Hayfield:

Reference grammar
Introduction 1
Table of abbreviations 2
Phonetics 3
Vowels 3
Consonants 3
Spoken constituent formation 4
Handshapes 4
Position 5
Movement and orientation 6
Signed constituent formation 7
Phonology 7
Speech 7
Sign 8
Speech-sign interaction 8
Nominal morphosyntax 8
Word formation 8
Pronouns 8
Prepositions 9
Adjectives 10
Vocative expressions 11
Conjunction of nouns 11
Determiners and numerals 11
Ordinal numbers 12
Expressing dates 12
Verbal morphosyntax 13
Word formation 13
Participles 13
Stative verbs 14
Sentence structure 14
Simple sentences 14
Coordinate conjunction 15
Subordinate clauses 15
Questions 16
Negation 16
Appendix A: Lexicon 17
Pronouns 17
Determiners 17
Prepositions 18
Nouns 18
Adjectives 25
Adverbs 28
Verbs 29
Wh-words 32
Conjunctions 33
Appendix B: Sample Passages 34
The North Wind and the Sun 34
The Tower of Babel 35
Schleichers Fable 39
Appendix C: Hayfield Writing System 41
Introduction 41
Speech 41
Sign 41
Walter Publication F-18
January 2014
Introduction
Hayfield is an experiment in language modality: can the two attested modalities (sign and
speech) be combined in a coherent way? The Hayfield language is fictionally situated in the
context of a culture with a high deaf and hard-of-hearing population; the two modalities are
closely tied together, so that rather than remaining separate from each other, deaf and hearing
members of the community take part in the same activities and cultural events.
The culture of Hayfield speakers centers around community arts. Traditional stories, songs and
dances are passed down in unwritten form. Adherence to traditional forms as well as
improvisation are valued. Though there are professional groups who give performances, the heart
of the communitys experience in the arts is in the festivals, where amateurs participate fully in
narrative, music, dance and theater.
A series of traditional festivals occur throughout the year. The calendar is divided into halves: the
autumn/winter cycle begins on the autumnal equinox (corresponding to 22/23 September), and
the spring cycle begins on the vernal equinox (corresponding to 20 March). The celebration of
the beginning of each cycle is celebrated with an important festival; neither receives precedence
as a new year celebration.
Songs and stories are often associated with a particular time of year. The four seasons are often
referred to; references to the beginning and end of each season (such as early spring or late
summer) are common. Frequently recurring events tend to be scheduled based on the eight-day
week and not on the month.
The name of the language in Hayfield is ![an.] lla"u, literally HAND-mouth. The name
Hayfield has no significance, but is convenient to use in English descriptions of the language.
1
Table of abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in glosses and descriptions of the language.
ADJ adjective; can also be used adverbially if used with or following a verb or adjective
ADV (closed-class) adverb; includes aspectual and modal markers
an. animate; refers to the movement loosely associated with animacy
c. common or animate gender (either masculine or feminine)
cir. circular hand movement
CNJ conjunction
D dominant hand
DET determiner
f. feminine
fig. figurative meaning of a word
imper. imperative (also expresses a hortative meaning)
inch. inchoative or inceptive aspect
indef. indefinite or dummy pronoun
intens. intensive mood
lit. literal meaning of a word
m. masculine
N noun
n. neuter or inanimate gender
ND non-dominant hand
pl. plural
pot. potential mood (also expresses deference or hesitation)
PREP preposition
PRON pronoun
rot. rotation of hand, twice
sg. singular
subord. subordinate clause marker
t. hands touch two or three times
V verb
WH wh-word (relative/interrogative pronoun or adverb)
wig. wiggle fingers (hand movement)
2
Phonetics
Vowels
There are three pure vowels, typically dispersed.

In the conventional orthography, vowels are generally spelled a i u; a word-final unstressed [i] is
represented by .
Consonants
Below is a chart of the consonant inventory, with IPA in light letters and conventional
orthographic representation in bold letters.
The preponderance of labials stems from their easy visual recognition; the existence of only one
(or two) dorsals is similarly motivated. Visual recognition also accounts for the presence of
fronted consonants: linguolabial [l"] appears instead of [l], and [n# ] is articulated as dental or
interdental (though [$d] is apical). Fricatives are not phonemically contrastive, as [f ] and [%] are
acoustically very similar; on the other hand, affricates appear, as they are visually and
acoustically distinct from the corresponding stops.
labial coronal dorsal
nasal m& (mw) n# (nj)
plosive p' (p) (b (mb) t' (t) $d (nd) k' (k) ~ h (h)
affricate bv (bv) d) (dd)
trill * (#) r (rr)
approximant w (w)
lateral l" (ll)
click (+ (") ,- ($)
3
[k] and [h] are allophones in complementary distribution; this phonetic difference is represented
in the orthography.
When necessary, indicates the absence of a spoken component.
Spoken constituent formation
The basic syllable of a spoken constituent has a CV structure. A native Hayfield word consists of
one, two or three syllables, with most spoken constituents being polysyllabic.
If the last syllable in a word is has the vowel a or u, then stress falls on that last syllable. If the
final vowel is [i], it may be either stressed or unstressed. If stressed, it is written i; if unstressed,
it is written , and the words stress falls on the penultimate syllable.
The click $ must be followed by a or u; it cannot be followed by i or .
The velar plosive k occurs word-initially; its allophone, h, occurs in the middle of and at the end
of a words.
A list of example spoken constituents, demonstrating all phonemes and possible syllable patterns,
follows.
mwihatu [m&i.ha..tu] hearing
mwunja [m&u..n#a] moon
nja [n#a] this, that
nja#urru [n#a.*u..ru] south
nju [n#u] [subordinate clause marker]
papih [pa..pi.hi] fairy tale, tall tale
pandi" [pa..ndi.(+i] other, another
mba$at [(ba..,-a.ti] heart (lit.)
katabva [k'a.t'a..bva] religious song
lladd [.l"a.d)i] tongue
lladdu [l"a..d)u] man
lla"u [l"a..(+u] mouth
winjand [wi..n#a.$di] spring
$u [,-u] egg
Handshapes
The basic handshapes are as follows. Parenthesized ASL equivalents are given; the bold letter is
used in the conventional orthography.
A closed fist (S or A)
4
An open palm (5)
Index finger out (1 or D)
Forming a ring (O or F)
Half-circle (C)
Tense wide claw (wider and tenser than C; spelled !)
Thumb and first two fingers extended, others bent (3)
First two fingers crossed (R)
Thumb between first two fingers (a less tense shape similar to T or K)
Rams horns, or extended index finger and pinky (simultaneous D and I; spelled Y)
When necessary, indicates the absence of a signed component.
Special signs are used for cardinal and ordinal numbers; these are discussed in the section on
numerals.
Position
There are twelve positions, most of which are classified as either close or extended.
Position a: close, at the scalp; extended, about a foot above the head.
Position b: close, at the forehead; extended, arms somewhat extended in front of the face.
Position c: close, at the cheek or temple (normally, that on the dominant side); extended, to
the side of the body at head level.
Position d: close, at the chin; extended, about a foot in front of the face (this looks similar
to the extended-b position, but the arms are lower and somewhat closer).
Position e: close, at the chest; there is no corresponding extended position.
Position f: close, at the same shoulder on the same side of the body as the hand in question,
in front of the body; extended, to the same side of the body at about shoulder height.
Position g: close, at the shoulder on the other side of the body from the hand in question, in
front of the body; extended, to the opposite side of the body at about shoulder height.
The neutral position, located about a foot in front of the body.
In the orthography, a close position is represented by a superscript letter, and its corresponding
extended position with a doubled superscript letter. For example, the ! handshape at close-d is
written !%, while the 5 handshape at extended-f is written 5&&. The neutral position is not indicated
in the orthography.
The handshapes for the two hands are separated with a slash (/). If no handshape follows the
slash, then the hands mirror each other.
5
Movement and orientation
The following are the movement and orientation phonemes, together with their gloss
abbreviations.
Tensing of hand and two small motions in place (associated with animacy) [an.]
Movement up [up]
Movement down [down]
Movement towards the body away from the front [in]
Movement away from body towards front [out]
Movement towards the body away from the side [to]
Movement away from the body towards the side [away]
Movement in a circle, preserving orientation [cir.]
Rotation in place, twice [rot.]
Wiggling of fingers [wig.]
Hands touch two or three times [t.]
In the orthography, if [in] or [to] is used in conjunction with a close position, the close position is
the final position; used with an extended position, the position is initial. For example, A&[in]
denotes the A handshape moving towards the close-f position from some neutral farther position,
while Y&&[in] denotes the Y handshape moving towards a neutral position from a (farther)
extended-f position. Conversely, if [out] and [away] are used with a close position, the close
position is initial; if the same indicators used with an extended position, the extended position is
final.
More specific movement between two positions is indicated by repeating the handshape for each
position. For example, the handshape 5 moving from the close b to the close c position is spelled
5'5(. If the handshape changes during the course of movement, a hyphen is used: Y%-C). A
hyphen is also used when the handshape has a distinctly different movement or orientation at the
two positions.
A repeated movement is indicated by a repetition of the movement marker. For example, the sign
for story is R%[out,out]; this indicates the R handshape at the close d position moving outwards
twice, returning to the close d position before moving out the second time.
The following orientations and non-manual markers, though consistently articulated, do not form
minimal pairs and are not represented in the orthography:
Palm up
Palm down
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Furrowed eyebrows (if)
Raised eyebrows (subordinate clause marker, relative pronouns)
Raised eyes, slightly lowered head (not)
The extent of raised eyebrows is indicated by an underline in the gloss; the extent of furrowed
eyebrows is indicated by round brackets. Phonologically, the raised eyebrows non-manual
marker takes precedence over the furrowed eyebrows marker. (See The Tower of Babel in
Appendix B for examples of subordinate clauses.)
Signed constituent formation
Below is a list of example signed constituents.
!& bone
Y[an.] person
K)[out] road
A([an.]/ deaf
R/ not
F%%F(( cloud
F&-5&&[wig.] fire
5/C[t.,in] come, walk towards
5/3[cir.,cir.,out] swim
5)/-A)/-5)/ breathe
Y/D[t.]-5/D[t.] kill
Phonology
Speech
The word-final unstressed vowel is dropped when utterance-final (i.e. at the end of a sentence
or other such prosodic unit).
mbatuh bad [(ba..t'u.hi] > [(ba..tuh]
Such apocope triggers the following phonetic changes to consonants in the word-final position:
w [w] and rr [r] are devoiced.
wuw wind, smoke [.wu.wi] > [wu/]
The voiced affricates bv [bv] and dd [d)] become unvoiced fricatives [0] and [%].
rrudd story [.ru.d)i] > [ru%]
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The prenasalized stops mb [(b] and nd [$d] become nasals [m] and [n].
kumbund season [ku..(bu.$di] > [ku..(bun]
Sign
There is little restriction on the signs that may produced within the constraints of the phonemes
listed above. It is not attested for more than three movements to occur in a single sign.
Both the close-a and the extended-a positions are rare in lexical items, and occur only iconically
in a few signs (such as Y'[an.]/-Y**/ play). The close a position, however, is used as the
position of the non-dominant hand in wh-words.
Speech-sign interaction
Normally, a single signed element is articulated together with a single spoken element. Short
spoken function words need not be accompanied by a sign, and pronouns need not be
accompanied by a speech component.
Many words have mandatory components involving both speech and sign; in some cases only
one of these is articulated in a given grammatical construction, as is detailed in the sections
morphosyntax. It is common for the signed component of one word to be articulated together
with the spoken component of another; this takes place under specific syntactical conditions.
The preponderance of open syllables, as well as common diphthongs, serve to aid the continuity
of the spoken stream, as it needs to be synchronized with sign. The extensive use of affricates
allows for distinct consonants (with full closure) to be emphasized and drawn out; this allows for
more seamless synchronization of sign and speech.
Some irregular words do not contain either a speech component or a signed component when one
is expected; for example, llillanj sing (speech) contains no signed component, although one
is expected for verbs. Such words are an exception to the general rule of simultaneous sign and
speech, and by nature break the flow of the other modality.
Nominal morphosyntax
Word formation
Nouns consist primarily of both a one-handed signed component in addition to a spoken
component. Plural number is marked on one-handed nouns by mirroring the sign on the non-
dominant hand.
Pronouns
Nouns are classified by their handshapes; the main handshape of a nouns sign is used for its
corresponding third-person pronoun. (The main handshape is the last handshape to have
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movement, or the initial handshape if there is no movement.) As in other sign languages,
pronouns are indexed towards the referent; that is, each referent occupies a spatial position in
the signing area, and the handshape of referent pronouns is pointed at that position.
5&&[in]/ D) $a Y)[an.,out] #u 5&&[in]/ njind Y
HAVE I FISH. HAVE-small IT.
I have a fish. It is small.
The pronominal handshape corresponding to plural nouns is 3:
5&&[in]/ D) $a Y)[an.,out]/ #u 3&&/ 5&&[in]/ njind 3
HAVE I FISH.[pl.] MANY. HAVE-small THEY.
I have many fish. They are small.
A handshape different from that of the corresponding noun may be used in exceptional
circumstances. For example, in The North Wind and the Sun (Appendix B), the Y handshape is
used to refer to both characters in the story (rather than 5 for the North Wind and A for the Sun);
the effect is to personify the referents of the two pronouns.
Pronouns have an optional spoken component $a, which may be used in several situations:
When the speaker wishes to place emphasis on the referent
When the pronoun is occupying the canonical position of a topicalized noun phrase (see the
section on sentence structure)
When the preceding word has no spoken component, to avoid disrupting the flow of speech
In addition to referential personal pronouns, there are two indefinite, or dummy, pronouns,
indicating an absent or unspecified referent. These pronouns can be used analogously to the
passive voice in English.
Y/D[t.]-5/D[t.] $ati Y Y((Y'
KILL [indef.].[c.] bird
The bird was killed (by someone).
Y/D[t.]-5/D[t.] $ati A Y((Y'
KILL [indef.].[n.] bird
The bird got killed.
Prepositions
Prepositions consist of only a spoken component, with the signed component being null. If its
object is a pronoun (which has a null signed component), the two words are articulated
simultaneously; otherwise, the object follows the preposition.
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Possession is indicated by a preposition corresponding to of.
Y[an.,up] mwuddamb D) ndu
FRIEND of-ME
my friend
ddapi F''[out,in] $udda
TO MOUNTAIN
to the mountain
Adjectives
Most adjectives have only a spoken component, with the signed component being null. An
adjective follows the noun it modifies; the sign of the modified noun is repeated during the
spoken component of the adjective. An adjective with a signed component may assimilate the
handshape of the preceding noun (which it modifies). In the example below, the basic signed
component of big is 5&&/, but the word assimilates the handshape of cloud.
F%%F(( rrudd F&&/ padda
CLOUD CLOUD-big
big cloud
Once an adjective-noun phrase has been introduced, the spoken component of the noun may be
omitted and the two words assimilated. In the example above, once big cloud has been
introduced into the discourse, F&&/ padda is sufficient for the entire noun phrase; the spoken
component of cloud does not need to be expressed again.
Such blending of noun and adjective can also be used to create productive compounds that can
exist without the full noun phrase ever being expressed in the discourse:
5'[wig.] tihall
FUR-sheep
wool
5%%5(( tumwabv
WIND-north
North Wind
Adjectives may reduplicate the initial syllable to mark diminution or qualification; they
reduplicate the final syllable to indicate intensification.
mba-mbanjiddu
rather well-known
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mbanjiddu-ddu
very well-known
There is no special form of the adjective that must be used in comparisons; the preposition "ahu
from precedes the object of comparison. Reduplication may be used in comparison expressions,
but is not mandatory.
5&&[in]/ kapa$u D "ahu D pandi"
HAVE-strong HE FROM OTHER
He is stronger than the other.
5&&[in]/ kapa$u-$u D {3} "ahu
HAVE-strong-very HE from-3
He is the strongest of the three.
Vocative expressions
Nouns of direct address either precede or follow an entire clause; they tend not to interrupt a
clause.
C(/-C&&/ $a Y Y%[an.]-C) tihall
LISTEN-[imper.] YOU, SHEEP.
Sheep, listen!
Y%[an.]-C) tihall C(/-C&&/ $a Y
SHEEP, LISTEN-[imper.] YOU.
Listen, sheep!
Conjunction of nouns
Nouns are conjoined simply by articulating them in succession.
D) $a F([an.,out] ndallu D) ndu
I SISTER of-ME
my sister and I
Note that such expressions are ambiguous with zero-copula sentences and appositive
expressions. The syntactic context is usually sufficient to disambiguate the former, while
discursive context helps to disambiguate the latter.
Determiners and numerals
All determiners, including numerals, may be used in either the noun or the adjective position.
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5&&[in]/ D) $a Y)[an.] bvaddi 3&&/
HAVE I CHILD.[pl.] MANY.
I have many children.
5&&[in]/ D) $a 3&&/
HAVE I MANY.
I have many.
Numerals are signed using a base-four system that lies outside the ordinary phonology:
0 is represented by an open hand
1 is represented by the thumb touching the third (ring) finger
2 is represented by the thumb touching the second (middle) finger
3 is represented by the thumb touching the first (index) finger
Two-digit numbers may be represented with the more significant digit on the non-dominant
hand. Higher numbers are spelled out, most significant digit first, on one hand.
In the orthography, numbers are written in base-four, most significant digit first, in curly
brackets:
{100}
16
sixteen
Ordinal numbers
As in signed languages such as ASL, Hayfield makes more extensive use of ordinal-like signs
when referring to individuals of a group. A number of fingers equal to the total number in the
group are extended on the non-dominant hand; the dominant hand assumes the handshape of the
noun being represented and points to the corresponding finger on the non-dominant hand,
beginning at the thumb. (See Schleichers Fable in Appendix B for an example of idiomatic
usage of ordinal numbers.)
Smaller ordinals are indicated using the indexing system described above. Higher ordinals are
expressed by signing the corresponding cardinal number followed by the ordinal [2/2].
Expressing dates
Months are numbered according to the two independent cycles in the year. A specific month is
indicated by speaking the generic word for a month in the cycle (llanjuw or panjah) while
signing a cardinal number on two hands (one of {00}, {01}, {02}, {03}, {10}, {11}).
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Days of the eight-day week are expressed by speaking the word week (#adda) while signing a
cardinal number on two hands (one of {00}, {01}, {02}, {03}, {10}, {11}, {12}, {13}.
Both digits are always signed when expressing a specific day or month, even if the digit on the
non-dominant hand is {0}.
Verbal morphosyntax
Word formation
Most verbs consist of a two-handed signed component. In addition, most verbs have a default
spoken component, which effectively divides verbs into semantic classes. If a verb is articulated
together with a modifier, this spoken component is replaced.
The progressive aspect is indicated by repeating the verb. If there are no other verbal modifiers,
the default spoken component of the verb is also repeated.
If there is more than one modifier to a verb, the default marker comes first, followed by modal
marker; aspect markers come last. Signed verbal modifiers are articulated after the verb.
Some verbs have an idiomatic meaning with a particular modal or aspect marker, while others
must occur with a specific marker.
D)[an.]/ bvitu$u
THINK-[intens.]
to believe
!&&/-F&&/ pidd
FIND-[inch.]
to find
Grammatical voice does not exist in Hayfield. Topicalization and indefinite subjects are used
analogously to the passive voice in English.
Participles
A verb may become participial by following the noun it modifies. Such a participle may itself be
modified by the spoken component of a noun, which is interpreted as its object. If the object is
modified, the signed component of the object occurs after the participle and is articulated
simultaneously with the adjective.
D[an.] lladdu 5/K-K/5 #anju
MAN DWELL-city
a man dwelling in a city
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D[an.] lladdu 5/K-K/5 #anju K&[up,down] padda
MAN DWELL-city CITY-large
a man dwelling in a large city
Stative verbs
Adjectives may be class-shifted into stative verbs by the use of the signed component 5&&5+
(have), which then functions as a copula.
5&&5+ kapa$u D
HAVE-strong HE.
He is strong.
No copula is used with nouns; the two nouns are simply articulated in succession. The second
may be topicalized as usual.
F $a Y[an.,up] mwuddamb Y[an.,up] ndaw
SHE FRIEND FRIEND-good.
She is a good friend.
Y[an.,up] mwuddamb Y[an.,up] ndaw F $a
FRIEND FRIEND-good SHE.
She is a good friend.
Sentence structure
Simple sentences
The basic word order is V-S-O.
5/5-5/5 karr D) K[down] parrinj
BUILD I HOUSE.
I built a house.
The subject or object may be topicalized by placing it before the verb (resulting in Top-V-S-O
order). The noun phrases canonical position is replaced with the corresponding pronoun; the
spoken component $a must then be articulated.
K[down] parrinj 5/5-5/5 karr D) K $a
HOUSE BUILD I IT.
A house is what I built.
Adverbs and prepositional phrases that modify the entire clause (such as expressions of time or
place) canonically occur at the end of the sentence; they can also occur, topicalized, in the
sentence-initial position.
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F'/-5(([wig.]/ $ati 3 "ahu 5/C bvu
BE.SCATTERED THEY FROM THERE
They were scattered from there.
"ahu 5/C bvu F'/-5(([wig.]/ $ati 3
FROM THERE BE.SCATTERED THEY
From there they were scattered.
(Note that closed-class adverbs, which are marked in the lexicon with ADV, as well as adjectives
that double as adverbs, are verbal modifiers; immediately follow the verb.)
Coordinate conjunction
Simple conjunction of clauses (corresponding to and) is not articulated in Hayfield.
Alternatives are indicated by a body-shift, as in ASL. Opposition (but) is indicated with the
sentence-initial particle pa.
Subordinate clauses
Embedded clauses are indicated with nju before the clause, with eyebrows raised throughout
the clause.
nju llillanj llillanj R([up,up]/ bvitu$u
[subord.] SING SING BE.HAPPY-[intens.]
The more I sing, the happier I am.
Purpose and result clauses are not introduced with special conjunctions; they use the generic
embedded clause marker nju together with an adverb. The embedded clause may either follow
or precede the matrix clause; if it precedes, the clause is considered topicalized.
R([up,up]/ ndah nju A&[out]/ $ati 5/3 ndah
BE.HAPPY [subord.] SUCCEED [REASON]
He was happy because he succeeded.
nju A&[out]/ $ati 5/3 ndah R([up,up]/ ndah
[subord.] SUCCEED [REASON] BE.HAPPY
Because he succeeded, he was happy.
Such an adverb may stand as the entire clause to mean therefore.
nju 5/K nduw R,R&[an.] $a 5%%5(( tumwabv
[subord.] [result] AGREE-[imper.] WIND-north
As a result, the North Wind was obliged to agree.
Conditions are syntactically similar to other embedded clauses, but make use of furrowed
eyebrows and the spoken component tu.
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tu A[up,down]/ pidd 3 5)/A nja
IF (DO-[inch.] THEY THIS,)
If they have begun to do this
Questions
Wh-questions are formed using the wh-words in their canonical positions, with the raised
eyebrows of the subordinate clause marker being used. (The speech component of the
subordinate clause marker, nju, is not used.)
5/C[t.,in] karr 5*/Y mwa
[subord.] COME WHO?
Who came?
Yes/no questions are formed similarly; the wh-word used for yes/no questions is "u whether.
"u R&&[in]/ ddabvit F 5/R[t.] ndimw
[subord.] whether WANT-[potential] YOU DANCE?
Would you like to dance?
Negation
Negation is indicated by raising the eyes and slightly lowering the head. Both the spoken
component ($u) and the signed component (R/) are optional, and are expressed when it aids the
signed or spoken stream.
Negation of a complete sentence acts syntactically like a modal particle, being articulated with
the verb.
Negation of a particular element is articulated simultaneously with that element. An adjective
may need to be separated from its noun if the adjective is to be negated; in this case, the signed
component is necessary.
F)[an.] kiw R/ ndall
GIRL NOT-short
the girl who was not short
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Appendix A: Lexicon
The following is a partial list of Hayfield words.
Pronouns
Determiners
Translation Speech Sign Notes
I (m.) (-a) D1 Speech component indicates emphasis.
I (f.) (-a) F1 Speech component indicates emphasis.
he/you (sg. m.) (-a) D
Sign is indexed. Speech component
indicates emphasis.
she/you (sg. f.) (-a) F
Sign is indexed. Speech component
indicates emphasis.
it (-a) X
Sign is indexed. X represents the
handshape of the corresponding noun;
the generic handshape is A. Speech
component indicates emphasis.
we (-a) 31 Speech component indicates emphasis.
they/you (pl.) (-a) 3
Sign is indexed. Speech component
indicates emphasis.
[indefinite] (c.) Y
[indefinite] (n.) A
each other (-a) X/X2[up,down]
X and X2 represent handshape pronouns
of the verbs argument.
no one -u Y
Signed with raised eyes and slightly
lowered head.
nothing -u A
Signed with raised eyes and slightly
lowered head.
Translation Speech Sign Notes
this nja 51/X
X represents the handshape of the
corresponding noun; the generic
handshape is A.
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Prepositions
Nouns
that nja 5/X
X represents the handshape of the
corresponding noun; the generic
handshape is A.
all (-a) 533/ Speech component indicates emphasis.
many (-a) 333/ Speech component indicates emphasis.
some (plural) (-a) 33/ Speech component indicates emphasis.
some (paucal) (-a) C3/ Speech component indicates emphasis.
few (-a) C/ Speech component indicates emphasis.
none (-a) A/ Speech component indicates emphasis.
other, another pandi+ X
X represents the handshape of the
corresponding noun.
Translation Speech Sign Notes
Translation Speech Sign Notes
of ndu
in, at, on kall
to, towards ddapi
for tu+a
with *a
around lla*i
from, out of, than +ahu
instead of pawat
Translation Speech Sign Notes
thing llipu A Generic noun.
person parr Y[an.]
man lladdu D[an.]
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husband lladdumb D[an.]
woman wanji F[an.]
wife wanjimb F[an.]
father +imba D[an.,in]
mother +imba F[an.,in]
parent +imba Y[an.,in]
brother ndallu D4[an.,in]
sister ndallu F4[an.,out]
sibling ndallu Y4[an.,out]
boy kiw D1[an.] Same sign as son.
girl kiw F1[an.] Same sign as daughter.
child (young
person)
kiw Y1[an.]
son bvaddi D1[an.] Same sign as boy.
daughter bvaddi F1[an.] Same sign as girl.
child (descendant) bvaddi Y1[an.]
lord, master mbanda* 55[an.] Palm down.
friend mwuddamb Y[an.,up]
animal bvi Y6[an.]
bird wimwa Y44Y5[an.]
fish *u Y1[an.,out]
snake bvulla Y33[an.,in] Same sign as worm.
worm ddilla Y33[an.,in] Same sign as snake.
dog mbati Y6[an.]-C1 Same sign for mammals generally.
sheep tihall Y6[an.]-C1 Same sign for mammals generally.
horse rramwi Y6[an.]-C1 Same sign for mammals generally.
Translation Speech Sign Notes
19
head lla+i A5[an.]
eye rrita F5[an.] May be signed on the eye itself.
nose bvunj F6[out]
mouth lla+u F6[an.out]
tooth tahuddi 76
tongue lladd 56[an.,out] Palm down.
ear pu C4[an.] May be signed on the ear itself.
neck -umwa A1[up]
chest (m.) mbahut D8D3
chest (f.) mbahut F8F3
arm kumbu 5[an.]
Same speech is used for arm, hand,
leg, foot, wing.
hand kumbu 7[an.]
Same speech is used for arm, hand,
leg, foot, wing.
leg kumbu 5
Palm down. Same speech used for arm,
hand, leg, foot, wing.
foot kumbu 7
Palm down. Same speech used for arm,
hand, leg, foot, wing.
wing kumbu Y33[an.]
Same speech used for arm, hand,
leg, foot, wing.
heart (lit.) mba+at Y1[up]
belly -arra F1[down]
skin wah 53[wig.]
blood -u K1 Palm up.
bone nji-u 73
hair, fur llinju 55[wig.]
wool tihall 55[wig.] Formed from sheep and fur.
Translation Speech Sign Notes
20
feather wahanju Y5
horn kata-a Y5[up]
claw nduddi-a 71[in]
tail witaw D33[cir.]
night llahi 58[out]
day tubvi A3[in]
year pa*u A[cir.]
sky, heaven ddall 566544 Same sign as wind.
cloud rrudd F66F44
earth pamba A[an.]
sun llanju A[an.,cir.]
moon mwunja A[an.,cir.]
star tidd K[an.]
grass ddamb C33[an.] Palm up.
tree/wood taddu D33[an.]
Palm up. Same sign used for tree/
wood, stick, bark.
stick kumwi D33[an.]
Palm up. Same sign used for tree/
wood, stick, bark.
bark pahadd D33[an.]
Palm up. Same sign used for tree/
wood, stick, bark.
leaf winj 533[an.] Palm up.
flower walla K33[an.] Palm up.
fruit +abv F33[an.] Palm up.
stone paddu F[cir.]
place (mwaddi) 5/5[out,in] Palms up.
mountain -udda F55[out,in]
plain ddaha*u 58533 Palm down.
Translation Speech Sign Notes
21
wind wuw 566544
Same speech as smoke; same sign as
sky.
smoke wuw F66-544 Same speech as wind.
fire njimba F3-533[wig.]
ashes mwapu R33[an.]
water waddu 533[wig.]
ice ddira 555[wig.,in] Same sign used for ice, snow, rain.
snow *awa 555[wig.,in] Same sign used for ice, snow, rain.
rain llupi 555[wig.,in] Same sign used for ice, snow, rain.
sea ndamwi 533[wig.,away]
Same sign used for sea, lake and
river.
lake njallu 533[wig.,away]
Same sign used for sea, lake and
river.
river *all 533[wig.,away]
Same sign used for sea, lake and
river.
seed llu A/D[an.]
egg -u A/F[an.]
salt ddarra D6[in] May be signed with the mouth open.
rope, string llunj D66D44
heart (fig.) C1[an.]
name +arri 56[an.]
face warraw Y4
language lla+u 7[an.]
Same sign as hand; same speech as
mouth. Also name for Hayfield
specifically.
garment, cloak bvanji 58[in,wig.]
city *anju K3[up,down]
house parrinj K[down] Same speech for house and vehicle.
Translation Speech Sign Notes
22
tower llilla 73[up]
The size of the tower may be hinted at
by slowness and length of movement.
brick katibvu A[away]
mortar mwallirr R[away]
drawn or powered
vehicle (e.g.
wagon)
parrinj C33C3
Same speech for house and vehicle;
similar sign for pull and drawn
vehicle.
load (for carrying) llipu A33-A4
Same speech as thing; same sign as
carry on one hand.
road bvandu K1[out]
week (eight days) *adda
month of spring/
summer cycle
llanjuw
month of autumn/
winter cycle
panjah
season kumbund R55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.
spring winjand R55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.
summer kapabv R55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.
autumn mwarru R55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.
winter lla-amw R55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.
traditional festival warraddu A3/-5[t.]/
improvisational
arts festival
warraddu A/5[rot.]
(new-cycle
festival)
rritambi K3/-5[t.]/
local festival warraddu A/5[in,t.]
Translation Speech Sign Notes
23
special
(irregularly
scheduled)
community arts or
culture event
warraddu A/5[rot.]
community
storytelling
festival
rruddi A3/-5[t.]/ Incorporates speech for story.
structured
community
singing event
(spoken)
llillanj A3/-5[t.]/
Incorporates speech for singing
(speech).
structured
community dance
event
+alla A3/-5[t.]/ Palm up (ND).
story [1] R6[out,out]
story [2] rrudd
music/poetry
performance
+andawi A5[an.]-599
dance
performance
+andawi 5/R[t.]
Palm up (ND). Incorporates sign for
dance.
theatre
performance
+andawi 5/F[t.] Palm up (ND).
group, family +alli C[t.]/
amateur group of
people
participating in
arts or culture
njambilla C[t.]/
performing group widdirra C[t.]/
love song +arrandi A5[an.]-599 Incorporates sign for song.
religious song katabva A5[an.]-599 Incorporates sign for song.
mournful song bvumbu A5[an.]-599 Incorporates sign for song.
Translation Speech Sign Notes
24
Adjectives
call-and-response
song
mbata-mbati A5[an.]-599 Incorporates sign for song.
adventure story,
ballad
ddamwu R6[out,out] Incorporates sign for story.
fairy tale, tall tale papih R6[out,out] Incorporates sign for story.
(a kind of slow
dance)
mwuddu 5/R[t.]
Palm up (ND). Incorporates speech for
heavy; incorporates sign for dance.
(a kind of lively
community
dance)
ddarra 5/R[t.]
Palm up (ND). Incorporates speech for
salt; incorporates sign for dance.
irony kanjund 5/55-5/5 Palm up (ND).
metaphor warrand 5[t.]/-5/533
repetition
(literary)
katind 5/F[t.]
reputation mbabvut 5554
conflict waha-u 7[t.]/
life wibvi A1[an.]-Y1
death rrallap Y88A1
pain -uhamba 76[an.]
Translation Speech Sign Notes
Translation Speech Sign Notes
whole, entire pabva
light, bright lliwidda
dark ndambawu
black kapu
white waddi
25
red nja*a
yellow lluwi
green, blue rrubvu
good ndaw
bad mbatuh
old rallu
young/new +idd
cold *uwu
warm/hot tahall
wet warrihu
dry kapah
big, large, thick padda (533/)
small, thin njind (D/)
long, tall tamwuh
Miming hand movement may
accompany the spoken component.
short ndall
Miming hand movement may
accompany the spoken component.
sharp tilli
dull +awuh
light(weight) wanja
Translation Speech Sign Notes
26
heavy mwuddu
rotten mwudda
fresh pa*i
deaf A4[an.]/
hearing mwihatu
well-known,
traditional
mbanjiddu
thoughtful,
meditative
(people, work of
art)
ddahaw
happy mbatidd
sad ndumbu
hateful wata-a
loving +arrandi
living wibvi
dead rrallap
quick killinja
One may point in the direction of the
movement.
slow llawu
east bvarrind
west ddahaw
south nja*urru
north tumwabv
strong kapa-u
Translation Speech Sign Notes
27
Adverbs
weak llandimb
confused *arrit
early (season) +u- Same speech as whether.
late (season) rri-
impossible *ahudd
Translation Speech Sign Notes
Translation Speech Sign Notes
one time
(existential
marker for events)
llapa
[inchoative] pidd
[intensive] bvitu-u
quickly kallip
finally tabvu
not (-u) (R/)
Signed with raised eyes and slightly
lowered head.
[imperative,
hortative]
-a
Same speech for emphasis marker on
pronouns and quantifiers.
[potential] (can be
used to express
deference or
hesitation)
ddabvit
[hypothetical] rri+
in this way rra 51/R
here bvu 51/C
there bvu 5/C
now mbi 51/5
then mbi 5/5
28
Verbs
why nduw 59/K
[result] nduw 5/K
Used as an adverb modifying the verb of
the reason clause.
with what effect ndah 59/3
[purpose, reason] ndah 5/3
Used as an adverb modifying the verb of
the reason clause.
Translation Speech Sign Notes
Translation Speech Sign Notes
do [karr] A[up,down]/ Generic verb.
have 533[in]/
May be signed with only one hand; used
(especially one-handed) to turn modifiers
into verbs.
use [karr] K[t.]/
think [mbaw] D1[an.]/ Means believe, consider with intensive
know [mbaw] 31[an.]/
see [mbaw] D4[in]/
smell [mbaw] F4[in]/
hear [mbaw] 54[in]/
say [mbaw] R4[out]/
give [njup] 78733/
receive [njup] 73378/
live [ndah] A1[an.]/-Y1/
die [ndah] Y33/-A1/
eat [njup] 76[to]/ May be signed with the mouth open
drink [njup] C6[to] May be signed with the mouth open
breathe [njup] 51/-A1/-51/
laugh [njup] 54[wig.]/
blow wuw 51/F6[out]
29
sing (sign), poetry A5[an.]/-59/
sing (speech) llillanj
work [ndimw] A[t.]/
play [ndimw] Y5[an.]/-Y99/
dance [ndimw] 5/R[t.] Palm up (ND).
cook [ndimw] 5/A[rot.] Palm up (ND).
sew [ndimw] D/D[cir.,cir.] Palm up (ND).
swim [ndimw]
5/3[cir.,cir.,out
]
Palm up (ND).
come, walk
towards, reach
[karr] 5/C[t.,in] Palm up (ND).
go, leave, walk
away from
[karr] 5/C[t.,out] Palm up (ND).
go up, ascend [karr] 5/C[t.,up] Palm up (ND).
go down, descend [karr] 5/C[t.,down] Palm up (ND).
fall [ndimw] 5/C-5/5 Palm up (ND) throughout.
sit [ndimw] 5/R Palm up (ND).
stand [ndimw] 5/C Palm up (ND).
sleep +arr May be signed with eyes closed.
push, drive [karr] 533[out]/
pull [karr] C33[in]/
Similar sign for pull and drawn
vehicle.
dig [ndimw] C[rot.]/
cut [ndimw] R/-3/
throw [karr] F3533
scratch [-ati] 755766
bite [-ati] A/7
kill [-ati] Y/D[t.]-5/D[t.]
Translation Speech Sign Notes
30
teach mwinda R1[out]
learn +allu R1[in]
improvise [njup] A33[rot.]/-533/
have shared
interests
[ndah] Y[t.]/
look forward to [mbaw] C[rot.]/ May be signed with mouth open.
be happy [ndah] R4[up,up]/
be sad [ndah] A4[down]/
hate [ndah] K33[up,down]/
love, like [ndah] 51[an.]
be anxious [ndah] 533[rot.]/
be guilty [ndah] 74/-A/
feel shame [ndah] A44-74[an.]
be shamed [ndah] 344-74[an.]
have a good
reputation
[ndah] R5R4/
argue, dispute [-ati] 73[up,down]/
rescue [karr] Y33/-A3/
befriend [karr] X/Y[t.]
X represents the handshape of the patient
of the verb.
marry [karr] R[t.]/
shine [ndah] F/-533/
hide, be dark [ndah] F3354/
find pidd 733/-F33/
Palms down (first element); palms up
(second element). Always used with
inchoative aspect.
gather [karr] 53358/
dwell, inhabit [njup] 5/K-K/5
Palm up (ND, first element); palm up (D,
second element)
Translation Speech Sign Notes
31
Wh-words
make, build [karr] 5/5-5/5
Palm down (D, first element); palm up
(D, second element).
carry (lit.); bear
(fig.)
[ndimw] A33/-A4/
listen [ndah] C4/-C33/
The first element may be signed at the
ear itself.
understand [ndah] C33/-C1[an.]/
give up [ndah] 53/-533/ Palm down.
be scattered,
thrown in disorder
[-ati] F5/-544[wig.]/
be on a journey [karr] 5/C[cir.,cir.]
Palm up (ND). Similar to go, come,
walk.
bake [ndah] F1/-5[wig.]/
succeed [-ati] A3[out]/
cause [ndah] A[an.]/
cease, stop (intr.) pidd 58[an.]/ Always used with inchoative aspect.
want [ndah] R33[in]/
agree [ndah] R8R3[an.] Means admit with imperative marker.
take off [karr] F3/-533/
try [karr] 51/-A33/
Translation Speech Sign Notes
Translation Speech Sign Notes
what, which (sg.) nja 59/X
X represents the handshape of the
corresponding noun; the generic
handshape is A. Signed with raised
eyebrows when used as a relative.
who (sg.) mwa 59/X
X represents the handshape of the
corresponding noun; the generic
handshape is Y. Signed with raised
eyebrows when used as a relative.
32
Conjunctions
who, what (pl.) mwa 59/3
Signed with raised eyebrows when used
as a relative.
how rra 59/R
Signed with raised eyebrows when used
as a relative.
where bvu 59/C
Signed with raised eyebrows when used
as a relative.
when mbi 59/5
Signed with raised eyebrows when used
as a relative.
whether +u (59/7) Same speech as early (season).
Translation Speech Sign Notes
Translation Speech Sign Notes
but pa
if tu Signed with furrowed eyebrows.
[subordinate
clause marker]
(nju) Signed with raised eyebrows.
33
Appendix B: Sample Passages
The North Wind and the Sun
!&[up,down]/ $ati !&[up,down]/ llapa 5%%5(( tumwabv A[an.,cir.] llanju
DISPUTE DISPUTE-one.time WIND-north SUN
The North Wind and the Sun were disputing
5*/D mwa 5&&[in] kapa$u D $a
WHO-[masc.] HAVE-strong HE,
which was the stronger,
5/C[t.,in] pidd D[an.] lladdu 5/C[cir.,cir.] karr 5&&5,/ bvanji 5,[in,wig.] tahall
COME-[inch.] MAN BE.ON.JOURNEY GATHER-garment GARMENT-warm.
when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.
R,R&[an.] ndah 3 5)/A nja
AGREE THEY THIS:
They agreed
nju A&[out]/ pidd D
[subord.] SUCCEED-[inch.] HE
that the one who first succeeded
A[an.]/ F&/-5&&/ ndah D[an.] lladdu 5,[in,wig.] bvanji
CAUSE TAKE.OFF MAN GARMENT,
in making the traveler take his cloak off
D)[an.]/ bvitu$u Y 5&&[in] kapa$u-$u D "ahu D pandi"
THINK-[intens.] [indef.].[c.] HAVE-strong-very HE FROM OTHER.
should be considered stronger than the other.
5)/F%[out] wuw 5)/F%[out] bvitu$u 5/5 mbi 5%%5(( tumwabv
BLOW BLOW-[intens.] THEN WIND-north.
Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,
pa 5)/F%[out] wuw 5)/F%[out] kapa$u-$u
BUT [subord.] BLOW BLOW-strong-very,
but the more he blew
34
5&&5,/ karr 5&&5,/ bvitu$u D[an.] lladdu 5/C[cir.,cir.] karr
GATHER GATHER-[intens.] MAN BE.ON.JOURNEY
the more closely did the traveler fold
5,[in,wig.] bvanji D lla#i
GARMENT around-HIM.
his cloak around him;
5&/-5&&/ tabvu 5%%5(( tumwabv
GIVE.UP-finally WIND-north.
and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt.
5)/-A&&/ karr 5)/5 mbi A[an.,cir.] llanju F/-5&&/ ndah F/-5&&/ tahall A[an.,cir.] llanju
TRY NOW SUN. SHINE SHINE-warm SUN,
Then the Sun shined out warmly,
F&/-5&&/ kallip D[an.] lladdu 5/C[cir.,cir.] karr 5,[in,wig.] bvanji
TAKE.OFF-quickly MAN BE.ON.JOURNEY GARMENT.
and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.
nju 5/K nduw R,R&[an.] $a 5%%5(( tumwabv
[subord.] [result] AGREE-[imper.] WIND-north
And so the North Wind was obliged to confess
5&&[in] kapa$u A[an.,cir.] llanju 3 "ahu
HAVE-strong SUN from-THEM.
that the Sun was the stronger of the two.
The Tower of Babel
A[an.] pamba A[an.] pabva 5&&[in] llapa A $a
EARTH EARTH-whole HAVE-one.time IT
Now the whole world had one language and a common speech.
![an.] kumbu {1} 5%[an.,out] lladd {1}
HAND 1 TONGUE 1.
one language and a common speech.
35
nju 5/C[t.,out] karr 5/C[t.,out] karr Y ddapi 5/5[out,in] bvarrind
[subord.] GO GO [indef.] TO LAND-east,
As men moved eastward,
!&&/-F&&/ pidd 3 5,5&& ddaha#u kall 5/5[out,in] kinjall
FIND-[inch.] THEY PLAIN IN PLACE-[SHINAR]
they found a plain in Shinar
5/K-K/5 pidd 3 5/C bvu
DWELL-[inch.] THEY THERE.
and settled there.
R([out]/ mbaw 3/3[up,down] 5)/A nja
SAY EACH.OTHER THIS:
They said to each other,
5/C[t.,in] $a 3) 5/5-5/5 $a 3) A[away]/
COME-[imper.] WE MAKE-[imper.] WE BRICK-[pl.],
Come, lets make bricks
F)/-5[wig.]/ $a F)/-5[wig.]/ bvitu$u 3) 3 $a
BAKE-[imper.] BAKE-[intens.] WE THEM.
and bake them thoroughly.
K[t.]/ karr 3 A[away] katibvu pawat F[cir.] paddu
USE THEY BRICK INSTEAD.OF STONE,
They used brick instead of stone,
K[t.]/ karr 3 A kimwarr pawat R[away] mwallirr
USE THEY THING-[CHEMAR] INSTEAD.OF MORTAR.
and bitumen for mortar.
R([out]/ mbaw 5)/5 mbi 3 5)/A nja 5/C[t.,in] $a 3)
SAY NOW THEY THIS: COME-[imper.] WE,
Then they said, Come,
5/5-5/5 $a 3) K&[up,down] #anju 3) tu"a
BUILD-[imper.] WE CITY for-US,
let us build ourselves a city,
36
K&[up,down] #anju 5&&[in] rri" K $a !&[up] llilla 5/C[t.,up] ddall
CITY HAVE-[hypoth.] IT TOWER ASCEND-heavens.
with a tower that reaches to the heavens,
5&&[in] mbanjiddu 5/K nduw 3)
HAVE-well.known [result] WE,
so that we may make a name for ourselves
F'/-5(([wig.]/ $u 5/K nduw 3) lla#i A[an.] pabva
BE.SCATTERED-not [result] WE AROUND EARTH-whole.
and not be scattered over the face of the whole earth.
pa 5/C[t.,down] karr 5'[an.] mbanda# 5*/K nduw
BUT DESCEND LORD WHY?
But the Lord came down to see the city
D([in]/ mbaw 5/3 ndah 5 K&[up,down] #anju
SEE [purpose] HE CITY
to see the city
D([in]/ mbaw 5/3 ndah 5 !&[up] llilla 5*/! nja 5/5-5/5 karr 3 ! $a
SEE [purpose] HE TOWER WHICH BUILD THEY IT
and the tower that the men were building.
R([out]/ mbaw 5'[an.] mbanda# 5)/A nja
SAY LORD THIS:
The Lord said,
tu nju 5&&[in] 3 $a ![an.] kumbu {1} 5%[an.,out] lladd {1}
IF ([sub.] HAVE THEY HAND 1 TONGUE 1
If as one people speaking the same language
A[up,down]/ pidd 3 5)/A nja
DO-[inch.] THEY THIS)
they have begun to do this,
5&&[in] #ahudd A $u 5*/A nja 5)/-A&&/ karr 3 A $a
HAVE-impossible NOTHING WHICH TRY THEY IT.
then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.
37
5/C[t.,in] $a 3) 5/C[t.,down] $a 3)
COME-[imper.] WE, DESCEND-[imper.] WE,
Come, let us go down
A[an.]/ $a 3) 5&&[in] #arrit ![an.] kumbu 5%[an.,out] lladd 3 ndu
CAUSE-[imper.] WE HAVE-confused HAND TONGUE of-THEM.
and confuse their language
C&&/-C)[an.]/ $u 5/3 ndah 3/3[up,down]
UNDERSTAND-not [purpose] EACH.OTHER.
so that they will not understand each other.
nju 5/3 ndah A[an.]/ ndah 5'[an.] mbanda# F'/-5(([wig.]/ $ati 3
[subord.] [purpose] CAUSE LORD BE.SCATTERED THEY
So the Lord scattered them
"ahu 5/C bvu lla#i A[an.] pabva
FROM THERE AROUND EARTH-whole,
from there over all the earth,
5,[an.]/ pidd 5/K nduw 3 5/5-5/5 karr 3 K&[up,down] #anju
CEASE [result] THEY BUILD THEY CITY.
and they stopped building the city.
nju 5/3 ndah !,!&&/ "arri Y K $a 5/5[out,in] bvabvill
[subord.] [purpose] GIVE-name [indef.] IT PLACE-[BABEL].
That is why it was called Babel
kall 5/C bvu A[an.]/ $a 5'[an.] mbanda# 5&&[in] #arrit
AT THERE CAUSE-[imper.] LORD HAVE-confused
because there the Lord confused
![an.] kumbu 5%[an.,out] lladd ndu A[an.] pabva
HAND TONGUE OF EARTH-whole.
the language of the whole world.
"ahu 5/C bvu A[an.]/ ndah 5'[an.] mbanda# F'/-5(([wig.]/ $ati 3
FROM THERE CAUSE LORD BE.SCATTERED THEY
From there the Lord scattered them
38
lla#i A[an.] pabva
AROUND EARTH-whole.
over the face of the whole earth.
Schleichers Fable
D([in]/ llapa Y%[an.]-C) tihall 5&&[in] llinju Y%[an.]/-C)/ rramwi
SEE-one.time SHEEP HAVE-fur-not HORSE.[pl.].
A sheep that had no wool saw horses,
Y[1/3] rramwi C&&[in]/ karr C&&[in]/ karr Y $a C&&C& parrinj C&&C& mwuddu
horse-[1/3] PULL PULL IT WAGON WAGON-heavy,
one of them pulling a heavy wagon,
Y[2/3] rramwi A&&/-A(/ ndimw A&&/-A(/ ndimw Y $a A&&-A( llipu 5&&/ padda
horse-[2/3] CARRY CARRY IT LOAD BIG,
one carrying a big load,
Y[3/3] rramwi A&&/-A(/ ndimw A&&/-A(/ kallip Y $a D[an.] lladdu
horse-[3/3] CARRY CARRY-quickly IT MAN.
and one carrying a man quickly.
R([out]/ mbaw Y%[an.]-C) tihall 5)/A nja tu"a Y%[an.]/-C)/ rramwi
SAY SHEEP THIS FOR HORSE.[pl.]:
The sheep said to the horses:
!%[an.] $uhamba 5&&[in]/ C)[an.] Y) ndu C $a
PAIN HAVE HEART(fig.) of-ME IT,
My heart pains me,
nju D([in]/ mbaw 3) D[an.] lladdu 5&&[out]/ rramwi
[subord.] SEE WE MAN DRIVE-horse.
seeing a man driving horses.
Y%[an.]/-C)/ rramwi R([out]/ mbaw 3 $a 5)/A nja
HORSE.[pl.] SAY THEY THIS:
The horses said:
39
Y%[an.]-C) tihall C(/-C&&/ $a Y
SHEEP, LISTEN-[imper.] YOU,
Listen, sheep,
3) ndu 5&&[in]/ !%[an.] $uhamba C)[an.]
of-US HAVE HEART PAIN,
our hearts pain us
nju D([in]/ mbaw 3) 5)/A nja
[subord.] SEE WE THIS:
when we see this:
D[an.] lladdu 5'[an.] mbanda# 5/5-5/5 karr 5/5-5/5 karr D $a 5'[wig.] tihall
MAN LORD MAKE MAKE HE FUR-sheep
a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep
5,[in,wig.] bvanji 5,[in,wig.] tahall D tu"a
GARMENT GARMENT-warm for-HIM.
into a warm garment for himself.
Y%[an.]-C) tihall 5&&[in]/ $u Y $a 5'[wig.] llinju
SHEEP HAVE-not IT/YOU FUR.
And the sheep has no wool.
nju 5([in]/ pidd Y%[an.]-C) tihall 5)/A nja
[subord.] HEAR-[inch.] SHEEP THIS,
Having heard this,
5/C[t.,out] kallip Y "ahu 5,5&& ddaha#u
GO-quickly IT FROM PLAIN.
the sheep fled into the plain.
40
Appendix C: Hayfield Writing System
Introduction
Hayfield is written phonemically, left to right, top to bottom. Signed and spoken elements are
written in linear order, with signed components always preceding spoken elements.
Speech
The spoken components of words in Hayfield are represented using a syllabary (Figure 1). Each
of the 44 possible syllables has a unique sign. (Only phonemic contrasts are represented; the
difference between [k] and [h] is not indicated in writing.) Final unstressed is indicated in the
same way as medial syllables with i; syllables containing a word-final stressed i are written with
the same character with a horizontal line beneath it.
The characters for the syllables are partly derived from pictures that begin with the syllable being
represented. For example, the character mwu represents a moon, as mwunja is the spoken
component of the word for moon; the character pu represents an ear, as pu is the spoken
component of the word for ear.
Other characters are derived from such pictures by phonetic blending. For example, the character
"u is formed from the characters "a and $u, as no easily depictable words in the lexicon begin
with "u.
Sign
The writing system represents the signed components of words using one of ten base characters
to represent the handshapes (Figure 2), with strokes and diacritics added to provide information
about location and movement. Non-manual markers and hand orientation, which are not often
phonemically contrastive, are not indicated in the orthography.
Hand positions are represented by strokes added to the handshape characters (Figure 3). For
signs with more than one position associated with a single handshape (such as 5%%5((), the
diacritics are run together in the same glyph. The handshape of the non-dominant hand is
indicated by a small raised glyph to the upper left of the dominant-hand handshape.
Hand movements are indicated by diacritics above, below and to the right of the handshape/
position glyph (Figure 4).
Words are terminated by a single dot; clauses are terminated by four vertical dots. Numerals are
written with dedicated characters (Figures 5 and 6).
See Figure 7 for the complete text of The North Wind and the Sun in the Hayfield writing
system. A transliteration, gloss and translation are provided in Appendix B.
41
Figure 1: The syllabary.

42
Figure 2: Handshapes.








Figure 3: Positions.


43
Figure 4: Movements.
The movements below are illustrated with the handshape A.
The final diacritic indicates mirroring on the non-dominant hand.

44
Figure 5: Cardinal numerals.
Numbers with more than one digit are written with the most significant digit first.









Figure 6: Ordinal numerals.

45
Figure 7: The North Wind and the Sun.
46