Cancer Ward and the Literature of Disease

Author(s): Jeffrey Meyers

Source: Twentieth Century Literature, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Spring, 1983), pp. 54-68
Published by: Hofstra University
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/441143 .
Accessed: 27/09/2011 22:43
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Hofstra University is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Twentieth Century
Literature.
http://www.jstor.org
C a n c e r W a r d a n d t h e Lit e r a t ur e
o f D is e a s e
JEFFREY
MEYERS
Th e lit e r a t ur e o f d is e a s e is mo r e
in t e r e s t in g
t o me t h a n a ll t h e
h e a lt h y
bo o ks .
T. E. La wr e n c e 1
D is e a s e ... Fir s t o f a ll it is a
que s t io n
o f
wh o is
s ic k,
wh o is
in s a n e ,
wh o is
e pile pt ic
o r
pa r a lyt ic :
a n
a ve r a ge
d o lt ,
wh o s e d is e a s e ,
o f
c o ur s e ,
la c ks a ll in t e lle c t ua l a n d c ult ur a l
a s pe c t s -o r
a
Nie t zs c h e ,
a
D o s t o ye vs ky.
Th o ma s Ma n n 2
Mo d e r n
Eur o pe a n
lit e r a t ur e o f t e n c o n c e r n s t h e a bn o r ma l a n d t h e
pa t h o lo gic a l.
C h a r a c t e r ize d
by
a ma c a br e
s e n s ibilit y,
a n a t t r a c t io n t o
d e c a y
a n d
n o t h in gn e s s ,
a n o bs e s s io n wit h
ph ys ic a l c o r r upt io n
a n d
d e a t h ,
it is d e f in e d
by
a mo o d o f d is s o lut io n a n d
d is in t e gr a t io n ,
o f
pa r a lyzin g a n xie t y
a n d
me t a ph ys ic a l d e s pa ir .
Mo d e r n wr it e r s h a ve in -
h e r it e d f r o m t h e Ro ma n t ic
pe r io d
t h e id e a t h a t t h e a r t is t is
ill,
a n d t h a t
h is illn e s s
give s
h im
ps yc h ic kn o wle d ge
a n d
s pir it ua l po we r .
Th o ma s
Ma n n -f o llo win g
Go e t h e 's ma xim: "Th e C la s s ic a l I c a ll t h e
h e a lt h y,
t h e
Ro ma n t ic t h e
s ic k"-e qua t e s
t h e la t t e r wit h
pa t h o lo gy.
He be lie ve s
"Ro ma n t ic is m be a r s in it s h e a r t t h e
ge r m
o f
mo r bid it y,
a s t h e r o s e be a r s
t h e
wo r m;
it s in n e r mo s t c h a r a c t e r is
s e d uc t io n ,
s e d uc t io n t o d e a t h ." In
No t e s
f r o m Un d e r gr o un d , D o s t o ye vs ky
in s is t s t h a t "t o o
gr e a t luc id it y
is a
d is e a s e ,
a
t r ue ,
f ull-f le d ge d
d is e a s e "3 be c a us e t h is
h e igh t e n e d
c o n -
s c io us n e s s f o r c e s o n e t o s e e t e r r ible t r ut h s a bo ut h uma n e xis t e n c e .
Rimba ud c a lls f o r a r e a s o n e d
d e r a n ge me n t
o f a ll t h e s e n s e s t h a t wo uld
54
SOLZHENITSYN'S C ANC ER W ARD
e n a ble t h e
t o r me n t e d , s a c r if ic ia l,
e ve n in s a n e a r t is t t o be c o me "t h e
gr e a t
in va lid ,
t h e
gr e a t
c r imin a l,
t h e
gr e a t
a c c ur s e d " a n d t o
plun ge
in t o
un kn o wn ,
"un h e a r d
o f ,
un n a me a ble " vis io n s .4 An d Nie t zs c h e a s s o c ia t e s
e xube r a n c e o f t h e
s pir it
wit h e xt r e me
pa in
a n d
ps yc h o lo gic a l
ma la is e ,
a n d be lie ve s t h a t a r t is t ic
gr e a t n e s s
is e a r n e d
by ph ys ic a l s uf f e r in g:
"On e
pa ys d e a r ly
f o r
immo r t a lit y:
o n e h a s t o d ie s e ve r a l t ime s wh ile s t ill
a live ."5
In h is
gr e a t e s s a y
o n "Go e t h e a n d
To ls t o y"
a n d h is mo r e c a ut io us
"D o s t o ye vs ky-in
Mo d e r a t io n ,"
Ma n n
pla c e s
h ims e lf
f ir mly
in t h e
Ro ma n t ic t r a d it io n
by
a Nie t zs c h e a n e xa lt a t io n o f t h e a e s t h e t ic
a s pe c t s
o f
"ge n ius -be s t o win g
d is e a s e ." In t h e f ir s t
e s s a y
h e
pa r a d o xic a lly
c la ims
t h a t d is e a s e
give s d ign it y
t o ma n be c a us e it
br in gs
o ut h is
s pir it ua l
qua lit ie s :
D is e a s e h a s t wo f a c e s a n d a d o uble r e la t io n t o ma n a n d h is
h uma n
d ign it y.
On t h e o n e h a n d it is h o s t ile :
by o ve r s t r e s s in g
t h e
ph ys ic a l, by t h r o win g
ma n ba c k
upo n
h is
bo d y,
it h a s a
d e h uma n izin g
e f f e c t . On t h e o t h e r
h a n d ,
it is
po s s ible
t o t h in k
a n d f e e l a bo ut illn e s s a s a
h igh ly d ign if ie d
h uma n
ph e n o me n o n .
.... In
d is e a s e ,
r e s id e s t h e
d ign it y
o f
ma n ;
a n d t h e
ge n ius
o f
d is e a s e is mo r e h uma n t h a n t h e
ge n ius
o f h e a lt h .6
In t h e s e c o n d
e s s a y
Ma n n
quo t e s
Nie t zs c h e 's d ic t um:
"Exc e pt io n a l
c o n d it io n s ma ke t h e a r t is t ... c o n d it io n s t h a t a r e
pr o f o un d ly
r e la t e d
a n d in t e r la c e d wit h mo r bid
ph e n o me n a ;
it s e e ms
impo s s ible
t o be a n
a r t is t a n d n o t be s ic k." He t h e n c o n n e c t s
D o s t o ye vs ky's
a n d Nie t zs c h e 's
ps yc h o lo gic a l in s igh t
a n d a r t is t ic
ge n ius
wit h t h e ir d is e a s e s :
e pile ps y
a n d
s yph ilis .
An d h e c o n c lud e s wit h t h e Rimba ud ia n
pa r a d o x
t h a t t h e
h e a lt h o f
h uma n it y
c a n be a c h ie ve d
o n ly by
t h e s a c r if ic ia l s ic kn e s s o f it s
a r t is t s :
C e r t a in a t t a in me n t s o f t h e s o ul a n d in t e lle c t a r e
impo s s ible
wit h -
o ut
d is e a s e ,
wit h o ut
in s a n it y,
wit h o ut
s pir it ua l
c r ime ,
a n d t h e
gr e a t
in va lid s a r e c r uc if ie d
vic t ims ,
s a c r if ic e d t o
h uma n it y
a n d it s
a d va n c e me n t ,
t o t h e
br o a d e n in g
o f it s
f e e lin g
a n d kn o wl-
e d ge -in
s h o r t ,
t o it s mo r e s ublime h e a lt h .7
In Ma n n 's o wn
wo r ks ,
a s Er ic h Ka h le r
o bs e r ve s ,
t h e a r t is t is
po r t r a ye d
a s a n o ut c a s t wh o r e n o un c e s lif e in o r d e r t o c r e a t e a r t :
c ult ur e a n d in t e lle c t a r e
r e pr e s e n t e d
a s
d e c a d e n c e ,
lo ve a s s o c i-
a t e d wit h
d e c lin e ;
t h e a r t is t is s e e n a s a
pa r ia h
f r o m t h e
s t a r t ,
ir id e s c e n t wit h
s us pe c t h ue s ,
s h a d in g
in t o t h e
d a e mo n ,
t h e in va -
lid ,
t h e
a d ve n t ur e r ,
t h e
c r imin a l;
a lr e a d y
h e is s t r a n d e d in t h e
ir o n ic s it ua t io n o f
e xpr e s s in g
a lif e h e h ims e lf is un a ble t o live .8
An d in Ed mun d W ils o n 's
s ymbo lic myt h
o f "t h e wo un d a n d t h e
bo w,"
t h e e s s e n t ia l s ic kn e s s o f t h e a r t is t is
r e pr e s e n t e d by
t h e a r c h e r Ph ilo c -
55
TW ENTIETH C ENTURY LITERATURE
t e t e s ,
wh o is
d e gr a d e d by
a ma lo d o r o us d is e a s e t h a t r e n d e r s h im
a bh o r r e n t t o
s o c ie t y,
but "is a ls o t h e ma s t e r o f a
s upe r h uma n
a r t wh ic h
e ve r ybo d y
h a s t o
r e s pe c t
a n d wh ic h t h e n o r ma l ma n f in d s h e n e e d s ."9
In h e r
e s s a y
"On
Be in g
Ill"
(1930), Vir gin ia
W o o lf n o t e s t h e
impo r t a n c e
o f d is e a s e a s a me a n s o f mo r a l
e xplo r a t io n
a n d wo n d e r s
wh y
lit e r a t ur e h a s n o t
s e r io us ly
c o n c e r n e d it s e lf wit h t h is c r uc ia l a r e a o f
h uma n
e xpe r ie n c e : "C o n s id e r in g
h o w c o mmo n illn e s s
is ,
h o w t r e me n -
d o us t h e
s pir it ua l c h a n ge
t h a t it
br in gs ,
h o w
a s t o n is h in g,
wh e n t h e
ligh t s
o f h e a lt h
go
d o wn ,
t h e un d is c o ve r e d c o un t r ie s t h a t a r e t h e n
d is c lo s e d ... it be c o me s
s t r a n ge
in d e e d t h a t illn e s s h a s n o t t a ke n it s
pla c e
wit h lo ve a n d ba t t le a n d
je a lo us y a mo n g
t h e
pr ime
t h e me s o f
lit e r a t ur e ."10 But in t h e la s t
c e n t ur y
wr it e r s
(in c lud in g
a n umbe r o f
d o c t o r s : An t o n
C h e kh o v,
W illia m C a r lo s
W illia ms ,
Go t t f r ie d
Be n n ,
Lo uis -Fe r d in a n d
C e lin e ,
W a lke r
Pe r c y)
h a ve
in c r e a s in gly
t ur n e d t o t h e
kin d o f c lin ic a l lit e r a t ur e wh ic h t h e ir
pr e d e c e s s o r s
t e n d e d t o a vo id ."1 In
t h e
ve r y gr e a t e s t wo r ks -To ls t o y's
Th e D e a t h
o f
Iva n
Ilyc h (c a n c e r ),
Gid e 's Th e Immo r a lis t
(t ube r c ulo s is ),
Ma n n 's D e a t h in Ve n ic e
(c h o le r a ),
Th e
Ma gic
Mo un t a in
(t ube r c ulo s is ),
D o c t o r Fa us t us
(s yph ilis ),
Th e Bla c k
Swa n
(c a n c e r ),
C a mus 's Th e
Pla gue (bubo n ic pla gue ),
A. E. Ellis ' Th e Ra c k
(t ube r c ulo s is ),
a n d
So lzh e n it s yn 's
C a n c e r W a r d -d is e a s e is bo t h t h e lit -
e r a l
s ubje c t
o f t h e n o ve l a n d t h e
s ymbo l
o f
mo r a l, s o c ia l,
o r
po lit ic a l
pa t h o lo gy.
W r it e r s like
Ka f ka , La wr e n c e , Ma n s f ie ld ,
a n d
Or we ll,
wh o d ie d o f
t ube r c ulo s is ,
r a r e ly
wr o t e f ic t io n a bo ut t h e ir o wn d is e a s e
(t h o ugh
t h e r e
a r e h in t s o f it in t h e h e r o e s o f
La d y C h a t t e r le y's
Lo ve r a n d
1984)
a n d
c o n f in e d t h e ir
d e s c r ipt io n s
t o
pe r s o n a l
le t t e r s .
So lzh e n it s yn -wh o
s uf -
f e r e d f r o m
c a n c e r ,
e n d ur e d t h e d r e a d f ul
s t a ge s
o f
d yin g, po n d e r e d
t h e
n a t ur e o f lif e a n d d e a t h -wr it e s
d ir e c t ly
a bo ut h is o wn illn e s s . But h e
wa s
o n ly
a ble t o t r a n s mut e h is illn e s s in t o a r t
a f t e r
h e wa s c ur e d a n d
h a d t h e
s t r e n gt h
t o
pe r c e ive
h is d is e a s e mo r e
o bje c t ive ly.
In h is n o ve l
c a n c e r is
h o r r ible ,
s uf f e r in g
e xt r e me ,
c ur e
impo s s ible .
Un like
Ma n n ,
wh o o bs e r ve d illn e s s
in t e lle c t ua lly, So lzh e n it s yn
e a r n e d h is
in s igh t t h r o ugh
a c t ua l
e xpe r ie n c e .
He wr it e s in t h e t r a d it io n
o f Rus s ia n
r e a lis m,
o f
To ls t o y
a n d
C h e kh o v,
a n d
r e s o lut e ly
r e n o un c e s
t h e Ro ma n t ic a t t it ud e t o wa r d d is e a s e . He d o e s n o t be lie ve t h e a r t is t is
s ic k o r t h a t d is e a s e
in s pir e s
c r e a t ive
ge n ius ,
a e s t h e t ic
in s igh t , s pir it ua l
kn o wle d ge ,
o r h uma n
d ign it y.
An d h e
c e r t a in ly
d o e s n o t be lie ve t h a t
t h e a r t is t mus t s t a n d o ut s id e
s o c ie t y.
C a n c e r W a r d
(1968) r e je c t s
t h e
s pir it ua l
s e lf -d e s t r uc t io n o f No t e s
f r o m Un d e r gr o un d ,
in wh ic h t h e ma s o c h is t ic h e r o
pr o c la ims :
56
SOLZHENITSYN'S C ANC ER W ARD
"I'm a s ic k ma n ... a me a n ma n . Th e r e 's
n o t h in g
a t t r a c t ive
a bo ut me . I t h in k t h e r e is
s o me t h in g wr o n g
wit h
my
live r ....
I'm
f ully
a wa r e t h a t I c a n 't
s pit e
t h e d o c t o r s
by r e f us in g
t h e ir
h e lp.
I kn o w
ve r y
we ll t h a t I'm
h a r min g mys e lf
a n d n o o n e e ls e .
But
s t ill,
it 's o ut o f
s pit e
t h a t I r e f us e t o a s k f o r t h e d o c t o r 's
h e lp.
So
my
live r h ur t s ?
Go o d ,
le t it h ur t e ve n mo r e !"12
It a ls o
r e je c t s
t h e
ph ys ic a l d is gus t
f o r t h e h uma n
bo d y po r t r a ye d
in
Go t t f r ie d Be n n 's
h o r r if yin g
"Ma n a n d W o ma n Go
Th r o ugh
t h e C a n c e r
W a r d ":
Th e ma n :
He r e in t h is r o w a r e wo mbs t h a t h a ve
d e c a ye d ,
a n d in t h is r o w a r e br e a s t s t h a t h a ve
d e c a ye d .
Be d be s id e
s t in kin g
be d .
Ho ur ly
t h e s is t e r s
c h a n ge .
C o me ,
quie t ly
lif t
up
t h is
c o ve r le t ,
Lo o k,
t h is
gr e a t
ma s s o f f a t a n d
ugly
h umo ur s
wa s
pr e c io us
t o a ma n
o n c e ,
a n d
me a n t
e c s t a s y
a n d h o me .
C o me ,
n o w lo o k a t t h e s c a r s
upo n
t h is br e a s t .
D o
yo u
f e e l t h e
r o s a r y
o f s ma ll s o f t kn o t s ?
Fe e l
it ,
n o f e a r . Th e f le s h
yie ld s
a n d is n umb.
He r e 's o n e wh o ble e d s a s
t h o ugh
f r o m
t h ir t y
bo d ie s .
No o n e h a s s o muc h blo o d .
Th e y
h a d t o c ut
a c h ild f r o m t h is
o n e ,
f r o m h e r c a n c e r o us wo mb.13
Th e
lit e r a r y pr e c ur s o r
o f C a n c e r W a r d is C h e kh o v's "W a r d 6." In
t h a t bit t e r but
c o mpa s s io n a t e s t o r y,
t h e s a n e d o c t o r is lo c ke d
up
in a
me n t a l wa r d
by
lun a t ic s wh o
s ymbo lize
t h e
h o pe le s s n e s s
a n d
c o r r upt io n
o f Rus s ia .
So lzh e n it s yn
f o llo ws C h e kh o v in h is
c o ur a ge o us
c o n f r o n t a -
t io n o f
d is e a s e ,
h is
pr o f o un d s ympa t h y,
h is t r a n s f o r ma t io n o f t h e c lin i-
c a l in t o t h e
po e t ic a l,
h is c o n c e r n wit h t h e mo r a l
a s pe c t s
o f
illn e s s ,
a n d
h is us e o f s ic kn e s s t o
s ymbo lize
s o c ia l
pa t h o lo gy.
Th e f a c t s e s t a blis h e d in D a vid
Bur g
a n d
Ge o r ge
Fe if e r 's
bio g-
r a ph y, So lzh e n it s yn (1972),
ma t c h (a n d a r e
pa r t ly
ba s e d
o n )
Ole g
Ko s -
t o glo t o v's a ut o bio gr a ph ic a l
r e ve la t io n s in
C h a pt e r
6 o f C a n c e r W a r d .'4
So lzh e n it s yn
wa s a r r e s t e d
by
t h e KGB f o r
c r it ic izin g
St a lin in
pe r s o n a l
le t t e r s t o a c lo s e
f r ie n d ,
wh ile
f igh t in g
a s a n
a r t ille r y
o f f ic e r in Ge r ma n
t e r r it o r y
in
Fe br ua r y
1945. He wa s s e n t e n c e d t o
e igh t ye a r s
o f f o r c e d
la bo r in a Sibe r ia n c o n c e n t r a t io n
c a mp,
d e s c r ibe d in On e
D a y
in t h e
Lif e
57
TW ENTIETH C ENTURY LITERATURE
o f
Iva n D e n is o vic h . In Ekiba s t uz
pr is o n (s o ut h e a s t
o f
Oms k)
in
Fe br ua r y
1952,
h e wa s s t r ic ke n
by
a
f a s t -s we llin g
in t e s t in a l c a n c e r a n d wa s
pr e -
pa r e d
f o r a
pr o mpt o pe r a t io n .
But be f o r e it c o uld be
pe r f o r me d ,
t h e
s ur ge o n -pr is o n e r
wa s
s ud d e n ly
t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n o t h e r
c a mp.
Th e t umo r wa s e xc is e d
by
a s e c o n d
s ur ge o n ,
a n d a s e c t io n o f
t is s ue -wit h o ut h is n a me o r
c a mp
o n it -wa s s e n t n o r t h t o Oms k f o r
la bo r a t o r y a n a lys is .
Th e in c is io n s o o n
h e a le d ;
a n d
t h o ugh
s t ill in
pa in ,
h e r e t ur n e d t o wo r k
c a r r yin g h e a vy
bo xe s o f
liquid
c o n c r e t e . Th e
me d ic a l
r e po r t ,
wh ic h
d ia gn o s e d
t h e t umo r a s
r a pid ly d e ve lo pin g
a n d
a c ut e ly ma lign a n t
c a n c e r t h a t n e e d e d imme d ia t e
t r e a t me n t ,
wa s
e ve n t ua lly
s e n t ba c k t o t h e
c a mp.
But t h e
n e glige n t
o f f ic ia ls d id n o t
bo t h e r t o t r a c k d o wn t h e
a n o n ymo us pr is o n e r -pa t ie n t ,
a n d t h e
d ia g-
n o s is wa s n o t r e ve a le d t o h im. Th e
o pe r a t io n
r e t a r d e d t h e
t umo r ,
t h e
pa in s ubs id e d ,
a n d h e f e lt h e h a d ma d e a n
a s t o n is h in g r e c o ve r y.
So lzh e n it s yn ,
f o r bid d e n t o r e t ur n t o
Eur o pe a n
Rus s ia a f t e r h is
r e le a s e f r o m t h e
pr is o n c a mp,
wa s s e n t t o
"pe r pe t ua l
e xile " in r e mo t e
Ka za kh s t a n . In
Be r lik,
in t h e f a ll o f
1953,
h e wa s
a ga in
s t r ic ke n
by
c a n c e r a n d
f r e que n t ly
f a in t e d f r o m
o ve r po we r in g pa in .
Un a ble a t f ir s t
t o
ge t pe r mis s io n
f r o m t h e lo c a l
po lic e
t o e n t e r a
h o s pit a l,
h e t r a ve le d
ille ga lly
in t o t h e
n e a r by
mo un t a in s t o s e e k
h e lp
f r o m a n o ld ma n wh o
pr a c t ic e d
f o lk
me d ic in e ,
a n d wa s
t e mpo r a r ily ke pt
a live
by
a r o o t
c o n t a in in g
a c o n it e . W h e n h e
f in a lly
a r r ive d a t t h e
h o s pit a l
in
Ta s h ke n t ,
Uzbe kis t a n ,
in
Ja n ua r y
1954,
t h e d o c t o r s
ga ve
h im t h r e e we e ks t o live .
On t h e f r o n t ie r o f
d e a t h ,
d e pr ive d
o f t h e
a bilit y
t o e a t a n d
s le e p,
a n d
po is o n e d by
t h e t umo r 's
t o xin ,
h e s a id : "I wa s
pr a c t ic a lly
a
c o r ps e .
I
c a me t h e r e
e xpe c t in g
t o d ie ."15
So lzh e n it s yn
wa s t r e a t e d wit h
x-r a ys
a n d
h o r mo n e s ,
t h e
pa in
d is -
a ppe a r e d , s le e p
a n d
a ppe t it e e ve n t ua lly
r e t ur n e d . Th r e e mo n t h s la t e r
h e
e me r ge d
f r o m t h e
h o s pit a l
wit h r e n e we d e mo t io n a l
s t r e n gt h
a n d
s pir it ua l
c o n f id e n c e . He s t ill h a d t o t a ke
po we r f ul
me d ic in e s ,
but s a id
t h a t t h e t umo r n o
lo n ge r
in t e r f e r e d wit h h is lif e . It h a d
c h a n ge d
it s
n a t ur e a n d f o r f e it e d it s
ma lign a n c y.
In Ma r c h 1954 h e c o n f e s s e d : "I
d id n 't d a r e a d mit e ve n t o
mys e lf
t h a t I wa s
r e c o ve r in g.
Eve n in
f le e t in g
d r e a ms I me a s ur e d t h e
s pa n
t h a t h a d be e n a d d e d t o
my
lif e n o t in
ye a r s ,
but mo n t h s ."16 Th a t
s pr in g
wa s t h e mo s t
pa in f ul
a n d mo s t
lo ve ly
s e a s o n o f h is lif e .
So lzh e n it s yn 's o bs e s s ive ,
e ve n f a n a t ic a l c o mmit me n t t o r e c o r d t h e
t r ut h o f h is
e xpe r ie n c e s ,
wh ic h be c a me a
pa r a d igm
f o r lif e in St a lin is t
Rus s ia ,
wa s in t e n s if ie d
by
h is s e n s e o f lo s t lif e a n d r e n un c ia t io n o f lo ve :
in t h e
a r my, pr is o n , e xile ,
a n d
h o s pit a l.
In h is
a ut o bio gr a ph ic a l
Th e Oa k
a n d t h e
C a lf (1980),
h e
e xpla in s :
58
SOLZHENITSYN'S C ANC ER W ARD
I h a d
go n e
o n
wr it in g-a s
a
br ic kla ye r ,
in o ve r c r o wd e d
pr is o n
h ut s ,
in t r a n s it
ja ils
wit h o ut s o muc h a s a
pe n c il,
wh e n I wa s
d yin g
o f
c a n c e r ,
in a n e xile 's h o ve l a f t e r a d o uble
t e a c h in g
s h if t .
I h a d le t
n o t h in g-d a n ge r s ,
h in d r a n c e s ,
t h e n e e d f o r r e s t -
in t e r r upt my wr it in g....
I h a d ma d e
my ye a r s
o f e xile
mis e r a ble -ye a r s
o f f ur io us
lo n gin g
f o r a wo ma n -be c a us e I wa s
a f r a id f o r
my
bo o ks ,
a f r a id t h a t s o me Ko ms o mo l
gir l
wo uld
be t r a y
me . Af t e r f o ur
ye a r s
o f wa r a n d
e igh t ye a r s
o f
impr is o n -
me n t ,
my
f ir s t t h r e e
ye a r s
a s a f r e e ma n we r e
ye a r s
o f
mis e r y,
r e pr e s s io n
a n d f r us t r a t io n .17
W h e n t h r e a t e n e d
by
c a n c e r ,
a f t e r
s ur vivin g
t h e wa r a n d
pr is o n ,
h e
f e a r e d "a ll t h a t I h a d me mo r ize d in t h e
c a mps
r a n t h e r is k o f e xt in c t io n
t o ge t h e r
wit h t h e h e a d t h a t h e ld it . Th is wa s a d r e a d f ul mo me n t in
my
lif e : t o d ie o n t h e t h r e s h o ld o f
f r e e d o m,
t o s e e a ll I h a d
wr it t e n ,
a ll t h a t
ga ve me a n in g
t o
my
lif e t h us
f a r ,
a bo ut t o
pe r is h
wit h me ."18 C a n c e r
W a r d ,
wh o s e
s ubje c t (wr it e s So lzh e n it s yn )
"is
s pe c if ic a lly
a n d
lit e r a lly
c a n c e r ,
a
s ubje c t
a vo id e d in
lit e r a t ur e ,
but n e ve r t h e le s s a
r e a lit y
a s it s
vic t ims kn o w
o n ly
t o o we ll f r o m
d a ily e xpe r ie n c e ,"19
is h is t r ibut e t o
h uma n
d ign it y
a n d ma n 's
po we r
o f s ur viva l.
C a n c e r W a r d is t h e mo s t
c o mple t e
a n d a c c ur a t e f ic t io n a l a c c o un t o f
t h e n a t ur e o f d is e a s e a n d it s r e la t io n t o lo ve . It d e s c r ibe s t h e c h a r a c -
t e r is t ic s o f
c a n c e r ;
t h e
ph ys ic a l, ps yc h o lo gic a l,
a n d mo r a l e f f e c t s o n t h e
vic t im;
t h e c o n d it io n s o f t h e
h o s pit a l;
t h e r e la t io n s o f
pa t ie n t s
a n d
d o c t o r s ;
t h e
t e r r if yin g
t r e a t me n t s ;
t h e
po s s ibilit y
o f d e a t h . W h ile d is -
c us s in g
t h e c o n c e n t r a t io n
c a mps , Ko s t o glo t o v
r a is e s t h e c e n t r a l
que s -
t io n s o f t h e
n o ve l,
a n d c o n n e c t s t h e
pa t h o lo gic a l
a n d
po lit ic a l
t h e me s :
"Ho w muc h c a n o n e
pa y
f o r
lif e ,
a n d h o w muc h is t o o muc h ?" He
d e c id e s t h a t "t h e
be t r a ya l
o r d e s t r uc t io n o f
go o d
a n d
h e lple s s pe o ple
is
t o o
h igh
a
pr ic e ,
t h a t o ur live s a r e n 't wo r t h it ."
In t h e n o ve l
c a n c e r ,
wh ic h in 1955 c o uld n e ve r be
c o mple t e ly
c ur e d ,
is a
f r igh t e n in g
d is e a s e t h a t c a us e s
pr o lo n ge d s uf f e r in g.
It s
r a pid
but h id d e n
gr o wt h ,
un s e e n a n d
un s us pe c t e d , d e ve lo ps
a n in -
e xo r a ble will a n d
"a c quir e s r igh t s
o f it s o wn ." It is
us ua lly
n o t d is c o v-
e r e d un t il it h a s r e a c h e d a n a d va n c e d a n d o f t e n f a t a l s t a t e .
Th e
s pir it ua l
wo un d s o f t h e e mbit t e r e d
pa t ie n t
a r e
d e va s t a t in g.
He
a t t e mpt s
t o
f igh t s e lf -pit y
wit h
c o ur a ge ,
a n d is
gr a t e f ul
f o r
a n y
s ma ll
c o mf o r t o r br ie f r e mis s io n -h o we ve r
t e mpo r a r y
a n d
d e c e pt ive .
Th e
t r e a t me n t is n o t
e xpla in e d
t o t h e
pa t ie n t ,
wh o mus t f a c e
mo c ke r y,
h umilia t io n ,
a n d
pa in .
Th e h a r d
lump
o f t umo r
d r a gs
in t h e vic t im
"like a f is h o n a h o o k" a n d is o la t e s h im f r o m h is
pa s t
lif e . It d imin is h e s
t h e
will,
e limin a t e s
d e f e n s e s ,
d ign it y,
in f lue n c e , s t a t us ,
r e put a t io n ,
a n d
59
TW ENTIETH C ENTURY LITERATURE
h o pe .
It t ur n s h im in wa r d t o wa r d h is o wn
s ic kn e s s ,
s o t h a t
Ko s t o glo t o v
"le a r n e d h o w t o be
ill,
h e wa s a
s pe c ia lis t
in
be in g
ill,
h e wa s d e vo t e d t o
h is illn e s s ."
Th e t o r t ur e a n d in h uma n c o n d it io n s o f t h e
h o s pit a l,
a n a n -
t e c h a mbe r t o t h e
t o mb,
in t e n s if y
t h e me n t a l a n d
ph ys ic a l s uf f e r in g.
Th e
s me lly
t o ile t s a n d
s qua lid
wa r d s r e d uc e
e ve r yo n e
t o t h e c o mmo n
d e n o min a t o r o f illn e s s . Th e d o c t o r s -"a s s a s s in s in wh it e c o a t s "-
c o n t in ua lly
lie t o t h e
pa t ie n t s ,
wh o s e e
t h r o ugh
t h e ir f a ls e h o o d s a n d
r e s e n t t h e ir a s s ume d
o mn ipo t e n c e . Th e y e mplo y
r e c kle s s a n d e ve n
s a va ge
t r e a t me n t s t h a t a r e bo un d t o be d is c r e d it e d in t h e
f ut ur e ,
t a ke
c o n t r o l o f t h e
pa t ie n t 's bo d y,
d e c id e a bo ut h is lif e a n d d e a t h .
Sin c e
"a n y d a ma ge
t o t h e
bo d y
wa s
jus t if ie d
if it s a ve d
lif e ,"
t h e
r a d ic a l t r e a t me n t o f
c a n c e r -by s ur ge r y,
r a d ia t io n ,
a n d c h e mo t h e r -
a py-is
o f t e n wo r s e t h a n t h e d is e a s e . D r . D o n t s o va c o n t r a c t s c a n c e r
f r o m
pr o lo n ge d e xpo s ur e
t o r a d ium.
So lzh e n it s yn 's d e s c r ipt io n
o f t h e
ba r ba r o us bo mba r d me n t o f
x-r a ys ,
wh ic h
pie r c e s t h r o ugh
t h e
la ye r s
a n d
o r ga n s
o f t h e
bo d y,
s t r e a ms in t o t h e wa lls a n d f lo o r s o f t h e
h o s pit a l, pe n e t r a t e s
t h e s o il a n d r o c ks o f t h e
e a r t h ,
is a
ma s t e r pie c e
o f
ph ys io lo gic a l
a n d
ps yc h o lo gic a l in s igh t :
Th r o ugh
t h e
s qua r e
o f s kin t h a t h a d be e n le f t c le a r o n h is
s t o ma c h ,
t h r o ugh
t h e
la ye r s
o f f le s h a n d
o r ga n s
wh o s e n a me s
t h e ir o wn e r h ims e lf d id n o t
kn o w,
t h r o ugh
t h e ma s s o f t h e
t o a d like
t umo r ,
t h r o ugh
t h e s t o ma c h a n d
e n t r a ils ,
t h r o ugh
t h e
blo o d t h a t f lo we d
a lo n g
h is a r t e r ie s a n d
ve in s ,
t h r o ugh lymph
a n d
c e lls ,
t h r o ugh
t h e
s pin e
a n d le s s e r bo n e s a n d
a ga in t h r o ugh
mo r e
la ye r s
o f
f le s h ,
ve s s e ls a n d s kin o n h is
ba c k,
t h e n
t h r o ugh
t h e h a r d wo o d e n bo a r d o f t h e
c o uc h , t h r o ugh
t h e f o ur -c e n t i-
me t e r -t h ic k
f lo o r bo a r d s ,
t h r o ugh
t h e
pr o ps , t h r o ugh
t h e
f illin g
be n e a t h t h e
bo a r d s , d o wn , d o wn ,
un t il
t h e y d is a ppe a r e d
in t o t h e
ve r y
s t o n e f o un d a t io n s o f t h e
build in g
o r in t o t h e
e a r t h ,
po ur e d
t h e h a r s h
X-r a ys ,
t h e
t r e mblin g
ve c t o r s o f e le c t r ic a n d
ma gn e t ic
f ie ld s ,
un ima gin a ble
t o t h e h uma n
min d ,
o r e ls e mo r e c o m-
pr e h e n s ible
qua n t a
t h a t like s h e lls o ut o f
gun s po un d e d
a n d
r id d le d
e ve r yt h in g
in t h e ir
pa t h .
Like
x-r a ys ,
c a n c e r
s t r ips
t h e
pa t ie n t
d o wn t o t h e e s s e n t ia l c o r e :
be h in d
As ya 's "d r e s s in g go wn
t h e r e wa s
n o t h in g
but h e r
n igh t d r e s s ,
h e r br e a s t s a n d h e r s o ul."
On ly
t h e
pa s s ive
Ta r t a r c a n
a c c e pt
t h e
h e a vy
bur d e n o f t r ut h .
D e a t h ,
"wh it e a n d in d if f e r e n t -a
s h e e t ,
bo d ile s s a n d
vo id ,
wa lks t o wa r d h im
c a r e f ully, n o is e le s s ly,
o n
s lippe r e d
f e e t ." So l-
zh e n it s yn
be lie ve s t h a t "Mo d e r n ma n is
h e lple s s
wh e n c o n f r o n t e d wit h
d e a t h , [f o r ] h e h a s n o
we a po n
t o me e t it wit h "-n o C h r is t ia n f a it h o r
s pir it ua l s t r e n gt h
t o
o ppo s e
ma t e r ia lis m. As Ir is Mur d o c h o bs e r ve s in
60
SOLZHENITSYN'S C ANC ER W ARD
h e r
pe r c e pt ive , c o mpa s s io n a t e o pe n in g
o f Nun s a n d
So ld ie r s ,
we d e f e n -
s ive ly r e je c t
t h e
d yin g
s o t h a t we will n o t be t o o h ur t
by
t h e ir lo s s . D e a t h
d e s t r o ys
o ur illus io n s a bo ut lo ve a n d s h o ws t h a t it is
ult ima t e ly
s e lf is h :
W e d o n o t wa n t t o c a r e t o o muc h f o r wh a t we a r e
lo s in g.
Sur r e pt it io us ly
we r e mo ve o ur
s ympa t h y,
a n d
pr e pa r e
t h e
d yin g
o n e f o r
d e a t h ,
d imin is h
h im,
s t r ip
h im o f h is la s t a t t r a c t io n s . W e
a ba n d o n t h e
d yin g
like a s ic k be a s t le f t un d e r a
h e d ge .
D e a t h is
s uppo s e d
t o s h o w us
t r ut h ,
but is it s o wn
pla c e
o f illus io n . It
d e f e a t s lo ve .20
Ko s t o glo t o v's
vit a l
que s t io n
a bo ut t h e
pr ic e
o f
lif e ,
s ymbo lize d by
o xyge n
a n d
blo o d ,
r e c ur s in t wo o f t h e
gr e a t e s t
s c e n e s o f t h e
n o ve l,
wh e n h e f ir s t e s t a blis h e s
in t ima c y
wit h t h e n ur s e
Zo ya
a n d t h e d o c t o r
Ve r a . As
Vir gin ia
W o o lf o bs e r ve s : "Illn e s s o f t e n t a ke s o n t h e
d is guis e
o f
lo ve ,
a n d
pla ys
t h e s a me o d d t r ic ks ."21
Ko s t o glo t o v,
wh o s e mo r a l
s t r e n gt h
a t t r a c t s t h e s e
wo me n ,
is a s s e r t ive a n d ma s c ulin e wit h
Zo ya ,
pa s s ive
a n d f e min in e wit h Ve r a . He kis s e s t h e d is t r a c t e d
Zo ya
wh ile s h e
in f la t e s a t ume s c e n t
o xyge n
ba llo o n ,
wh ic h a lmo s t bur s t s . Sh e t h e n t e lls
h im t h a t h e h a s be e n d e c e ive d
by
t h e d o c t o r s a n d h a s be e n
give n
h o r mo n e
t h e r a py (a ls o
us e d
a ga in s t
c a n c e r o f t h e
t e s t e s )
t h a t will ma ke
h im
impo t e n t .
An d s h e
s t r o n gly ur ge s
h im t o d is c o n t in ue t h e t r e a t -
me n t .
Th e
que s t io n
a r is e s f o r t h e t h ir d t ime
d ur in g
t h e t r a n s f us io n . As
Ko s t o glo t o v
be c o me s a f f e c t io n a t e wit h Ve r a
t h e y
a ba n d o n t h e ir
pa t ie n t -d o c t o r
r o le s a n d
s pe a k
a s
e qua ls , pe r h a ps
e ve n lo ve r s . Sh e is
"f a it h f ul" t o a n d a lo n e wit h h im in t h e s un lit
r o o m;
h e s h e d s h is
s us pic io n s , "give s
h ims e lf t o t r us t " a n d
a c c e pt s
t h e f lo w o f a f e ma le 's
blo o d in t o h is ve in s .
By d o in g
s o ,
h e f o r ms a
s ymbo lic
s e xua l un io n wit h
Ve r a a n d wa n t s t o kis s h e r
(h e la t e r a s ks h e r t o
give
h im a n o t h e r
t r a n s f us io n : "I like d it t h e n . I wa n t
mo r e "):
"Th e blo o d in t h e bo t t le
h a d
a lr e a d y d r o ppe d by
mo r e t h a n h a lf . It h a d o n c e f lo we d in s o me o n e
e ls e 's
bo d y,
a
bo d y
wit h it s o wn
pe r s o n a lit y,
it s o wn
id e a s ,
a n d n o w it
wa s
po ur in g
in t o
h im,
a r e d d is h -br o wn
s t r e a ml
o f h e a lt h ."
But
Ko s t o glo t o v pr o t e s t s
t h a t h e is
"pa yin g
t o o
h igh
a
pr ic e "
f o r h is
e xis t e n c e : "Fir s t
my
o wn lif e wa s t a ke n f r o m me [in
pr is o n ],
a n d n o w I
a m
be in g d e pr ive d
e ve n o f t h e
r igh t
... t o
pe r pe t ua t e mys e lf .
... If t h e
o n ly e xpe c t a t io n
I h a ve is
be in g
c o n s c io us ly
a n d
a r t if ic ia lly
kille d -t h e n
wh y
bo t h e r t o s a ve
[me ]?"
His
que s t io n
le a d s t h e m t o d is c us s s o me
bo o ks wr it t e n
by
t h e
ve n e r o lo gis t
D r .
Fr ie d la n d ,
a n d r e a d
by
Ko s t o -
glo t o v
a n d Ve r a in t h e 1930s . Th e s e wo r ks
pr e s e n t
a
pur e ly ph ys io lo gi-
c a l a n d e ve n s t a t is t ic a l-r a t h e r t h a n e mo t io n a l a n d
s pir it ua l-vie w
o f
s e x a n d lo ve . Th e ir
r e je c t io n
o f D r . Fr ie d la n d 's ma t e r ia lis m a llo ws
61
TW ENTIETH C ENTURY LITERATURE
Ko s t o glo t o v
t o
h o pe
t h a t h e will be a ble t o lo ve a wo ma n wit h o ut s e x o r
t h e
po s s ibilit y
o f
pr o c r e a t io n .
He t h e r e f o r e
a c c e pt s
t h e a d vic e o f
Ve r a ,
wh o (in c o n t r a s t t o
Zo ya )
in s is t s t h a t h e c o n t in ue t h e h o r mo n e t r e a t -
me n t s in o r d e r t o s a ve h is lif e .
A
pa r a lle l
s c e n e a n d lo ve a f f a ir
(Ko s t o glo t o v
mo ur n s h is lo s t vir il-
it y, As ya
h e r lo s t
f e min in it y)
o c c ur s be t we e n t h e
yo un g
s t ud e n t
D yo mka ,
wh o h a s c a n c e r o f t h e
le g
a n d is t h r e a t e n e d wit h
a mput a t io n ,
a n d t h e h e d o n is t ic a n d lic e n t io us
s c h o o lgir l, As ya .
W h e n
As ya -
c r us h e d ,
t r e mblin g
a n d t e a r f ul-r e ve a ls t h a t t h e d o c t o r s mus t c ut o f f
h e r c a n c e r o us br e a s t a n d a s ks
(like Ko s t o glo t o v)
"W h a t h a ve I t o live
f o r ?,"
D yo mka ign o r e s
t h e d r e a d f ul
c o n s e que n c e s
a n d o f f e r s t o
ma r r y
h e r . Sh e t h e n
e xpo s e s
h e r d o o me d br e a s t a n d a s ks h im t o kis s it .
D yo mka gr a t e f ully
s uc kle s t h e
ge n t ly c ur vin g
br e a s t a n d be c o me s a b-
s o r be d in it s
f ie r y
a ur a : "He r e t ur n e d t o it s
r o s y glo w a ga in
a n d
a ga in ,
s o f t ly kis s in g
t h e br e a s t . He d id wh a t h e r f ut ur e c h ild wo uld n e ve r be
a ble t o d o . No o n e c a me
in ,
a n d s o h e kis s e d a n d kis s e d t h e ma r ve l
h a n gin g
o ve r h im.
To d a y
it wa s a ma r ve l. To mo r r o w it wo uld be in t h e
t r a s h bin ."
D e s pit e
t h e bit t e r
ir o n y, So lzh e n it s yn s ugge s t s , by me r gin g
t h e ma t e r n a l a n d t h e
s e xua l,
t h a t t h e
s pir it ua l
c a n s ur vive wit h o ut t h e
ph ys ic a l a s pe c t s
o f
lo ve ,
a n d r e in f o r c e s t h e
pr e vio us r e je c t io n
o f D r .
Fr ie d la n d 's ma t e r ia lis t ic vie w o f lo ve .
By
t h e e n d o f t h e n o ve l
Ko s t o glo t o v,
wh o h a d
e xpe r ie n c e d
a br ie f
s e xua l
r e s ur ge n c e
be f o r e h e h a d be e n
s imult a n e o us ly
s a ve d a n d d e -
s t r o ye d by
t h e h o r mo n e
t h e r a py,
is c o n f r o n t e d wit h t h e
r e a lit y
o f h is
c o n d it io n . Af t e r h is r e le a s e f r o m t h e
h o s pit a l
h e is in vit e d t o
s pe n d
t h e
n igh t
wit h bo t h
Zo ya ("lif e ")
a n d Ve r a
("f a it h ").
He s e e ks o ut t h e
br illia n t
f lo we r in g a pr ic o t
t r e e
wh ic h ,
like t h e
s ple n d id
ba lle t
Sle e pin g
Be a ut y, s ymbo lize s
h is
pe r s o n a l
r e s ur r e c t io n a n d
pr o mis in g
r e t ur n t o
lif e . W h e n h e
a c c id e n t a lly pr e s s e s a ga in s t
a n a t t r a c t ive
yo un g gir l
in t h e
s t r e e t c a r ,
h e r e a lize s t h a t h e h a s
pe r ma n e n t ly
lo s t h is
vir ilit y ("t h e
libid o
r e ma in s ,
t h e libid o but
n o t h in g e ls e ").
He is f o r c e d t o
a c c e pt
t h e c r ue l
f a c t t h a t "h is
jo ur n e y
t o s e e Ve r a wo uld e n d a s a t o r t ur e a n d a d e c e it . It
wo uld me a n h is
d e ma n d in g
mo r e f r o m h e r t h a n h e c o uld a s k f r o m
h ims e lf ." He n o w un d e r s t a n d s t h a t lo ve mus t be bo t h
ph ys ic a l
(a s wit h
Zo ya )
a n d
s pir it ua l
(a s
wit h
Ve r a ),
a n d r e f us e s t o s a c r if ic e Ve r a 's lo ve
f o r h is o wn
we ll-be in g.
His
e xpe r ie n c e s
in t h e c a n c e r wa r d h a ve ma d e
h im un f it f o r lif e a n d le d h im t o r e n o un c e lo ve .
In Illn e s s a s
Me t a ph o r ,
Sus a n
So n t a g quit e mis t a ke n ly
in s is t s t h a t
"C a n c e r W a r d c o n t a in s
vir t ua lly
n o us e o f c a n c e r a s a
me t a ph o r -f o r
St a lin is m,
o r
a n yt h in g
e ls e ."22 But t h e
po lit ic a l a lle go r y
is bo t h d is t in c t
62
SOLZHENITSYN'S C ANC ER W ARD
a n d
s ign if ic a n t .
As
So lzh e n it s yn s a ys
o f h is o wn c h a r a c t e r s : "Th o s e
we r e t h e wo r d s
t h e y
us e d ,
but t h e lo o ks
t h e y ga ve
e a c h o t h e r we r e ke e n
a n d it wa s c le a r t h a t
t h e y
we r e
r e a lly
c o n c e r n e d wit h
s o me t h in g quit e
d if f e r e n t ." Th e n o ve l
lo gic a lly
f o llo ws ,
in it s c o n s is t e n t us e o f
s ugge s t ive
a n a lo gie s ,
t h e in e vit a ble mo d e o f
pe r s o n a l
c o n ve r s a t io n ,
pr iva t e
c o r r e -
s po n d e n c e
a n d
un d e r gr o un d
lit e r a t ur e in t h e So vie t Un io n .
Th e
h o s pit a l
r e c o r d s f ive
po s s ible
r e s ult s f o r e a c h
c a t e go r y
o f
me d ic a l t r e a t me n t :
"c o mple t e
c ur e ,
impr o ve me n t ,
n o
c h a n ge ,
d e t e r i-
o r a t io n o r d e a t h ." Th e s e
c a t e go r ie s c o r r e s po n d
t o t h e f ive
ph a s e s
o f
So lzh e n it s yn 's lif e -yo ut h , wa r , e xile ,
pr is o n
a n d
h o s pit a l-t h a t
a r e
c le a r ly
r e f le c t e d in t h e n o ve l. Like
So lzh e n it s yn ,
Or we ll d r a ws a d ir e c t
pa r a lle l
be t we e n wa r a n d d is e a s e in h is
mo vin g a ut o bio gr a ph ic a l e s s a y,
"Ho w t h e Po o r D ie ":
"Pe o ple
t a lk a bo ut t h e h o r r o r s o f
wa r ,
but wh a t
we a po n
h a s ma n in ve n t e d t h a t e ve n
a ppr o a c h e s
in
c r ue lt y
s o me o f t h e
c o mmo n e r d is e a s e s ? 'Na t ur a l'
d e a t h ,
a lmo s t
by
d e f in it io n ,
me a n s
s o me t h in g
s lo w,
s me lly
a n d
pa in f ul."23
In C a n c e r
W a r d ,
So lzh e n it s yn
d r a ws o n h is
milit a r y e xpe r ie n c e
a s a
me t a ph o r
f o r bo t h t h e in va s io n o f t h e h o s t ile d is e a s e a n d t h e vic t im's
d e s pe r a t e
ba t t le
a ga in s t
it .
So lit a r y,
d e s t r uc t ive c e lls s t e a l
"t h r o ugh
t h e
d a r kn e s s like
la n d in g
c r a f t ";
s pr e a d in g
c a n c e r s t e a r "d e f e n s e s t o
pie c e s
like
t a n ks ";
vic t ims a r e "wo un d e d " a n d s o o n
f a ll;
s ur vivo r s a r e h e r o e s
"f r o m t h e
h o s pit a l
f r o n t lin e ." D r .
D o n t s o va ,
wh o f o r c e s t h e
s ke pt ic a l
Ko s t o glo t o v
t o
a c c e pt
h is
t r e a t me n t ,
e xpla in s :
"t h e r e wa s a
ba t t le ,
but
h e wa s d e f e a t e d a n d h e s ur r e n d e r e d ." Th e
x-r a y's
"blin d
a r t ille r y
c ut s
d o wn it s o wn me n wit h t h e s a me
ple a s ur e
a s it d o e s t h e
e n e my's ."
Th e
t umo r is d r ive n ba c k: "It 's o n t h e d e f e n s ive ."
Ko s t o glo t o v's ye a r s
a s a
pr is o n e r ,
like h is
e xpe r ie n c e
a s a
s o ld ie r ,
a r e a ls o
a n a lo go us
t o h is t r e a t me n t in t h e c o n f in e d a n d c r o wd e d h o s -
pit a l.
Th e
pr is o n
c e ll is like t h e c a n c e r c e ll: "f ir s t I live d un d e r
gua r d ,
t h e n I live d in
pa in ."
In
pr is o n
h e is t o r n f r o m h is
f a mily,
ba n is h e d
f r o m t h e wo r ld a n d
put
be h in d ba r be d wir e . But t h a t is n o "e a s ie r t o
t a ke t h a n a
t umo r ,"
wh ic h a ls o d e n ie s h im t h e
r igh t s
o f a f r e e a n d
h e a lt h y
ma n . Th e
pa t ie n t -pr is o n e r
is
po we r le s s ,
wa t c h f ul a n d
s us pi-
c io us . He is e n c lo s e d f o r a n in d e f in it e
pe r io d
o f
t ime ,
in t e r r o ga t e d by
d o c t o r s ,
a n d o n c e
a ga in
be c o me s "a
gr a in
o f
s a n d ,
jus t
a s
[h e ]
wa s in
t h e
c a mp."
A c o n f e s s io n o f illn e s s is like a c o n f e s s io n o f c r ime . In t h e
h o s pit a l,
"t h e r o o ms a r e f ull o f
bun ks ,
c o mple t e
wit h
be d d in g,
a n d o n
e a c h bun k lie s a lit t le ma n t e r r if ie d o ut o f h is wit s ."
A f e w me n
ma n a ge
t o s ur vive t h e c a n c e r wa r d
jus t
a s
t h e y
s ur vive d
t h e
c a mp.
But
Ko s t o glo t o v
be lie ve s : "I
pr o ba bly
wo n 't be
d is c h a r ge d
t ill
I'm
c r a wlin g
o n a ll f o ur s ." W h e n a d e lud e d
pa t ie n t
le a ve s t h e
h o s pit a l,
63
TW ENTIETH C ENTURY LITERATURE
Ko s t o glo t o v
is r e min d e d o f "t h o s e r a r e o c c a s io n s wh e n
t h e y
s a w o f f a
pr is o n e r
wh o h a d be e n r e le a s e d . W a s h e t o t e ll h im t h a t h e 'd be
a r r e s t e d
a ga in
a s s o o n a s h e s e t f o o t o ut s id e t h e
ga t e s ?"
Bo t h
c a mp
a n d
wa r d a r e
pla c e s
"wh e r e
n in e t y-n in e we e p
but
[o n ly]
o n e
la ugh s ."
Ko s t o glo t o v
is n o t t h e
o n ly
o n e in t h is mic r o c o s mic
s o c ie t y
wh o h a s
be e n in t h e
c a mps .
Jus t
a s t h e Ta r t a r s "h a d n o
d if f ic ult y
in
r e c o gn izin g
t h e ir o wn
pe o ple
in t h e
c lin ic ,
[n e it h e r ]
d id t h o s e wh o o n c e live d in t h e
s h a d o w o f ba r be d -wir e ." Le v Le o n id o vic h h a s wo r ke d a s a f r e e d o c t o r
in t h e
pr is o n c a mps .
Th e Ta r t a r
Ah ma d ja n ,
o n e o f t h e
ve r y
f e w
pa t ie n t s
wh o is
o s t e n s ibly
c ur e d ,
h a s be e n a c o n c e n t r a t io n
c a mp gua r d .
Th e br ut a l
Po d d uye v,
wh o s e mo r a l lif e is r a t h e r
impr o ba bly
t r a n s f o r me d
by s t ud yin g To ls t o y's
W h a t Me n Live
By,
h a s
s upe r vis e d
c o n vic t la bo r . An d t h e
in t e llige n t o r d e r ly
Eliza ve t a
An a t o lye vn a ,
wh o
r e a d s Fr e n c h
n o ve ls ,
h a s be e n
in n o c e n t ly impr is o n e d
wit h h e r h us -
ba n d . Th e
pa s t
o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s
t igh t e n s
t h e lin ks be t we e n
pr is o n
a n d
h o s pit a l. Th e y
d r a w
Ko s t o glo t o v ba c k-t h r o ugh
me mo r ie s ,
a s s o c i-
a t io n s a n d c o n ve r s a t io n s -t o t h e wo r ld h e is
t r yin g
t o
e s c a pe .
Th e KGB ma n
Rus a n o v,
t h e o n e -d ime n s io n a l villa in o f t h e
n o ve l,
br in gs
t h e
pr is o n
wo r ld in t o t h e
h o s pit a l by
h is
pr a c t ic a l s uppo r t
a n d
id e o lo gic a l jus t if ic a t io n
o f St a lin is m. He n a me d h is s o n a f t e r
Be r ia ;
lo ve s t h e
Pe o ple
but c a n n o t t o le r a t e a c t ua l h uma n
be in gs ; be t r a ye d
h is
f r ie n d Ro d ic h e v in o r d e r t o
ge t
t h e o t h e r h a lf o f t h e ir c o mmun a l
a pa r t me n t ;
c a r r ie d o ut h is
"s imple d ut y
a s a c it ize n "
by d is mis s in g
a n d
e limin a t in g ma n y
o t h e r s ;
a n d
s t o ut ly
d e f e n d s St a lin 's
pur ge
t r ia ls ,
wh ic h h e us e d t o build h is c a r e e r a t t h e
e xpe n s e
o f me n like Ko s t o -
glo t o v:
"In t h a t e xc e lle n t a n d h o n o r a ble
t ime ,
t h e
ye a r s
1937 a n d
1938,
t h e s o c ia l
a t mo s ph e r e
wa s
n o t ic e a bly
c le a n s e d a n d it be c a me e a s ie r t o
br e a t h e ."
As c a n c e r
s pr e a d s s e c r e t ly t h r o ugh
h is
bo d y,
Rus a n o v's
c yn ic a l,
a r r ivis t e
d a ugh t e r
Avie t t e a n n o un c e s t h a t St a lin 's c ult o f
pe r s o n a lit y
h a s
c o me un d e r a t t a c k. Mo s c o w h a s in it ia t e d a ma s s ive r e vie w o f
le ga l
pr o c e e d in gs ("It 's
like a n
e pid e mic "),
a n d
be t r a ye r s
a r e n o w f o r c e d t o
c o n f r o n t t h e ir vic t ims . Rus a n o v's f e a r f ul
r e s po n s e
is a n a t t a c k o n t h is
pa in f ul pr o c e s s :
"It 's c r ue l t o t h e e xile s t h e ms e lve s . So me o f t h e m a r e
d e a d -wh y
d is t ur b t h e ir
gh o s t s ? W h y
r a is e
gr o un d le s s h o pe s a mo n g
t h e ir r e la t ive s a n d
pe r h a ps
a d e s ir e f o r
r e ve n ge ? Aga in ,
wh a t d o e s
r e h a bilit a t e d
a c t ua lly
me a n ? It c a n 't me a n t h e ma n wa s
c o mple t e ly
in n o c e n t ! He mus t h a ve d o n e
s o me t h in g,
h o we ve r t r ivia l."
As t h e
n o ve l,
a n d
e s pe c ia lly
t h e
pa r t
o n Rus a n o v
pr o gr e s s e s ,
t h e
a lle go r ic a l implic a t io n s
o f
a r my
a n d
pr is o n s pr e a d (like
t h e
d is e a s e )
t o
in c lud e a ll o f St a lin is t Rus s ia : "A ma n d ie s f r o m a
t umo r ,
s o h o w c a n a
64
SOLZHENITSYN'S C ANC ER W ARD
c o un t r y
s ur vive wit h
gr o wt h s
like la bo r
c a mps
a n d e xile s ?" In t h e
h o s pit a l,
a s in t o t a lit a r ia n
Rus s ia ,
n o o n e is a llo we d t o
s pe a k
t h e t r ut h .
Tumo r s a r e a "s t a t e s e c r e t ."
D e s pit e
t h e c o n f e s s io n a l mo d e o f t h e
n o ve l,
"wh e n it c a me t o
id e o lo gy
it wa s be t t e r t o
ke e p yo ur t r a p
s h ut ."
Of f ic ia l
n e ws pa pe r s ,
d is t r ibut e d in t h e
wa r d s ,
a r e "wr it t e n in f a c t in
c o d e ,"
t h o ugh
s killf ul
pa r t y
f un c t io n a r ie s s o o n le a r n t o
in t e r pr e t
t h e m.
Rus a n o v
s us pe c t s
t h e d o c t o r s o f a
plo t
t o
po is o n
h im;
a n d d o c t o r s a r e
a c t ua lly put
o n t r ia l in t h e
h o s pit a l jus t
a s
t h e y
we r e wh e n St a lin
a c c us e d t h e m o f
plo t t in g a ga in s t
h im. Rus a n o v be lie ve s t h a t
public
e xe c ut io n s
(like
le t h a l
x-r a ys )
"wo uld
s pe e d ily br in g c o mple t e
h e a lt h t o
o ur
s o c ie t y."
D o c t o r s ,
like KGB
me n ,
e n jo y
a bs o lut e
a ut h o r it y
o ve r t h e live s o f
t h e ir d e h uma n ize d
pa t ie n t s . Th e y c a r r y
o ut
"s e n s e le s s ,
po in t le s s
in -
s t r uc t io n s wh ic h
t h e y
c a n 't
ign o r e
o n
pa in
o f
lo s in g
t h e ir
jo bs ." Th e y
"be lie ve
un que s t io n in gly
in t h e ir e s t a blis h e d me t h o d s a n d t r e a t me n t s ."
X-r a ys
a r e us e d a s
in d is c r imin a t e ly
a s
po lic e
a r r e s t s . D o c t o r s d o n o t
kn o w "wh a t
pe r c e n t a ge
o f
h e a lt h y
c e lls [o r in n o c e n t
pe o ple ]
a s c o m-
pa r e d
t o t h e d is e a s e d o n e s wo uld be
d e s t r o ye d ."
Th e r e mis s io n o f
Ko s t o glo t o v's
d is e a s e in t h e
s pr in g
o f 1955 c o in -
c id e s wit h t h e
po lit ic a l
t h a w t h a t
be ga n
t o t a ke
pla c e
t wo
ye a r s
a f t e r t h e
d e a t h o f St a lin . He
e xpr e s s e s
t h e
f e e lin gs
o f t h e
o ppr e s s e d by public ly
c o n d e mn in g
St a lin 's c r ime s in h is
a r gume n t
wit h Sh ulubin . In c o n t r a s t
t o
Ko s t o glo t o v,
Sh ulubin h a s s o ld o ut t o
po lit ic a l pr e s s ur e ,
c o n f e s s e d
"mis t a ke s " h e n e ve r
ma d e ,
be e n r e d uc e d f r o m a
pr o f e s s o r
in Mo s c o w t o
a
pr o vin c ia l libr a r ia n ,
pa r t ic ipa t e d
in bo o k
bur n in g-a n d
h a s s a ve d h is
lif e a t t h e
e xpe n s e
o f h is s o ul.
D ur in g
t h e
pur ge
t r ia ls ,
in t e llige n t
pe o ple
like
Sh ulubin ,
wh o wa n t e d
o n ly
t o
live ,
we r e f o r c e d t o be lie ve
t h a t "Millio n s o f Rus s ia n s o ld ie r s . . .
be t r a ye d
t h e ir
c o un t r y."
Ko s t o -
glo t o v
t h in ks "t h e t r a it o r s we r e t h o s e
[like Rus a n o v]
wh o wr o t e d e n un c i-
a t io n s o r s t o o d
up
a s wit n e s s e s ." Eve n Le n in 's wid o w
Kr ups ka ya
f a ile d
t o un d e r s t a n d wh a t wa s
a c t ua lly h a ppe n in g
o r la c ke d t h e
c o ur a ge
t o
pr o t e s t a ga in s t
t h e s e c r ime s . Ot h e r le a d e r s
pr e f e r r e d
t o d ie in
mys t e r i-
o us c ir c ums t a n c e s o r t o c o mmit s uic id e r a t h e r t h a n c o n f e s s t o f a ls e
c r ime s .
Th e t h a w
s ugge s t s
t h e c ur e . Th e e n t ir e
Supr e me
C o ur t o f t h e
So vie t
Un io n ,
wh ic h a d min is t e r e d
"jus t ic e "
f o r a
qua r t e r
o f a
c e n t ur y,
is
s ud d e n ly
d is mis s e d . Ma le n ko v is r e lie ve d o f h is
d ut ie s ;
Be r ia is o ve r -
t h r o wn ,
"f a llin g
wit h a
t in n y c la n g."
St a lin is
o pe n ly
a t t a c ke d . Rumo r s
c ir c ula t e t h a t e xile s a r e
go in g
t o be r e le a s e d . An d
Ko s t o glo t o v
is t r e a t e d
wit h
e xt r a o r d in a r y c o ur t e s y by
t h e
po lic e
Ko mma n d a n t in Ta s h ke n t .
Th e
mo r a lly c h a n ge d Po d d uye v e xpr e s s e s
a
ma jo r
t h e me in t h e n o ve l
65
TW ENTIETH C ENTURY LITERATURE
wh e n h e
s a ys
t h a t if t h e t umo r
(o f St a lin is m)
is t o be
c ur e d , "s ud d e n ly
d r a in
a wa y, d r y up
a n d d ie
by
it s e lf ... I
s uppo s e
f o r t h a t
yo u
n e e d t o
h a ve ... a c le a r c o n s c ie n c e ." Po lit ic a l
c h a n ge
mus t r e f le c t mo r a l
c h a n ge
in bo t h t h e
pe o ple
a n d t h e ir le a d e r s .
At t h e e n d o f t h e n o ve l
Ko s t o glo t o v-wh o
a s a
pa t ie n t
wa s t r e a t e d
a s a
zo o lo gic a l s pe c ime n -is
r e le a s e d f r o m t h e
h o s pit a l, impr o ve d
but
impo t e n t .
Be f o r e
d e c id in g
wh e t h e r it
migh t
be
po s s ible
t o s h a r e h is lif e
wit h Ve r a -wh o f e e ls
e t e r n a lly
bo un d t o t h e
pa s t by
t h e
pr o mis e
t o h e r
d e a d lo ve r
jus t
a s h e is bo un d t o t h e
a r my, pr is o n
a n d
h o s pit a l-h e
vis it s a s e r ie s o f
s ymbo lic
a n ima ls in t h e Ta s h ke n t zo o . He t h e n d e c id e s
t o r e t ur n t o e xile in Ka za kh s t a n a n d t o h is h uma n e
f r ie n d s ,
t h e Ka d -
min s . Like Ve r a 's f r ie n d D r .
Or e s h c h e n ko v,
wh o a ls o lo ve s
a n ima ls ,
t h e y
a r e t h e mo r a l t o uc h s t o n e s o f t h e n o ve l.
Th e f ir s t a n ima l
Ko s t o glo t o v
s e e s is a
d ign if ie d
a n d r e f le c t ive
s pir a l-h o r n e d
mo un t a in
go a t ,
wh o s t a n d s o n a
s t e e p pr e c ipic e
a n d
r e pr e s e n t s
"t h e s o r t o f c h a r a c t e r a ma n [like
Ko s t o glo t o v]
n e e d e d t o
ge t
t h r o ugh
lif e ."
By
c o n t r a s t t h e
s quir r e l,
like t h e
o ppr e s s e d pr o le t a r ia t ,
r e vo lve s in h is
c a ge
a t a f ur io us
pa c e ,
it s h e a r t
n e a r ly bur s t in g.
It
c a n n o t un d e r s t a n d t h a t " 'It 's a ll in va in !'
No ,
t h e r e wa s
c le a r ly o n ly
o n e
in e vit a ble
wa y
o ut ,
t h e
s quir r e l's
d e a t h ."
Th e Rh e s us
mo n ke y (e xpe r ime n t s
o n wh ic h le d t o t h e me d ic a l
d is c o ve r y
o f t h e Rh f a c t o r in h uma n
blo o d )
s t a n d s f o r t h e t h ir d
t ype
o f
ma n : t h e
h e lple s s
a n d t o r me n t e d
po lit ic a l pr is o n e r .
A
c r ud e ly pa in t e d
s ign e xpla in s
h is
e mpt y c a ge :
"Th e lit t le
mo n ke y
t h a t us e d t o live h e r e
wa s blin d e d be c a us e o f t h e s e n s e le s s
c r ue lt y
o f o n e o f t h e vis it o r s . An
e vil ma n t h r e w t o ba c c o in t o t h e
Ma c a que
Rh e s us 's
e ye s ." So lzh e n it s yn
s t a t e s in a n
Appe n d ix
t o t h e n o ve l t h a t t h e
pe r pe t r a t o r
o f t h is
gr a t ui-
t o us
c r ue lt y-wh o
is
d ia me t r ic a lly o ppo s e d
t o t h e vie ws
e xpr e s s e d
in
To ls t o y's
W h a t Me n Live
By-"is
me a n t t o
r e pr e s e n t
St a lin
s pe c if i-
c a lly."24 Fin a lly, Ko s t o glo t o v
s t a r e s wit h h a t r e d a t a
r a pa c io us t ige r
wit h
ye llo w e ye s ,
wh o m h e a ls o a s s o c ia t e s
(t h r o ugh
h is
pr e -Re vo lut io n a r y
pla c e
o f
e xile )
wit h St a lin .
Th e
pe r s o n a l
a n d
po lit ic a l s ign if ic a n c e
o f t h is vis it is in t e n s if ie d
by
it s mo r a l
s implic it y, by
it s c h a r a c t e r is t ic c o mbin a t io n o f t h e o bvio us a n d
t h e s ubt le .
So lzh e n it s yn a r gue d ,
wh e n
a t t e mpt in g
t o
jus t if y
t h e
"pr o -
gr e s s ive " a s pe c t s
o f h is n o ve l t o t h e Se c r e t a r ia t o f So vie t W r it e r s in
1967,
t h a t h is t h e me is
ult ima t e ly
a f f ir ma t ive : "lif e
c o n que r s d e a t h ,
t h e
pa s t
is
c o n que r e d by
t h e
f ut ur e ,"
a n d bo t h
"t r iumph
o ve r
s pir it ua l
s o r r o w."25 But h is f o r t un a t e
c ur e ,
ma r r ia ge
a n d
c h ild r e n ,
h is c o ur a -
ge o us
t r a n s f o r ma t io n o f d is e a s e a n d d e a t h in t o
gr e a t
a r t ,
h is "s e e d o f
66
SOLZHENITSYN'S C ANC ER W ARD
h o pe
o n t h e
ve r y
br in k o f t h e
gr a ve ,"26
mus t n o t blin d us t o h is h e r o 's
t r a gic
f a t e .
Ko s t o glo t o v's
lif e s h o ws t h a t
d ic t a t o r s ,
pa r t y
o f f ic ia ls ,
po lic e ,
gua r d s
a n d
pr is o n e r s
a r e a ll
t r a ppe d
in t h e va s t
pr is o n
o f Rus s ia . Th e r e
is n o
e s c a pe
f r o m
c a n c e r ,
d e s pit e pe r io d s
o f
r e mis s io n ,
jus t
a s t h e r e is
n o
e s c a pe
f r o m t h e
le ga c y
o f
St a lin is m,
d e s pit e
t h e
a ppa r e n t po lit ic a l
t h a w.
Ko s t o glo t o v
h a s be e n r e le a s e d
by
a n d
d e s t r o ye d by
bo t h
pr is o n
a n d
h o s pit a l.
He s ur vive d h is o r d e a l
by
c a n c e r a n d is "f r e e " t o r e t ur n
t o
h is
pla c e
o f e xile . But h e is n o
lo n ge r
f it f o r s e xua l
lif e ,
a n d
mus t
r e n o un c e lo ve a n d t h e
po s s ibilit y
o f h uma n
h a ppin e s s .
C a n c e r
W a r d
(like
r e c e n t Rus s ia n
h is t o r y)
is
pe r h a ps
le s s
lif e -a f f ir min g
t h a n
So l-
zh e n it s yn
wo uld h a ve us
be lie ve ,
f o r it
e xpr e s s e s
a t e r r ible t r ut h :
"Th e
c e lls o f t h e h e a r t wh ic h n a t ur e built f o r
jo y
d ie
t h r o ugh
d is us e .
Th e
s ma ll
pla c e
in t h e br e a s t wh ic h is f a it h 's
c r a mpe d qua r t e r s
r e ma in s
un t e n a n t e d f o r
ye a r s
a n d
d e c a ys ."27
1
Quo t e d
in B. H. Lid d e ll
Ha r t ,
T. E. La wr e n c e : In Ar a bia a n d
Af t e r (Lo n -
d o n :
Jo n a t h a n C a pe , 1934), p.
442.
2
Th o ma s
Ma n n ,
"D o s t o ye vs ky-in Mo d e r a t io n ,"
in Th e Sh o r t No ve ls
o f
D o s t o ye vs ky (Ne w
Yo r k: D ia l
Pr e s s , 1945), p.
xiv.
3
Fyo d o r D o s t o ye vs ky,
No t e s
f r o m Un d e r gr o un d ,
t r a n s . An d r e w Ma c An d r e w
(Ne w
Yo r k:
Sign e t , 1961), p.
93.
4 Ar t h ur
Rimba ud ,
le t t e r o f 15
Ma y 1871,
in
C o mple t e W o r ks ,
t r a n s . Pa ul
Sc h mid t
(Ne w
Yo r k:
Ha r pe r
a n d
Ro w, 1975), pp.
102-03.
5
Fr ie d r ic h
Nie t zs c h e ,
Ec c e
Ho mo ,
t r a n s . W a lt e r Ka uf ma n n
(Ne w
Yo r k:
Vin t a ge Bo o ks , 1967), p.
303.
6
Th o ma s
Ma n n ,
"Go e t h e a n d
To ls t o y,"
Th r e e
Es s a ys ,
t r a n s . H. T. Lo we -
Po r t e r
(Ne w
Yo r k:
Kn o pf , 1929), pp.
29-30.
7
Ma n n ,
"D o s t o ye vs ky-in Mo d e r a t io n ,"
pp.
xii,
xv.
Er ic h
Ka h le r , Th e Or bit
o f
Th o ma s
Ma n n ,
t r a n s . Fr a n c is
Go lf f in g
(Pr in c e t o n :
Pr in c e t o n Un iv.
Pr e s s , 1969), p.
27.
9
Ed mun d
W ils o n ,
Th e W o un d a n d t h e Bo w
(Ne w Yo r k, 1965), p.
240.
10
Vir gin ia W o o lf ,
"On
Be in g
IIl"
(1930),
C o lle c t e d
Es s a ys ,
e d . Le o n a r d
W o o lf
(Lo n d o n : Ho ga r t h Pr e s s , 1967), p.
193.
"
Th e r e h a ve be e n r e a lis t ic wo r ks
(Ko pit 's W in gs
a n d C o o k's
C o ma ),
n o ve ls
a bo ut d o c t o r s
(Ar r o ws mit h
a n d D o c t o r
Zh iva go ),
s a t ir e s o n me d ic in e
(Le wis '
Ro t t in g
Hill a n d Nic h o ls ' Na t io n a l
He a lt h ),
n o ve ls o f ma d n e s s
(Mr s . D a llo wa y
a n d
Te n d e r is t h e
Nigh t ),
d is e a s e d h e r o e s
(O'Ne ill's Lo n g D a y's Jo ur n e y
in t o
Nigh t
a n d
Pr o ws e 's A
Gif t o f
t h e
D us k), gr im
d e a t h s c e n e s
(Ma s t r o -d o n
Ge s ua ld o a n d
Of
Time
a n d t h e
Rive r ),
n o ve ls a bo ut
d yin g
a n d d e a t h
(Th e Le o pa r d
a n d A D e a t h in t h e
Fa mily).
67
TW ENTIETH C ENTURY LITERATURE
12
D o s t o ye vs ky,
No t e s
f r o m Un d e r gr o un d , pp.
90-91.
13
Go t t f r ie d
Be n n ,
Pr ima l
Vis io n ,
t r a n s . Ba be t t e D e ut s c h
(Ne w Yo r k,
[1960]), p.
217.
14
Se e Zh o r e s
Me d ve d e v,
"Ge t t in g So lzh e n it s yn St r a igh t ,"
Ne w Yo r k Re vie w
o f Bo o ks ,
17
Ma y
1973,
pp.
32-34;
a n d t h e Fe if e r -Me d ve d e v
c o r r e s po n d e n c e ,
19
July
1973,
pp.
30-31.
15 Ale xa n d e r
So lzh e n it s yn ,
"Th e
Righ t
Ha n d ,"
St o r ie s a n d Pr o s e
Po e ms ,
t r a n s . Mic h a e l
Gle n n y (Ne w
Yo r k:
Ba n t a m, 1972), p.
122.
16
Quo t e d
in D a vid
Bur g
a n d
Ge o r ge
Fe if e r , So lzh e n it s yn (Ne w Yo r k, 1972),
p.
124.
17 Ale xa n d e r
So lzh e n it s yn ,
Th e Oa k a n d t h e
C a lf ,
t r a n s .
Ha r r y
W ille t t s
(Ne w
Yo r k:
Ha r pe r
a n d
Ro w, 1980), pp. 341,
362.
18
Ibid .,
p.
3.
19
Ale xa n d e r
So lzh e n it s yn , "Appe n d ix"
t o C a n c e r
W a r d ,
t r a n s . Nic h o la s
Be t h e ll a n d D a vid
Bur g (Ne w
Yo r k:
Ba n t a m, 1969), p.
554.
20
Ir is
Mur d o c h ,
Nun s a n d So ld ie r s
(Ne w Yo r k, 1980), p.
1.
21
Vir gin ia
W o o lf ,
"On
Be in g
Il1,"
p.
194.
22
Sus a n
So n t a g,
Illn e s s a s
Me t a ph o r (Ne w
Yo r k:
Fa r r a r , St r a us ,
a n d
Gir o ux,
1979), p.
80.
23
Ge o r ge
Or we ll,
"Ho w t h e Po o r D ie "
(1945),
D e c lin e
o f
t h e
En glis h
Mur d e r
(Ha r mo n d s wo r t h : Pe n guin , 1965), p.
38.
24
So lzh e n it s yn , "Appe n d ix"
t o C a n c e r
W a r d , p.
555.
25Ibid ., p.
554.
26
Th o ma s
Ma n n , "C h e kh o v,"
La s t Es s a ys , t r a n s . Ta n ia a n d
Ja me s
St e r n
(Ne w
Yo r k:
Kn o pf , 1959), p.
201.
27
It is
in t e r e s t in g
t o o bs e r ve t h e
gr e a t ly
o ve r r a t e d
Hun ga r ia n
Ma r xis t c r it ic
Ge o r g
Luka c s ,
in So lzh e n it s yn
(C a mbr id ge ,
Ma s s ., 1971),
t wis t h ims e lf in t o
id e o lo gic a l
kn o t s t o a vo id
f a c in g
t h e
po lit ic a l s ign if ic a n c e
o f C a n c e r W a r d . He
e uph e mis t ic a lly
wr it e s o f t h e Rus s ia t h a t c r e a t e d
Gula g:
"t h e e xt e r n a l o r d e r is
go ve r n e d by
a bur e a uc r a t ic is m t h a t c a n
ve r y e a s ily
ma n if e s t it s e lf a s in h uma n -
it y" (p. 67);
h e
c a s uis t ic a lly
limit s t h e "t o t a l
h o pe le s s n e s s "
t o "t h e la s t f e w
ye a r s
o f St a lin 's lif e "
(p. 71); a n d ,
a s t o n is h in gly,
c a lls t h is t e r r ible t ime "a n
h is t o r ic a lly e xt r e me ly impo r t a n t
t r a n s it io n a l
pe r io d
in
h uma n it y's pa t h
t o s o -
c ia lis m"
(p. 76).
He le n Muc h n ic 's us e f ul
e s s a y,
"C a n c e r W a r d : Of Fa t e a n d
Guilt ,"
in
Ale xa n d r
So lzh e n it s yn :
C r it ic a l
Es s a ys
a n d
D o c ume n t a r y Ma t e r ia ls ,
e d .
Jo h n D un lo p,
Ric h a r d
Ha ugh ,
a n d Ale xis Klimo f f
(Be lmo n t , Ma s s ., 1973),
mo r e
r e a lis t ic a lly
e mph a s ize s
"a ll t h e
gla r in g d is c r e pa n c ie s
be t we e n t h e
t h e o r y
o f t h e So vie t St a t e
a n d t h e r e a lit ie s o f So vie t lif e "
(p. 290). Th o mps o n Br a d le y's a r t ic le ,
"Ale xa n d r
So lzh e n it s yn 's
C a n c e r W a r d : Th e Fa ilur e o f D e f ia n t
St o ic is m,"
in t h e s a me
vo lume ,
e f f e c t ive ly o ppo s e s
Luka c s ' vie w o f "t h e in n e r
c o lla ps e "
o f
Ko s t o glo t o v
by e mph a s izin g
h is mo d e r n St o ic is m a n d t h e
h o pe e xpr e s s e d
in t h e
yo un ge r
ge n e r a t io n
o f c h a r a c t e r s
(pp.
297,
299).
68