 8 6
B a u m a n , Z . ( 1 9 9 8 ) G l o b a l i z a t i o n t h e h u m a n c o n s e q u e n c e s . P o l i t y P r e s s ,
C a m b r i d g e
B e c k m a n n , J . ( 2 0 0 1 ) A u t o m o b i l i t y a s o c i a l p r o b l e m a n d t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t ,
E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g D : S o c i e t y a n d S p a c e , V o l . 1 9 , p p . 5 9 3 - 6 0 7
B e c k m a n , E . a n d L i n u s s o n , S , ( e d s . ) ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 0 0 0 m e t e r c y k e l f l t s o m s k a k a d e
S t o c k h o l m . F o r u m 0 8 , B r o m m a
B e n n e r , M . a n d V a d , T . B . ( 2 0 0 0 ) S w e d e n a n d D e n m a r k D e f e n d i n g t h e
W e l f a r e S t a t e . I n S c h a r p f a n d S c h m i d t ( e d s . ) W e l f a r e a n d W o r k i n t h e O p e n
E c o n o m y V o l u m e I I : D i v e r s e R e s p o n s e s t o C o m m o n C h a l l e n g e s i n T w e l v e
C o u n t r i e s . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , O x f o r d
B e r g s t r m , A . a n d M a g n u s s o n , R . ( 2 0 0 3 ) P o t e n t i a l t r a n s f e r r i n g c a r t r i p s t o
b i c y c l e d u r i n g w i n t e r , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h P a r t A , V o l . 3 7 , p p . 6 4 9 - 6 6 6
B e r n h o f t , I . M . a n d C a r s t e n s e n , G . ( 2 0 0 8 ) P r e f e r e n c e s a n d b e h a v i o u r o f
p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s b y a g e a n d g e n d e r , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h P a r t F , V o l .
1 1 , p p . 8 3 - 9 5

173
Bae, C.H.C. (2004) Transportation and the Environment. In Hanson and
Giuliano (eds.) The Geography or Urban Transportation. The Guilford Press,
New York
Bailey, K.D. (1987) Methods of Social Research. The Free Press, New York
Banister, D. (2005) Unsustainable Transport City transport in the new century.
Routledge, London
Banister, D. (2006) City Future Transport. Keynote paper for Transport
Planning A Design Challenge? Conference organised by AMIDST at the
University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 14-16 June 2006
Banister, D. (2008) The sustainable mobility paradigm, Transport Policy, Vol.
15, pp. 73-80
Banister, D. and Hickman, R. (2006) How to design a more sustainable and
fairer built environment: transport and communications, IEE Proc. Intell.
Transp. Syst., Vol. 153, pp. 276-291
Baeten, G. (2000) The Tragedy of the Highway: Empowerment,
Disempowerment and the politics of Sustainability Discourses and Practices,
European Planning Studies, Vol. 8, pp. 69-86
Bauman, Z. (1998) Globalization the human consequences. Polity Press,
Cambridge
Beckmann, J. (2001) Automobility a social problem and theoretical concept,
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, Vol. 19, pp. 593-607
Beckman, E. and Linusson, S, (eds.) (2009) 1000 meter cykelflt som skakade
Stockholm. Forum08, Bromma
Benner, M. and Vad, T. B. (2000) Sweden and Denmark Defending the
Welfare State. In Scharpf and Schmidt (eds.) Welfare and Work in the Open
Economy Volume II: Diverse Responses to Common Challenges in Twelve
Countries. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Bergstrm, A. and Magnusson, R. (2003) Potential transferring car trips to
bicycle during winter, Transportation Research Part A, Vol. 37, pp. 649-666
Bernhoft, I. M. and Carstensen, G. (2008) Preferences and behaviour of
pedestrians and cyclists by age and gender, Transportation Research Part F, Vol.
11, pp. 83-95
1 7 3

174
Bjrk, C. and Reppen, L. (2000) S byggdes staden. Svensk Byggtjnst,
Stockholm
Brown, J.R., Morris E.A. and Taylor, B.D. (2009) Planning for Cars in Cities:
Planners, Engineers and Freeways in the 20
th
Century, Journal of the American
Planning Association, Vol. 75, pp. 161-177
Buehler, R., Pucher, J. and Kunert, K. (2009) Making Transportation
Sustainable: Insights from Germany. Metropolitan Policy Program at Brookings,
Washington DC
Buehler, R. and Pucher, J. (2009) Sustainable Transport that works: Lessons
from Germany, World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 15, pp. 13-46
Buehler, R. and Pucher, J. (2012b) International Overview: Cycling Trends in
Western Europe, North America, and Australia. In Pucher and Buehler (eds.)
City Cycling. The MIT Press, Cambridge
By & Havn (2011) Godt begyndt Et tilbageblik over restads udvikling.
Udviklingsselskabet By & Havn, Copenhagen
City of Copenhagen (2002) Cycle Policy 2002-2012. Building and
Construction Administration, Roads and Parks Department, Copenhagen
City of Copenhagen (2005) Trafik- & Miljplan 2004. Bygge- og
Teknikforvaltningen, konomiforvaltningen, Milj- og
Forsyningsforvaltningen, Copenhagen
City of Copenhagen (2009) Cykelstiprioriteringsplan 2006-16. Teknik- og
Miljforvaltning. Center For Trafik, Cykelsekretariatet, Copenhagen
City of Copenhagen (2010) Copenhagen Local Government 2010-2013, City
of Copenhagen
City of Copenhagen (2012)
http://www.kk.dk/FaktaOmKommunen/KoebenhavnITalOgOrd/StatistikOm
KoebenhavnOgKoebenhavnere.aspx accessed 2012-05-16
City of Copenhagen (2013a) Faktaark fra Kbenhavns Statistik,
http://www.kk.dk/da/om-kommunen/fakta-og-statistik/statistik-og-
historie/emneopdelt-statistik/geografi-miljoe-og-energi/geografi, accessed
2013-06-12

1 7 4
B j r k , C . a n d R e p p e n , L . ( 2 0 0 0 ) S b y g g d e s s t a d e n . S v e n s k B y g g t j n s t ,
S t o c k h o l m
B r o w n , J . R . , M o r r i s E . A . a n d T a y l o r , B . D . ( 2 0 0 9 ) P l a n n i n g f o r C a r s i n C i t i e s :
P l a n n e r s , E n g i n e e r s a n d F r e e w a y s i n t h e 2 0
t h
C e n t u r y , J o u r n a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n
P l a n n i n g A s s o c i a t i o n , V o l . 7 5 , p p . 1 6 1 - 1 7 7
B u e h l e r , R . , P u c h e r , J . a n d K u n e r t , K . ( 2 0 0 9 ) M a k i n g T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
S u s t a i n a b l e : I n s i g h t s f r o m G e r m a n y . M e t r o p o l i t a n P o l i c y P r o g r a m a t B r o o k i n g s ,
W a s h i n g t o n D C
B u e h l e r , R . a n d P u c h e r , J . ( 2 0 0 9 ) S u s t a i n a b l e T r a n s p o r t t h a t w o r k s : L e s s o n s
f r o m G e r m a n y , W o r l d T r a n s p o r t P o l i c y & P r a c t i c e , V o l . 1 5 , p p . 1 3 - 4 6
B u e h l e r , R . a n d P u c h e r , J . ( 2 0 1 2 b ) I n t e r n a t i o n a l O v e r v i e w : C y c l i n g T r e n d s i n
W e s t e r n E u r o p e , N o r t h A m e r i c a , a n d A u s t r a l i a . I n P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r ( e d s . )
C i t y C y c l i n g . T h e M I T P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e
B y & H a v n ( 2 0 1 1 ) G o d t b e g y n d t E t t i l b a g e b l i k o v e r r e s t a d s u d v i k l i n g .
U d v i k l i n g s s e l s k a b e t B y & H a v n , C o p e n h a g e n
C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ( 2 0 0 2 ) C y c l e P o l i c y 2 0 0 2 - 2 0 1 2 . B u i l d i n g a n d
C o n s t r u c t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , R o a d s a n d P a r k s D e p a r t m e n t , C o p e n h a g e n
C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ( 2 0 0 5 ) T r a f i k - & M i l j p l a n 2 0 0 4 . B y g g e - o g
T e k n i k f o r v a l t n i n g e n , k o n o m i f o r v a l t n i n g e n , M i l j - o g
F o r s y n i n g s f o r v a l t n i n g e n , C o p e n h a g e n
C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ( 2 0 0 9 ) C y k e l s t i p r i o r i t e r i n g s p l a n 2 0 0 6 - 1 6 . T e k n i k - o g
M i l j f o r v a l t n i n g . C e n t e r F o r T r a f i k , C y k e l s e k r e t a r i a t e t , C o p e n h a g e n
C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ( 2 0 1 0 ) C o p e n h a g e n L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t 2 0 1 0 - 2 0 1 3 , C i t y
o f C o p e n h a g e n
C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ( 2 0 1 2 )
h t t p : / / w w w . k k . d k / F a k t a O m K o m m u n e n / K o e b e n h a v n I T a l O g O r d / S t a t i s t i k O m
K o e b e n h a v n O g K o e b e n h a v n e r e . a s p x a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 2 - 0 5 - 1 6
C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ( 2 0 1 3 a ) F a k t a a r k f r a K b e n h a v n s S t a t i s t i k ,
h t t p : / / w w w . k k . d k / d a / o m - k o m m u n e n / f a k t a - o g - s t a t i s t i k / s t a t i s t i k - o g -
h i s t o r i e / e m n e o p d e l t - s t a t i s t i k / g e o g r a f i - m i l j o e - o g - e n e r g i / g e o g r a f i , a c c e s s e d
2 0 1 3 - 0 6 - 1 2
1 7 4

1 7 5
C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ( 2 0 1 3 b ) F a k t a a r k f r a K b e n h a v n s S t a t i s t i k ,
h t t p : / / w w w . k k . d k / d a / o m - k o m m u n e n / f a k t a - o g - s t a t i s t i k / s t a t i s t i k - o g -
h i s t o r i e / e m n e o p d e l t - s t a t i s t i k / b e f o l k n i n g - o g - f r e m s k r i v n i n g e r / f o l k e t a l , a c c e s s e d
2 0 1 3 - 0 6 - 1 2
C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 1 1 ) h t t p : / / i n t e r n a t i o n a l . s t o c k h o l m . s e / P o l i t i c s - a n d -
o r g a n i s a t i o n / O r g a n i s a t i o n / a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 1 - 1 2 - 0 6
C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 1 2 ) h t t p : / / w w w . s t o c k h o l m . s e / O m S t o c k h o l m / F a k t a -
o c h - k a r t o r / a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 2 - 0 5 - 1 6
C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 1 3 a )
h t t p : / / w w w . s t o c k h o l m . s e / T r a f i k S t a d s p l a n e r i n g / T r a f i k - o c h - r e s o r - / T r a f i k - o c h -
m i l j o / a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 3 - 0 6 - 0 6
C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 1 3 b ) h t t p : / / w w w . s t o c k h o l m . s e / O m S t o c k h o l m / F a k t a -
o c h - k a r t o r / , a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 3 - 0 6 - 1 2
C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 1 3 c ) h t t p : / / b y g g . s t o c k h o l m . s e / H a l l b a r -
s t a d / C y k e l m i l j a r d e n / , a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 3 - 0 6 - 1 7
C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 1 3 d )
h t t p : / / w w w . s t o c k h o l m . s e / T r a f i k S t a d s p l a n e r i n g / S t o c k h o l m s t r a f i k e n - n u - o c h - i -
f r a m t i d e n - / V a d - v a n t a r - i - f r a m t i d e n - / , a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 3 - 0 6 - 1 7
C l a r k , E . ( 2 0 0 3 ) G r e p p o m s t a d s k r i g s b i l i s m . I n : C l a r k , H a l l i n a n d W i d g r e n
( e d s . ) T i d r u m s f r a g m e n t E n v n b o k t i l l B o L e n n t o r p . R a p p o r t e r o c h n o t i s e r
1 6 5 , I n s t . F r k u l t u r g e o g r a f i o c h e k o n o m i s k g e o g r a f i , L u n d s u n i v e r s i t e t , L u n d
C l o k e , P . e t a l . ( 2 0 0 4 ) P r a c t i s i n g H u m a n G e o g r a p h y . S A G E P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d ,
L o n d o n
C o o p e r , A . R . , W e d d e r k o p p , N . , J a g o , R . , K r i s t e n s e n , P . L . , M o l l e r , N . C . ,
F r o b e r g , K . , P a g e , A . S . , A n d e r s e n , L . B . ( 2 0 0 8 ) L o n g i t u d i n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s o f
c y c l i n g t o s c h o o l w i t h a d o l e s c e n t f i t n e s s , P r e v e n t i v e M e d , V o l . 4 7 , p p . 3 2 4 - 3 2 8
C r e s s w e l l , T . ( 2 0 0 1 ) T h e T r a m p i n A m e r i c a . R e a k t i o n , L o n d o n
C r e s s w e l l , T . ( 2 0 0 4 ) P l a c e a s h o r t i n t r o d u c t i o n . B l a c k w e l l P u b l i s h i n g , O x f o r d
C r e s s w e l l , T . ( 2 0 0 6 ) O n t h e m o v e : m o b i l i t y i n t h e m o d e r n w e s t e r n w o r l d .
R o u t l e d g e , N e w Y o r k

175
City of Copenhagen (2013b) Faktaark fra Kbenhavns Statistik,
http://www.kk.dk/da/om-kommunen/fakta-og-statistik/statistik-og-
historie/emneopdelt-statistik/befolkning-og-fremskrivninger/folketal, accessed
2013-06-12
City of Stockholm (2011) http://international.stockholm.se/Politics-and-
organisation/Organisation/ accessed 2011-12-06
City of Stockholm (2012) http://www.stockholm.se/OmStockholm/Fakta-
och-kartor/ accessed 2012-05-16
City of Stockholm (2013a)
http://www.stockholm.se/TrafikStadsplanering/Trafik-och-resor-/Trafik-och-
miljo/ accessed 2013-06-06
City of Stockholm (2013b) http://www.stockholm.se/OmStockholm/Fakta-
och-kartor/, accessed 2013-06-12
City of Stockholm (2013c) http://bygg.stockholm.se/Hallbar-
stad/Cykelmiljarden/, accessed 2013-06-17
City of Stockholm (2013d)
http://www.stockholm.se/TrafikStadsplanering/Stockholmstrafiken-nu-och-i-
framtiden-/Vad-vantar-i-framtiden-/, accessed 2013-06-17
Clark, E. (2003) Grepp om stadskrigsbilism. In: Clark, Hallin and Widgren
(eds.) Tidrumsfragment En vnbok till Bo Lenntorp. Rapporter och notiser
165, Inst. Fr kulturgeografi och ekonomisk geografi, Lunds universitet, Lund
Cloke, P. et al.(2004) Practising Human Geography. SAGE Publications Ltd,
London
Cooper, A.R., Wedderkopp, N., Jago, R., Kristensen, P.L., Moller, N.C.,
Froberg, K., Page, A.S., Andersen, L.B. (2008) Longitudinal associations of
cycling to school with adolescent fitness, Preventive Med, Vol. 47, pp. 324-328
Cresswell, T. (2001) The Tramp in America. Reaktion, London
Cresswell, T. (2004) Place a short introduction. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford
Cresswell, T. (2006) On the move: mobility in the modern western world.
Routledge, New York
1 7 5

176
Cresswell, T. (2010) Towards a politics of mobility, Environment and Planning
D: Society and Space, Vol. 28, pp. 17-31
Cwerner, S., Kesselring, S. and Urry, J. (2009) Aeromobilities. Routledge,
London
Dahl, R. (1957) The Concept of Power, Behavioral Studies, Vol. 2, pp. 201-
215
Daley, M. and Rissel, C. (2011) Perspectives and images of cycling as a barrier
or facilitator of cycling, Transport Policy, Vol. 18, pp. 211-216
DiMento, J.F.C. (2009) Stent (or Dagger?) in the Heart of Town: Urban
Freeway in Syracuse, 1944 1967, Journal of Planning History, Vol. 8, pp.
133-161
Edling, C. and Hedstrm, P. (2003) Kvantitativa metoder Grundlggande
analysmetoder fr samhlls- och beteendevetare. Studentlitteratur, Lund
Eggeby, E. and Sderberg, J. (1999) Kvantitativa metoder fr samhllsvetare
och humanister. Studentlitteratur, Lund
Elliot, A. and Urry, J. (2010) Mobile Lives. Routledge, New York
Elvik, R. and Vaa, T. (2005) The handbook of road safety measures. Elsevier,
Oxford
Elvik, R. (2009) The non-linearity of risk and the promotion of
environmentally sustainable transport, Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol.
41, pp. 849-855
Emanuel, M. (2012) Trafikslag p undantag Cykeltrafiken i Stockholm 1930-
1980. Stockholmia Frlag, Stockholm
Fainstein, S. (2001) The City Builders - Property Development in New York and
London, 19802000. Blackwell, Oxford
Falkemark, G. (1999) Politik, lobbyism och manipulation: svensk trafikpolitik i
verkligheten. Bokfrlaget Nya Doxa, Nora
Featherstone, M. (2004) Automobilities: An Introduction, Theory, Culture &
Society, Vol. 21, pp. 1-24

1 7 6
C r e s s w e l l , T . ( 2 0 1 0 ) T o w a r d s a p o l i t i c s o f m o b i l i t y , E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g
D : S o c i e t y a n d S p a c e , V o l . 2 8 , p p . 1 7 - 3 1
C w e r n e r , S . , K e s s e l r i n g , S . a n d U r r y , J . ( 2 0 0 9 ) A e r o m o b i l i t i e s . R o u t l e d g e ,
L o n d o n
D a h l , R . ( 1 9 5 7 ) T h e C o n c e p t o f P o w e r , B e h a v i o r a l S t u d i e s , V o l . 2 , p p . 2 0 1 -
2 1 5
D a l e y , M . a n d R i s s e l , C . ( 2 0 1 1 ) P e r s p e c t i v e s a n d i m a g e s o f c y c l i n g a s a b a r r i e r
o r f a c i l i t a t o r o f c y c l i n g , T r a n s p o r t P o l i c y , V o l . 1 8 , p p . 2 1 1 - 2 1 6
D i M e n t o , J . F . C . ( 2 0 0 9 ) S t e n t ( o r D a g g e r ? ) i n t h e H e a r t o f T o w n : U r b a n
F r e e w a y i n S y r a c u s e , 1 9 4 4 1 9 6 7 , J o u r n a l o f P l a n n i n g H i s t o r y , V o l . 8 , p p .
1 3 3 - 1 6 1
E d l i n g , C . a n d H e d s t r m , P . ( 2 0 0 3 ) K v a n t i t a t i v a m e t o d e r G r u n d l g g a n d e
a n a l y s m e t o d e r f r s a m h l l s - o c h b e t e e n d e v e t a r e . S t u d e n t l i t t e r a t u r , L u n d
E g g e b y , E . a n d S d e r b e r g , J . ( 1 9 9 9 ) K v a n t i t a t i v a m e t o d e r f r s a m h l l s v e t a r e
o c h h u m a n i s t e r . S t u d e n t l i t t e r a t u r , L u n d
E l l i o t , A . a n d U r r y , J . ( 2 0 1 0 ) M o b i l e L i v e s . R o u t l e d g e , N e w Y o r k
E l v i k , R . a n d V a a , T . ( 2 0 0 5 ) T h e h a n d b o o k o f r o a d s a f e t y m e a s u r e s . E l s e v i e r ,
O x f o r d
E l v i k , R . ( 2 0 0 9 ) T h e n o n - l i n e a r i t y o f r i s k a n d t h e p r o m o t i o n o f
e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t , A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d P r e v e n t i o n , V o l .
4 1 , p p . 8 4 9 - 8 5 5
E m a n u e l , M . ( 2 0 1 2 ) T r a f i k s l a g p u n d a n t a g C y k e l t r a f i k e n i S t o c k h o l m 1 9 3 0 -
1 9 8 0 . S t o c k h o l m i a F r l a g , S t o c k h o l m
F a i n s t e i n , S . ( 2 0 0 1 ) T h e C i t y B u i l d e r s - P r o p e r t y D e v e l o p m e n t i n N e w Y o r k a n d
L o n d o n , 1 9 8 0 2 0 0 0 . B l a c k w e l l , O x f o r d
F a l k e m a r k , G . ( 1 9 9 9 ) P o l i t i k , l o b b y i s m o c h m a n i p u l a t i o n : s v e n s k t r a f i k p o l i t i k i
v e r k l i g h e t e n . B o k f r l a g e t N y a D o x a , N o r a
F e a t h e r s t o n e , M . ( 2 0 0 4 ) A u t o m o b i l i t i e s : A n I n t r o d u c t i o n , T h e o r y , C u l t u r e &
S o c i e t y , V o l . 2 1 , p p . 1 - 2 4
1 7 6

1 7 7
F i n c h a m , B . ( 2 0 0 7 ) B i c y c l e M e s s e n g e r : I m a g e , I d e n t i t y a n d C o m m u n i t y . I n
H o r t o n , R o s e n a n d C o x ( e d s . ) C y c l i n g a n d S o c i e t y . A s h g a t e , H a m p s h i r e
F l y v b j e r g , B . ( 1 9 9 8 ) R a t i o n a l i t y a n d P o w e r D e m o c r a c y i n P r a c t i c e . T h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , C h i c a g o
F l y v b j e r g , B . a n d P e t e r s e n , V . C . ( 1 9 8 1 ) A M a t e r i a l i s t i c C o n c e p t o f P l a n n i n g
a n d P a r t i c i p a t i o n , A c t a S o c i o l o g i c a , V o l . 2 4 , p p . 2 9 3 - 3 1 1
F o r w a r d , S . ( 2 0 0 3 ) A t t i t u d e s t o w a l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g I n T o l l e y ( e d . )
S u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t P l a n n i n g f o r w a l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g i n u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s .
W o o d h e a d P u b l i s h i n g L i m i t e d , C a m b r i d g e
F o s t e r , J . B . ( 2 0 0 2 ) E c o l o g y a g a i n s t c a p i t a l i s m . M o n t h l y R e v i e w P r e s s , N e w
Y o r k
F o u c a u l t , M . ( 1 9 7 7 ) D i s c i p l i n e a n d P u n i s h : T h e B i r t h o f t h e P r i s o n . A l l e n
L a n e , L o n d o n
F o u c a u l t , M . ( 1 9 8 0 ) P o w e r / K n o w l e d g e . ( e d . C . G o r d o n ) T h e H a r v e s t e r P r e s s ,
B r i g h t o n
F r e u d e n d a l - P e d e r s e n , M . ( 2 0 0 9 ) M o b i l i t y i n D a i l y L i f e B e t w e e n F r e e d o m a n d
U n f r e e d o m . A s h g a t e , F a r n h a m
F u r n e s s , Z . ( 2 0 0 7 ) C r i t i c a l M a s s , V l o m o b i l i t y a n d U r b a n S p a c e , M o b i l i t i e s ,
V o l . 2 , p p . 2 9 9 - 3 1 9
F u r n e s s , Z . ( 2 0 1 0 ) O n e l e s s c a r B i c y c l i n g a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f a u t o m o b i l i t y .
T e m p l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , P h i l a d e l p h i a
G a r r a r d , J . , R i s s e l , C . a n d B a u m a n , A . ( 2 0 1 2 ) H e a l t h B e n e f i t s o f C y c l i n g . I n
P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r ( e d s . ) C i t y C y c l i n g . T h e M I T P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e
G a r t m a n , D . ( 2 0 0 4 ) T h r e e A g e s o f A u t o m o b i l e T h e c u l t u r a l L o g i c s o f t h e
C a r , T h e o r y , C u l t u r e a n d S o c i e t y , V o l . 2 1 , p p . 1 6 9 - 1 9 5
G a t u - o c h F a s t i g h e t s k o n t o r e t ( 2 0 0 4 a ) A t t c y k l a I S t o c k h o l m s i n n e r s t a d .
S t o c k h o l m s G a t u - o c h F a s t i g h e t s k o n t o r e t , S t o c k h o l m

177
Fincham, B. (2007) Bicycle Messenger: Image, Identity and Community. In
Horton, Rosen and Cox (eds.) Cycling and Society. Ashgate, Hampshire
Flyvbjerg, B. (1998) Rationality and Power Democracy in Practice. The
University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Flyvbjerg, B. and Petersen, V.C. (1981) A Materialistic Concept of Planning
and Participation, Acta Sociologica, Vol. 24, pp. 293-311
Forward, S. (2003) Attitudes to walking and cycling In Tolley (ed.)
Sustainable transport Planning for walking and cycling in urban environments.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge
Foster, J. B. (2002) Ecology against capitalism. Monthly Review Press, New
York
Foucault, M. (1977) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Allen
Lane, London
Foucault, M. (1980) Power/Knowledge. (ed. C. Gordon) The Harvester Press,
Brighton
Freudendal-Pedersen, M. (2009) Mobility in Daily Life Between Freedom and
Unfreedom. Ashgate, Farnham
Furness, Z. (2007) Critical Mass, Vlomobility and Urban Space, Mobilities,
Vol. 2, pp. 299-319
Furness, Z. (2010) One less car Bicycling and the politics of automobility.
Temple University Press, Philadelphia
Garrard, J., Rissel, C. and Bauman, A. (2012) Health Benefits of Cycling. In
Pucher and Buehler (eds.) City Cycling. The MIT Press, Cambridge
Gartman, D. (2004) Three Ages of Automobile The cultural Logics of the
Car, Theory, Culture and Society, Vol. 21, pp. 169-195
Gatu- och Fastighetskontoret (2004a) Att cykla I Stockholms innerstad.
Stockholms Gatu- och Fastighetskontoret, Stockholm
1 7 7

178
Gatu- och Fastighetskontoret (2004b) Cykeltrafik och trafiksignaler
Trafikteknisk utformningshandbok och anvisningar fr drift och underhll i
Stockholms innerstad. Stockholms Gatu- och Fastighetskontoret, Stockholm
Goetzke, F. and Rave, T. (2011) Bicycle Use in Germany: Explaining
Differences between Municipalities with Social Network Effects, Urban
Studies, Vol. 48, pp. 427-437
Gubrium, F. J. and Holstein, A. J. (1997) The new language of qualitative
Method. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Guiliana, G. and Hanson, S. (2004) Managing the Auto. In Hanson and
Giuliano (eds.) The Geography or Urban Transportation. The Guilford Press,
New York
Guiva, J. and Jain, J. (2011) Grounded: Impacts of and Insights from the
Volcanic Ash Cloud Disruption, Mobilities, Vol. 6, pp. 41-55
Gunnarsson, S. O. and Lindstrm, S. (1970) Vgen till trafikskerhet. Rabn
& Sjgren, Stockholm
Habermas, J. (1990 [1962]) Strukturwandel der ffentlichkeit. Suhrkamp
Verlag, Frankfurt am Main
Hagson, A. (2004) Stads- och trafikplaneringens paradigm En studie av
SCAFT 1968, dess frebilder och efterfljare. Doctoral Dissertation, Chalmers
Technical University, Department for architecture and traffic, Gothenburg
Handerson, J. (2009) The Spaces of Parking: Mapping Politics of Mobility in
San Francisco, Antipode, Vol. 41, pp. 70-91
Hall, P. (2002) Cities of Tomorrow. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford
Harvey, D. (1989) From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialsim. The
Transformation in Urban Governance in Late-Capitalism, Geografiska Annaler
B, Vol. 71, pp. 3-17
Harvey, D. (1996) Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference. Blackwell
Publishing, Oxford

1 7 8
G a t u - o c h F a s t i g h e t s k o n t o r e t ( 2 0 0 4 b ) C y k e l t r a f i k o c h t r a f i k s i g n a l e r
T r a f i k t e k n i s k u t f o r m n i n g s h a n d b o k o c h a n v i s n i n g a r f r d r i f t o c h u n d e r h l l i
S t o c k h o l m s i n n e r s t a d . S t o c k h o l m s G a t u - o c h F a s t i g h e t s k o n t o r e t , S t o c k h o l m
G o e t z k e , F . a n d R a v e , T . ( 2 0 1 1 ) B i c y c l e U s e i n G e r m a n y : E x p l a i n i n g
D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n M u n i c i p a l i t i e s w i t h S o c i a l N e t w o r k E f f e c t s , U r b a n
S t u d i e s , V o l . 4 8 , p p . 4 2 7 - 4 3 7
G u b r i u m , F . J . a n d H o l s t e i n , A . J . ( 1 9 9 7 ) T h e n e w l a n g u a g e o f q u a l i t a t i v e
M e t h o d . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , O x f o r d
G u i l i a n a , G . a n d H a n s o n , S . ( 2 0 0 4 ) M a n a g i n g t h e A u t o . I n H a n s o n a n d
G i u l i a n o ( e d s . ) T h e G e o g r a p h y o r U r b a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . T h e G u i l f o r d P r e s s ,
N e w Y o r k
G u i v a , J . a n d J a i n , J . ( 2 0 1 1 ) G r o u n d e d : I m p a c t s o f a n d I n s i g h t s f r o m t h e
V o l c a n i c A s h C l o u d D i s r u p t i o n , M o b i l i t i e s , V o l . 6 , p p . 4 1 - 5 5
G u n n a r s s o n , S . O . a n d L i n d s t r m , S . ( 1 9 7 0 ) V g e n t i l l t r a f i k s k e r h e t . R a b n
& S j g r e n , S t o c k h o l m
H a b e r m a s , J . ( 1 9 9 0 [ 1 9 6 2 ] ) S t r u k t u r w a n d e l d e r f f e n t l i c h k e i t . S u h r k a m p
V e r l a g , F r a n k f u r t a m M a i n
H a g s o n , A . ( 2 0 0 4 ) S t a d s - o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g e n s p a r a d i g m E n s t u d i e a v
S C A F T 1 9 6 8 , d e s s f r e b i l d e r o c h e f t e r f l j a r e . D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , C h a l m e r s
T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y , D e p a r t m e n t f o r a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d t r a f f i c , G o t h e n b u r g
H a n d e r s o n , J . ( 2 0 0 9 ) T h e S p a c e s o f P a r k i n g : M a p p i n g P o l i t i c s o f M o b i l i t y i n
S a n F r a n c i s c o , A n t i p o d e , V o l . 4 1 , p p . 7 0 - 9 1
H a l l , P . ( 2 0 0 2 ) C i t i e s o f T o m o r r o w . B l a c k w e l l P u b l i s h i n g , O x f o r d
H a r v e y , D . ( 1 9 8 9 ) F r o m M a n a g e r i a l i s m t o E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l s i m . T h e
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n U r b a n G o v e r n a n c e i n L a t e - C a p i t a l i s m , G e o g r a f i s k a A n n a l e r
B , V o l . 7 1 , p p . 3 - 1 7
H a r v e y , D . ( 1 9 9 6 ) J u s t i c e , N a t u r e a n d t h e G e o g r a p h y o f D i f f e r e n c e . B l a c k w e l l
P u b l i s h i n g , O x f o r d
1 7 8

1 7 9
H a r v e y , D ( 2 0 0 5 ) T h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y o f P u b l i c S p a c e . I n L o w , S e t h a a n d
N e i l S m i t h ( e d s . ) T h e P o l i t i c s o f P u b l i c S p a c e . R u t l e d g e N e w Y o r k
H a r v e y , D . ( 2 0 0 6 a ) N e o - L i b e r a l i s m a s c r e a t i v e d e s t r u c t i o n , G e o g r a f i s k a
A n n a l e r B , V o l . 8 8 , p p . 1 4 5 - 1 5 8
H a r v e y , D . ( 2 0 0 6 b ) S p a c e s o f g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m . V e r s o , N e w Y o r k
H a r v e y , D . ( 2 0 0 8 ) T h e R i g h t t o t h e C i t y , N e w L e f t R e v i e w , V o l . 5 3 , p p . 2 3 -
4 0
H a u g a a r d , M . ( 2 0 0 3 ) R e f l e c t i o n s o n S e v e n W a y s o f C r e a t i n g P o w e r ,
E u r o p e a n J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l T h e o r y , V o l . 6 , p p . 8 7 - 1 1 3
H a u g e n , K . ( 2 0 1 2 ) T h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y p a r a d o x E v e r y d a y g e o g r a p h i e s o f
p r o x i m i t i e s , d i s t a n c e a n d m o b i l i t y . D o c t o r a l T h e s i s , D e p a r t m e n t o f G e o g r a p h y
a n d E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , U m e U n i v e r s i t y , G E R U M 2 0 1 2 : 1
H e i n e b e r g , H . ( 2 0 0 1 ) S t a d t g e o g r a p h i e R e i h e : G r u n d r i s s A l l g e m e i n e
G e o g r a p h i e . V e r l a g F e r d i n a n d S c h n i n g h , P a d e r b o r n
H o l l i e s , M . ( 1 9 9 6 ) T h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e a n i n t r o d u c t i o n . C a m b r i d g e
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e
H o l s t o n , J . ( 2 0 0 2 ) T h e M o d e r n i s t C i t y a n d t h e D e a t h o f t h e S t r e e t . I n L o w
( e d . ) T h e o r i z i n g t h e C i t y T h e n e w U r b a n A n t h r o p o l o g y R e a d e r . R u t g e r s
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , L o n d o n
H o r t o n , D . ( 2 0 0 6 ) E n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m a n d t h e b i c y c l e , E n v i r o n m e n t a l P o l i t i c s ,
V o l . 1 5 , p p . 4 1 - 5 8
H o r t o n , D . ( 2 0 0 7 ) F e a r o f C y c l i n g . I n H o r t o n , R o s e n a n d C o x ( e d s . ) C y c l i n g
a n d S o c i e t y . A s h g a t e , H a m p s h i r e
H y d n , C . ( 1 9 8 7 ) T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a m e t h o d f o r t r a f f i c s a f e t y e v a l u a t i o n : T h e
S w e d i s h T r a f f i c C o n f l i c t s T e c h n i q u e . D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , L u n d U n i v e r s i t y ,
D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d s o c i e t y , T r a f f i c a n d R o a d s , 1 9 8 7
I a c o n o , M . , L e v i n s o n , D . a n d E l - G e n e i d y , A . ( 2 0 0 8 ) M o d e l s o f
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d L a n d U s e C h a n g e : A G u i d e t o t h e T e r r i t o r y , J o u r n a l o f
P l a n n i n g L i t e r a t u r e , V o l . 2 2 , p p . 3 2 3 - 3 4 0

179
Harvey, D (2005) The Political Economy of Public Space. In Low, Setha and
Neil Smith (eds.) The Politics of Public Space. Rutledge New York
Harvey, D. (2006a) Neo-Liberalism as creative destruction, Geografiska
Annaler B, Vol. 88, pp. 145-158
Harvey, D. (2006b) Spaces of global capitalism. Verso, New York
Harvey, D. (2008) The Right to the City, New Left Review, Vol. 53, pp. 23-
40
Haugaard, M. (2003) Reflections on Seven Ways of Creating Power,
European Journal of Social Theory, Vol. 6, pp. 87-113
Haugen, K. (2012) The accessibility paradox Everyday geographies of
proximities, distance and mobility. Doctoral Thesis, Department of Geography
and Economic History, Ume University, GERUM 2012:1
Heineberg, H. (2001) Stadtgeographie Reihe: Grundriss Allgemeine
Geographie. Verlag Ferdinand Schningh, Paderborn
Hollies, M. (1996) The philosophy of science an introduction. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge
Holston, J. (2002) The Modernist City and the Death of the Street. In Low
(ed.) Theorizing the City The new Urban Anthropology Reader. Rutgers
University Press, London
Horton, D. (2006) Environmentalism and the bicycle, Environmental Politics,
Vol. 15, pp. 41-58
Horton, D. (2007) Fear of Cycling. In Horton, Rosen and Cox (eds.) Cycling
and Society. Ashgate, Hampshire
Hydn, C. (1987) The development of a method for traffic safety evaluation: The
Swedish Traffic Conflicts Technique. Doctoral Dissertation, Lund University,
Department of Technology and society, Traffic and Roads, 1987
Iacono, M., Levinson, D. and El-Geneidy, A. (2008) Models of
Transportation and Land Use Change: A Guide to the Territory, Journal of
Planning Literature, Vol. 22, pp. 323-340
1 7 9

180
Inglis, D. (2004) Auto Couture: Thinking the Car in Post-war France,
Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 21, pp. 197-219
IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007 Mitigation of Climate Change.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), University Press,
Cambridge
Isaksson, K. (2001) Framtidens trafiksystem? Maktutvningen i konflikterna om
rummet och miljn i Dennispaketets vgfrgor. Doctoral Dissertation,
Linkping University, Department of Thematic Studies, 2001, Bulletin 231
Johnston, A.R. (2004) The Urban Transportation Planning Process. In
Hanson and Giuliano (eds.) The Geography or Urban Transportation. The
Guilford Press, New York
Jones, T., Pooley, C.G., Scheldeman, G., Horton, D., Tight, M., Mullen, C.,
Jopson, A., Whiteing, A. (2012) Moving around the city: discourses on
walking and cycling in English urban areas, Environment and Planning A, Vol.
44, pp. 1407-1424
Jonsson, R.D. (2008) Analysing sustainability in a land-use and transport
system, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 16, pp. 28-41
Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (2000) Participatory Action Research. In
Denzin and Lincoln (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research. SAGE
Publications Ltd, London
Kenworthy, J.R. (2006) The eco-city: ten key transport and planning
dimensions for sustainable city development. Environment and Urbanization,
Vol. 18, pp. 67-85
Kesselring, S. (2006) Pioneering mobilities: new patterns of movement and
motility in a mobile world, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 38, pp. 269-
279
Khayesi, M., Monheim, H. and Nebe, J.M. (2010) Negotiating Streets for
All in Urban Transport Planning: The Case for Pedestrians, Cyclists and
Street Vendors in Nairobi, Kenya, Antipode, Vol. 42, pp. 103-126

1 8 0
I n g l i s , D . ( 2 0 0 4 ) A u t o C o u t u r e : T h i n k i n g t h e C a r i n P o s t - w a r F r a n c e ,
T h e o r y , C u l t u r e & S o c i e t y , V o l . 2 1 , p p . 1 9 7 - 2 1 9
I P C C ( 2 0 0 7 ) C l i m a t e C h a n g e 2 0 0 7 M i t i g a t i o n o f C l i m a t e C h a n g e .
I n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l P a n e l o n C l i m a t e C h a n g e ( I P C C ) , U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
C a m b r i d g e
I s a k s s o n , K . ( 2 0 0 1 ) F r a m t i d e n s t r a f i k s y s t e m ? M a k t u t v n i n g e n i k o n f l i k t e r n a o m
r u m m e t o c h m i l j n i D e n n i s p a k e t e t s v g f r g o r . D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
L i n k p i n g U n i v e r s i t y , D e p a r t m e n t o f T h e m a t i c S t u d i e s , 2 0 0 1 , B u l l e t i n 2 3 1
J o h n s t o n , A . R . ( 2 0 0 4 ) T h e U r b a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n P l a n n i n g P r o c e s s . I n
H a n s o n a n d G i u l i a n o ( e d s . ) T h e G e o g r a p h y o r U r b a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . T h e
G u i l f o r d P r e s s , N e w Y o r k
J o n e s , T . , P o o l e y , C . G . , S c h e l d e m a n , G . , H o r t o n , D . , T i g h t , M . , M u l l e n , C . ,
J o p s o n , A . , W h i t e i n g , A . ( 2 0 1 2 ) M o v i n g a r o u n d t h e c i t y : d i s c o u r s e s o n
w a l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g i n E n g l i s h u r b a n a r e a s , E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g A , V o l .
4 4 , p p . 1 4 0 7 - 1 4 2 4
J o n s s o n , R . D . ( 2 0 0 8 ) A n a l y s i n g s u s t a i n a b i l i t y i n a l a n d - u s e a n d t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m , J o u r n a l o f T r a n s p o r t G e o g r a p h y , V o l . 1 6 , p p . 2 8 - 4 1
K e m m i s , S . a n d M c T a g g a r t , R . ( 2 0 0 0 ) P a r t i c i p a t o r y A c t i o n R e s e a r c h . I n
D e n z i n a n d L i n c o l n ( e d s . ) H a n d b o o k o f Q u a l i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h . S A G E
P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d , L o n d o n
K e n w o r t h y , J . R . ( 2 0 0 6 ) T h e e c o - c i t y : t e n k e y t r a n s p o r t a n d p l a n n i n g
d i m e n s i o n s f o r s u s t a i n a b l e c i t y d e v e l o p m e n t . E n v i r o n m e n t a n d U r b a n i z a t i o n ,
V o l . 1 8 , p p . 6 7 - 8 5
K e s s e l r i n g , S . ( 2 0 0 6 ) P i o n e e r i n g m o b i l i t i e s : n e w p a t t e r n s o f m o v e m e n t a n d
m o t i l i t y i n a m o b i l e w o r l d , E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g A , V o l . 3 8 , p p . 2 6 9 -
2 7 9
K h a y e s i , M . , M o n h e i m , H . a n d N e b e , J . M . ( 2 0 1 0 ) N e g o t i a t i n g S t r e e t s f o r
A l l i n U r b a n T r a n s p o r t P l a n n i n g : T h e C a s e f o r P e d e s t r i a n s , C y c l i s t s a n d
S t r e e t V e n d o r s i n N a i r o b i , K e n y a , A n t i p o d e , V o l . 4 2 , p p . 1 0 3 - 1 2 6
1 8 0

1 8 1
K l i j n h o u t , J . ( 1 9 8 6 ) I n t e g r a t e d T r a f f i c M o n i t o r i n g a n d C o n t r o l . I n B o n s a l l
a n d B e l l ( e d s . ) I n f o r m a t i o n T e c h n o l o g y A p p l i c a t i o n s i n T r a n s p o r t . V N U S c i e n c e
P r e s s B V , U t r e c h t
K n o f l a c h e r , H . ( 2 0 0 9 ) F r o m m y t h t o s c i e n c e i n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g : F r o m u n c o n t r o l l e d t o c o n t r o l l e d a n d r e s p o n s i b l e u r b a n
d e v e l o p m e n t i n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f I n j u r y C o n t r o l a n d
S a f e t y P r o m o t i o n , V o l . 1 6 , p p . 3 - 7
K v a l e , S . ( 1 9 9 7 ) D e n k v a l i t a t i v a f o r s k n i n g s i n t e r v j u n . S t u d e n t l i t t e r a t u r , L u n d
L n s s t y r e l s e S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 0 4 ) H e j B o s t a d o m b o s t a d s b y g g a n d e i S t o c k h o l m
1 9 6 1 - 1 9 7 5 . L n s s t y r e l s e n i S t o c k h o l m s l n , K u l t u r m i l j e n h e t e n , S t o c k h o l m
L e f e b v r e , H . ( 1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 6 8 ] ) T h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y . I n H . L e f e b v r e , W r i t i n g s o n
C i t i e s . E d . a n d T r a n s . E . K o f m a n a n d E . L e b a s , B l a c k w e l l , O x f o r d
L e f e b v r e , H . ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e . B l a c k w e l l P u b l i s h i n g ,
O x f o r d
L e f e b v r e , H . ( 2 0 0 3 [ 1 9 7 0 ] T h e U r b a n R e v o l u t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a
P r e s s , M i n n e a p o l i s
L e f e b v r e , H . ( 2 0 0 4 [ 1 9 9 2 ] ) R h y t h m a n a l y s i s : s p a c e , t i m e a n d e v e r y d a y l i f e .
C o n t i n u u m , L o n d o n
L u k e s , S . ( 2 0 0 5 ) P o w e r : A r a d i c a l v i e w . P a l g r a v e M a c m i l l a n , H a m p s h i r e
L u n d H a n s e n , A . ( 2 0 0 6 ) S p a c e w a r s a n d t h e n e w u r b a n i m p e r i a l i s m . D o c t o r a l
D i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l a n d E c o n o m i c G e o g r a p h y , L u n d
U n i v e r s i t y
L u n d i n , P . ( 2 0 0 8 ) B i l s a m h l l e t : i d e o l o g i , e x p e r t i s o c h r e g e l s k a p a n d e i
e f t e r k r i g s t i d e n s S v e r i g e . S t o c k h o l m i a f r l a g , S t o c k h o l m
L u n d i n , P . ( 2 0 1 0 ) A t t t n k a o m s t a d e n m e d h i s t o r i a : E n i n t r o d u k t i o n t i l l
B i l s t a d e n . I n h r n a n d L u n d i n ( e d s . ) B i l s t a d e n U S A v i s a d e v g e n .
S t o c k h o l m i a F r l a g , S t o c k h o l m
M a c k i n t o s h , P . G . a n d N o r c l i f f , G . ( 2 0 0 7 ) M e n , W o m e n a n d t h e B i c y c l e :
G e n d e r a n d S o c i a l G e o g r a p h y o f C y c l i n g i n t h e L a t e - N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y . I n
H o r t o n , R o s e n a n d C o x ( e d s . ) C y c l i n g a n d S o c i e t y . A s h g a t e , H a m p s h i r e

181
Klijnhout, J. (1986) Integrated Traffic Monitoring and Control. In Bonsall
and Bell (eds.) Information Technology Applications in Transport. VNU Science
Press BV, Utrecht
Knoflacher, H. (2009) From myth to science in urban and transport
planning: From uncontrolled to controlled and responsible urban
development in transport planning, International Journal of Injury Control and
Safety Promotion, Vol. 16, pp. 3-7
Kvale, S. (1997) Den kvalitativa forskningsintervjun. Studentlitteratur, Lund
Lnsstyrelse Stockholm (2004) Hej Bostad om bostadsbyggande i Stockholm
1961-1975. Lnsstyrelsen i Stockholms ln, Kulturmiljenheten, Stockholm
Lefebvre, H. (1996 [1968]) The right to the city. In H. Lefebvre, Writings on
Cities. Ed. and Trans. E. Kofman and E. Lebas, Blackwell, Oxford
Lefebvre, H. (1991 [1974]) The production of space. Blackwell Publishing,
Oxford
Lefebvre, H. (2003 [1970] The Urban Revolution. University of Minnesota
Press, Minneapolis
Lefebvre, H. (2004 [1992]) Rhythmanalysis: space, time and everyday life.
Continuum, London
Lukes, S. (2005) Power: A radical view. Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire
Lund Hansen, A. (2006) Space wars and the new urban imperialism. Doctoral
Dissertation, Department of Social and Economic Geography, Lund
University
Lundin, P. (2008) Bilsamhllet: ideologi, expertis och regelskapande i
efterkrigstidens Sverige. Stockholmia frlag, Stockholm
Lundin, P. (2010) Att tnka om staden med historia: En introduktion till
Bilstaden. In hrn and Lundin (eds.) Bilstaden USA visade vgen.
Stockholmia Frlag, Stockholm
Mackintosh, P. G. and Norcliff, G. (2007) Men, Women and the Bicycle:
Gender and Social Geography of Cycling in the Late-Nineteenth Century. In
Horton, Rosen and Cox (eds.) Cycling and Society. Ashgate, Hampshire
1 8 1

182
Marcuse, H. (1999 [1941]) Reason and Revolution Hegel and the Rise of Social
Theory. Humanity Books, New York
Marcuse, H. (2002 [1964]) One-Dimensional Man Studies in the ideology of
advanced industrial society. Routledge Classics, New York
Marcuse, P. (2012) Whose right(s) to what city? In Brenner, Marcuse and
Mayer (eds.) Cities for people not for profit Critical urban theory and the right
to the city. Routledge, New York
Mayer, M. (2012) The right to the city in urban social movements. In
Brenner, Marcuse and Mayer (eds.) Cities for people not for profit Critical
urban theory and the right to the city. Routledge, New York
Maxwell, J. A. (2004) Qualitative Research Design An interactive approach.
Sage Publications, London
McCarthy, D. (2011) Im a Normal Person: An Examination of How
Utilitarian Cyclists in Charleston South Carolina Use an Insider/Outsider
Framework to Make Sense of Risks, Urban Studies, Vol. 48, pp. 1439-1455
McClintock, H. (2002) The mainstreaming of cycling policy. In McClintock
(ed.) Planning for cycling principles, practise and solutions for urban planners.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge
Melin, C. (2000) Makten ver trafikpolitiken: Korporatism, lobbying och
opinionsbildning infr 1998 rs transportpolitiska beslut: en bok frn PISA-
projeket. Doctoral Dissertation, Uppsala University, Department Political
Science
Merki, C. M. (2008) Verkehrsgeschichte und Mobilitt. Verlag Eugen Ulmer,
Stuttgart
Miedema, H.M.E. (2007) Adverse Effects of Traffic Noise. In Grling and
Steg (eds.) Threats from Car Traffic to the Quality of Urban Life Problems,
Causes and Solutions. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Mitchell, D. (2003) The Right to the City Social Justice and the Fight for
Public Space. The Guilford Press, New York
Nss, P. (2012) Urban form and travel behavior: Experience from a Nordic
context, The Journal of Transport and Land use, Vol. 5, pp. 21-45

1 8 2
M a r c u s e , H . ( 1 9 9 9 [ 1 9 4 1 ] ) R e a s o n a n d R e v o l u t i o n H e g e l a n d t h e R i s e o f S o c i a l
T h e o r y . H u m a n i t y B o o k s , N e w Y o r k
M a r c u s e , H . ( 2 0 0 2 [ 1 9 6 4 ] ) O n e - D i m e n s i o n a l M a n S t u d i e s i n t h e i d e o l o g y o f
a d v a n c e d i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y . R o u t l e d g e C l a s s i c s , N e w Y o r k
M a r c u s e , P . ( 2 0 1 2 ) W h o s e r i g h t ( s ) t o w h a t c i t y ? I n B r e n n e r , M a r c u s e a n d
M a y e r ( e d s . ) C i t i e s f o r p e o p l e n o t f o r p r o f i t C r i t i c a l u r b a n t h e o r y a n d t h e r i g h t
t o t h e c i t y . R o u t l e d g e , N e w Y o r k
M a y e r , M . ( 2 0 1 2 ) T h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y i n u r b a n s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s . I n
B r e n n e r , M a r c u s e a n d M a y e r ( e d s . ) C i t i e s f o r p e o p l e n o t f o r p r o f i t C r i t i c a l
u r b a n t h e o r y a n d t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y . R o u t l e d g e , N e w Y o r k
M a x w e l l , J . A . ( 2 0 0 4 ) Q u a l i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h D e s i g n A n i n t e r a c t i v e a p p r o a c h .
S a g e P u b l i c a t i o n s , L o n d o n
M c C a r t h y , D . ( 2 0 1 1 ) I m a N o r m a l P e r s o n : A n E x a m i n a t i o n o f H o w
U t i l i t a r i a n C y c l i s t s i n C h a r l e s t o n S o u t h C a r o l i n a U s e a n I n s i d e r / O u t s i d e r
F r a m e w o r k t o M a k e S e n s e o f R i s k s , U r b a n S t u d i e s , V o l . 4 8 , p p . 1 4 3 9 - 1 4 5 5
M c C l i n t o c k , H . ( 2 0 0 2 ) T h e m a i n s t r e a m i n g o f c y c l i n g p o l i c y . I n M c C l i n t o c k
( e d . ) P l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g p r i n c i p l e s , p r a c t i s e a n d s o l u t i o n s f o r u r b a n p l a n n e r s .
W o o d h e a d P u b l i s h i n g L i m i t e d , C a m b r i d g e
M e l i n , C . ( 2 0 0 0 ) M a k t e n v e r t r a f i k p o l i t i k e n : K o r p o r a t i s m , l o b b y i n g o c h
o p i n i o n s b i l d n i n g i n f r 1 9 9 8 r s t r a n s p o r t p o l i t i s k a b e s l u t : e n b o k f r n P I S A -
p r o j e k e t . D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , U p p s a l a U n i v e r s i t y , D e p a r t m e n t P o l i t i c a l
S c i e n c e
M e r k i , C . M . ( 2 0 0 8 ) V e r k e h r s g e s c h i c h t e u n d M o b i l i t t . V e r l a g E u g e n U l m e r ,
S t u t t g a r t
M i e d e m a , H . M . E . ( 2 0 0 7 ) A d v e r s e E f f e c t s o f T r a f f i c N o i s e . I n G r l i n g a n d
S t e g ( e d s . ) T h r e a t s f r o m C a r T r a f f i c t o t h e Q u a l i t y o f U r b a n L i f e P r o b l e m s ,
C a u s e s a n d S o l u t i o n s . E l s e v i e r , A m s t e r d a m
M i t c h e l l , D . ( 2 0 0 3 ) T h e R i g h t t o t h e C i t y S o c i a l J u s t i c e a n d t h e F i g h t f o r
P u b l i c S p a c e . T h e G u i l f o r d P r e s s , N e w Y o r k
N s s , P . ( 2 0 1 2 ) U r b a n f o r m a n d t r a v e l b e h a v i o r : E x p e r i e n c e f r o m a N o r d i c
c o n t e x t , T h e J o u r n a l o f T r a n s p o r t a n d L a n d u s e , V o l . 5 , p p . 2 1 - 4 5
1 8 2

1 8 3
N a t u r v r d s v e r k e t ( S w e d i s h E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y ) ( 2 0 0 8 ) S w e d e n s
I n f o r m a t i v e I n v e n t o r y R e p o r t . 2 0 0 8 S u b m i t t e d u n d e r t h e C o n v e n t i o n o n L o n g -
R a n g e T r a n s b o u n d a r y A i r P o l l u t i o n
N i l s s o n , A . ( 1 9 9 6 ) G n g - o c h c y k e l t r a f i k e n s m j l i g h e t e r i e t t n a t i o n e l l t p e r s p e k t i v .
L u n d U n i v e r s i t y , D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d s o c i e t y , T r a f f i c a n d R o a d s ,
1 9 9 6 , B u l l e t i n 1 4 3
N i l s s o n , A . ( 2 0 0 3 ) U t v r d e r i n g a v c y k e l f l t s e f f e k t e r p c y k l i s t e r s s k e r h e t o c h
c y k e l n s k o n k u r r e n s k r a f t m o t b i l . D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , L u n d U n i v e r s i t y ,
D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d s o c i e t y , T r a f f i c a n d R o a d s , 2 0 0 3 , B u l l e t i n
2 1 7
N u h n , H . a n d H e s s e , M . ( 2 0 0 6 ) V e r k e h r s g e o g r a p h i e R e i h e : G r u n d r i s s
A l l g e m e i n e G e o g r a p h i e . V e r l a g F e r d i n a n d S c h n i n g h , P a d e r b o r n
b e r g , G . , N i l s s o n , G . , V e l i n , H . , W r e t l i n g , P . , B e r n t m a n , M . , B r u n d e l l - F r e i j ,
K . , H y d n , C . , S t h l , A . ( 1 9 9 6 ) , S i n g l e a c c i d e n t s a m o n g p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s .
V T I m e d d e l a n d e 7 9 9 A , S t a t e n s v g - o c h t r a n s p o r t f o r s k n i n g s i n s t i t u t ,
L i n k p i n g
v e r s i k t s p l a n S t o c k h o l m ( 2 0 1 0 ) P r o m e n a d s t a d e n v e r s i k t s p l a n S t o c k h o l m . 0 8 -
t r y c k , S t o c k h o l m
P a s a n e n , E . ( 1 9 9 7 ) , S a f e t y p r o b l e m s o f p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s . R e p o r t f r o m
W A L C Y N G - W P 4 C i t y o f H e l s i n k i , C i t y P l a n n i n g O f f i c e , H e l s i n k i
P a t e r s o n , M . ( 2 0 0 7 ) A u t o m o b i l e P o l i t i c s E c o l o g y a n d C u l t u r a l P o l i t i c a l
E c o n o m y . U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e
P e s s e s , M . W . ( 2 0 1 0 ) A u t o m o b i l i t y , V l o m o b i l i t y , A m e r i c a n M o b i l i t y : A n
E x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e B i c y c l e T o u r , M o b i l i t i e s , V o l . 5 , p p . 1 - 2 4
P i n d e r , D . ( 2 0 1 3 ) C i t i e s : M o v i n g , P l u g g i n g I n , F l o a t i n g , D i s s o l v i n g . I n
C r e s s w e l l a n d M e r r i m a n ( e d s . ) G e o g r a p h i e s o f M o b i l i t i e s : P r a c t i s e s , S p a c e s ,
S u b j e c t s . A s h g a t e P u b l i s h i n g , F a r n h a m , S u r r e y
P l o e g e r , J . ( 2 0 0 3 ) I n f r a s t r u c t u r e p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s . I n T o l l e y ( e d . )
S u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t P l a n n i n g f o r w a l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g i n u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s .
W o o d h e a d P u b l i s h i n g L i m i t e d , C a m b r i d g e

183
Naturvrdsverket (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency) (2008) Swedens
Informative Inventory Report. 2008 Submitted under the Convention on Long-
Range Transboundary Air Pollution
Nilsson, A. (1996) Gng- och cykeltrafikens mjligheter i ett nationellt perspektiv.
Lund University, Department of Technology and society, Traffic and Roads,
1996, Bulletin 143
Nilsson, A. (2003) Utvrdering av cykelflts effekter p cyklisters skerhet och
cykelns konkurrenskraft mot bil. Doctoral Dissertation, Lund University,
Department of Technology and society, Traffic and Roads, 2003, Bulletin
217
Nuhn, H. and Hesse, M. (2006) Verkehrsgeographie Reihe: Grundriss
Allgemeine Geographie. Verlag Ferdinand Schningh, Paderborn
berg, G., Nilsson, G., Velin, H., Wretling, P., Berntman, M., Brundell-Freij,
K., Hydn, C., Sthl, A. (1996), Single accidents among pedestrians and cyclists.
VTI meddelande 799 A, Statens vg- och transportforskningsinstitut,
Linkping
versiktsplan Stockholm (2010) Promenadstaden versiktsplan Stockholm. 08-
tryck, Stockholm
Pasanen, E. (1997), Safety problems of pedestrians and cyclists. Report from
WALCYNG - WP 4 City of Helsinki, City Planning Office, Helsinki
Paterson, M. (2007) Automobile Politics Ecology and Cultural Political
Economy. University Press, Cambridge
Pesses, M.W. (2010) Automobility, Vlomobility, American Mobility: An
Exploration of the Bicycle Tour, Mobilities, Vol. 5, pp. 1-24
Pinder, D. (2013) Cities: Moving, Plugging In, Floating, Dissolving. In
Cresswell and Merriman (eds.) Geographies of Mobilities: Practises, Spaces,
Subjects. Ashgate Publishing, Farnham, Surrey
Ploeger, J. (2003) Infrastructure planning for cyclists. In Tolley (ed.)
Sustainable transport Planning for walking and cycling in urban environments.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge
1 8 3

184
Popper, K. (1991) Selection from The Logic of Scientific Discovery. In Boyd,
Gasper and Trout (eds.) The Philosophy of Science. A Bradford Book the MIT
Press, Massachusetts
Pucher, J., Garrard, J. and Greaves, S. (2011) Cycling down under: a
comparative analysis of bicycling trends and policies in Sydney and Melbourne,
Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 19, pp. 332-345
Pucher, J. and Buehler, R. (2007) At the Frontiers of Cycling: Policy
Innovations in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany, World Transport
Policy & Practice, Vol. 3, pp. 8-56
Pucher, J. and Buehler, R. (2008) Making cycling irresistible: Lessons from
the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany, Transport Reviews, Vol. 28, 495-
528
Pucher, J. and Buehler, R. (2009) Cycling for a Few or for Everyone: The
importance of Social Justice in Cycling Policy, World Transport Policy &
Practice, Vol. 15, pp. 13-46
Pucher, J. and Buehler, R. (2012) Introduction: Cycling for Sustainable
Transportation. In Pucher and Buehler (eds.) City Cycling. The MIT Press,
Cambridge
Purcell, M. (2002) Excavating Lefebvre: The right to the city and its urban
politics of the inhabitant, GeoJournal, Vol. 58, pp. 99-108
Raco, M. (2005) Sustainable Development, Rolled-out Neoliberalism and
Sustainable Communities, Antipode, Vol. 37, pp. 324-347
Reichow, H.B. (1959) Die Autogerechte Stadt Ein Weg aus dem Verkehrschaos.
Otto Maier Verlag, Ravensburg
RES 2005-2006 (2006), sekretessbelagd resdatabas, ansvarig utgivare: SIKA
Rietveld, P. and Daniel, V. (2004) Determinants of bicycle use: do municipal
policies matter? Transportation Research Part A, 38, pp. 531-550
Risser, R. and Wunsch, D. (2003) Pedestrians are second class citizens. In
Proceedings of the 3
rd
Extra ICTCT workshop in Vancouver, Canada, 2003
Rose, G. (2001) Visual Methodologies. SAGE Publications Ltd, London

1 8 4
P o p p e r , K . ( 1 9 9 1 ) S e l e c t i o n f r o m T h e L o g i c o f S c i e n t i f i c D i s c o v e r y . I n B o y d ,
G a s p e r a n d T r o u t ( e d s . ) T h e P h i l o s o p h y o f S c i e n c e . A B r a d f o r d B o o k t h e M I T
P r e s s , M a s s a c h u s e t t s
P u c h e r , J . , G a r r a r d , J . a n d G r e a v e s , S . ( 2 0 1 1 ) C y c l i n g d o w n u n d e r : a
c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f b i c y c l i n g t r e n d s a n d p o l i c i e s i n S y d n e y a n d M e l b o u r n e ,
J o u r n a l o f T r a n s p o r t G e o g r a p h y , V o l . 1 9 , p p . 3 3 2 - 3 4 5
P u c h e r , J . a n d B u e h l e r , R . ( 2 0 0 7 ) A t t h e F r o n t i e r s o f C y c l i n g : P o l i c y
I n n o v a t i o n s i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , D e n m a r k a n d G e r m a n y , W o r l d T r a n s p o r t
P o l i c y & P r a c t i c e , V o l . 3 , p p . 8 - 5 6
P u c h e r , J . a n d B u e h l e r , R . ( 2 0 0 8 ) M a k i n g c y c l i n g i r r e s i s t i b l e : L e s s o n s f r o m
t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , D e n m a r k a n d G e r m a n y , T r a n s p o r t R e v i e w s , V o l . 2 8 , 4 9 5 -
5 2 8
P u c h e r , J . a n d B u e h l e r , R . ( 2 0 0 9 ) C y c l i n g f o r a F e w o r f o r E v e r y o n e : T h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f S o c i a l J u s t i c e i n C y c l i n g P o l i c y , W o r l d T r a n s p o r t P o l i c y &
P r a c t i c e , V o l . 1 5 , p p . 1 3 - 4 6
P u c h e r , J . a n d B u e h l e r , R . ( 2 0 1 2 ) I n t r o d u c t i o n : C y c l i n g f o r S u s t a i n a b l e
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . I n P u c h e r a n d B u e h l e r ( e d s . ) C i t y C y c l i n g . T h e M I T P r e s s ,
C a m b r i d g e
P u r c e l l , M . ( 2 0 0 2 ) E x c a v a t i n g L e f e b v r e : T h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y a n d i t s u r b a n
p o l i t i c s o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t , G e o J o u r n a l , V o l . 5 8 , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 8
R a c o , M . ( 2 0 0 5 ) S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t , R o l l e d - o u t N e o l i b e r a l i s m a n d
S u s t a i n a b l e C o m m u n i t i e s , A n t i p o d e , V o l . 3 7 , p p . 3 2 4 - 3 4 7
R e i c h o w , H . B . ( 1 9 5 9 ) D i e A u t o g e r e c h t e S t a d t E i n W e g a u s d e m V e r k e h r s c h a o s .
O t t o M a i e r V e r l a g , R a v e n s b u r g
R E S 2 0 0 5 - 2 0 0 6 ( 2 0 0 6 ) , s e k r e t e s s b e l a g d r e s d a t a b a s , a n s v a r i g u t g i v a r e : S I K A
R i e t v e l d , P . a n d D a n i e l , V . ( 2 0 0 4 ) D e t e r m i n a n t s o f b i c y c l e u s e : d o m u n i c i p a l
p o l i c i e s m a t t e r ? T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h P a r t A , 3 8 , p p . 5 3 1 - 5 5 0
R i s s e r , R . a n d W u n s c h , D . ( 2 0 0 3 ) P e d e s t r i a n s a r e s e c o n d c l a s s c i t i z e n s . I n
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 3
r d
E x t r a I C T C T w o r k s h o p i n V a n c o u v e r , C a n a d a , 2 0 0 3
R o s e , G . ( 2 0 0 1 ) V i s u a l M e t h o d o l o g i e s . S A G E P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d , L o n d o n
1 8 4

1 8 5
R u b i n , J . H . a n d R u b i n , S . I . ( 2 0 0 5 ) Q u a l i t a t i v e I n t e r v i e w i n g T h e A r t o f
H e a r i n g a n d D a t a . S A G E P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d , L o n d o n
R u d i n - B r o w n , C . M . ( 2 0 0 6 ) T h e E f f e c t o f D r i v e r E y e H e i g h t o n S p e e d
C h o i c e , L a n e - K e e p i n g a n d C a r - F o l l o w i n g B e h a v i o u r : R e s u l t s o f T w o D r i v i n g
S i m u l a t o r S t u d i e s , T r a f f i c I n j u r y P r e v e n t i o n , V o l . 7 , p p . 3 6 5 - 3 7 2
S l e n s m i d e , K ( 2 0 0 4 ) C o s t b e n e f i t a n a l y s e s o f w a l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g t r a c k
n e t w o r k s t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t i n s e c u r i t y , h e a l t h e f f e c t s a n d e x t e r n a l c o s t s o f
m o t o r i z e d t r a f f i c , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n s R e s e a r c h P a r t A , V o l . 3 8 , p p . 5 9 3 - 6 0 6
S a n d e r c o c k , L . ( e d . ) ( 1 9 9 8 ) M a k i n g t h e i n v i s i b l e v i s i b l e : A m u l t i c u l t u r a l
p l a n n i n g h i s t o r y . U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k l e y
S a y e r , A . ( 2 0 0 4 ) R e a l i s m a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e . S A G E P u b l i c a t i o n s , L o n d o n
S a y e r , A . ( 1 9 9 2 ) M e t h o d i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e : a r e a l i s t a p p r o a c h . R o u t l e d g e , L o n d o n
S c h l l e r - S c h w e d e s , O . ( 2 0 1 0 ) T h e f a i l u r e o f i n t e g r a t e d t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y i n
G e r m a n y : a h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , J o u r n a l o f T r a n s p o r t G e o g r a p h y , V o l . 1 8 , p p .
8 5 - 9 6
S h e l l e r , M . a n d U r r y , J . ( 2 0 0 3 ) M o b i l e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f ` P u b l i c ' a n d
` P r i v a t e ' L i f e , T h e o r y , C u l t u r e & S o c i e t y , V o l . 2 0 , p p . 1 0 7 - 1 2 5
S h e l l e r , M . ( 2 0 0 4 ) M o b i l e p u b l i c s : b e y o n d t h e n e t w o r k p e r s p e c t i v e ,
E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g D : S o c i e t y a n d S p a c e , V o l . 2 2 , p p . 3 9 - 5 2
S h e l l e r , M . a n d U r r y , J . ( 2 0 0 6 ) T h e n e w m o b i l i t i e s p a r a d i g m , E n v i r o n m e n t
a n d P l a n n i n g A , V o l . 3 8 , p p . 2 0 7 - 2 2 6
S i c k N i e l s e n , T . , S k o v - P e t e r s e n , H . a n d A g e r v i g C a r s t e n s e n , T . ( 2 0 1 3 ) U r b a n
p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e s f o r b i k e a b l e c i t i e s t h e c a s e o f C o p e n h a g e n , U r b a n R e s e a r c h
& P r a c t i s e , V o l . 2 , p p . 1 1 0 - 1 1 5
S I K A ( 2 0 0 8 ) V g t r a f i k s k a d o r 2 0 0 7 . S I K A S t a t i s t i k 2 0 0 8 : 2 7
S m i t h , N e i l ( 2 0 0 2 ) N e w G l o b a l i s m , N e w U r b a n i s m : G e n t r i f i c a t i o n a s G l o b a l
U r b a n S t r a t e g y , A n t i p o d e , V o l . 3 4 , p p . 4 2 7 - 4 5 0
S m i t h , N . ( 2 0 0 8 ) U n e v e n d e v e l o p m e n t : N a t u r e , c a p i t a l a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
s p a c e . U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a , A t h e n s

185
Rubin, J.H. and Rubin, S.I. (2005) Qualitative Interviewing The Art of
Hearing and Data. SAGE Publications Ltd, London
Rudin-Brown, C.M. (2006) The Effect of Driver Eye Height on Speed
Choice, Lane-Keeping and Car-Following Behaviour: Results of Two Driving
Simulator Studies, Traffic Injury Prevention, Vol. 7, pp. 365-372
Slensmide, K (2004) Costbenefit analyses of walking and cycling track
networks taking into account insecurity, health effects and external costs of
motorized traffic, Transportations Research Part A, Vol. 38, pp. 593-606
Sandercock, L. (ed.) (1998) Making the invisible visible: A multicultural
planning history. University of California Press, Berkley
Sayer, A. (2004) Realism and Social Science. SAGE Publications, London
Sayer, A. (1992) Method in social science: a realist approach. Routledge, London
Schller-Schwedes, O. (2010) The failure of integrated transport policy in
Germany: a historical perspective, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 18, pp.
85-96
Sheller, M. and Urry, J. (2003) Mobile Transformations of `Public' and
`Private' Life, Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 20, pp. 107-125
Sheller, M. (2004) Mobile publics: beyond the network perspective,
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, Vol. 22, pp. 39-52
Sheller, M. and Urry, J. (2006) The new mobilities paradigm, Environment
and Planning A, Vol. 38, pp. 207-226
Sick Nielsen, T., Skov-Petersen, H. and Agervig Carstensen, T. (2013) Urban
planning practises for bikeable cities the case of Copenhagen, Urban Research
& Practise, Vol. 2, pp. 110-115
SIKA (2008) Vgtrafikskador 2007. SIKA Statistik 2008:27
Smith, Neil (2002) New Globalism, New Urbanism: Gentrification as Global
Urban Strategy, Antipode, Vol. 34, pp. 427-450
Smith, N. (2008) Uneven development: Nature, capital and the production of
space. University of Georgia, Athens
1 8 5

186
Spinney, J. (2006) `A place of sense: a kinaesthetic ethnography of cyclists on
Mont Ventoux'', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, Vol. 24, pp.
709-732
Spinney, J. (2007) Cycling the City: Non-Places and the Sensory
Construction of Meaning in a Mobile Practise. In Horton, Rosen and Cox
(eds.) Cycling and Society. Ashgate, Hampshire
Spinney, J. (2010) Performing resistance? Re-reading practices of urban cycling
on Londons South Bank, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 42, pp. 2914-
2937
Spolander, K. (2007) Kr gldje om fart och bilar i transportsystemet. AB
Danagrds Grafiska, deshg
Stahre, U. (1999) Alternativa staden - Stockholms stadsomvandling och
byalagsrrelsen. Stockholmia Frlag, Stockholm
Stangeby, I. and Norheim, B. (1995) Fakta om kollektivtransport erfaringer og
lsninger for byomrder. The Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo 307/1995
Statens planverk (1967) SCAFT 1968: Riktlinjer fr stadsplanering med hnsyn
till trafikskerhet. Publikation nr 5, Stockholm.
Statistics Denmark http://dst.dk/HomeUK.aspx accessed 2011-09-29
Stigell, E. (2011) Assessment of active commuting behaviour walking and
bicycling in Greater Stockholm. Doctoral Dissertation, rebro University, The
School of Health and Medical Science, rebro Studies in Sport Sciences 12
Stockholm miljbarometer (2011)
http://miljobarometern.stockholm.se/key.asp?mo=7&dm=4&nt=3&uo=0
accessed 2011-11-21
Sundstrm, A. (2011) Bilar ska ge plats fr gende, cyklister och
kollektivtrafik. Dagens Nyheter, 06 Dec., published online:
http://www.dn.se/sthlm/bilar-ska-ge-plats-for-gaende-cyklister-och-
kollektivtrafik, accessed 2011-12-13
Svensson, . (2008) Gng- och cykeltrafik. In Hydn, C. (ed.) Trafiken i den
hllbara staden. Studentlitteratur, Lund

1 8 6
S p i n n e y , J . ( 2 0 0 6 ) ` A p l a c e o f s e n s e : a k i n a e s t h e t i c e t h n o g r a p h y o f c y c l i s t s o n
M o n t V e n t o u x ' ' , E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g D : S o c i e t y a n d S p a c e , V o l . 2 4 , p p .
7 0 9 - 7 3 2
S p i n n e y , J . ( 2 0 0 7 ) C y c l i n g t h e C i t y : N o n - P l a c e s a n d t h e S e n s o r y
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f M e a n i n g i n a M o b i l e P r a c t i s e . I n H o r t o n , R o s e n a n d C o x
( e d s . ) C y c l i n g a n d S o c i e t y . A s h g a t e , H a m p s h i r e
S p i n n e y , J . ( 2 0 1 0 ) P e r f o r m i n g r e s i s t a n c e ? R e - r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e s o f u r b a n c y c l i n g
o n L o n d o n s S o u t h B a n k , E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g A , V o l . 4 2 , p p . 2 9 1 4 -
2 9 3 7
S p o l a n d e r , K . ( 2 0 0 7 ) K r g l d j e o m f a r t o c h b i l a r i t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m e t . A B
D a n a g r d s G r a f i s k a , d e s h g
S t a h r e , U . ( 1 9 9 9 ) A l t e r n a t i v a s t a d e n - S t o c k h o l m s s t a d s o m v a n d l i n g o c h
b y a l a g s r r e l s e n . S t o c k h o l m i a F r l a g , S t o c k h o l m
S t a n g e b y , I . a n d N o r h e i m , B . ( 1 9 9 5 ) F a k t a o m k o l l e k t i v t r a n s p o r t e r f a r i n g e r o g
l s n i n g e r f o r b y o m r d e r . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f T r a n s p o r t E c o n o m i c s , O s l o 3 0 7 / 1 9 9 5
S t a t e n s p l a n v e r k ( 1 9 6 7 ) S C A F T 1 9 6 8 : R i k t l i n j e r f r s t a d s p l a n e r i n g m e d h n s y n
t i l l t r a f i k s k e r h e t . P u b l i k a t i o n n r 5 , S t o c k h o l m .
S t a t i s t i c s D e n m a r k h t t p : / / d s t . d k / H o m e U K . a s p x a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 1 - 0 9 - 2 9
S t i g e l l , E . ( 2 0 1 1 ) A s s e s s m e n t o f a c t i v e c o m m u t i n g b e h a v i o u r w a l k i n g a n d
b i c y c l i n g i n G r e a t e r S t o c k h o l m . D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , r e b r o U n i v e r s i t y , T h e
S c h o o l o f H e a l t h a n d M e d i c a l S c i e n c e , r e b r o S t u d i e s i n S p o r t S c i e n c e s 1 2
S t o c k h o l m m i l j b a r o m e t e r ( 2 0 1 1 )
h t t p : / / m i l j o b a r o m e t e r n . s t o c k h o l m . s e / k e y . a s p ? m o = 7 & d m = 4 & n t = 3 & u o = 0
a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 1 - 1 1 - 2 1
S u n d s t r m , A . ( 2 0 1 1 ) B i l a r s k a g e p l a t s f r g e n d e , c y k l i s t e r o c h
k o l l e k t i v t r a f i k . D a g e n s N y h e t e r , 0 6 D e c . , p u b l i s h e d o n l i n e :
h t t p : / / w w w . d n . s e / s t h l m / b i l a r - s k a - g e - p l a t s - f o r - g a e n d e - c y k l i s t e r - o c h -
k o l l e k t i v t r a f i k , a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 1 - 1 2 - 1 3
S v e n s s o n , . ( 2 0 0 8 ) G n g - o c h c y k e l t r a f i k . I n H y d n , C . ( e d . ) T r a f i k e n i d e n
h l l b a r a s t a d e n . S t u d e n t l i t t e r a t u r , L u n d
1 8 6

1 8 7
S v e n s s o n , . ( 1 9 9 8 ) A m e t h o d f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e t r a f f i c p r o c e s s i n a s a f e t y
p e r s p e c t i v e . D o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , L u n d u n i v e r s i t y D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y
a n d s o c i e t y , T r a f f i c a n d R o a d s , 1 9 9 8 , B u l l e t i n 1 6 6
S v e r i g e s N a t i o n a l A t l a s ( 2 0 1 2 )
h t t p : / / w w w . s n a . s e / w e b b a t l a s / k o m m u n / s t o c k h o l m . h t m l , a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 3 - 0 6 - 1 2
S w y n g e d o u w , E . ( 2 0 0 7 ) I m p o s s i b l e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y a n d t h e p o s t - p o l i t i c a l
t r a d i t i o n . I n R K r u e g e r a n d D . G i b b s ( e d s . ) T h e S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t
P a r a d o x . U r b a n P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d E u r o p e . G u i l d f o r d
P r e s s , N e w Y o r k
T a y l o r , B . D . ( 2 0 0 4 ) T h e G e o g r a p h y o f U r b a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n F i n a n c e . I n
H a n s o n a n d G i u l i a n o ( e d s . ) T h e G e o g r a p h y o r U r b a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . T h e
G u i l f o r d P r e s s , N e w Y o r k
T e B r m m e l s t r o e t , M . a n d B e r t o l i n i , L . ( 2 0 1 0 ) I n t e g r a t i n g l a n d u s e a n d
t r a n s p o r t k n o w l e d g e i n s t r a t e g y - m a k i n g , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , V o l . 3 7 , p p . 8 5 - 1 0 4
T o l l e y , R . ( e d . ) ( 2 0 0 3 ) S u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t P l a n n i n g f o r w a l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g
i n u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s . W o o d h e a d P u b l i s h i n g L i m i t e d , C a m b r i d g e
T o r n b e r g , P . ( 2 0 1 1 ) M a k i n g S e n s e o f I n t e g r a t e d P l a n n i n g . C h a l l e n g e s t o U r b a n
a n d T r a n s p o r t P l a n n i n g P r o c e s s e s i n S w e d e n . D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , T h e S c h o o l
o f A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d t h e B u i l t E n v i r o n m e n t , R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y ,
S t o c k h o l m
T r a f i k k o n t o r e t ( 2 0 1 0 ) C y k e l f r a m k o m l i g h e t i S t o c k h o l m E n a n a l y s a v
f r a m k o m l i g h e t e n i S t o c k h o l m s r e g i o n e n s c y k e l v g n t . S t o c k h o l m s T r a f i k k o n t o r ,
S t o c k h o l m
T r a f i k k o n t o r e t ( 2 0 0 9 ) C y k e l n I s t a d e n U t f o r m n i n g a v c y k e l s t r k i S t o c k h o l m s
s t a d . S t o c k h o l m s T r a f i k k o n t o r , S t o c k h o l m
T r a f i k k o n t o r e t ( 2 0 0 6 ) C y k e l p l a n F r S t o c k h o l m s I n n e r s t a d . S t o c k h o l m s
T r a f i k k o n t o r , S t o c k h o l m
T r a f i k k o n t o r e t ( 2 0 0 5 ) C y k e l p l a n f r S t o c k h o l m s Y t t e r s t a d . S t o c k h o l m s
T r a f i k k o n t o r , S t o c k h o l m

187
Svensson, . (1998) A method for analysing the traffic process in a safety
perspective. Doctoral dissertation, Lund university Department of Technology
and society, Traffic and Roads, 1998, Bulletin 166
Sveriges National Atlas (2012)
http://www.sna.se/webbatlas/kommun/stockholm.html, accessed 2013-06-12
Swyngedouw, E. (2007) Impossible sustainability and the post-political
tradition. In R Krueger and D. Gibbs (eds.) The Sustainable Development
Paradox. Urban Political Economy in the United States and Europe. Guildford
Press, New York
Taylor, B.D. (2004) The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance. In
Hanson and Giuliano (eds.) The Geography or Urban Transportation. The
Guilford Press, New York
Te Brmmelstroet, M. and Bertolini, L. (2010) Integrating land use and
transport knowledge in strategy-making, Transportation, Vol. 37, pp. 85-104
Tolley, R. (ed.) (2003) Sustainable transport Planning for walking and cycling
in urban environments. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge
Tornberg, P. (2011) Making Sense of Integrated Planning. Challenges to Urban
and Transport Planning Processes in Sweden. Doctoral Dissertation, The School
of Architecture and the Built Environment, Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm
Trafikkontoret (2010) Cykelframkomlighet i Stockholm En analys av
framkomligheten i Stockholmsregionens cykelvgnt. Stockholms Trafikkontor,
Stockholm
Trafikkontoret (2009) Cykeln I staden Utformning av cykelstrk i Stockholms
stad. Stockholms Trafikkontor, Stockholm
Trafikkontoret (2006) Cykelplan Fr Stockholms Innerstad. Stockholms
Trafikkontor, Stockholm
Trafikkontoret (2005) Cykelplan fr Stockholms Ytterstad. Stockholms
Trafikkontor, Stockholm
1 8 7

188
Trafikverket (2013a) http://www.trafikverket.se/forbifartstockholm, accessed
2013-07-01
Trafikverket (2013b)
http://www.trafikverket.se/Privat/Projekt/Stockholm/E20-norra-
lanken/Om_projektet/, accessed 2013-07-01
Tranter, P. (2012) Effective Speed: Cycling Because Its Faster. In Pucher
and Buehler (eds.) City Cycling. The MIT Press, Cambridge
Urry, J. (2000) Sociology beyond Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First
Century. Routledge, London
Urry, J. (2004) Connections, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space,
Vol. 22, pp. 27-37
Urry, J. (2004) The System of Automobility, Theory, Culture and Space, Vol.
21, pp. 25-39
Urry, J. (2007) Mobilities. Polity Press, Cambridge
Van Wee, B. 2007 Environmental Effects of Urban Traffic. In Grling and
Steg (eds.) Threats from Car Traffic to the Quality of Urban Life Problems,
Causes and Solutions. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Wachs, M. (2004) Reflections on the Planning Process. In Hanson and
Giuliano (eds.) The Geography or Urban Transportation. The Guilford Press,
New York
Winters, M. et al. (2007) Utilitarian bicycling: A multilevel analysis of climate
and personal influences, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 32, pp.
52-58
Wray, J.H. (2008) Pedal Power The Quiet Rise of the Bicycle in American
Public Life. Paradigm Publishers, London


1 8 8
T r a f i k v e r k e t ( 2 0 1 3 a ) h t t p : / / w w w . t r a f i k v e r k e t . s e / f o r b i f a r t s t o c k h o l m , a c c e s s e d
2 0 1 3 - 0 7 - 0 1
T r a f i k v e r k e t ( 2 0 1 3 b )
h t t p : / / w w w . t r a f i k v e r k e t . s e / P r i v a t / P r o j e k t / S t o c k h o l m / E 2 0 - n o r r a -
l a n k e n / O m _ p r o j e k t e t / , a c c e s s e d 2 0 1 3 - 0 7 - 0 1
T r a n t e r , P . ( 2 0 1 2 ) E f f e c t i v e S p e e d : C y c l i n g B e c a u s e I t s F a s t e r . I n P u c h e r
a n d B u e h l e r ( e d s . ) C i t y C y c l i n g . T h e M I T P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e
U r r y , J . ( 2 0 0 0 ) S o c i o l o g y b e y o n d S o c i e t i e s : M o b i l i t i e s f o r t h e T w e n t y - F i r s t
C e n t u r y . R o u t l e d g e , L o n d o n
U r r y , J . ( 2 0 0 4 ) C o n n e c t i o n s , E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g D : S o c i e t y a n d S p a c e ,
V o l . 2 2 , p p . 2 7 - 3 7
U r r y , J . ( 2 0 0 4 ) T h e S y s t e m o f A u t o m o b i l i t y , T h e o r y , C u l t u r e a n d S p a c e , V o l .
2 1 , p p . 2 5 - 3 9
U r r y , J . ( 2 0 0 7 ) M o b i l i t i e s . P o l i t y P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e
V a n W e e , B . 2 0 0 7 E n v i r o n m e n t a l E f f e c t s o f U r b a n T r a f f i c . I n G r l i n g a n d
S t e g ( e d s . ) T h r e a t s f r o m C a r T r a f f i c t o t h e Q u a l i t y o f U r b a n L i f e P r o b l e m s ,
C a u s e s a n d S o l u t i o n s . E l s e v i e r , A m s t e r d a m
W a c h s , M . ( 2 0 0 4 ) R e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e P l a n n i n g P r o c e s s . I n H a n s o n a n d
G i u l i a n o ( e d s . ) T h e G e o g r a p h y o r U r b a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . T h e G u i l f o r d P r e s s ,
N e w Y o r k
W i n t e r s , M . e t a l . ( 2 0 0 7 ) U t i l i t a r i a n b i c y c l i n g : A m u l t i l e v e l a n a l y s i s o f c l i m a t e
a n d p e r s o n a l i n f l u e n c e s , A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P r e v e n t i v e M e d i c i n e , V o l . 3 2 , p p .
5 2 - 5 8
W r a y , J . H . ( 2 0 0 8 ) P e d a l P o w e r T h e Q u i e t R i s e o f t h e B i c y c l e i n A m e r i c a n
P u b l i c L i f e . P a r a d i g m P u b l i s h e r s , L o n d o n

1 8 8

1 8 9
I n t e r v i e w s
C o p e n h a g e n :
A n d r e a s R h l : H e a d o f t h e b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g p r o g r a m a t t h e C e n t r e f o r
T r a n s p o r t , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 0 1 - 0 8
N i e l s J e n s e n : B i c y c l e p l a n n e r w i t h l o n g e x p e r i e n c e a t t h e C e n t r e f o r
T r a n s p o r t , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n 2 0 1 0 - 0 1 - 0 8
N i e l s T r s l v : H e a d o f t h e C e n t r e f o r T r a n s p o r t , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n ,
i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 1 0 - 0 7
H j a l t e A a b e r g : H e a d o f t h e T e c h n i c a l a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
u n d e r w h i c h t h e C e n t r e f o r T r a n s p o r t i s l o c a t e d , t o d a y r e g i o n a l d i r e c t o r f o r t h e
C a p i t a l R e g i o n o f D e n m a r k , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 1 0 - 1 9
S r e n E l l e : U r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r w i t h a l o n g e x p e r i e n c e o f p l a n n i n g a t
t h e C e n t r e o f U r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 0 9 -
2 1
J a k o b H j o r t s k o v J e n s e n : U r b a n p l a n n e r a t t h e C e n t r e o f U r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t
f o c u s e d o n z o n i n g p l a n n i n g , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 1 1 - 1 8
K l a u s B o n d a m : P o l i t i c i a n f o r R a d i c a l l e f t p a r t y , v i c e m a y o r f o r T e c h n i c a n d
E n v i r o n m e n t 2 0 0 6 - 2 0 1 2 , C i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 0 2 - 1 5












189
Interviews
Copenhagen:
Andreas Rhl: Head of the bicycle planning program at the Centre for
Transport, City of Copenhagen, interviewed 2010-01-08
Niels Jensen: Bicycle planner with long experience at the Centre for
Transport, City of Copenhagen 2010-01-08
Niels Trslv: Head of the Centre for Transport, City of Copenhagen,
interviewed 2010-10-07
Hjalte Aaberg: Head of the Technical and Environmental Administration
under which the Centre for Transport is located, today regional director for the
Capital Region of Denmark, interviewed 2010-10-19
Sren Elle: Urban and transport planner with a long experience of planning at
the Centre of Urban development, City of Copenhagen, interviewed 2011-09-
21
Jakob Hjortskov Jensen: Urban planner at the Centre of Urban development
focused on zoning planning, City of Copenhagen, interviewed 2011-11-18
Klaus Bondam: Politician for Radical left party, vice mayor for Technic and
Environment 2006-2012, City of Copenhagen, interviewed 2011-02-15











1 8 9

190
Stockholm:
Krister Isaksson: Bicycle planner at the Transport planning department, City
of Stockholm, today consultant for SWECO, interviewed 2010-05-25
Krister Spolander: Senior Consultant at Spolander Consulting with long
experience of transport in Stockholm with focus on cycling, interviewed 2010-
02-12
C 2010-11-01
One transport planner who wanted to be anonym: Similar position in
Stockholm as Niels Trslv has in Copenhagen, interviewed 2010-11-01
Mats Fager: Transport planner with long experience at the Transport planning
department, City of Stockholm, now consultant for WSP, interviewed 2011-
10-13
Eric Tedesj: Urban planner with focus on transport questions in zoning
planning at the Urban Planning Department, City of Stockholm, interviewed
2011-09-26
Stella Fare: Politician for the Stockholm Party (now Liberal Party), vice mayor
for urban politics 1998 2002, City of Stockholm, interviewed 2011-03-25

1 9 0
S t o c k h o l m :
K r i s t e r I s a k s s o n : B i c y c l e p l a n n e r a t t h e T r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d e p a r t m e n t , C i t y
o f S t o c k h o l m , t o d a y c o n s u l t a n t f o r S W E C O , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 0 5 - 2 5
K r i s t e r S p o l a n d e r : S e n i o r C o n s u l t a n t a t S p o l a n d e r C o n s u l t i n g w i t h l o n g
e x p e r i e n c e o f t r a n s p o r t i n S t o c k h o l m w i t h f o c u s o n c y c l i n g , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 -
0 2 - 1 2
C 2 0 1 0 - 1 1 - 0 1
O n e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r w h o w a n t e d t o b e a n o n y m : S i m i l a r p o s i t i o n i n
S t o c k h o l m a s N i e l s T r s l v h a s i n C o p e n h a g e n , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 0 - 1 1 - 0 1
M a t s F a g e r : T r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r w i t h l o n g e x p e r i e n c e a t t h e T r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g
d e p a r t m e n t , C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m , n o w c o n s u l t a n t f o r W S P , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 -
1 0 - 1 3
E r i c T e d e s j : U r b a n p l a n n e r w i t h f o c u s o n t r a n s p o r t q u e s t i o n s i n z o n i n g
p l a n n i n g a t t h e U r b a n P l a n n i n g D e p a r t m e n t , C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m , i n t e r v i e w e d
2 0 1 1 - 0 9 - 2 6
S t e l l a F a r e : P o l i t i c i a n f o r t h e S t o c k h o l m P a r t y ( n o w L i b e r a l P a r t y ) , v i c e m a y o r
f o r u r b a n p o l i t i c s 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 2 , C i t y o f S t o c k h o l m , i n t e r v i e w e d 2 0 1 1 - 0 3 - 2 5
1 9 0

1 9 1
A p p e n d i x 1 I n t e r v i e w G u i d e s
T h e i n t e r v i e w g u i d e b u i l d s o n d i f f e r e n t t h e m e s . T h o s e t h e m e s w e r e u s e d
d i f f e r e n t l y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e d p e r s o n . T h e q u e s t i o n s
w e r e g u i d e q u e s t i o n s f o r m e i n o r d e r t o r e m i n d m e w h a t t o p i c s I w a n t t o t o u c h
u p o n . M a n y q u e s t i o n s a n d t h e m e s a r e s i m i l a r , b u t s o m e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
p e r s o n i n t e r v i e w e d , a r e d i f f e r e n t . B e l o w a r e a l l i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r v i e w g u i d e s f o r
a l l i n t e r v i e w s .

I n t e r v i e w g u i d e p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g
A n d r e a s R h l , N i e l s J e n s e n , K r i s t e r I s a k s s o n
1 . B a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s o f t o d a y s p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g W h y d o p e o p l e
b i c y c l e s o m u c h i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d s o l i t t l e i n S t o c k h o l m ?
a . T h e h i s t o r y o f b i c y c l i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n ( t h e 1 9 5 0 s , 6 0 s a n d 7 0 s ) ?
b . W h a t i n f l u e n c e d p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ?
c . W h a t w a s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e o i l c r i s i s o n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ? D i d i t a f f e c t
p o l i c i e s a n d p l a n n i n g ? I f s o , i n w h a t w a y ?
d . W h a t w a s t h e r o l e o f p o l i t i c i a n s i n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ? I n f l u e n t i a l p e o p l e
w h o p r o m o t e d b i c y c l i n g i s s u e s ( p l a n n e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s ) ?
e . W e r e / a r e p o l i t i c i a n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e i s s u e s ? S i n c e t h e y c o n c e r n t h e c a p i t a l ,
n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s m a y b e i n t e r e s t e d i n p l a n n i n g t h e c i t y .
f . W h a t i s t h e b i c y c l i n g c u l t u r e l i k e ? D o e s i t i n c l u d e i d e n t i t y c r e a t i o n ?
g . W h a t a r e t h e c i t i z e n s a t t i t u d e s t o b i c y c l i n g , a n d h o w d o e s t h i s a f f e c t
p l a n n i n g a n d p r o c e s s e s ?
h . W h a t a r e t h e p r e s e n t p l a n s ? G o a l s ?


191
Appendix 1 Interview Guides
The interview guide builds on different themes. Those themes were used
differently depending on the position of the interviewed person. The questions
were guide questions for me in order to remind me what topics I want to touch
upon. Many questions and themes are similar, but some, depending on the
person interviewed, are different. Below are all individual interview guides for
all interviews.

Interview guide planning for bicycling
Andreas Rhl, Niels Jensen, Krister Isaksson
1. Background factors of todays planning for bicycling Why do people
bicycle so much in Copenhagen and so little in Stockholm?
a. The history of bicycling in Copenhagen (the 1950s, 60s and 70s)?
b. What influenced planning for bicycling?
c. What was the impact of the oil crisis on planning for bicycling? Did it affect
policies and planning? If so, in what way?
d. What was the role of politicians in planning for bicycling? Influential people
who promoted bicycling issues (planners, administrators and politicians)?
e. Were/are politicians involved in these issues? Since they concern the capital,
national politicians may be interested in planning the city.
f. What is the bicycling culture like? Does it include identity creation?
g. What are the citizens attitudes to bicycling, and how does this affect
planning and processes?
h. What are the present plans? Goals?

1 9 1

192
2. Other factors that affect planning for bicycling and bicycling policies
a. Does the existence or non-existence of a car industry affect bicycling policies
and planning for bicycling? Lobbying groups for and against bicycling? The
costs of owning a car (purchase + tax and insurance)?
b. What is the role of the economic development in planning for bicycling?
c. What are the laws in Denmark/Sweden?
d. What does the interplay between motor vehicles and bicyclists look like?
e. How do you assign priorities in planning for bicycling?
f. How do the media look upon bicycling policies?
3. Other aspects of planning, such as cooperation with urban planners,
citizen influence, gender etc.
a. What cooperation is there with urban planners, other transport planners? Is
planning for bicycling included in other planning processes, e.g. overall
planning?
b. How are citizens incorporated in planning processes?
c. How safe are bicyclists at different hours?
d. Who has the major impact on the planning process?
e. Do you regard bicycling and planning for bicycling as satisfactory as they are
at present? At whose expense do you expand? Cars? Buses?
f. Other aspects of the situation?

Interview guide Elle, Fager
1. Background factors of todays transport planning and traffic in general
(history)
a. How do you look at transport planning, and how has it developed?
b. What has had the major impact on transport planning and traffic?
c. How do politicians influence transport planning?
d. Were/are national politicians engaged in issues of traffic and bicycling?

1 9 2
2 . O t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g a n d b i c y c l i n g p o l i c i e s
a . D o e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o r n o n - e x i s t e n c e o f a c a r i n d u s t r y a f f e c t b i c y c l i n g p o l i c i e s
a n d p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ? L o b b y i n g g r o u p s f o r a n d a g a i n s t b i c y c l i n g ? T h e
c o s t s o f o w n i n g a c a r ( p u r c h a s e + t a x a n d i n s u r a n c e ) ?
b . W h a t i s t h e r o l e o f t h e e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ?
c . W h a t a r e t h e l a w s i n D e n m a r k / S w e d e n ?
d . W h a t d o e s t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n m o t o r v e h i c l e s a n d b i c y c l i s t s l o o k l i k e ?
e . H o w d o y o u a s s i g n p r i o r i t i e s i n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ?
f . H o w d o t h e m e d i a l o o k u p o n b i c y c l i n g p o l i c i e s ?
3 . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f p l a n n i n g , s u c h a s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s ,
c i t i z e n i n f l u e n c e , g e n d e r e t c .
a . W h a t c o o p e r a t i o n i s t h e r e w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s , o t h e r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s ? I s
p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g i n c l u d e d i n o t h e r p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s , e . g . o v e r a l l
p l a n n i n g ?
b . H o w a r e c i t i z e n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
c . H o w s a f e a r e b i c y c l i s t s a t d i f f e r e n t h o u r s ?
d . W h o h a s t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s ?
e . D o y o u r e g a r d b i c y c l i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g a s s a t i s f a c t o r y a s t h e y a r e
a t p r e s e n t ? A t w h o s e e x p e n s e d o y o u e x p a n d ? C a r s ? B u s e s ?
f . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n ?

I n t e r v i e w g u i d e E l l e , F a g e r
1 . B a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t r a f f i c i n g e n e r a l
( h i s t o r y )
a . H o w d o y o u l o o k a t t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , a n d h o w h a s i t d e v e l o p e d ?
b . W h a t h a s h a d t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t r a f f i c ?
c . H o w d o p o l i t i c i a n s i n f l u e n c e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ?
d . W e r e / a r e n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s e n g a g e d i n i s s u e s o f t r a f f i c a n d b i c y c l i n g ?
1 9 2

1 9 3
f . W h a t i s t h e r o l e o f t h e c a r i n d u s t r y ?
2 . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f p l a n n i n g , s u c h a s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s ,
c i t i z e n i n f l u e n c e , g e n d e r e t c .
a . H o w d o e s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s , p l a n n e r s f o r b i c y c l i n g a n d o t h e r
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s t a k e p l a c e ? I s t h e r e a n y c o o p e r a t i o n ? I s p l a n n i n g f o r
b i c y c l i n g i n c l u d e d i n o t h e r p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s , e . g . o v e r a l l p l a n n i n g ? I f s o , i n
w h a t w a y ?
b . W h a t d o e s t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r
b i c y c l i n g l o o k l i k e ? W h a t i s g i v e n t o p p r i o r i t y i n t h e a r e a o f t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g ?
c . A s a t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r , h o w d o y o u l o o k u p o n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ? H o w
d o y o u a s s i g n p r i o r i t i e s a m o n g o t h e r t y p e s o f t r a f f i c ?
d . H o w d o y o u r e g a r d y o u r r o l e i n t r a f f i c / u r b a n p l a n n i n g ?
e . H o w a r e c i t i z e n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
f . W h o e x e r t s t h e m a j o r i n f l u e n c e o n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s ?
g . W h a t o t h e r a c t o r s h a v e a n i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ? L o b b y i n g ,
o r g a n i z a t i o n s ?

I n t e r v i e w g u i d e H j o r t s k o v J e n s e n , T e d e s j
1 . B a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s o f t o d a y s u r b a n p l a n n i n g / z o n i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g a n d t r a f f i c i n g e n e r a l ( h i s t o r y )
a . H o w d o y o u l o o k u p o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , a n d h o w h a s t h i s p l a n n i n g
d e v e l o p e d ? W h e n a n d h o w d i d p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g e n t e r t h e a r e n a , a n d h o w
d o y o u l o o k u p o n i t ?
b . H o w i s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n z o n i n g a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g ?
c . W h a t h a d t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o n p l a n n i n g , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t r a f f i c ?
d . H o w d o p o l i t i c i a n s i n f l u e n c e p l a n n i n g ? A r e t h e r e c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e
d i f f e r e n t p a r t i e s a s r e g a r d s p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g , f o r e x a m p l e ?
e . W h a t p l a n s e x i s t t o d a y f o r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ?

193
f. What is the role of the car industry?
2. Other aspects of planning, such as cooperation with urban planners,
citizen influence, gender etc.
a. How does cooperation with urban planners, planners for bicycling and other
transport planners take place? Is there any cooperation? Is planning for
bicycling included in other planning processes, e.g. overall planning? If so, in
what way?
b. What does the interplay between transport planning and planning for
bicycling look like? What is given top priority in the area of transport
planning?
c. As a transport planner, how do you look upon planning for bicycling? How
do you assign priorities among other types of traffic?
d. How do you regard your role in traffic/urban planning?
e. How are citizens incorporated into planning processes?
f. Who exerts the major influence on the planning process?
g. What other actors have an impact on transport planning? Lobbying,
organizations?

Interview guide Hjortskov Jensen, Tedesj
1. Background factors of todays urban planning/zoning and transport
planning and traffic in general (history)
a. How do you look upon transport planning, and how has this planning
developed? When and how did planning for bicycling enter the arena, and how
do you look upon it?
b. How is transport planning incorporated in zoning and urban planning?
c. What had the major impact on planning, transport planning and traffic?
d. How do politicians influence planning? Are there conflicts between the
different parties as regards planning for bicycling, for example?
e. What plans exist today for transport planning and planning for bicycling?
1 9 3

194
f. What is the role of economic development in planning? For example: Good
economy = more cars, bad economy = fewer cars and more bicycles?
2. Other aspects of planning, such as cooperation with urban planners,
citizen influence, gender etc.
a. How is cooperation with transport planners and bicycling planners in the
other administration designed?
b. What is the interplay between transport planning and planning for bicycling
in the overall planning?
c. As a traffic strategist, how do you look upon planning for bicycling?
d. How do you look upon your role within transport/urban planning?
e. How are citizens incorporated in planning processes?
f. Who has the major impact on the planning process?
g. What other actors have an impact on overall planning and transport
planning? Lobbying, bicycle organizations?

Interview guide Spolander
1. Background factors of todays planning for bicycling and bicycling in
Stockholm
a. The history of bicycling in Stockholm developments from 1900 to today,
and what were things like at the time of the arrival of the motorcar in society
(the 1950s, 60s and 70s)?
b. What was the major impact on planning for bicycling in Stockholm?
c. How did the oil crisis affect planning for bicycling in Stockholm?
d. What was the role of politicians in planning for bicycling in Stockholm?
Strong individuals who pushed issues of bicycling (planners, civil servants as
well as politicians)?
e. Were/are national politicians involved in these issues? Since it concerns the
capital, national politicians may be interested in planning in the city.
f. What is the bicycling culture in Stockholm/Sweden like? Is identity creation
part of the planning? Do you think planners want Stockholm citizens to

1 9 4
f . W h a t i s t h e r o l e o f e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n p l a n n i n g ? F o r e x a m p l e : G o o d
e c o n o m y = m o r e c a r s , b a d e c o n o m y = f e w e r c a r s a n d m o r e b i c y c l e s ?
2 . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f p l a n n i n g , s u c h a s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s ,
c i t i z e n i n f l u e n c e , g e n d e r e t c .
a . H o w i s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s a n d b i c y c l i n g p l a n n e r s i n t h e
o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d e s i g n e d ?
b . W h a t i s t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g
i n t h e o v e r a l l p l a n n i n g ?
c . A s a t r a f f i c s t r a t e g i s t , h o w d o y o u l o o k u p o n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ?
d . H o w d o y o u l o o k u p o n y o u r r o l e w i t h i n t r a n s p o r t / u r b a n p l a n n i n g ?
e . H o w a r e c i t i z e n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
f . W h o h a s t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s ?
g . W h a t o t h e r a c t o r s h a v e a n i m p a c t o n o v e r a l l p l a n n i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g ? L o b b y i n g , b i c y c l e o r g a n i z a t i o n s ?

I n t e r v i e w g u i d e S p o l a n d e r
1 . B a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s o f t o d a y s p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g a n d b i c y c l i n g i n
S t o c k h o l m
a . T h e h i s t o r y o f b i c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m d e v e l o p m e n t s f r o m 1 9 0 0 t o t o d a y ,
a n d w h a t w e r e t h i n g s l i k e a t t h e t i m e o f t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e m o t o r c a r i n s o c i e t y
( t h e 1 9 5 0 s , 6 0 s a n d 7 0 s ) ?
b . W h a t w a s t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m ?
c . H o w d i d t h e o i l c r i s i s a f f e c t p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m ?
d . W h a t w a s t h e r o l e o f p o l i t i c i a n s i n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m ?
S t r o n g i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p u s h e d i s s u e s o f b i c y c l i n g ( p l a n n e r s , c i v i l s e r v a n t s a s
w e l l a s p o l i t i c i a n s ) ?
e . W e r e / a r e n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e i s s u e s ? S i n c e i t c o n c e r n s t h e
c a p i t a l , n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s m a y b e i n t e r e s t e d i n p l a n n i n g i n t h e c i t y .
f . W h a t i s t h e b i c y c l i n g c u l t u r e i n S t o c k h o l m / S w e d e n l i k e ? I s i d e n t i t y c r e a t i o n
p a r t o f t h e p l a n n i n g ? D o y o u t h i n k p l a n n e r s w a n t S t o c k h o l m c i t i z e n s t o
1 9 4

1 9 5
i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s a s b i c y c l i s t s , o r s h o u l d t h e y r a t h e r r e g a r d b i c y c l e s a s t h e
e a s i e s t m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ? W h a t i s S t o c k h o l m e r s a t t i t u d e t o b i c y c l i n g ,
a n d h o w d o e s i t a f f e c t p l a n n i n g a n d p r o c e s s e s ?
g . W h a t a r e t o d a y s p l a n s ? W h a t i s t o b e a c h i e v e d , a n d w h a t f i g u r e s a r e t h e r e
a b o u t b i c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m ?
2 . O t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s f o r b i c y c l i n g
a . T o w h a t e x t e n t d o e s i t h a v e a n i m p a c t t h a t S w e d e n h a s a s u b s t a n t i a l c a r
i n d u s t r y t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i n p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s o f b i c y c l i n g ? W h a t
l o b b y i n g g r o u p s e x i s t t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g , i n f a v o r o f a s
w e l l a s a g a i n s t b i c y c l i n g ? T h e c o s t s o f o w n i n g a c a r ( p u r c h a s e + t a x a n d
i n s u r a n c e ) , w h i c h a r e l i k e l y t o b e f a i r l y l o w i n S w e d e n a s c o m p a r e d t o e . g .
D e n m a r k a n d , p o s s i b l y , o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a s w e l l ? S e e P u c h e r e t a l .
b . H o w d o e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t s a f f e c t p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ? G o o d
e c o n o m y = m o r e c a r s , b a d e c o n o m y = f e w e r c a r s a n d m o r e b i c y c l e s ?
c . D o S w e d i s h l a w s g i v e p r i o r i t y t o b i c y c l i s t s ?
d . W h a t i s t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n m o t o r c a r s a n d b i c y c l i s t s l i k e i n S t o c k h o l m ?
e . H o w i s g i v i n g p r i o r i t y t o b i c y c l i n g p r o m o t e d i n S t o c k h o l m ? W h a t i s d o n e t o
m a k e b i c y c l i s t s f e e l t h a t t h e y a r e p r i o r i t i z e d ?
f . H o w d o t h e m e d i a r e g a r d p o l i c i e s f o r b i c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m ?
3 . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f p l a n n i n g , s u c h a s c o o p e r a t i n g w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s ,
c i t i z e n i n f l u e n c e , g e n d e r e t c .
a . H o w i s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s a n d o t h e r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s
d e s i g n e d ?
b . H o w a r e c i t i z e n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
c . H o w s a f e d o b i c y c l i s t s f e e l a t v a r i o u s h o u r s ?
d . W h o h a s t h e s t r o n g e s t i m p a c t o n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s ?
e . D o y o u t h i n k b i c y c l i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g a r e a d e q u a t e a s t h e y a r e
t o d a y ?
f . W h a t i s t h e s i t u a t i o n l i k e i n o t h e r a s p e c t s ?


195
identify themselves as bicyclists, or should they rather regard bicycles as the
easiest means of transportation? What is Stockholmers attitude to bicycling,
and how does it affect planning and processes?
g. What are todays plans? What is to be achieved, and what figures are there
about bicycling in Stockholm?
2. Other factors that affect planning and politics for bicycling
a. To what extent does it have an impact that Sweden has a substantial car
industry to take into account in planning and politics of bicycling? What
lobbying groups exist that influence the outcome of planning, in favor of as
well as against bicycling? The costs of owning a car (purchase + tax and
insurance), which are likely to be fairly low in Sweden as compared to e.g.
Denmark and, possibly, other countries as well? See Pucher et al.
b. How do economic developments affect planning for bicycling? Good
economy = more cars, bad economy = fewer cars and more bicycles?
c. Do Swedish laws give priority to bicyclists?
d. What is the interplay between motorcars and bicyclists like in Stockholm?
e. How is giving priority to bicycling promoted in Stockholm? What is done to
make bicyclists feel that they are prioritized?
f. How do the media regard policies for bicycling in Stockholm?
3. Other aspects of planning, such as cooperating with urban planners,
citizen influence, gender etc.
a. How is cooperation with urban planners and other transport planners
designed?
b. How are citizens incorporated in planning processes?
c. How safe do bicyclists feel at various hours?
d. Who has the strongest impact on the planning process?
e. Do you think bicycling and planning for bicycling are adequate as they are
today?
f. What is the situation like in other aspects?

1 9 5

196
Interview guide Aaberg
1. Background factors of todays transport planning in Copenhagen
(organization)
a. The organization how is it related to transport planning and planning for
bicycling?
b. Do transport planners cooperate with, for example, urban development etc.?
c. How is transport planning related to other areas of administration? Do
transport planners cooperate with, for example, urban development etc.?
d. What is your opinion of transport planning in Copenhagen in relation to
the other departments?
e. What had the strongest impact on transport planning/ planning for
bicycling and the organization in Copenhagen?
f. How have politicians influenced the organization around transport
planning? Are there any conflicts between the parties involved?
g. What is your opinion of planning for bicycling in relation to transport
planning and other departments?
2. Other aspects of planning, e.g. cooperation with urban planners,
citizen influence, gender etc.
a. How does cooperation take place with urban planners, planners for bicycling
and other transport planners? Is planning for bicycling included in other
planning processes, e.g. overall planning?
b. How do you, as administrative head, look upon transport planning and
planning for bicycling? What are your priorities?
c. How are citizens included in planning processes?
d. Who exerts the strongest influence on the planning process?
e. What other actors have an impact on transport planning and planning for
bicycling?




1 9 6
I n t e r v i e w g u i d e A a b e r g
1 . B a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n
( o r g a n i z a t i o n )
a . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n h o w i s i t r e l a t e d t o t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r
b i c y c l i n g ?
b . D o t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s c o o p e r a t e w i t h , f o r e x a m p l e , u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t e t c . ?
c . H o w i s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g r e l a t e d t o o t h e r a r e a s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ? D o
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s c o o p e r a t e w i t h , f o r e x a m p l e , u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t e t c . ?
d . W h a t i s y o u r o p i n i o n o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n i n r e l a t i o n t o
t h e o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s ?
e . W h a t h a d t h e s t r o n g e s t i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g / p l a n n i n g f o r
b i c y c l i n g a n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n C o p e n h a g e n ?
f . H o w h a v e p o l i t i c i a n s i n f l u e n c e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r o u n d t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g ? A r e t h e r e a n y c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d ?
g . W h a t i s y o u r o p i n i o n o f p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g a n d o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s ?
2 . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f p l a n n i n g , e . g . c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s ,
c i t i z e n i n f l u e n c e , g e n d e r e t c .
a . H o w d o e s c o o p e r a t i o n t a k e p l a c e w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s , p l a n n e r s f o r b i c y c l i n g
a n d o t h e r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s ? I s p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g i n c l u d e d i n o t h e r
p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s , e . g . o v e r a l l p l a n n i n g ?
b . H o w d o y o u , a s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h e a d , l o o k u p o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d
p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ? W h a t a r e y o u r p r i o r i t i e s ?
c . H o w a r e c i t i z e n s i n c l u d e d i n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
d . W h o e x e r t s t h e s t r o n g e s t i n f l u e n c e o n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s ?
e . W h a t o t h e r a c t o r s h a v e a n i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r
b i c y c l i n g ?



1 9 6

1 9 7
I n t e r v i e w g u i d e , T r s l v , F o r s e l l
1 . B a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n
a . H o w d o y o u l o o k u p o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , a n d h o w h a s t h i s p l a n n i n g
d e v e l o p e d ?
b . W h a t h a d t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ?
c . H o w d o p o l i t i c i a n s i n f l u e n c e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ?
d . W e r e / a r e n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s i n v o l v e d i n t r a n s p o r t i s s u e s ?
e . W h a t p l a n s e x i s t t o d a y f o r t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ?
2 . O t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y
a . H o w d o t h e m e d i a r e g a r d t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y ?
3 . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f p l a n n i n g , s u c h a s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s ,
c i t i z e n i n f l u e n c e , g e n d e r e t c .
a . H o w d o e s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h u r b a n p l a n n e r s , p l a n n e r s f o r b i c y c l i n g a n d o t h e r
t r a n s p o r t p l a n n e r s t a k e p l a c e ?
b . W h a t i s t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r
b i c y c l i n g ? W h a t i s a s s i g n e d t o p p r i o r i t y w i t h i n t h e a r e a o f t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g ?
c . I n y o u r c a p a c i t y o f t h e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g d i v i s i o n , h o w d o y o u l o o k u p o n
p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ?
d . H o w a r e c i t i z e n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
e . W h o h a s t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s ?

I n t e r v i e w g u i d e B o n d a m , F a r e
T h o u g h t s :
D i s c o u r s e s o n ( b i c y c l e ) p o l i t i c s w h a t d o e s t h e f u t u r e i n v o l v e ?
W h a t a r e t h e v i s i o n s ?
H o w d o y o u m a k e d e c i s i o n s a n d a s s i g n p r i o r i t i e s ?
1 . B a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s o f t o d a y s b i c y c l i n g p o l i c i e s

197
Interview guide, Trslv, Forsell
1. Background factors of todays transport planning and organization
a. How do you look upon transport planning, and how has this planning
developed?
b. What had the major impact on transport planning?
c. How do politicians influence transport planning?
d. Were/are national politicians involved in transport issues?
e. What plans exist today for transport planning?
2. Other factors that influence transport policy
a. How do the media regard transport policy?
3. Other aspects of planning, such as cooperation with urban planners,
citizen influence, gender etc.
a. How does cooperation with urban planners, planners for bicycling and other
transport planners take place?
b. What is the interplay between transport planning and planning for
bicycling? What is assigned top priority within the area of transport planning?
c. In your capacity of the transport planning division, how do you look upon
planning for bicycling?
d. How are citizens incorporated in planning processes?
e. Who has the major impact on the planning process?

Interview guide Bondam, Fare
Thoughts:
Discourses on (bicycle) politics what does the future involve?
What are the visions?
How do you make decisions and assign priorities?
1. Background factors of todays bicycling policies
1 9 7

198
a. How did you previously regard transport planning/policies, and how has
your view of politics and decision-making developed? How has politics in
general developed? When and how did bicycling policy enter the arena?
b. You based your election campaign on issues of bicycling. Why did you, and
how did you experience that people perceived it? (Bondam)
c. You and your party tipped the balance of power and promoted issues of
bicycling above all. How did you experience that people reacted, and, in your
opinion, how did things turn out? (Fare)
d. As a politician, how did you affect transport planning and planning for
bicycling?
2. Other factors affecting planning for bicycling and bicycling policies
a. How did the media look upon transport policies and bicycling policies?
3. Other aspects of politics, such as cooperation within the party, between
the parties within a bloc, between majority and minority, between
politicians and committees
a. As a politician/assistant mayor for transport policy, how did you cooperate
with other politicians within the party, with politicians in other parties, with
committees, authorities, boards?
b. What did the interplay between political government and administration
look like? What was the relationship like?
c. In what way did you take citizens opinions into account, and how does that
affect transport policy?
d. As a transport politician, how did you look upon planning for bicycling?
Does the policy look any different today?
e. To what extent did you influence transport planning and planning for
bicycling?


1 9 8
a . H o w d i d y o u p r e v i o u s l y r e g a r d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g / p o l i c i e s , a n d h o w h a s
y o u r v i e w o f p o l i t i c s a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g d e v e l o p e d ? H o w h a s p o l i t i c s i n
g e n e r a l d e v e l o p e d ? W h e n a n d h o w d i d b i c y c l i n g p o l i c y e n t e r t h e a r e n a ?
b . Y o u b a s e d y o u r e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n o n i s s u e s o f b i c y c l i n g . W h y d i d y o u , a n d
h o w d i d y o u e x p e r i e n c e t h a t p e o p l e p e r c e i v e d i t ? ( B o n d a m )
c . Y o u a n d y o u r p a r t y t i p p e d t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r a n d p r o m o t e d i s s u e s o f
b i c y c l i n g a b o v e a l l . H o w d i d y o u e x p e r i e n c e t h a t p e o p l e r e a c t e d , a n d , i n y o u r
o p i n i o n , h o w d i d t h i n g s t u r n o u t ? ( F a r e )
d . A s a p o l i t i c i a n , h o w d i d y o u a f f e c t t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r
b i c y c l i n g ?
2 . O t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g a n d b i c y c l i n g p o l i c i e s
a . H o w d i d t h e m e d i a l o o k u p o n t r a n s p o r t p o l i c i e s a n d b i c y c l i n g p o l i c i e s ?
3 . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f p o l i t i c s , s u c h a s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e p a r t y , b e t w e e n
t h e p a r t i e s w i t h i n a b l o c , b e t w e e n m a j o r i t y a n d m i n o r i t y , b e t w e e n
p o l i t i c i a n s a n d c o m m i t t e e s
a . A s a p o l i t i c i a n / a s s i s t a n t m a y o r f o r t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y , h o w d i d y o u c o o p e r a t e
w i t h o t h e r p o l i t i c i a n s w i t h i n t h e p a r t y , w i t h p o l i t i c i a n s i n o t h e r p a r t i e s , w i t h
c o m m i t t e e s , a u t h o r i t i e s , b o a r d s ?
b . W h a t d i d t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
l o o k l i k e ? W h a t w a s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p l i k e ?
c . I n w h a t w a y d i d y o u t a k e c i t i z e n s o p i n i o n s i n t o a c c o u n t , a n d h o w d o e s t h a t
a f f e c t t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y ?
d . A s a t r a n s p o r t p o l i t i c i a n , h o w d i d y o u l o o k u p o n p l a n n i n g f o r b i c y c l i n g ?
D o e s t h e p o l i c y l o o k a n y d i f f e r e n t t o d a y ?
e . T o w h a t e x t e n t d i d y o u i n f l u e n c e t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f o r
b i c y c l i n g ?

1 9 8

1 9 9
A p p e n d i x 2 S u r v e y s f o r
C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m
S u r v e y i n C o p e n h a g e n

H e l p u s u n d e r s t a n d a n d i m p r o v e t h e
t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m i n t h e c i t y !
C o p e n h a g e n i s g r o w i n g . T r a n s p o r t i s o n e o f t h e b i g g e s t
c h a l l e n g e s i n l a r g e c i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , t r a n s p o r t i s v e r y
i m p o r t a n t . T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e a l s w i t h y o u r t r a n s p o r t
w i t h i n t h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d F r e d e r i k s b e r g a n d y o u r
e x p e r i e n c e o f t r a f f i c i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d F r e d e r i s k b e r g .
T h e m a p b e l o w s h o w s t h e a r e a c o v e r e d b y t h e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n l y i n v e s t i g a t e s
t r a n s p o r t w i t h i n t h e c i t y o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d
F r e d e r i k s b e r g a n d d o e s n o t t a k e o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s
i n t o a c c o u n t .

I t i s y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s a s a u s e r o f t r a n s p o r t i n
C o p e n h a g e n a n d F r e d e r i s k b e r g t h a t a r e i n f o c u s !





199
Appendix 2 Surveys for
Copenhagen and Stockholm
Survey in Copenhagen

Help us understand and improve the
transport system in the city!
Copenhagen is growing. Transport is one of the biggest
challenges in large cities. Therefore, transport is very
important. This questionnaire deals with your transport
within the city of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg and your
experience of traffic in Copenhagen and Frederiskberg.
The map below shows the area covered by the
questionnaire. This questionnaire only investigates
transport within the city of Copenhagen and
Frederiksberg and does not take other municipalities
into account.

It is your experiences as a user of transport in
Copenhagen and Frederiskberg that are in focus!




1 9 9

200
It takes about 10 min. to fill in the survey.
If you have questions, please contact us.
Contact:
Thomas Sick Nielsen
Forskare
DTU Transport
Tel. 4525 6547
Adresse: Bygningstorvet 116 V; 2800 Kgs. Lyngby




2 0 0
I t t a k e s a b o u t 1 0 m i n . t o f i l l i n t h e s u r v e y .
I f y o u h a v e q u e s t i o n s , p l e a s e c o n t a c t u s .
C o n t a c t :
T h o m a s S i c k N i e l s e n
F o r s k a r e
D T U T r a n s p o r t
T e l . 4 5 2 5 6 5 4 7
A d r e s s e : B y g n i n g s t o r v e t 1 1 6 V ; 2 8 0 0 K g s . L y n g b y



2 0 0

2 0 1
1 . ) W h a t y e a r w e r e y o u b o r n ?
1 9 _ _ _ _ _

2 . ) A r e y o u
F e m a l e
M a l e

3 . ) H o w m a n y p e o p l e l i v e i n y o u r h o u s e h o l d ( i n c l u d i n g y o u r s e l f ) ?
_ _ _ _ n u r s e r y a g e c h i l d r e n ( 1 3 y e a r s )
_ _ _ _ k i n d e r g a r t e n a g e c h i l d r e n ( 4 6 y e a r s )
_ _ _ _ e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n ( 7 1 6 )
_ _ _ _ h i g h s c h o o l c h i l d r e n ( 1 6 1 9 )
_ _ _ _ p e o p l e 1 9 a n d a b o v e

4 . ) W h a t p a r t o f C o p e n h a g e n d o y o u l i v e i n ?
A m a g e r s t
A m a g e r V e s t
B i s p e b j e r g
B r n s h j / H u s u m
F r e d e r i k s b e r g K o m m u n e
I n d r e b y / C h r i s t i a n s h a v n
V e s t e r b r o / K g s . E n g h a v e
N r r e b r o
V a n l s e
s t e r b r o
V a l b y


201
1.) What year were you born?
19_____

2.) Are you
Female
Male

3.) How many people live in your household (including yourself)?
____ nursery age children (1 3 years)
____ kindergarten age children (4 6 years)
____ elementary school children (7 16 )
____ high school children (16 19)
____ people 19 and above

4.) What part of Copenhagen do you live in?
Amager st
Amager Vest
Bispebjerg
Brnshj/Husum
Frederiksberg Kommune
Indre by/Christianshavn
Vesterbro/Kgs. Enghave
Nrrebro
Vanlse
sterbro
Valby

2 0 1

202

5.) What is your highest level of education?
Primary 7th-10th class (elementary school, middle school,
secondary school)
Secondary Education (e.g. HF, HH, HTX, student course)
Vocational education (e.g. Trade school, technical school,
craftsman)
Short higher education (1-2 years, for example. Laboratory,
computer science)
Medium-cycle higher education (2-4 years, for example. Bachelor,
nurse, teacher)
Long higher education (minimum of 5 years, for example.
University education)
Other:____________

6.) What is your present main occupation?
Work (employee/own business)
Student
Retired
Retirement receiver
Unemployed and looking for work
Other:____________







2 0 2

5 . ) W h a t i s y o u r h i g h e s t l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n ?
P r i m a r y 7 t h - 1 0 t h c l a s s ( e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , m i d d l e s c h o o l ,
s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l )
S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n ( e . g . H F , H H , H T X , s t u d e n t c o u r s e )
V o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n ( e . g . T r a d e s c h o o l , t e c h n i c a l s c h o o l ,
c r a f t s m a n )
S h o r t h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ( 1 - 2 y e a r s , f o r e x a m p l e . L a b o r a t o r y ,
c o m p u t e r s c i e n c e )
M e d i u m - c y c l e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ( 2 - 4 y e a r s , f o r e x a m p l e . B a c h e l o r ,
n u r s e , t e a c h e r )
L o n g h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ( m i n i m u m o f 5 y e a r s , f o r e x a m p l e .
U n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n )
O t h e r : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6 . ) W h a t i s y o u r p r e s e n t m a i n o c c u p a t i o n ?
W o r k ( e m p l o y e e / o w n b u s i n e s s )
S t u d e n t
R e t i r e d
R e t i r e m e n t r e c e i v e r
U n e m p l o y e d a n d l o o k i n g f o r w o r k
O t h e r : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _






2 0 2

2 0 3
7 . ) W h a t i s y o u r p r e s e n t a n n u a l i n c o m e b e f o r e t a x ?
L e s s t h a n 1 0 0 0 0 0 D K K
1 0 0 0 0 0 D K K 2 0 0 0 0 0 D K K
2 0 0 0 0 0 D K K 3 0 0 0 0 0 D K K
3 0 0 0 0 0 D K K 4 0 0 0 0 0 D K K
4 0 0 0 0 0 D K K 5 0 0 0 0 0 D D K
5 0 0 0 0 0 D K K 6 0 0 0 0 0 D K K
M o r e t h a n 6 0 0 0 0 0 D K K

8 . ) D o y o u h a v e a d r i v e r s l i c e n s e ?
Y e s
N o

9 . ) H o w o f t e n d o y o u h a v e a c c e s s t o a c a r ?
A l w a y s
S o m e t i m e s
S e l d o m
N e v e r

1 0 . ) D o y o u h a v e a c c e s s t o a f u n c t i o n i n g b i c y c l e ?
Y e s
N o





203
7.) What is your present annual income before tax?
Less than 100 000 DKK
100 000 DKK 200 000 DKK
200 000 DKK 300 000 DKK
300 000 DKK 400 000 DKK
400 000 DKK 500 000 DDK
500 000 DKK 600 000 DKK
More than 600 000 DKK

8.) Do you have a drivers license?
Yes
No

9.) How often do you have access to a car?
Always
Sometimes
Seldom
Never

10.) Do you have access to a functioning bicycle?
Yes
No




2 0 3

204
11.) How much do you use the following means of transport on a
typical workday and on a typical Saturday and Sunday in the city
of Copenhagen/Frederiksberg?
Check the appropriate time interval. Please note that every type
of transport during the day should be considered, including walks,
walks to public transport, bicycle trips etc.

a) During summer (ca. April through September)

Workdays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:

Saturdays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:



2 0 4
1 1 . ) H o w m u c h d o y o u u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t o n a
t y p i c a l w o r k d a y a n d o n a t y p i c a l S a t u r d a y a n d S u n d a y i n t h e c i t y
o f C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g ?
C h e c k t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e i n t e r v a l . P l e a s e n o t e t h a t e v e r y t y p e
o f t r a n s p o r t d u r i n g t h e d a y s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d , i n c l u d i n g w a l k s ,
w a l k s t o p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t , b i c y c l e t r i p s e t c .

a ) D u r i n g s u m m e r ( c a . A p r i l t h r o u g h S e p t e m b e r )

W o r k d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :

S a t u r d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :


2 0 4

2 0 5
S u n d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :

b ) D u r i n g w i n t e r ( c a . O c t o b e r t h r o u g h M a r c h )

W o r k d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :









205
Sundays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:

b) During winter (ca. October through March)

Workdays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:








2 0 5

206
Saturdays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:

Sundays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:










2 0 6
S a t u r d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :

S u n d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :









2 0 6

2 0 7
1 2 ) S t a t e y o u r o p i n i o n a b o u t t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s b y
c h e c k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r e a c h o f t h e m e a n s o f
t r a n s p o r t :
a ) I f e e l s a f e ( f r o m t h r e a t , v i o l e n c e e t c . ) i n
C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g t r a f f i c i n t h e d a y t i m e w h e n I
u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


b ) I f e e l s a f e ( f r o m t h r e a t , v i o l e n c e e t c . ) i n
C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g t r a f f i c a t n i g h t w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g






207
12) State your opinion about the following statements by
checking the appropriate alternative for each of the means of
transport:
a) I feel safe (from threat, violence etc.) in
Copenhagen/Frederiksberg traffic in the daytime when I
use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


b) I feel safe (from threat, violence etc.) in
Copenhagen/Frederiksberg traffic at night when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking





2 0 7

208
c) I feel safe (from traffic accidents) in
Copenhagen/Frederiksberg traffic when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


d) I find it fast and efficient to move around in
Copenhagen/Frederiksberg traffic when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking









2 0 8
c ) I f e e l s a f e ( f r o m t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s ) i n
C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g t r a f f i c w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


d ) I f i n d i t f a s t a n d e f f i c i e n t t o m o v e a r o u n d i n
C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g t r a f f i c w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g








2 0 8

2 0 9
e ) I c a n r e a c h m y m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e s t i n a t i o n s i n
C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


f ) I e x p e r i e n c e s t r e s s a s a p r o b l e m i n
C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g t r a f f i c w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g









209
e) I can reach my most important destinations in
Copenhagen/Frederiksberg when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


f) I experience stress as a problem in
Copenhagen/Frederiksberg traffic when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking








2 0 9

210
g) I feel prioritized in Copenhagen/Frederiksberg traffic
when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


h) I think cooperation with other road user functions well
when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking









2 1 0
g ) I f e e l p r i o r i t i z e d i n C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g t r a f f i c
w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


h ) I t h i n k c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r r o a d u s e r f u n c t i o n s w e l l
w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g








2 1 0

2 1 1
i ) I f i n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g m e a n s o f
t r a n s p o r t i n C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g g o o d ( t r a n s p o r t
p l a n n i n g r e f e r s t o , f o r e x a m p l e , r o a d a n d r a i l p l a n n i n g ,
r u n n i n g , m a i n t e n a n c e , w o r k t o i m p r o v e t r a f f i c s a f e t y a n d
p l a n n i n g f o r t r a n s p o r t i n t h e f u t u r e )
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


1 3 . ) I a m a n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t t r a f f i c i n
C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g ( a s s o c i a t i o n s , d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , l e t t e r s
t o n e w s p a p e r s , f o r e x a m p l e )
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t a g r e e
a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e



1 4 . ) R a n k f r o m 1 ( m o s t ) t o 4 ( l e a s t ) t h e m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t y o u
f e e l a r e g e n e r a l l y p r i o r i t i z e d i n C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g t o d a y
_ _ _ P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t
_ _ _ C a r
_ _ _ B i c y c l e
_ _ _ W a l k i n g



211
i) I find transport planning for the following means of
transport in Copenhagen/Frederiksberg good (transport
planning refers to, for example, road and rail planning,
running, maintenance, work to improve traffic safety and
planning for transport in the future)
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


13.) I am an active participant in discussions about traffic in
Copenhagen/Frederiksberg (associations, demonstrations, letters
to newspapers, for example)
1 2 3 4 5
Dont agree
at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree



14.) Rank from 1 (most) to 4 (least) the means of transport you
feel are generally prioritized in Copenhagen/Frederiksberg today
___ Public Transport
___ Car
___ Bicycle
___ Walking


2 1 1

212
15.) Rank from 1 (most) to 4 (least) which means of transport
you think should be prioritized in Copenhagen/Frederiksberg
___ Public Transport
___ Car
___ Bicycle
___ Walking

16.) Rank from 1 (most) to 4 (least) which categories of road user
you think create the greatest problems in
Copenhagen/Frederiksberg
___ Public Transport
___ Car
___ Bicycle
___ Walking

17.) I essentially see myself as a:
Public Transport user
Car driver
Bicyclist
Pedestrian
Car driver and bicyclist
Public Transport user and bicyclist
Pedestrian and Public Transport user
None of these




2 1 2
1 5 . ) R a n k f r o m 1 ( m o s t ) t o 4 ( l e a s t ) w h i c h m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t
y o u t h i n k s h o u l d b e p r i o r i t i z e d i n C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g
_ _ _ P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t
_ _ _ C a r
_ _ _ B i c y c l e
_ _ _ W a l k i n g

1 6 . ) R a n k f r o m 1 ( m o s t ) t o 4 ( l e a s t ) w h i c h c a t e g o r i e s o f r o a d u s e r
y o u t h i n k c r e a t e t h e g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m s i n
C o p e n h a g e n / F r e d e r i k s b e r g
_ _ _ P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t
_ _ _ C a r
_ _ _ B i c y c l e
_ _ _ W a l k i n g

1 7 . ) I e s s e n t i a l l y s e e m y s e l f a s a :
P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t u s e r
C a r d r i v e r
B i c y c l i s t
P e d e s t r i a n
C a r d r i v e r a n d b i c y c l i s t
P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t u s e r a n d b i c y c l i s t
P e d e s t r i a n a n d P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t u s e r
N o n e o f t h e s e



2 1 2

2 1 3
A n d f i n a l l y
W e a r e p l a n n i n g t o a r r a n g e a f o c u s g r o u p d i s c u s s i o n w i t h p a r t i c i p a n t s
i n t e r e s t e d i n f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t t r a f f i c a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n
S t o c k h o l m , t o b e h e l d i n S t o c k h o l m . C h e c k t h e b o x b e l o w i f y o u a r e
i n t e r e s t e d .

Y e s , I m a y b e i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g , a n d y o u c a n c o n t a c t m e i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g w a y s t a t e y o u r n a m e , p h o n e n u m b e r a n d / o r e - m a i l a d d r e s s :


_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

T h a n k y o u f o r c o m p l e t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e !


213
And finally
We are planning to arrange a focus group discussion with participants
interested in further discussions about traffic and transport planning in
Stockholm, to be held in Stockholm. Check the box below if you are
interested.

Yes, I may be interested in participating, and you can contact me in the
following way state your name, phone number and/or e-mail address:


_______________________________________________________

Thank you for completing the questionnaire!

2 1 3

214
Survey in Stockholm





Contact:
Till Koglin
Doktorand
Lunds Tekniska Hgskola
046-222 91 35
Institutionen fr Teknik och samhlle
Box 118
221 00 Lund
-Sweden-


A questionnaire on traffic in
Stockholm

2 1 4
S u r v e y i n S t o c k h o l m





C o n t a c t :
T i l l K o g l i n
D o k t o r a n d
L u n d s T e k n i s k a H g s k o l a
0 4 6 - 2 2 2 9 1 3 5
I n s t i t u t i o n e n f r T e k n i k o c h s a m h l l e
B o x 1 1 8
2 2 1 0 0 L u n d
- S w e d e n -


A q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n t r a f f i c i n
S t o c k h o l m
2 1 4

2 1 5
T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e a l s w i t h y o u r t r a n s p o r t w i t h i n t h e
c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m a n d y o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f t r a f f i c i n
S t o c k h o l m . T h e m a p b e l o w s h o w s t h e a r e a c o v e r e d b y t h e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n l y i n v e s t i g a t e s
t r a n s p o r t w i t h i n t h e c i t y o f S t o c k h o l m a n d d o e s n o t
t a k e o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s i n t o a c c o u n t .
I t i s y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s a s a u s e r o f t r a n s p o r t i n
S t o c k h o l m t h a t i s i n f o c u s !










215
This questionnaire deals with your transport within the
city of Stockholm and your experience of traffic in
Stockholm. The map below shows the area covered by the
questionnaire. This questionnaire only investigates
transport within the city of Stockholm and does not
take other municipalities into account.
It is your experiences as a user of transport in
Stockholm that is in focus!









2 1 5

216
1.) What year were you born?
19_____

2.) Are you
Female
Male

3.) How many people live in your household (including yourself)?
____ preschool children (0-5 years old)
____ children in compulsory school (6-15)
____ adolescents in upper secondary school (16-19)
____ number of people over 19 years of age

4.) What part of Stockholm do you live in?
Bromma
Enskede-rsta-Vantr
Farsta
Hgersten-Liljeholmen
Hsselby-Vllingby
Kungsholmen
Norrmalm
Rinkeby-Kista
Skarpnck
Skrholmen
Spnga-Tensta
Sdermalm
lvsj
stermalm

2 1 6
1 . ) W h a t y e a r w e r e y o u b o r n ?
1 9 _ _ _ _ _

2 . ) A r e y o u
F e m a l e
M a l e

3 . ) H o w m a n y p e o p l e l i v e i n y o u r h o u s e h o l d ( i n c l u d i n g y o u r s e l f ) ?
_ _ _ _ p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n ( 0 - 5 y e a r s o l d )
_ _ _ _ c h i l d r e n i n c o m p u l s o r y s c h o o l ( 6 - 1 5 )
_ _ _ _ a d o l e s c e n t s i n u p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l ( 1 6 - 1 9 )
_ _ _ _ n u m b e r o f p e o p l e o v e r 1 9 y e a r s o f a g e

4 . ) W h a t p a r t o f S t o c k h o l m d o y o u l i v e i n ?
B r o m m a
E n s k e d e - r s t a - V a n t r
F a r s t a
H g e r s t e n - L i l j e h o l m e n
H s s e l b y - V l l i n g b y
K u n g s h o l m e n
N o r r m a l m
R i n k e b y - K i s t a
S k a r p n c k
S k r h o l m e n
S p n g a - T e n s t a
S d e r m a l m
l v s j
s t e r m a l m
2 1 6

2 1 7
5 . ) W h a t i s y o u r h i g h e s t l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n ?
C o m p u l s o r y s c h o o l
U p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l
C o l l e g e / u n i v e r s i t y
O t h e r : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6 . ) W h a t i s y o u r p r e s e n t m a i n o c c u p a t i o n ?
W o r k ( e m p l o y e e / o w n b u s i n e s s )
S t u d e n t
R e t i r e d
U n e m p l o y e d a n d l o o k i n g f o r w o r k
O t h e r : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

7 . ) W h a t i s y o u r p r e s e n t a n n u a l i n c o m e b e f o r e t a x ?
L e s s t h a n 1 0 0 0 0 0 S E K
1 0 0 0 0 0 S E K 2 0 0 0 0 0 S E K
2 0 0 0 0 0 S E K 3 0 0 0 0 0 S E K
3 0 0 0 0 0 S E K 4 0 0 0 0 0 S E K
4 0 0 0 0 0 S E K 5 0 0 0 0 0 S E K
5 0 0 0 0 0 S E K 6 0 0 0 0 0 S E K
M o r e t h a n 6 0 0 0 0 0 S E K

8 . ) D o y o u h a v e a d r i v e r s l i c e n s e ?
Y e s
N o


217
5.) What is your highest level of education?
Compulsory school
Upper secondary school
College/university
Other:______________

6.) What is your present main occupation?
Work (employee/own business)
Student
Retired
Unemployed and looking for work
Other:____________

7.) What is your present annual income before tax?
Less than 100 000 SEK
100 000 SEK 200 000 SEK
200 000 SEK 300 000 SEK
300 000 SEK 400 000 SEK
400 000 SEK 500 000 SEK
500 000 SEK 600 000 SEK
More than 600 000 SEK

8.) Do you have a drivers license?
Yes
No

2 1 7

218
9.) How often do you have access to a car?
Always
Sometimes
Seldom
Never

10.) Do you have access to a functioning bicycle?
Yes
Nej

11.) How much do you use the following means of transport on a
typical workday and on a typical Saturday and Sunday in the city
of Stockholm?
Check the appropriate time interval. Please note that every type
of transport during the day should be considered, including walks,
walks to public transport, bicycle trips etc.

a) During summer (ca. April through September)

Workdays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:


2 1 8
9 . ) H o w o f t e n d o y o u h a v e a c c e s s t o a c a r ?
A l w a y s
S o m e t i m e s
S e l d o m
N e v e r

1 0 . ) D o y o u h a v e a c c e s s t o a f u n c t i o n i n g b i c y c l e ?
Y e s
N e j

1 1 . ) H o w m u c h d o y o u u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t o n a
t y p i c a l w o r k d a y a n d o n a t y p i c a l S a t u r d a y a n d S u n d a y i n t h e c i t y
o f S t o c k h o l m ?
C h e c k t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e i n t e r v a l . P l e a s e n o t e t h a t e v e r y t y p e
o f t r a n s p o r t d u r i n g t h e d a y s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d , i n c l u d i n g w a l k s ,
w a l k s t o p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t , b i c y c l e t r i p s e t c .

a ) D u r i n g s u m m e r ( c a . A p r i l t h r o u g h S e p t e m b e r )

W o r k d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :

2 1 8

2 1 9

S a t u r d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :

S u n d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :










219

Saturdays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:

Sundays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:









2 1 9

220
b) During winter (ca. October through March)

Workdays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:

Saturdays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:









2 2 0
b ) D u r i n g w i n t e r ( c a . O c t o b e r t h r o u g h M a r c h )

W o r k d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :

S a t u r d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :








2 2 0

2 2 1
S u n d a y s
0
m i n
1 - 2 0
m i n
2 1 - 4 0
m i n
4 1 - 6 0
m i n
6 1 - 8 0
m i n
8 1 - 1 0 0
m i n
M o r e
t h a n 1 0 0
m i n
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t
C a r
B i c y c l e
W a l k i n g
O t h e r :

1 2 ) S t a t e y o u r o p i n i o n a b o u t t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s b y
c h e c k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r e a c h o f t h e m e a n s o f
t r a n s p o r t :
a ) I f e e l s a f e ( f r o m t h r e a t , v i o l e n c e e t c . ) i n S t o c k h o l m t r a f f i c
i n t h e d a y t i m e w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g








221
Sundays
0
min
1-20
min
21-40
min
41-60
min
61-80
min
81-100
min
More
than 100
min
Public
Transport
Car
Bicycle
Walking
Other:

12) State your opinion about the following statements by
checking the appropriate alternative for each of the means of
transport:
a) I feel safe (from threat, violence etc.) in Stockholm traffic
in the daytime when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking







2 2 1

222
b) I feel safe (from threat, violence etc.) in Stockholm traffic
at night when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


c) I feel safe (from traffic accidents) in Stockholm traffic
when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking









2 2 2
b ) I f e e l s a f e ( f r o m t h r e a t , v i o l e n c e e t c . ) i n S t o c k h o l m t r a f f i c
a t n i g h t w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


c ) I f e e l s a f e ( f r o m t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s ) i n S t o c k h o l m t r a f f i c
w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g








2 2 2

2 2 3
d ) I f i n d i t f a s t a n d e f f i c i e n t t o m o v e a r o u n d i n S t o c k h o l m
t r a f f i c w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


e ) I c a n r e a c h m y m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e s t i n a t i o n s i n S t o c k h o l m
w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g









223
d) I find it fast and efficient to move around in Stockholm
traffic when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


e) I can reach my most important destinations in Stockholm
when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking








2 2 3

224
f) I experience stress as a problem in Stockholm traffic when
I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


g) I feel prioritized in Stockholm traffic when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking










2 2 4
f ) I e x p e r i e n c e s t r e s s a s a p r o b l e m i n S t o c k h o l m t r a f f i c w h e n
I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


g ) I f e e l p r i o r i t i z e d i n S t o c k h o l m t r a f f i c w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g









2 2 4

2 2 5
h ) I t h i n k c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r r o a d u s e r f u n c t i o n s w e l l
w h e n I u s e
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g


i ) I f i n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g m e a n s o f
t r a n s p o r t i n S t o c k h o l m g o o d ( t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g r e f e r s
t o , f o r e x a m p l e , r o a d a n d r a i l p l a n n i n g , r u n n i n g ,
m a i n t e n a n c e , w o r k t o i m p r o v e t r a f f i c s a f e t y a n d p l a n n i n g
f o r t r a n s p o r t i n t h e f u t u r e )
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t
a g r e e a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e
N e v e r
u s e i t
P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t

C a r

B i c y c l e

W a l k i n g







225
h) I think cooperation with other road user functions well
when I use
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking


i) I find transport planning for the following means of
transport in Stockholm good (transport planning refers
to, for example, road and rail planning, running,
maintenance, work to improve traffic safety and planning
for transport in the future)
1 2 3 4 5
Dont
agree at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree
Never
use it
Public
Transport

Car

Bicycle

Walking






2 2 5

226
13.) I am an active participant in discussions about traffic in
Stockholm (associations, demonstrations, and letters to
newspapers, for example)
1 2 3 4 5
Dont agree
at all
Neither
nor
Totally
agree



14.) Rank from 1 (most) to 4 (least) the means of transport you
feel are generally prioritized in Stockholm today
___ Public Transport
___ Car
___ Bicycle
___ Walking

15.) Rank from 1 (most) to 4 (least) which means of transport
you think should be prioritized in Stockholm
___ Public Transport
___ Car
___ Bicycle
___ Walking

16.) Rank from 1 (most) to 4 (least) which categories of road user
you think create the greatest problems in Stockholm
___ Public Transport
___ Car
___ Bicycle
___ Walking



2 2 6
1 3 . ) I a m a n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t t r a f f i c i n
S t o c k h o l m ( a s s o c i a t i o n s , d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , a n d l e t t e r s t o
n e w s p a p e r s , f o r e x a m p l e )
1 2 3 4 5
D o n t a g r e e
a t a l l
N e i t h e r
n o r
T o t a l l y
a g r e e



1 4 . ) R a n k f r o m 1 ( m o s t ) t o 4 ( l e a s t ) t h e m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t y o u
f e e l a r e g e n e r a l l y p r i o r i t i z e d i n S t o c k h o l m t o d a y
_ _ _ P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t
_ _ _ C a r
_ _ _ B i c y c l e
_ _ _ W a l k i n g

1 5 . ) R a n k f r o m 1 ( m o s t ) t o 4 ( l e a s t ) w h i c h m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t
y o u t h i n k s h o u l d b e p r i o r i t i z e d i n S t o c k h o l m
_ _ _ P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t
_ _ _ C a r
_ _ _ B i c y c l e
_ _ _ W a l k i n g

1 6 . ) R a n k f r o m 1 ( m o s t ) t o 4 ( l e a s t ) w h i c h c a t e g o r i e s o f r o a d u s e r
y o u t h i n k c r e a t e t h e g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m s i n S t o c k h o l m
_ _ _ P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t
_ _ _ C a r
_ _ _ B i c y c l e
_ _ _ W a l k i n g


2 2 6

2 2 7
1 7 . ) I e s s e n t i a l l y s e e m y s e l f a s a :
P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t u s e r
C a r d r i v e r
B i c y c l i s t
P e d e s t r i a n
C a r d r i v e r a n d b i c y c l i s t
P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t u s e r a n d b i c y c l i s t
P e d e s t r i a n a n d P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t u s e r
N o n e o f t h e s e


A n d f i n a l l y
W e a r e p l a n n i n g t o a r r a n g e a f o c u s g r o u p d i s c u s s i o n w i t h p a r t i c i p a n t s
i n t e r e s t e d i n f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t t r a f f i c a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g i n
S t o c k h o l m , t o b e h e l d i n S t o c k h o l m . C h e c k t h e b o x b e l o w i f y o u a r e
i n t e r e s t e d .

Y e s , I m a y b e i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g , a n d y o u c a n c o n t a c t m e i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g w a y s t a t e y o u r n a m e , p h o n e n u m b e r a n d / o r e - m a i l a d d r e s s :


_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _



T h a n k y o u f o r c o m p l e t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e !


227
17.) I essentially see myself as a:
Public Transport user
Car driver
Bicyclist
Pedestrian
Car driver and bicyclist
Public Transport user and bicyclist
Pedestrian and Public Transport user
None of these


And finally
We are planning to arrange a focus group discussion with participants
interested in further discussions about traffic and transport planning in
Stockholm, to be held in Stockholm. Check the box below if you are
interested.

Yes, I may be interested in participating, and you can contact me in the
following way state your name, phone number and/or e-mail address:


_______________________________________________________



Thank you for completing the questionnaire!

2 2 7

228
Appendix 3 Background data
from the survey for Copenhagen
Distribution of gender among all respondents and cyclists









0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Female Male
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Gender
All
Bicyclists

2 2 8
A p p e n d i x 3 B a c k g r o u n d d a t a
f r o m t h e s u r v e y f o r C o p e n h a g e n
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f g e n d e r a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s









0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
F e m a l e M a l e
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
G e n d e r
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
2 2 8

2 2 9

H o u s e h o l d s t r u c t u r e a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s a c c o r d i n g t o c i t y d i s t r i c t
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
H o u s h o l d s t r u c t u r e
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
0
2
4
6
8
1 0
1 2
1 4
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
C i t y d i s t r i c t
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s

229

Household structure among all respondents and cyclists

Distribution of all respondents and cyclists according to city district
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Houshold structure
All
Bicyclists
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
City district
All
Bicyclists
2 2 9

230
Employment situation for all respondents and cyclists

Holding of driver license among all respondents and cyclists

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Employment situation
All
Bicyclists
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Yes No
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Holding of drivers licens
All
Bicyclists

2 3 0
E m p l o y m e n t s i t u a t i o n f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s

H o l d i n g o f d r i v e r l i c e n s e a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s

0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
E m p l o y m e n t s i t u a t i o n
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
Y e s N o
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
H o l d i n g o f d r i v e r s l i c e n s
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
2 3 0

2 3 1
A c c e s s t o a c a r a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s


A c c e s s t o a f u n c t i o n a l b i c y c l e a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s


0
5
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
4 0
4 5
5 0
A l w a y s S o m e t i m e s S e l d o m N e v e r
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
A c c e s s t o a c a r
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
Y e s N o
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
A c c e s s t o f u n c t i o n a l b i c y c l e
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s

231
Access to a car among all respondents and cyclists


Access to a functional bicycle among all respondents and cyclists


0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Always Sometimes Seldom Never
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Access to a car
All
Bicyclists
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Yes No
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Access to functional bicycle
All
Bicyclists
2 3 1

232
Appendix 4 Background data
from the survey for Stockholm
Distribution of gender among all respondents and cyclists











0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Female Male
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Gender
All
Bicyclists

2 3 2
A p p e n d i x 4 B a c k g r o u n d d a t a
f r o m t h e s u r v e y f o r S t o c k h o l m
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f g e n d e r a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s











0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
F e m a l e M a l e
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
G e n d e r
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
2 3 2

2 3 3
H o u s e h o l d s t r u c t u r e a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s


D i s t r i b u t i o n o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s a c c o r d i n g t o c i t y d i s t r i c t


0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
H o u s h o l d s t r u c t u r e
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
0
2
4
6
8
1 0
1 2
1 4
B
r
o
m
m
a
E
n
s
k
e
d
e
-

r
s
t
a
-
V
a
n
t

r
F
a
r
s
t
a
H

g
e
r
s
t
e
n
-
L
i
l
j
e
h
o
l
m
e
n
H

s
s
l
e
b
y
-
V

l
l
i
n
g
b
y
K
u
n
g
s
h
o
l
m
e
n
N
o
r
r
m
a
l
m
R
i
n
k
e
b
y
-
K
i
s
t
a
S
k
a
r
p
n

c
k
S
k

r
h
o
l
m
e
n
S
p

n
g
a
-
T
e
n
s
t
a
S

d
e
r
m
a
l
m

l
v
s
j

s
t
e
r
m
a
l
m
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
C i t y d i s t r i c t
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s

233
Household structure among all respondents and cyclists


Distribution of all respondents and cyclists according to city district


0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Houshold structure
All
Bicyclists
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
B
r
o
m
m
a
E
n
s
k
e
d
e
-

r
s
t
a
-
V
a
n
t

r
F
a
r
s
t
a
H

g
e
r
s
t
e
n
-
L
i
l
j
e
h
o
l
m
e
n
H

s
s
l
e
b
y
-
V

l
l
i
n
g
b
y
K
u
n
g
s
h
o
l
m
e
n
N
o
r
r
m
a
l
m
R
i
n
k
e
b
y
-
K
i
s
t
a
S
k
a
r
p
n

c
k
S
k

r
h
o
l
m
e
n
S
p

n
g
a
-
T
e
n
s
t
a
S

d
e
r
m
a
l
m

l
v
s
j

s
t
e
r
m
a
l
m
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
City district
All
Bicyclists
2 3 3

234
Employment situation for all respondents and cyclists


Holding of driver license among all respondents and cyclists

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Employment situation
All
Bicyclists
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Yes No
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Holding of drivers licens
All
Bicyclists

2 3 4
E m p l o y m e n t s i t u a t i o n f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s


H o l d i n g o f d r i v e r l i c e n s e a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s

0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
E m p l o y m e n t s i t u a t i o n
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
Y e s N o
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
H o l d i n g o f d r i v e r s l i c e n s
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
2 3 4

2 3 5
A c c e s s t o a c a r a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s


A c c e s s t o a f u n c t i o n a l b i c y c l e a m o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n t s a n d c y c l i s t s

0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
A l w a y s S o m e t i m e s S e l d o m N e v e r
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
A c c e s s t o a c a r
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
Y e s N o
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
A c c e s s t o a f u c t i o n a l b i c y c l e
A l l
B i c y c l i s t s

235
Access to a car among all respondents and cyclists


Access to a functional bicycle among all respondents and cyclists

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Always Sometimes Seldom Never
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Access to a car
All
Bicyclists
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Yes No
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Access to a fuctional bicycle
All
Bicyclists
2 3 5


A
p
p
e
n
d
i
x

5

R
e
s
u
l
t
s

f
r
o
m

C
h
i

2

t
e
s
t

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

1

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

4
6

3
2
8
3
7
4
7
,
1
3
0
,
1
6
5
,
2
4
9
,
7
1




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

3
7

8
0
5
8
4
2
2
1
,
76
0
,
1
7
1
5
,
6
5
3
0
,
25




T
o
t
a
l

8
3

1
1
33
1
2
16
1
3
,
65
0
,
1
1
1
0
,
9
2
1
7
,
06
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

2

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

4
6

3
4
2
3
8
8
7
,
4
3
0
,
1
6
5
,
4
6
1
0
,
11




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

1
1
8

3
5
7
4
7
5
3
,
0
3
0
,
1
1
2
,
4
6
3
,
7
3




A
p
p
e
n
d
i
x

5

R
e
s
u
l
t
s

f
r
o
m

C
h
i

2

t
e
s
t

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

1

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

4
6

3
2
8
3
7
4
7
,
1
3
0
,
1
6
5
,
2
4
9
,
7
1




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

3
7

8
0
5
8
4
2
2
1
,
7 6
0
,
1
7
1
5
,
6
5
3
0
,
2 5




T
o
t
a
l

8
3

1
1
3 3
1
2
1 6
1
3
,
6 5
0
,
1
1
1
0
,
9
2
1
7
,
0 6
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

2

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

4
6

3
4
2
3
8
8
7
,
4
3
0
,
1
6
5
,
4
6
1
0
,
1 1




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

1
1
8

3
5
7
4
7
5
3
,
0
3
0
,
1
1
2
,
4
6
3
,
7
3


2 3 6




T
o
t
a
l

1
6
4

6
9
9
8
6
3
4
,
2
6
0
,
0
9
3
,
6
5
,
0
5
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

3

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
5
8

1
7
2
3
3
0
1
,
0
9
0
,
1
1
0
,
8
8
1
,
3
5




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

3
3
4

3
8
4
7
1
8
1
,
1
5
0
,
0
7
0
,
9
9
1
,
3
3




T
o
t
a
l

4
9
2

5
5
6
1
0
4 8
1
,
1
3
0
,
0
6
1
1
,
2
8
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
6
8
2

n
.
s
.

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

4

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
8
2

1
0
4
2
8
6
0
,
5
7
0
,
1
2
0
,
4
5
0
,
7
3




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

1
6
9

4
4
4
6
1
3
2
,
6
3
0
,
0
9
2
,
2
3
,
1
4




T
o
t
a
l

3
5
1

5
4
8
8
9
9
1
,
5
6
0
,
0
7
1
,
3
7
1
,
7
9
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

5

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)









T
o
t
a
l

1
6
4

6
9
9
8
6
3
4
,
2
6
0
,
0
9
3
,
6
5
,
0
5
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

3

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
5
8

1
7
2
3
3
0
1
,
0
9
0
,
1
1
0
,
8
8
1
,
3
5




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

3
3
4

3
8
4
7
1
8
1
,
1
5
0
,
0
7
0
,
9
9
1
,
3
3




T
o
t
a
l

4
9
2

5
5
6
1
0
48
1
,
1
3
0
,
0
6
1
1
,
2
8
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
6
8
2

n
.
s
.

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

4

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
8
2

1
0
4
2
8
6
0
,
5
7
0
,
1
2
0
,
4
5
0
,
7
3




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

1
6
9

4
4
4
6
1
3
2
,
6
3
0
,
0
9
2
,
2
3
,
1
4




T
o
t
a
l

3
5
1

5
4
8
8
9
9
1
,
5
6
0
,
0
7
1
,
3
7
1
,
7
9
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

5

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)





2 3 7




S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
8
9

1
3
7
3
2
6
0
,
7
2
0
,
1
1
0
,
5
8
0
,
9




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

2
2
8

4
5
5
6
8
3
2
0
,
0
8
1
,
7
2
,
3
4




T
o
t
a
l

4
1
7

5
9
2
1
0
09
1
,
4
2
0
,
0
6
1
,
2
5
1
,
6
1
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

6

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
9
6

1
2
3
3
1
9
0
,
6
3
0
,
1
2
0
,
5
0
,
7
9




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

1
8
9

4
6
8
6
5
7
2
,
4
8
0
,
0
9
2
,
0
9
2
,
9
3




T
o
t
a
l

3
8
5

5
9
1
9
7
6
1
,
5
4
0
,
0
7
1
,
3
5
1
,
7
5
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

7

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
5
3

1
4
5
2
9
8
0
,
9
5
0
,
1
2
0
,
7
6
1
,
1
9




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

2
5
2

3
8
9
6
4
1
1
,
5
4
0
,
0
8
1
,
3
2
1
,
8
1




T
o
t
a
l

4
0
5

5
3
4
9
3
9
1
,
3
2
0
,
0
7
1
,
1
6
1
,
5
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
1
*
*
*





S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
8
9

1
3
7
3
2
6
0
,
7
2
0
,
1
1
0
,
5
8
0
,
9




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

2
2
8

4
5
5
6
8
3
2
0
,
0
8
1
,
7
2
,
3
4




T
o
t
a
l

4
1
7

5
9
2
1
0
0 9
1
,
4
2
0
,
0
6
1
,
2
5
1
,
6
1
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

6

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
9
6

1
2
3
3
1
9
0
,
6
3
0
,
1
2
0
,
5
0
,
7
9




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

1
8
9

4
6
8
6
5
7
2
,
4
8
0
,
0
9
2
,
0
9
2
,
9
3




T
o
t
a
l

3
8
5

5
9
1
9
7
6
1
,
5
4
0
,
0
7
1
,
3
5
1
,
7
5
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
0
*
*
*

S
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t

7

O
d
d
s

w
i
t
h

9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
t
s

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l



















G
r
o
u
p
s

n
o

y
e
s

t
o
t
a
l

o
d
d
s

S
.
E
.
(
l
o
g
-
o
d
d
s
)

C
I
(
o
d
d
s
)







S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

1
5
3

1
4
5
2
9
8
0
,
9
5
0
,
1
2
0
,
7
6
1
,
1
9




C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

2
5
2

3
8
9
6
4
1
1
,
5
4
0
,
0
8
1
,
3
2
1
,
8
1




T
o
t
a
l

4
0
5

5
3
4
9
3
9
1
,
3
2
0
,
0
7
1
,
1
6
1
,
5
p
-
v
a
l
u
e

0
,
0
0
1
*
*
*

2 3 8
A
p
p
e
n
d
i
x

6

R
e
s
u
l
t
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

M
a
n
n
-
W
h
i
t
n
e
y

t
e
s
t

C
y
c
l
i
s
t
s

a
n
s
w
e
r
s

t
o

t
h
e

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n

h
o
w

m
u
c
h

t
h
e

b
i
c
y
c
l
e

i
s

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

i
n

g
e
n
e
r
a
l

i
n

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m
/
C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

B
i
c
y
c
l
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

t
o
d
a
y

M
o
s
t

S
e
c
o
n
d

m
o
s
t

S
e
c
o
n
d

l
e
a
s
t

L
e
a
s
t

T
o
t
a
l

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

3
2

(
7

%
)
8
9

(
2
1

%
)
1
8
1

(
4
2

%
)
1
2
8

(
3
0

%
)
4
3
0
C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

2
4
5

(
3
0

%
)
2
4
9

(
3
1

%
)
2
2
5

(
2
8

%
)
8
6

(
1
1

%
)
8
0
5
C
y
c
l
i
s
t
s

a
n
s
w
e
r
s

t
o

t
h
e

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n

h
o
w

m
u
c
h

t
h
e

b
i
c
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

i
n

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m
/
C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

B
i
c
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

M
o
s
t

S
e
c
o
n
d

m
o
s
t

S
e
c
o
n
d

l
e
a
s
t

L
e
a
s
t

T
o
t
a
l

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

7
8

(
1
8

%
)
2
0
1

(
4
7

%
)
1
1
7

(
2
7

%
)
3
4

(
8

%
)
4
3
0
C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

3
7
4

(
4
6

%
)
3
1
5

(
3
9

%
)
1
0
3

(
1
3

%
)
1
6

(
2

%
)
8
0
8

A
p
p
e
n
d
i
x

6

R
e
s
u
l
t
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

M
a
n
n
-
W
h
i
t
n
e
y

t
e
s
t

C
y
c
l
i
s
t
s

a
n
s
w
e
r
s

t
o

t
h
e

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n

h
o
w

m
u
c
h

t
h
e

b
i
c
y
c
l
e

i
s

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

i
n

g
e
n
e
r
a
l

i
n

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m
/
C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

B
i
c
y
c
l
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

t
o
d
a
y

M
o
s
t

S
e
c
o
n
d

m
o
s
t

S
e
c
o
n
d

l
e
a
s
t

L
e
a
s
t

T
o
t
a
l

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

3
2

(
7

%
)
8
9

(
2
1

%
)
1
8
1

(
4
2

%
)
1
2
8

(
3
0

%
)
4
3
0
C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

2
4
5

(
3
0

%
)
2
4
9

(
3
1

%
)
2
2
5

(
2
8

%
)
8
6

(
1
1

%
)
8
0
5
C
y
c
l
i
s
t
s

a
n
s
w
e
r
s

t
o

t
h
e

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n

h
o
w

m
u
c
h

t
h
e

b
i
c
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

i
n

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m
/
C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

B
i
c
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

M
o
s
t

S
e
c
o
n
d

m
o
s
t

S
e
c
o
n
d

l
e
a
s
t

L
e
a
s
t

T
o
t
a
l

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

7
8

(
1
8

%
)
2
0
1

(
4
7

%
)
1
1
7

(
2
7

%
)
3
4

(
8

%
)
4
3
0
C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

3
7
4

(
4
6

%
)
3
1
5

(
3
9

%
)
1
0
3

(
1
3

%
)
1
6

(
2

%
)
8
0
8

2 3 9


R
e
s
u
l
t
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

M
a
n
n
-
W
h
i
t
n
e
y

t
e
s
t

f
o
r

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n

8

a
n
d

9

R
a
n
k
s





N

M
e
a
n

R
a
n
k

S
u
m

o
f

R
a
n
k
s

B
i
c
y
c
l
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

t
o
d
a
y

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

4
3
0
7
8
3
.
2
2
3
3
6
7
8
3


C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

8
0
5
5
2
9
.
7
5
4
2
6
4
4
7


T
o
t
a
l

1
2
3
5




B
i
c
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

4
3
0
7
6
2
.
6
1
3
2
7
9
2
1


C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

8
0
8
5
4
3
.
3
4
4
3
9
0
2
0


T
o
t
a
l

1
2
3
8




R
e
s
u
l
t
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

M
a
n
n
-
W
h
i
t
n
e
y

t
e
s
t

f
o
r

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n

8

a
n
d

9

T
e
s
t

S
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
s
(
a
)



B
i
c
y
c
l
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

t
o
d
a
y

B
i
c
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

M
a
n
n
-
W
h
i
t
n
e
y

U

1
0
2
0
3
2

1
1
2
1
8
4
W
i
l
c
o
x
o
n

W

4
2
6
4
4
7

4
3
9
0
2
0
Z

-
1
2
.
3
5
4

-
1
0
.
9
9
5
A
s
y
m
p
.

S
i
g
.

(
2
-
t
a
i
l
e
d
)

0
.
0
0
0

0
.
0
0
0



R
e
s
u
l
t
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

M
a
n
n
-
W
h
i
t
n
e
y

t
e
s
t

f
o
r

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n

8

a
n
d

9

R
a
n
k
s





N

M
e
a
n

R
a
n
k

S
u
m

o
f

R
a
n
k
s

B
i
c
y
c
l
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

t
o
d
a
y

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

4
3
0
7
8
3
.
2
2
3
3
6
7
8
3


C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

8
0
5
5
2
9
.
7
5
4
2
6
4
4
7


T
o
t
a
l

1
2
3
5




B
i
c
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

S
t
o
c
k
h
o
l
m

4
3
0
7
6
2
.
6
1
3
2
7
9
2
1


C
o
p
e
n
h
a
g
e
n

8
0
8
5
4
3
.
3
4
4
3
9
0
2
0


T
o
t
a
l

1
2
3
8




R
e
s
u
l
t
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

M
a
n
n
-
W
h
i
t
n
e
y

t
e
s
t

f
o
r

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n

8

a
n
d

9

T
e
s
t

S
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
s
(
a
)



B
i
c
y
c
l
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

t
o
d
a
y

B
i
c
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
e
d

M
a
n
n
-
W
h
i
t
n
e
y

U

1
0
2
0
3
2

1
1
2
1
8
4
W
i
l
c
o
x
o
n

W

4
2
6
4
4
7

4
3
9
0
2
0
Z

-
1
2
.
3
5
4

-
1
0
.
9
9
5
A
s
y
m
p
.

S
i
g
.

(
2
-
t
a
i
l
e
d
)

0
.
0
0
0

0
.
0
0
0

2 4 0
2 4 1
A p p e n d i x 7 F r e q u e n c i e s a n d
p e r c e n t a g e f o r m o d e s o f
t r a n s p o r t t h a t c r e a t e p r o b l e m s
f o r c y c l i s t s
F r e q u e n c i e s a n d p e r c e n t a g e f o r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t t h a t c r e a t e p r o b l e m s f o r c y c l i s t s i n
C o p e n h a g e n
P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t
F r e q u e n c y P e r c e n t ( c a . )
M o s t 3 9 4 %
S e c o n d m o s t 1 6 5 1 7 %
S e c o n d l e a s t 3 5 8 3 8 %
L e a s t 2 4 9 2 6 %
M i s s i n g 1 4 1 1 5 %
T o t a l 9 5 2 1 0 0 %
C a r s
F r e q u e n c y P e r c e n t ( c a . )
M o s t 5 1 3 5 4 %
S e c o n d m o s t 1 9 5 2 1 %
S e c o n d l e a s t 6 7 7 %
L e a s t 3 6 4 %
M i s s i n g 1 4 1 1 5 %
T o t a l 9 5 2 1 0 1 %
B i c y c l e s
F r e q u e n c y P e r c e n t ( c a . )
M o s t 2 3 2 2 5 %
241
Appendix 7 Frequencies and
percentage for modes of
transport that create problems
for cyclists
Frequencies and percentage for modes of transport that create problems for cyclists in
Copenhagen
Public Transport
Frequency Percent (ca.)
Most 39 4%
Second most 165 17%
Second least 358 38%
Least 249 26%
Missing 141 15%
Total 952 100%
Cars
Frequency Percent (ca.)
Most 513 54%
Second most 195 21%
Second least 67 7%
Least 36 4%
Missing 141 15%
Total 952 101%
Bicycles
Frequency Percent (ca.)
Most 232 25%
2 4 1

242
Second most 374 39%
Second least 183 19%
Least 22 2%
Missing 141 15%
Total 952 100%
Pedestrians
Frequency Percent (ca.)
Most 28 3%
Second most 77 8%
Second least 203 21%
Least 503 53%
Missing 141 15%
Total 952 100%

Frequencies and percentage for modes of transport that create problems for cyclists in
Stockholm
Public Transport
Frequency Percent
Most 20 4%
Second most 113 23%
Second least 140 29%
Least 146 30%
Missing 66 14%
Total 485 100%
Cars
Frequency Percent
Most 304 63%
Second most 78 16%
Second least 26 5%
Least 11 2%
Missing 66 14%
Total 485 100%

2 4 2
S e c o n d m o s t 3 7 4 3 9 %
S e c o n d l e a s t 1 8 3 1 9 %
L e a s t 2 2 2 %
M i s s i n g 1 4 1 1 5 %
T o t a l 9 5 2 1 0 0 %
P e d e s t r i a n s
F r e q u e n c y P e r c e n t ( c a . )
M o s t 2 8 3 %
S e c o n d m o s t 7 7 8 %
S e c o n d l e a s t 2 0 3 2 1 %
L e a s t 5 0 3 5 3 %
M i s s i n g 1 4 1 1 5 %
T o t a l 9 5 2 1 0 0 %

F r e q u e n c i e s a n d p e r c e n t a g e f o r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t t h a t c r e a t e p r o b l e m s f o r c y c l i s t s i n
S t o c k h o l m
P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t
F r e q u e n c y P e r c e n t
M o s t 2 0 4 %
S e c o n d m o s t 1 1 3 2 3 %
S e c o n d l e a s t 1 4 0 2 9 %
L e a s t 1 4 6 3 0 %
M i s s i n g 6 6 1 4 %
T o t a l 4 8 5 1 0 0 %
C a r s
F r e q u e n c y P e r c e n t
M o s t 3 0 4 6 3 %
S e c o n d m o s t 7 8 1 6 %
S e c o n d l e a s t 2 6 5 %
L e a s t 1 1 2 %
M i s s i n g 6 6 1 4 %
T o t a l 4 8 5 1 0 0 %
2 4 2

2 4 3
B i c y c l e s
F r e q u e n c y P e r c e n t
M o s t 8 3 1 7 %
S e c o n d m o s t 1 8 6 3 8 %
S e c o n d l e a s t 1 3 0 2 7 %
L e a s t 2 0 4 %
M i s s i n g 6 6 1 4 %
T o t a l 4 8 5 1 0 0 %
P e d e s t r i a n s
F r e q u e n c y P e r c e n t
M o s t 1 6 3 %
S e c o n d m o s t 4 2 9 %
S e c o n d l e a s t 1 2 3 2 5 %
L e a s t 2 3 8 4 9 %
M i s s i n g 6 6 1 4 %
T o t a l 4 8 5 1 0 0 %



243
Bicycles
Frequency Percent
Most 83 17%
Second most 186 38%
Second least 130 27%
Least 20 4%
Missing 66 14%
Total 485 100%
Pedestrians
Frequency Percent
Most 16 3%
Second most 42 9%
Second least 123 25%
Least 238 49%
Missing 66 14%
Total 485 100%


2 4 3

244


2 4 4

2 4 4
Vlomobility A critical
analysis of planning and space
TILL KOGLIN | DOCTORAL DISSERTATION | BULLETIN 284 | LUND UNIVERSITY
Lund University
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Technology and Society
ISBN 978-91-7473-623-6
ISSN 1653-1930
T
he purpose of this doctoral study is to bring a spatial dimension into the
research on urban mobilities and connect the spatial dimension to the
marginalisation of cyclists in urban space. This is been done by exploring
the role of urban bicycling and transport planning. The theoretical frame of
space, mobilities and power is used for analysing that role through case stu-
dies in two Scandinavian cities, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Urban bicycling
is a good example of showing the relation between space and mobilities,
since cyclists often suffer from marginalised space in cities around the world.
The philosophical foundation of the thesis is in critical realism and critical
theory. For background data, observations and document studies have been
conducted in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The main data collection for this
thesis was done both qualitatively, in the form of interviews with planners
and politicians, and quantitatively, in the form of survey studies among the
citizens of Copenhagen and Stockholm. The data is analysed with the help of
the theoretical framework that builds on mobility studies, spatial theory by
Lefebvre, and Harvey and power theories deriving mainly from Lukes three
dimensions of power. The materialisation of power relations is analysed with
the example of modern planning in Sweden and Denmark. Overall this thesis
manages to show how cycling as a mode of transport is marginalised in urban
space, and that urban space wars between cyclists and car drivers and among
cyclists are fought in Copenhagen as well as in Stockholm. The conclusion is
that different factors, such as the economic situations in Denmark and Sweden,
have affected urban and transport planning and thus have created two very
different transport systems, where cycling plays a large role (Copenhagen)
and a smaller role (Stockholm). Nevertheless, this thesis shows that even in
cities that are very good for cycling, like Copenhagen, the motorised modes of
transport create many problems and are still dominating urban space.
P
r
i
n
t
e
d

b
y

M
e
d
i
a
-
T
r
y
c
k
,

L
u
n
d

2
0
1
3
,

S
w
e
d
e
n
T
I
L
L

K
O
G
L
I
N


V

l
o
m
o
b
i
l
i
t
y

A

c
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

a
n
a
l
y
s
i
s

o
f

p
l
a
n
n
i
n
g

a
n
d

s
p
a
c
e
284