PP 14 Spring

MORE POWER. MORE PRODUCTS.
MORE REASONS TO CHOOSE GENERAC.

To learn more, call toll-free 855-493-3863 or visit Generac.com/industrial.
At Generac, power is our sole focus. That means more innovation, whether youre considering, specifying or installing
a power system. From single generator sets up to 2 MW, to paralleled solutions up to 100 MW. With revolutionary
products like Gemini power systems that have two generators stacked in a single enclosure for amazing space
saving. And the only Bi-Fuel generators that are EPA-compliant from the factory. Plus we ofer tools like Power
Design Proamong the most powerful electrical and mechanical design and sizing software on the marketand the
continuing education we provide to countless facility managers, contractors and engineers each year. Its easy to see
why virtually every industry puts its power needs and trust in the hands of Generac Industrial Power.
input #400 at www.csemag.com/information
1
www.csemag.com/purepower
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
4 Protecting standby
generators for mission
critical facilities
The generator and standby power systems for
mission critical facilities require a higher level of
reliability and availability.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Jim Langhenry
Co-Founder and Publisher, CFE Media
jlanghenry@cfemedia.com
Steve Rourke
Co-Founder, CFE Media
srourke@cfemedia.com
Trudy Kelly
Executive Assistant
tkelly@cfemedia.com
Kristen Nimmo
Marketing Manager
knimmo@cfemedia.com
Elena Moeller-Younger
Marketing Manager
emyounger@cfemedia.com
Paul Brouch
Director of Operations
pbrouch@cfemedia.com
Rick Ellis
Audience Management Director
rellis@cfemedia.com
Michael Rotz
Print Production Manager
mike.rotz@frycomm.com
CONTENT SPECIALISTS/EDITORIAL
AMARA ROZGUS
Editor in Chief/Content Manager
arozgus@cfemedia.com
JACK SMITH
Managing Editor
jsmith@cfemedia.com
AMANDA MCLEMAN
Project Manager
amcleman@cfemedia.com
MICHAEL SMITH
Creative Director
msmith@cfemedia.com
PUBLICATION SALES
Midwest
Matt Waddell
312-961-6840
Fax 630-214-4504
mwaddell@cfemedia.com
AL
Patrick Lynch
630-571-4070 x2210
Fax 630-214-4504
plynch@cfemedia.com
West, TX, OK
Tom Corcoran
215-275-6420
Fax 484-631-0598
tcorcoran@cfemedia.com
U.S., Canada
Brian Gross
630-571-4070 x2217
Fax 630-214-4504
bgross@cfemedia.com
Northeast
Richard A. Groth Jr.
774-277-7266
Fax 508-590-0432
rgroth@cfemedia.com
International
Stuart Smith
SSM Global Media Ltd.
+44 208 464 5577
Fax +44 208 464 5588
stuart.smith@ssm.co.uk
Poland/Russia/Czech Republic
Michael Majchrzak
+48 22 852 44 15
Fax +48 22 899 29 48
mike_majchrzak@trademedia.us
1111 W. 22nd Street, Suite 250, Oak Brook, IL 60523
phone: 630-571-4070 fax: 630-214-4504
Pure Power is published quarterly by CFE Media and is mailed as a supplement with
Consulting-Specifying Engineer and Plant Engineering magazines. Copyright 2014 by CFE Media
LLC. All rights reserved. Editorial offces are located at 1111 W. 22nd Street, Suite 250,
Oak Brook, IL 60523. Phone 630-571-4070.
cover story
ON THE COVER:
This 12-engine, 14 MW generator plant serves
a mission critical data center. The generators
operate at 4,160 V in an N+2 confguration,
which allows for a failure of one generator
while another is out for maintenance.
Courtesy: Jacobs-KlingStubbins
FEATURES
Selecting energy-
effcient transformers
Engineers should know the
design concepts for selecting
and sizing transformers to
help achieve energy effciency.
Integrating power
monitoring systems
After determining the power
load profle of a commercial
building, engineers need to
ensure the system is monitored
and integrated with the buildings
other engineered systems.
Here, a group of experts shed
light on how to approach
integrating power monitoring
systems.
Mitigating harmonics
in electrical systems
Although devices using power
electronics can produce distortion
in electrical distribution systems,
its up to the engineer to
apply effective solutions to
mitigate them.
16
12
23
Engineering is personal.
So is the way you use information. CFE Media
delivers a world of knowledge to you. Personally.
To do your job better each day, you need a
trusted source of information: CFE Media
Content For Engineers.
CFE Media is home to three of the
most trusted names in the business:
provides the
latest knowledge
on commercial
and institutional facility construction
and management.
Visit www.csemag.com
delivers a wide
array of strategies
and solutions to
help control system designers create a
more efcient process.
Visit www.controleng.com
delivers plant-oor
knowledge and
expertise to help
manufacturers operate smarter, safer
and more efciently.
Visit www.plantengineering.com
We drive data center efficiency.
Rack-to-row-to-room-to-building architecture lowers cost.
Improving both efficiency and system uptime requires a second look at
todays data centers! Featuring innovative and industry-leading physical
infrastructure components, Schneider Electric
data centers uniquely span

traditional IT white space and facilities to improve interoperability, deliver
true data center agility, and achieve cost-saving energy and operational
efficiency. Our integrated architecture also lowers total cost of ownership,
enables fast and easy design and deployment, and promises the highest
availability.
It comprises best-of-breed components available from a single source and
through a global supply and services chain. From our well-known APC InRow

cooling unitsto our innovative EcoBreeze
facility cooling module with two

economizer modesto our unparalleled data center management software
StruxureWare
for Data Centers, Schneider Electric products can

be found literally in every data center domain.
We offer the most energy-efficient components all uniquely engineered
as a system. In the long run, the Schneider Electric rack-to-row-to-room-to-
building approach reduces total data center life cycle cost up to 13 percent
and 30 percent of data center physical infrastructure cost over 10 years!
In fact, its the foundation of our Business-wise, Future-driven
data centers.
2014 Schneider Electric. All Rights Reserved. Schneider Electric, APC, Square D, InRow, EcoBreeze, StruxureWare, and Business-wise, Future-driven are trademarks owned by
Schneider Electric Industries SAS or its affiliated companies. All other trademarks are property of their respective owners. www.schneider-electric.com 998-1158241_GMA-US_Note3
Our innovative data center physical infrastructure
with full-visibility management lowers operating costs.
> EcoBreeze with Two Economizer Modes
Only the scalable EcoBreeze automatically switches
between air-to-air heat exchange and indirect
evaporative cooling to maximize conditions year-round.
> Data Center Facility Power Module
Our modular, step-and-repeat approach to facility power
lets you expand capacity in 500 kW increments as
needed, cutting OpEx by up to 35 percent and CapEx
from 10 to 20 percent.
> StruxureWare for Data Centers
With building-to-server visibility, StruxureWare
for Data Centers enables you to make informed
decisions about your physical infrastructure.
> Reference Designs
Our standardized architectures for various data center
confgurations, from 200 kW to 20 MW, reduce time,
cost, complexity, and system risk.
> Data Center Life Cycle Services
Including energy management services, professional
services from planning, build/retroft, and operations help
ensure highest system availability and effciency.
Facility Power Module
EcoBreeze with Two
Economizer Modes
StruxureWare for
Data Centers
Reference Designs
Business-wise, Future-driven.
TM
Get on the road to data center efficiency
with our FREE white paper efficiency kit and
enter to win a Samsung Galaxy Note
3.
Visit: www.SEreply.com Key Code: g702u
H
ow important are generators in
a standby power system for a
mission critical facility? When
the lights go out and you fnd
yourself counting the seconds until they
come back on, that generator is the most
important piece of equipment in the facil-
ity. During utility power outages, mission
critical facilities rely on generators to
keep the facility operating (see Figure 1).
If the generator fails to start or if there
is a fault in the standby power distribution system, that
facility will eventually stop operating.
This is not an option for mission critical facilities.
Whether for public safety, national security, or busi-
ness continuity reasons, mission criti-
cal facilities must remain operational.
The reliability of the generator and
the standby power system is crucial to
the continued operation of the facil-
ity. Therefore, it is important for design
engineers and facility owners/operators
to know what it means for a facility to
be considered mission critical, as well as
the differences between mission critical
and emergency/legally required standby
power systems. It is also important that they understand
the requirements for the design, installation, operation,
and maintenance of standby power systems for mission
critical facilities.
Cover Story
4
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
The generator and standby power systems for mission critical facilities require a higher level
of reliability and availability.
Protecting standby generators
for mission critical facilities
By Kenneth Kutsmeda, PE, LEED AP, Jacobs-KlingStubbins, Philadelphia
Figure 1: Mission critical
facilities rely on generators
for the power required to keep
operating. All graphics courtesy:
Jacobs-KlingStubbins
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Know the power requirements
for a mission critical facility.
Understand how to protect
mission critical facilities from
disaster or power failure.
Know the codes and standards
that govern standby power in
mission critical facilities.
5
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Cover Story
WHAT IS MISSION CRITICAL?
By definition, a mission critical facility is essential
to the survival of a business or organization. Mission
critical facility operations are significantly affected
when the power system fails or is interrupted. Impor-
tant aspects of a mission critical facility power system
are availability, reliability, and security. Availability
is important because the power system must func-
tion when required24 x 7. Reliability is important
because the power system must not fail. If a failure
occurs, the system must respond and recover quickly.
Security is important because the power system must
provide protection against an attackeither human or
naturally caused.
Mission critical facilities can be divided into two
categories: private and public safety. The private
mission critical facility contains systems that must
remain operational for business continuity reasons.
The public safety facility contains systems that must
remain operational to protect the safety of the public.
PRIVATE MISSION CRITICAL FACILITIES
Private mission critical facilities include enterprise
data centers, Internet companies, financial data cen-
ters, and financial trading. In these types of facilities,
the levels of availability and reliability are dictated by
the business case. What level of risk can be tolerated?
How much downtime for maintenance is acceptable?
The answers to these questions will define the degree
of redundancy and protection against failures that are
built into the standby power system. Tier classifica-
tions have been established to address these issues
(see Data center tier classifications on page 8).
Tier 1 and Tier 2 facilities have higher risk toler-
ance. They usually have certain windows of oppor-
tunity for a shutdown to allow for maintenance and
repair. These types of facilities typically have single
distribution paths and do not require redundant com-
ponents.
Tier 3 and Tier 4 facilities have a very low risk tol-
erance and cant allow for any downtime for perform-
ing maintenance or repairs. These types of facilities
require a high level of reliability and contain standby
power systems with redundant (N+1, N+2, or 2N) gen-
eratorsmore than required to carry the full load. The
redundant generator allows for one of the generators
to be taken offline for maintenance or due to a failure
of one of the generators without affecting the opera-
tion of the facility. Tier 3 and Tier 4 facilities usually
contain UPS systems. During a power outage, the UPS
provides ride-through power to the critical load until
the generator starts and comes up to speed. Tier 3 and
Tier 4 facilities also contain multiple paths for distrib-
uting standby power to allow for maintenance of any
part of the system and to avoid any single points of
failure that can shut down part or all of the facility.
Examples of typical generator and standby power
distribution system configurations used in Tier 3 and
Tier 4 data centers include:
N+1 generators and paralleling switchgear: In this
design, the N+1 generators are paralleled onto a common
bus (see Figure 2). Standby power is then distributed from
that common bus to the load in multiple paths. This sys-
tem confguration is less complex than other systems and
can be a cost-effective solution. However, it does create a
potential single point of failure on the standby distribu-
tion system. Often, the common bus is divided into two
sections to prevent a fault on one section from taking
down the entire standby power system. This system also
allows load sharing without requiring the purchase of ad-
ditional generators.
N+1 isolated redundant generators: In this design,
there is a dedicated generator assigned to each power
module (load block). The plus-one additional generator
is isolated and can be used to back up any one of the
primary generators (see Figure 3). This confguration
eliminates any common point of failure, but it does add a
certain level of complexity to the standby power system.
2N dedicated redundant generators: In this design,
there are two dedicated generators assigned to each
power module (load block). Each one backs up its as-
sociated generator and is capable of serving the entire
power module load (see Figure 4). This confguration
eliminates any common point of failure and makes the
standby power system less complex. However, it does
have a higher cost.
Figure 2: This diagram shows an N+1 generator and paralleling switch-
gear confguration.
Utility
Server load
Utility
Mechanical and
house power
PUBLIC SAFETY MISSION CRITICAL FACILITIES
Public safety mission critical facilities include police
and fre stations, emergency management centers,
emergency call centers, hospitals, government facilities
involved with national security, and fnancial facili-
ties involved with national economic security. In these
types of facilities, the levels of availability and reli-
ability are required to protect the public safety, public
health, and national security.
Unlike the private facilities where the attributes of
the system are defined by the business itself, the at-
tributes of public safety facilities are defined by codes.
In 2008, the National Electrical Code (NEC) added
Article 708: Critical Operations Power System (COPS)
to address security issues for mission critical facili-
ties. The article provides requirements for the installa-
tion, operation, control, and maintenance of electrical
equipment for designated critical operation areas that
must remain operational during a natural- or human-
caused disaster. The following requirements are
included in NEC Article 708 to ensure the operation of
the standby power system:
Provide an alternate power supply.
Alternate power supply shall have on-site fuel
capacity to operate for 72 hr.
The generator cannot depend on public utility gas
for fuel.
Redundant equipment or, at minimum, the means
to connect roll-up equipment is required.
Equipment must be located above the 100-yr flood
plain.
Commissioning must be documented.
There must be a documented maintenance plan.
Unlike private facilities, these code requirements
cant be relaxed because they are vital to keeping
standby power systems and facilities operational.
NEC GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS
Whether it is a standby power system for emergency
life safety, legally required, or mission critical, the goal
is for the standby power system to provide power when
there is a loss of utility power. However, each classifca-
tion has different requirements.
Emergency systems (NEC Article 700): Emergency
systems are those required and designated to be
emergency systems by any governmental agency
having jurisdiction. They are intended to automatical-
ly supply illumination and power to designated areas
and equipment essential to safety of human life. Emer-
gency systems are generally installed in places where
illumination is required for safe exiting and for panic
control in large buildings. Emergency systems may
also provide power to functions such as ventilation,
fire detection and alarms, elevators, and fire pumps.
Generators used to supply power for an emergency
system are required to start automatically upon failure
of the normal service and be available for load within
10 sec. A minimum of 2 hr of on-site fuel storage is
also required.
Legally required standby systems (NEC Article
701): Legally required standby systems are those re-
quired and designated to be legally required by any
Cover Story
6
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Figure 3: This diagram shows an N+1 isolated redundant generator
confguration.
Figure 4: This diagram shows a 2N dedicated redundant generator con-
fguration.
Mechanical and
house power
2N generators
Server load
Server load
Utility
Utility Utility
Utility
Mechanical
and house
power
E ME R S O N . C O N S I D E R I T S O L V E D.
Emerson and ASCO are trademarks of Emerson Electric Co. or one of its affliated companies. 2013 Emerson Electric Co. CS104QR ASCO Power Technologies
Now you can see your critical power
management systems like never before.
www.EmersonNetworkPower.com/ASCO (800) 800-ASCO ascoapu.com
ASCO Power Switching & Controls
Just another reason why Emerson Network Power is a global leader in
maximizing availability, capacity and efficiency of critical infrastructure.
ASCO PowerQuest
. The vision to see what others cant.

PowerQuest delivers the answers you need about your Critical Power
Management System (CPMS) precisely when you need them. Finally,
theres one single gateway to reliably monitor all the critical power
data points in your facilities.

Communicate, monitor and control power transfer switches, generator
paralleling switchgear, gensets, breakers, loadbanks, and more
Review test schedules, event logs, power reports and trends
Add and shed loads based on capacity and priority
Analyze power quality issues with precise sequence of events recording
Enjoy dynamic visualization over fexible, convenient and secure systems
ASCOs PowerQuest. The singular solution to manage your critical power infrastructure.
Cover Story
8
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
governmental agency having jurisdiction. They are
intended to automatically supply select loads (other
than emergency systems) in the event of failure of
the normal source. Legally required standby systems
are generally installed to serve loads such as heat-
ing, refrigeration, ventilation, smoke removal, sewage
disposal, and industrial processes that could create a
hazard or hamper fire-fighting operations. Generators
used to supply power for a legally required standby
system are required to start automatically upon failure
of the normal service and be available for load within
60 sec. Legally required standby also requires a mini-
mum of 2 hr of on-site fuel storage.
The NEC requires that generators used for emer-
gency and legally required systems shall not depend
solely on a public source (gas line) for their fuel sup-
ply. However, the exception states, where acceptable
to the authority having jurisdiction, the use of other
than on-site fuels shall be permitted where there is
low probability of a simultaneous failure of both the
off-site fuel delivery system and power from the out-
side electrical utility company.
Optional standby systems (NEC Article 702): Op-
tional standby systems are those systems intended to
supply select loads where life safety does not depend
on the performance. Optional standby systems are
generally installed to provide an alternate source
of power for facilities such as industrial buildings,
commercial buildings, and farms, and to serve loads
such as heating and refrigeration systems that, when
stopped during a power outage, could cause discom-
fort or damage to the product or process. Generators
used to supply power for optional standby
systems are not required to start auto-
matically. However, they can be started
manually. Optional standby systems have
no time limitations and no on-site fuel
storage requirements.
Emergency and legally required
standby systems are generally designed
to safely evacuate people and prevent
hazards by keeping portions of the system
operating for a period of time. Standby
systems for a mission critical facility are
designed to keep the entire facility operat-
ing for the extent of the outage.
Table 1 provides additional differences
between generators used for emergency/
legally required systems and those used
for mission critical facilities. Please
note that these are observations and not
requirements. Heath care facilities are
special and can fall into both catego-
ries depending on the type of care they
provide. Generators used for heath care
facilities do have additional requirements,
which are stipulated in NEC Article 517.
STANDBY, PRIME VS. CONTINUOUS
Generator rating must also be considered
when designing standby power systems for
mission critical facilities. The International
Organization for Standardization (ISO
8528-1 standard) generator ratings are:
Data center tier classifcations
Both ANSI (ANSI TIA-942 Standard) and the Uptime Institute have established tier
classifcations as guidelines for designing topologies that deliver data center availability
and reliability. These resources further explain the differences between types of mission
critical facilities. The following list explains the tier classifcations:
TIER 1: BASIC
Susceptible to disruptions from planned and unplanned activity
Capacity design is need (N) with no redundant components
Infrastructure shutdown required for preventive maintenance and repair work.
TIER 2: REDUNDANT COMPONENTS
Less susceptible to disruptions from planned and unplanned activity
Capacity design is N with some redundant components
Single threaded distribution path
Infrastructure shutdown required for preventive maintenance and repair work.
TIER 3: CONCURRENT MAINTENANCE
Allows for planned infrastructure activity (maintenance, repair, expansion)
without disruption
Capacity design is N+1
Dual threaded distribution path
Errors in operation or failures can still cause a disruption.
TIER 4: FAULT TOLERANT
High reliability, availability, and serviceability
Allows for planned infrastructure activity (maintenance, repair, expansion)
without disruption
Capacity design is system + system (2N)
Dual threaded distribution path
System can sustain one unplanned failure with no impact to critical load.
Prime rating is the maximum power for which an engine-generator is capable of
delivering continuously with a variable load for an unlimited number of hours.
9
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Cover Story
Emergency/standby: Emergency/standby rating is
the maximum power for which an engine-generator
is capable of delivering for up to 200 hr/yr. The al-
lowable average power output over a 24-hr period is
limited to 70% of the nameplate rating.
Prime: Prime rating is the maximum power for
which an engine-generator is capable of delivering con-
tinuously with a variable load for an unlimited number
of hours. The allowable average power output over a
24-hr run period is limited to 70% of the prime rating.
Continuous: Continuous rating is the maximum
power for which an engine-generator is capable of de-
livering continuously for a constant load for an unlim-
ited number of hours. Typically, continuous rating is
used for exporting power to a utility.
An additional key difference between standby and
prime is that the prime rating does allow for a 10%
overload and the standby rating has no overload allow-
ance. Because of power output and run time limita-
tions, emergency/standby-rated generators are not gen-
erally used for mission critical (Tier 3 and Tier 4) type
applications. When sizing and specifying the genera-
tors for mission critical facilities, engineers must evalu-
ate the expected load profle of the facility, the number
of redundant units operating, and the expectancy of the
system to operate for longer than 24 hr.
Many generator manufacturers have recently de-
veloped their own rating (mission critical standby or
data center continuous), which basically falls between
the ISO standby and prime ratings to correlate with
the operation of data centers. Although the rating
definitions vary among manufacturers, the result is
an increased average power output and an increased
limitation on the run hours. These ratings generally
do not change the generator size or cost, but they may
affect the system warranty.
EMISSION REQUIREMENTS
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regu-
lates emissions from diesel powered equipment based
on engine horsepower rating. The generator ratings
range from Tier 1 to Tier 4 (different from the ANSI/
TIA 942 Tier ratings). Since 2011, most nonemergency
diesel generators have been required to comply with
Tier 4 requirements, which include some type of af-
tertreatment, such as selective catalytic reduction and
particulate flters.
The EPA does allow an exemption to the Tier 4
requirements if the diesel generators are used only for
emergency applications such as during the loss of util-
ity power. This exemption also allows the generator to
be operated for up to 100 hr/yr for maintenance and
exercise. The 100 hr/yr limit is an important number
for mission critical facilities because those types of
facilities tend to test and exercise the generators more
often to ensure they will operate when called upon. In
addition, if the engine generator is used to support the
load when normal power is present (peak shaving, load
curtailment, or storm avoidance), it is not exempt and
must comply with the appropriate Tier requirements.
Figure 5: Generators for mission critical facilities are tested and com-
missioned before they are put into service. Part of that process is factory
acceptance testing, which includes load steps, transient response, and
heat runs.
Table 1: Typical differences between generator classifcations
Emergency/legally required Mission critical
Required to start within 10/60 sec Required to start before UPS backup system expires
On-site fuel storage = 2 to 8 hr On-site fuel storage = 24 to 72 hr
Redundancy not required Redundancy required
Shell enclosures Walk-in enclosures
Low voltage (208 V or 480 V) Medium voltage (5 kV or 15 kV)
Power distributed via ATS Power distributed via breaker interlocks or multiple ATS
Open transition transfer Closed transition transfer
TESTING AND MAINTENANCE
Because facilities depend on generators and standby
power systems to keep operating, all generator sys-
tems should be fully tested and commissioned before
they are put into service. For mission critical facili-
ties, testing and commissioning involves a five-step
process:
Level 1design review: Design plans are evalu-
ated to confirm they meet the intended operation.
Level 2factory acceptance testing: Key pieces of
equipment are powered up and tested at the fac-
tory to ensure that they perform according to
specified parameters.
Level 3installation inspec-
tion and verification: Equip-
ment is inspected and verified
on site.
Level 4component testing:
Individual components and
systems are tested to verify
operation.
Level 5integrated systems
testing: The complete system is
tested with all components
operating.
Some of the tests performed on generators during
factory and component testing include load steps,
transient response, and heat runs (see Figure 5).
Another important aspect of ensuring standby
power system operation is implementing a preventive
maintenance program. The National Electrical Test-
ing Association recommends generator maintenance
testing every 12 mo. Generator systems that require
maintenance include lubrication, fuel, exhaust, cool-
ing, and electrical/control systems. Additional standby
power system maintenance recommendations include:
Keep an inventory of spare parts
Properly train all operators
Exercise the generator regularly
Load test the generator
Analyze lube and fuel oil periodically
Arrange for annual or semiannual manufacturer
checks/service.
LESSONS LEARNED
During Hurricane Sandy, many mission critical facili-
ties in the Northeast relied on their standby power sys-
tems for multiple days to keep their facilities operating.
Some of the lessons learned involve generator location,
fuel supply, and, flter changes.
Generator location: Locate generators and other
standby power distribution equipment above the food
plain. In general, standby systems cant keep the facil-
ity operating if they are under water. Therefore, make
sure the generators and any distribution equipment
are located above the food plain to ensure they will
operate when required. During Hurricane Sandy, some
areas did see fooding above the 100 yr food level, so
consider locating the standby power equipment above
the 500 or even the 1,000-yr food level.
Fuel supply: Maintain an adequate supply of on-site
fuel storage. Although the water subsided in about a day,
the debris and damage caused by the hurricane made
it diffcult to deliver fueleven for those facilities that
had contracted emergency deliveries.
On average, it was about three days
before facilities could get fuel deliv-
eries. A minimum of 72 hr of fuel
storage is required by NEC Article
708 for critical operation of power
supply systems.
Changing flters: Provide means
to change flters while operating. In
addition to the diffculty of getting
fuel delivered, the fuel that was
delivered was often contaminated
with water and debris. During the
extended power outage caused
by Hurricane Sandy, the demand
for fuel was very high. Fuel delivery companies were
delivering everything they had, which meant sometimes
getting fuel that was less than desirable (bottom of the
tank). Many facility operators said that they were replac-
ing flters every couple of hours to keep the system from
clogging. Recommend installing a dual-header fuel flter
system with a transfer valve that allows flter replace-
ment while the engine is running. In addition, consider
adding a fuel polishing system to clean the fuel before it
gets to the generator.
The goal of the generator and standby power system
is to provide power when there is a loss of utility power.
Mission critical facilities are required to remain opera-
tional under all conditions. The generator and standby
power systems for mission critical facilities require a
higher level of reliability and availability.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Kenneth Kutsmeda is an engineering design principal at
Jacobs-KlingStubbins in Philadelphia. For more than 18
years, he has been responsible for engineering, designing,
and commissioning power distribution systems for mission
critical facilities. His project experience includes data cen-
ters, specialized research and development buildings, and
large-scale technology facilities containing medium-voltage
distribution.
The generator and standby
power systems for mission
critical facilities require a
higher level of reliability
and availability.
Cover Story
10
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Most power control systems are designed
for automatic operation only.
Russelectric systems come equipped
with controls that provide for complete
manual operation including synchronizing
and paralleling of generators in the event
that automatic controls malfunction.
Dont settle for less than the best power
control systems Insist on Russelectric.
www.russelectric.com
1-800-225-5250
An Employee-Owned Company
An Equal Opportunity Employer
Made in USA
The best power control systems
provide for full manual operation
T
ransformers are perhaps among the
most overlooked components within
an electrical distribution system.
However, they play a key role in our
everyday lives. Every house is fed by a single
transformer. In our offces, a single trans-
former may serve the computers for the entire
foor. In hospitals, the operating rooms and
intensive care units are typically fed from two
separate transformers.
If a transformer fails or is improperly
sized, catastrophic outages, which are not quick and easy
to fx, could occur. Also, transformers dont shut off; they
continue to use current and generate heat 24 hr a day,
seven days a week.
TRANSFORMER SELECTION
Transformers are available in many different favors.
High- and medium-voltage transformers (primary volt-
age greater than 600 V) are available as
dry type units, but are more commonly
liquid flled or liquid immersed. That
liquid is commonly petroleum-based oil,
but many companies are starting to offer
similar products based on biodegradable
seed oil. Commercial buildings operate on
low-voltage (primary voltage less than 600
V) predominately, and typically use dry
type transformers to step down the voltage
from 480 V to 208 Y/120 V or 240/120 V.
This article focuses primarily on dry type transform-
ers. However, many of the concepts presented apply to
higher voltage transformers as well.
To select a dry type transformer, you need to answer
three simple questions:
1. What is the purpose of the transformer?
2. How do I want the transformer to perform?
3. What options should I select?
Generally, there are three purposes of a transformer:
Change the voltage, isolate power systems, and har-
monic accommodation. Voltage can be decreased or
increased. These transformers are available in either
delta- or wye-connected primary or secondary, de-
pending on the distribution voltage and system re-
quirements. They may be single- or 3-phase, and are
available in a variety of sizes (see Figure 1). Isolation
transformers can be used in health care facilities to
minimize the risk of stray currents in the electrical
system, or even on a single load that has very sensitive
electrical requirements.
How the transformer performs boils down to temper-
ature and effciency. Transformers are listed with a rate
of temperature rise, typically 80 C, 115 C, or 150 C. This
temperature rating is the rise above ambient (see Figure
2). The surface temperature of a transformer with an 80
C rise is signifcantly less than one at a 150 C rise.
How engineers approach energy effciency is evolv-
ing. Every other year, the U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE)
revises many of the energy standards that regulate
Transformer Effciency
12
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Engineers should know the design concepts for selecting and sizing transformers to help achieve energy effciency.
Selecting energy-effcient
transformers
By James Ferris, PE, and Aaron Johnson, TLC
Engineering for Architecture, Orlando, Fla.
Figure 1: Transformers are available in a variety of sizes and distribution
voltages, and can be installed indoors or outdoors. All graphics courtesy:
TLC Engineering for Architecture
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Understand the different
types and uses of
transformers.
Know how to select and
size transformers.
Understand the
concepts of transformer
protection.
13
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
our industry. Transformers manufactured today, and
since 2007, are required to meet the criteria defned
under NEMA TP-1 2002. In April 2013, a new rule was
adopted that implements new transformer standards,
effective Jan. 2016. NEMA TP-1 2002 introduced two
signifcant changes to energy effciency considerations:
Minimum effciency was defned for each transformer
size, and the point where that effciency was measured
changed from full load to 35% of transformer capac-
ity. As a part of the origin of NEMA TP-1, research was
performed to determine that most low-voltage distribu-
tion transformers are, on average, only 35% loaded.
Many manufacturers currently offer a NEMA premium
effciency transformer, which was created prior to the
implementation of the April 2013 fnal rule (see Table
1). Please refer to the NEMA class I effciency chart for
further information on the past, present, and future rat-
ings of transformers.
The decision of which transformer to provide be-
comes a decision of which options to specify. Questions
that engineers should ask include:
Are the transformer windings aluminum or copper?
What kind of enclosure do you need for your
application?
Is it outdoors, or is a NEMA 1 enclosure acceptable?
What are the specifc requirements of the manufac-
turer in terms of required space around the trans-
former?
Some manufacturers require a 3-in. clearance around
transformers, while some require a 6-in. clearance. Un-
fortunately, sometimes 3 in. can make a big difference in
designing electrical rooms.
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
Consider a facility that has an older 225 kVA transformer
that was installed around 1973. It has a 480 V primary
and a 208/120 V secondary, and it meets the required
clearances. When the issue of replacing the transformer
arises, considerations include:
The unit is 40 years old, but for this example, assume
it has been fully checked for hot spots and is still in
good operating condition.
The unit is specifed at 150-C rise, which means at full
load, the surface temperature of the transformer can
get quite hot.
The unit is more than 112.5 kVA, which per National
Electrical Code (NEC), Article 450, requires the room
to have a minimum fre rating of 1 hr.
The unit is less effcient than the currently available
Figure 2: This graph shows transformer rate of temperature rise above am-
bient, typically listed with 80 C, 115 C, or 150 C temperature rise ratings.
Table 1: NEMA Class I effciency levels
Dry type, 3-phase, low voltage
kVA
Base effciency
(TP-1-2002)
DOE Final Rule 10 CFR 431
Effective Jan. 2016
NEMA premium effciency
(EL-3,CSL-3)
15 97.0% 97.89% 97.90%
30 97.5% 98.23% 98.25%
45 97.7% 98.40% 98.39%
75 98.0% 98.60% 98.60%
112.5 98.2% 98.74% 98.74%
150 98.3% 98.83% 98.81%
225 98.5% 98.94% 98.95%
300 98.6% 99.02% 99.02%
500 98.7% 99.14% 99.09%
750 98.8% 99.23% 99.16%
1,000 98.9% 99.28% 99.23%
transformer models, but the question is: Does the
energy savings alone justify the replacement of this
transformer?
Transformers have losses, and those loses are given
off into the room in the form of heat. If you want to
know what the transformer losses are, you can either
obtain information from the manufacturers cut sheet
or perform a series of no-load and loaded tests on the
actual transformer. For this example, a data sheet
from a transformer from that era was used for com-
parison. Table 2 compares a standard TP-1 efficient
model and a transformer available from that era. Note
that transformer losses reviewed between 1973 and
2003 appear to have similar efficiency and loss charac-
teristics. It was not until the introduction of TP-1 that
transformers were re-evaluated and efficiencies saw a
big adjustment.
For the 225 kVA example, todays unit is more effcient
by 728 W. Keep in mind the different components associ-
ated with this energy loss. The energy loss is given off into
the room in the form of heat, and that heat is then cooled
by the HVAC system, which itself has losses. The owner
pays for the energy required from the transformerplus
the losses of the transformer. The owner also pays the util-
ity company for the energy required to drive the fans, chill-
ers, and pumps for the additional capacity. In effect, the
owner pays for these losses twice. As part of this exercise,
and working in conjunction with our HVAC brethren, we
were able to expand this chart to compare how many more
cfm are needed to keep the electrical room at 75 F based on
55 F supply air temperature (see Table 3).
The effciency of replacing a 225 kVA transformer with
a new 225 kVA unit can result in a reduction of approxi-
mately 113 cfm in air conditioning. This isnt a big differ-
ence, wont have a huge impact on the utility bills, and
wont pay for the new transformer in savings. So lets add
a new wrinkle to the case study. When the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency did the TP-1 study, it found that
most transformers are only 35% loaded, and in most cases
this is true. If we put a 30-day load reading on this trans-
former, we can determine the existing load per the NEC,
and have the fexibility of sizing the transformer at exist-
ing load +25%. A 225 kVA transformer at 35% + 25% per
NEC would result in a 98 kVA required transformer size.
14
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Figure 3: This time-current curve of the example 112.5 kVA transformer
shows that the primary and secondary breakers, damage curve, and inrush
current are selectively coordinated.
Table 2: Transformer full load effciency and losses
1973 example 2013 example
Size (kVA) Effciency Total loss (W) % Effciency Total loss (W)
15 95.3% 740 96.8% 551
30 96% 1,250 97.2% 904
45 96.6% 1,620 97.9% 1,027
75 96.8% 2,570 97.7% 1,782
112.5 97.5% 1,400 97.9% 2,521
150 97.6% 1,830 98.3% 2,760
225 98% 4,775 98.3% 4,047
300 98.3% 5,400 98.9% 5,338
500 98.4% 8,300 98.9% 5,858
Note: Comparison of energy losses at full load between current TP-1 2002 compliant transformers and transformer produced in 1973.
Note: Table shows the full load effciencies of one of todays transformers, and not the effciency at 35% as required by TP-1.
The next size transformer available is 112.5 kVA. Chang-
ing our comparison from a 225 kVA existing to a 112.5 kVA
new transformer means that we can reduce the airfow
required to cool the room by more than 300 cfm. Losses for
the new transformer are 53% of the losses of the existing
transformer. This is beginning to look like a viable option
for the owner to consider.
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
For the remainder of this article, assume we selected
a dry type transformer rated 112.5 kVA with a 480-V
primary and a 208 Y/120 V secondary. Because the unit
is installed indoors, it requires a NEMA 1 enclosure.
Weve selected aluminum windings because space is of
no concern, and its more cost effective for our size of
transformer.
Overcurrent protection shall be selected and sized on
the primary and secondary in accordance with the NEC
table 450.3(B), which indicates that the secondary must be
sized no greater than 125% of the full load of the trans-
former (312 FLA). We select a 400-A breaker because it
is the next available size. The primary can be selected at
up to 250% of the transformer rating (135 A), so we can
select anything from a 175-A breaker to a 300-A breaker.
We typically keep the primary at 125% as well because
it helps simplify selective coordination, considering that
these breakers can be set to overlap each other. For our
example, we will select a 175-A primary breaker and a
300-A secondary breaker. When we defne the breaker
settings and sizes, we need to review them against two
distinct points: the transformer damage curve and trans-
former inrush.
Transformer damage curve: The transformer damage
curve is an ANSI standard curve that all transformers
are measured against. It indicates the level of current
over time the transformer can withstand and typically is
shown as a sloped line on time-current curves. We must
ensure that the overcurrent protection will trip before this
current is reached.
Transformer inrush: Every transformer has windings,
which means it is inductive. Because transformers are in-
ductive, they experience an inrush of current when power
is applied. Because a transformer operates on magnetic
principles, there can be differences in transformer start-
ing current, depending on the phase angle of the voltage
when the transformer is frst energized. The starting cur-
rent can vary from full load current to 20 times the trans-
formers full load rating, and can essentially appear as a
fault. Manufacturers can provide the maximum inrush
current for each of their units, and it should be considered
when selecting the size of the primary overcurrent protec-
tion. In our coordination study, the breaker will not trip
from transformer inrush current (see Figure 3).
TRANSFORMER SELECTION, SIZING,
AND PROTECTION
Transformers discussed in this article are dry type,
but the theory remains the same for larger transform-
ers of different types. However, some of the protection
schemes are more advanced and different materials are
used in transformer construction. Now that you are
armed with additional information, its time to go out
in the world and check those lonely transformers that
are protecting so much.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
James Ferris is an electrical project engineer with TLC Engi-
neering for Architecture. He specializes in power distribution
for health care facilities.
Aaron Johnson is a mechanical project engineer and project
manager at TLC, where his focus is on HVAC design.
15
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Table 3: Transformer effciency and HVAC impact
1973 (full load) 2013 (full load)
Size
(kVA)
Effciency
Total loss
(W)
Heat loss
(Btu/hr)
Airfow
(cfm)
% Effciency
Total loss
(W)
Heat loss
(Btu/hr)
Airfow
(cfm)
15 95.3% 740 2,526 115 96.8% 551 1,881 85
30 96% 1,250 4,266 194 97.2% 904 3,085 140
45 96.6% 1,620 5,529 251 97.9% 1,027 3,505 159
75 96.8% 2,570 8,771 399 97.7% 1,782 6,082 276
112.5 97.5% 1,400 4,778 217 97.9% 2,521 8,604 391
150 97.6% 1,830 6,246 284 98.3% 2,760 9,420 428
225 98% 4,775 16,297 741 98.3% 4,047 13,812 628
300 98.3% 5,400 18,430 838 98.9% 5,338 18,219 828
500 98.4% 8,300 28,328 1,288 98.9% 5,858 19,993 909
Power Monitoring Roundtable
16
Q: When specifying power
monitoring systems for your
clients, how often do you
recommend that they be
integrated with a buildings other
engineered systems?
Steven Shapiro: The facilities we
design are mostly mission critical/
data center/telecommunication
facilities. These sites are relatively
large, with tens of thousands of
monitoring points. We rarely, if
ever, recommend that the electri-
cal power monitoring system be
integrated with a buildings other
engineered systems. Data gathering
speed, reliability, redundancy, and
granularity are diffcult to obtain
with integrated systems.
Douglas R. Strang Jr.: While I believe in theory that ev-
ery power monitoring system should be integrated with
the buildings other engineered systems, in practice, we
fnd this is seldom the case. In a competitive bidding
environment with typical CSI classifcations, you often
fnd bidders assembling packages in a vacuum that
achieve the lowest bid price. There should be collabora-
tion between the electrical and mechanical disciplines
to specify the power monitoring system and at a mini-
mum bring the basic analog values for power, current,
and voltage to the building or energy management
system. A building management system (BMS)/energy
management system that does not have real-time electri-
cal load information is very limited in effectiveness.
John Yoon: Depending on the
project type, it can vary dramati-
cally. For certain projects such as
commercial interior build-outs in
existing buildings, it is extremely
unusual to even specify power
monitoring unless the client is
pursuing LEED EA credits for
advanced energy metering. For
other project types, such as data
centers, the exact opposite is
true where not specifying power
monitoring is unusual.
Bruce W. Young: For our mis-
sion critical facilities, we always
recommend that the power
monitoring system be integrated
into the BMS or building automa-
tions system (BAS). Additionally, we integrate with the
critical facilities monitoring system. This can provide a
snapshot of the overall power consumption, power qual-
ity, and demand levels. It can also help with integrating
a demand response system if the owner chooses, as well
as provide accurate power consumption levels for calcu-
lating power usage effectiveness.
Q: Provide an example of a success story in which a
power monitoring system resolved a problem/challenge
for your client. Provide specifcs about the project.
Shapiro: In a recent project for a major fnancial client,
we used the electrical power monitoring system (EPMS)
during startup/commissioning of the facility to diagnose
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
After determining the power load profle of a commercial building, engineers need to ensure the system is
monitored and integrated with the buildings other engineered systems. Here, a group of experts shed light on
how to approach integrating power monitoring systems.
Integrating
power monitoring systems
By Jack Smith, Managing Editor; and
Amara Rozgus, Editor in Chief
Figure 1: Power metering doesnt have to be that compli-
cated. This is basic power meter with PQ analysis can be
easily integrated into a main switchboard. All graphics
courtesy: McGuire Engineers Inc.
a failure of a medium-voltage circuit breaker during the
closed transition procedure between the generator plant
and the utility. The sequence of events and millisecond
time stamping of the EPMS allowed us to trace back
anomalies in the system operation forensically to the
actual cause: failure of a medium-voltage circuit breaker
to open the three phases of the breaker, causing single
phasing of the closed transition of the plant and failure
of a 2 MW generator in a multigenerator plant.
Strang: Our client was a college campus that was run-
ning out of capacity in one of its main substation trans-
formers that distributed 4.16 kV to buildings across the
campus. The existing transformer was overheating due
to overloading, and was noticed only from the diligent
maintenance staffs annual oil testing. We designed a
substation expansion with a new transformer and 5-kV
switchgear that included a power monitoring system on
the main switch and each outgoing feeder.
We often fnd that power monitoring is not included
by many designers at the medium-voltage level, with the
assumption that capacity is abundant at this level. This
new powering monitoring system was networked back
to a personal computer (PC) in the facilities offce that
would allow campus maintenance personnel to view
loads in real time, as well as voltage, current, total har-
monic distortion (THD), and power factor values. The
new system allows the maintenance personnel to trend
and alarm on any of these values and to better plan
campus changes. Seeing the value of this system, the
campus is now adding power monitors to the existing
switchgear and connecting them to the same communi-
cation network.
Yoon: The biggest upside to power monitoring is the
ability to understand a buildings load profle. In situ-
ations where our clients have had power quality/reli-
ability issues, weve often recommended installation of
standby generator power systems. While we are typi-
cally quite conservative with sizing equipment, having
accurate trending of a buildings load profle over an
extended period of time has allowed us to right-size
generator equipment and reduce installation costs.
Young: On a local college campus, there was an increas-
ing off-hours demand charge from the local utility that
could not be explained. A power monitoring system,
with time stamped demand readings, was installed on
the loop to help determine the cause of the demand
spike. There was a demand spike on early mornings, and
the spike correlated to the approximate power consump-
tion of a chiller that was programmed not to start for
several hours, so the automation system was corrected to
delay the chiller start time.
Q: Of the power monitoring systems you have
encountered, what percentage has been integrated into
a BAS, BMS, or other engineered systems?
Shapiro: We have seen integrated systems in smaller fa-
cilities. The functionality of these systems as electrical
power monitoring systems with power quality monitor-
ing capability is limited. Usually dedicated power qual-
ity applications are required to view and analyze the
information from power quality meters directly.
Strang: We are fnding that more power monitoring
systems are being incorporated into BMSs. However, of
those we encounter, I would be surprised if more than
25% were truly seamlessly integrated. In most cases,
only a real-time kW value or maybe current and voltage
are brought over as individual data points.
Yoon: For the most part, weve specified power
monitoring as stand-alone systems. While the ideal
building would have a fully integrated BMS capable of
real time, system-level power monitoring and demand
response, actual implementation is rare.
The challenge has been overcoming our clients
skepticism regarding return on investment (ROI) ver-

17
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Meet our power monitoring roundtable participants
Steven Shapiro, PE,
mission critical practice lead,
Morrison Hershfeld Mission Critical,
White Plains, N.Y.
Douglas R. Strang Jr., PE,
president,
S & S Engineering, P.C.,
Batavia, N.Y.
John Yoon, PE, LEED AP ID+C,
senior electrical engineer,
McGuire Engineers Inc.,
Chicago
Bruce W. Young, PE,
senior associate, electrical department man-
ager, Bala Consulting Engineers,
King of Prussia, Pa.
sus perceived complexity and cost. While the Midwest
historically had much lower electrical costs in compari-
son to the east and west coasts, there just hasnt been
enough motivation here to overcome these perceptions.
For every motivated triple net lease, single tenant build-
ing, or owner occupied building, there are a multitude
of buildings where energy cost just isnt as much as a
consideration. In multi-tenant buildings where base
building electrical costs are simply passed through
to the tenants as part of the annual operations costs,
youre incredibly dependent on having a proactive build-
ing management and operations staff to help convince a
buildings ownership that making a capital investment
in a power monitoring system makes sense.
Young: Almost all LEED buildings that have the mea-
surement and verifcation credit, integrate the power
monitoring system into the BAS/BMS. This provides the
building management with a dashboard of the overall
power consumption, but it also can provide the building
occupants with information as to the potential energy
savings being realized.
Q: What metrics can you provide to indicate quantifable
reasons for or against integrating power monitoring
systems?
Shapiro: Data gathering speed and the granularity of
the information in the event of an electrical failure
is critical. Integrated systems are typically more of a
basic type of system and lack the ability to achieve the
sequence of events down to the synchronized milli-
second, which is essential for failure analysis. Dedi-
cated local area network (LAN) infrastructure as well
as dedicated servers and dedicated human-machine
interfaces (HMIs) allow for the speed, clear graphics,
data presentation, and analytical tools required to
achieve the tasks required for the facilities we design
and commission.
Strang: I have heard various percentages used over the
years, such as a power monitoring system can save you
10% of your utility bill. Based on experience, I would
say that savings should be easily achievable with a
power monitoring system. The catch phrase is you
cant reduce what you cant measure. I frmly believe
many of the benefts of a power monitoring system are
more intangible and harder to quantify. For example,
trending of current or voltage waveforms with a high
resolution power monitor (i.e., 256 samples/cycle or
greater) can provide insight into transformer internal
arcing, incipient ground faults, or harmonic overheating
of neutrals. The value of predictive maintenance saving
a large power outage could be very high depending on
the criticality of the load.
Young: The cost of the power monitoring system inte-
gration into the BMS is often one of the deciding factors.
Another metric is if integrating the systems signifcantly
increases the complexity and maintainability of either
system.
Q: How often are power monitoring systems integrated
with demand response scenarios?
Shapiro: Facilities we design and commission typically
are not part of demand response scenarios due to the
critical nature of the facility.
Strang: We typically do not see power monitoring
systems integrated with demand response scenarios
unless they are dedicated systems for that purpose. I
18
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Figure 2: A double-ended switchboard with manual tie-breakers and power monitoring on both utility feeders allows last minute checks of the utility
status prior to transfer.
Honoring Engineering Leadership
Submit your rms data to be considered for the
Consulting-Specifying Engineer 2014 MEP Giants
program and be among the top mechanical, electrical,
plumbing, (MEP) and re protection engineering rms in
the United States.

Your rms information will be included in our printed
and online MEP Giants poster, featured in the
Consulting-Specifying Engineer August 2014 issue.
The in-depth analysis of these rms reveals whats
going on in the industry, and how it has changed over
the past few years. Special emphasis will be placed on
commissioning rms in a separate report each October.

Nominations for the 2014 MEP Giants are now open!
Go to www.csemag.com/giants to download
the ofcial 2014 MEP Giants submission form.
Nomination
Deadline:
To participate in the
2014 MEP Giants,
submit your rms
information by Friday,
April 11, 2014.
SPONSORED BY:
PRESENTED BY:
20
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
think there is a big future, though, for this application,
and we will see more of it. There are many demand
response vendors with programs that can only beneft
the end user by signing up to curtail load and be paid
to do so.
Yoon: In most cases, we see power monitoring only be-
ing used by buildings to optimize their load profles, to
identify operational issues, and to control monthly elec-
trical demand charges. Very infrequently will we see
power monitoring integrated with a demand response
program, even though it seems like it should be a logical
extension. The primary hurdle
to overcome is the perception
of the risk associated with de-
mand response. Most clients
think of demand response
as a singular program where
they are going to be asked to
curtail electrical usage when
they need it the most. This
serves to highlight a very
clear gap in understanding
of the available programs.
Its very uncommon to come
across clients who can explain
the basic differences between
emergency demand response,
economic demand response,
and real-time pricing. If we
could better explain that
there are multiple different
versions of demand response
with various different poten-
tials for risk and reward that can be tailored to meet the
needs of the client, the acceptance of these programs
would dramatically increase.
As it is, we depend on education and advocacy from
groups like the Building Owners and Managers Asso-
ciation (BOMA) to spread the message among building
owners and operators. We see relatively little from the
utility company side to promote these programs. This
is a shame given that theres relatively minimal risk as-
sociated with many programs. For example, emergency
curtailment calls by the regional transmission organiza-
tions for the Midwest are extremely rare. Its basically
leaving easy money on the table.
Young: Almost all power monitoring systems are inte-
grated when the owner contracts for demand response.
The building system monitors and records the demand
reduction as well as the time frame for the reduction.
This can provide a separate, independent record of not
only the level of reduction, but the time of the reduction.
Q: How large does a power load profle of a commercial
building need to be to justify a power monitoring system?
To justify integrating the power monitoring system into a
BAS or with other engineered systems?
Shapiro: A power monitoring system should be recom-
mended for all commercial buildings regardless of the
size. The nature of the system depends on the size and
tenants of the building. Power usage at the service as
well as throughout the major portions of the distribu-
tion facility allow for proper operation of the facility
as well as a functional method of understanding the
possible maintenance re-
quirements and load growth
possibilities without subject-
ing operating personnel to the
risk of arc fash by actually
opening electrical equipment
to measure loads.
Strang: I dont think a particu-
lar load profle would be the
determining factor for justifying
a power monitoring system,
or for integrating it with an
overall BMS. I suppose if you
were looking at only ROI of the
power monitoring system based
on energy savings, you could
prognosticate typical payback
numbers. I think the critical-
ity of the load would be the
biggest factor in implementing
the power monitoring system. A
strip plaza could have a larger load than a small data center,
but the small data center may serve critical 24x7 custom-
ers (i.e., a bank) where the data from a power monitoring
system would provide much more value.
Yoon: It goes beyond the size of the load profle. To say
that a building falls into a specifc utility rate class doesnt
justify it by itself. Concepts of load profle variability and
value of business continuity also factor into it.
Q: How have power monitoring systems helped ensure a
buildings power quality is stable?
Shapiro: Power monitoring systems have given oper-
ating personnel a tool to diagnose internal as well as
external power quality issues. Having power quality
monitoring at the facility on a continuous basis allows
for immediate identifcation of power quality issues
before they can cause operational problems. As equip-
ment is added to the distribution system or changes are
Figure 3: The photo shows branch circuit level power monitoring
integrated into the wiring gutter of a typical electrical panelboard.
made to the distribution system, the power quality is
monitored and anomalies can be identifed. The moni-
toring provides evidence of power quality before and
after changes to help identify the causes of power qual-
ity issues, help remedy them, and ensure power quality
stability.
Strang: Power electronics have come a long way. A
256 sample/cycle analog-to-digital converter is noth-
ing today. Many of the power monitors today can easily
achieve this resolution and much higher. This monitor-
ing resolution allows capturing of sub-cycle events and
THD that, years ago, required more expensive portable
equipment. So, in addition to seeing general trends to
ensure power stability, now we can easily see sub-
cycle aberrations that can be indicative of equipment
that hasnt quite failed yet
but may fail very soon. A
power monitoring system
can also be very valuable in
analyzing what events are
produced internally vs. from
the utility. For example,
a motor starting the same
time every day could be eas-
ily identifed and turned off
to see the effect.
Yoon: We have seen situations where utility side power
quality issues such as brownouts and single phasing
have caused or contributed to equipment failures. How-
ever, weve typically seen power monitoring systems
used simply to record such disturbances and not neces-
sarily to automatically take equipment offine.
Q: When working with a buildings operations and
maintenance (O&M) staff to set up training, systems
manuals, etc., what guidelines do you provide for system
testing and/or maintenance of the power monitoring
system?
Shapiro: EPMS system testing and maintenance goes
hand-in-hand with the electrical system testing and
maintenance program. As the electrical systems are op-
erated and tested, the EPMS is used to document the po-
sitions of circuit breakers, facility load changes, power
quality impact of load shifts, etc. As long as the proper
signals are received by the EPMS through the electrical
equipment and LAN systems, the actual maintenance of
the EPMS system and interfaces is limited to the meters
and LAN infrastructure, which is minimal.
Strang: When implementing a power monitoring sys-
tem, testing, commissioning, and training are defnitely
requirements. We have seen projects where a power
monitoring system was installed as part of the origi-
nal contract, with all of the capabilities intended to be
brought back to a PC for remote monitoring and trend-
ing. However, the communication cables were never
terminated. All the capability was there and the owner
was completely unaware. Typically, we specify that
the system be completely tested and commissioned by
the installer in cooperation with the vendor, and after
complete functionality is achieved, a vendors represen-
tative (of the equipment manufacturer) provides at least
8 hr of training to the O&M staff. Obviously, the actual
duration should be adjusted based on the number of
staff and complexity of the project, but the goal is for
the staff to be comfortable with basic operations before
this new system is dropped in their laps. The system
will have no value if no one
knows how to use it. Lastly,
be careful to specify a sys-
tem that will not hold the
customer hostage for minor
assistance and changes.
Yoon: One of the biggest
gaps that weve experienced
in the design process is how
to defne the look and feel of
the HMI and the commissioning of the overall system.
Every integrator does things just a bit differently.
Young: For system testing, the specifcations are written
requiring a 1% calibration between the power monitor-
ing system and calibrated test equipment. A mainte-
nance contract is usually required from respective ven-
dors, as well as 8 hr on-site staff training on all systems.
Q: Describe a mission critical facility in which you
specifed a system to monitor complex standby, back-up,
or emergency power.
Shapiro: The fnancial client I referred to previously was
designed to have 32 MVA, 2N medium-voltage utility
services, an N+2 standby-generator plant, more than 16
MVA of UPS power, and 100,000 sq ft of computer room.
All of these systems require the EPMS to interface with
power quality monitoring at the utility, generator plants,
UPS systems, and at the computer room distribution.
Synchronized millisecond time stamping is required for
all the major distribution systems with live electrical
one-line diagrams and live load information down to
the branch circuit breaker serving the computer equip-
ment in the rack on the computer foor. The system has
a dedicated LAN infrastructure with redundant serv-
ers and looped communication systems to eliminate
21
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
When implementing a power

monitoring system, testing,
commissioning, and training are
defnitely requirements.
-Douglas R. Strang Jr., S & S Engineering

22
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
the risk associated with a loss of communication in
a single communications path. All monitoring sys-
tems have dedicated power redundancy to isolate the
system from the impact of an electrical distribution
failure and ensure continuous monitoring. A dedi-
cated monitoring station is located in the operating
engineers office with summary system alarms cross
connected to the BMS. The system can be accessed
through connection at any internal facility network
connection. The system is not accessible outside of
the facility via modem or Internet
connection to ensure system reli-
ability and security.
Strang: Unfortunately, we have
not had the opportunity to specify
a dedicated power monitoring
system for such a mission criti-
cal facility. The power monitoring
capability was built into the UPS
equipment, which was out of our
scope of work.
Young: One of our projects was a
rather large data center and offce
building complex with on-site
power generation installed to back up the data cen-
ter, and as an additional beneft, provide power to the
complex. With the power monitoring system installed,
the owner is able, based on the power consumption re-
corded prior to an outage, to continue to provide power
to the offce complex in addition to the data center.
Q: Looking 2 to 5 years into the future, how do you think
power monitoring systems will change?
Shapiro: I believe the HMI will become easier to use
and better interfaces will be developed for use with
portable and mobile devices. Power quality resolution
and event capture will be enhanced, more devices
will have communications, and power quality meter-
ing ability will be standard. These improvements will
reduce the cost of the EPMS overall, make the EPMS
easier to install, and even enable them to be cost ef-
fective to retrofit into a facility.
Strang: Looking two to fve years into the future, I
can see power monitoring systems having roughly the
same features as now, except more cost effective due to
competition and proliferation. We may see them more
integrated with other systems (i.e., EMS/BMS) as a
standard. I think with energy conservation and verifca-
tion, and the general green movement, power monitor-
ing systems will become a standard in system design,
rather than an amenity only afforded by higher end
facilities. Capturing the power fow of renewable source
integration in distributed generation applications will
also drive the need for power monitoring systems.
Yoon: Weve traditionally focused on customer-
financed and installed power monitoring solutions.
If it was low cost/no cost, it would end up on every
project, but it isnt. However, with utility-company
smart-meter initiatives starting to materialize, many
of our clients view that as an
opportunity to defer/avoid the
direct capital investment associ-
ated with power monitoring and
participate in demand response
program energy markets. It should
be a win-win: the utility compa-
nies should be able to have more
reliable power grids and building
owners should be able to reduce
operating costs.
The primary challenge is more
of a legal than a technical is-
sue. Who owns the smart meter
energy usage information that
is collected, how it can be used,
and should it be made public? For example, in major
municipalities, were starting to see the adoption of
benchmarking ordinances with mandatory reporting
of building energy usage through Energy Star. While
there are not yet formal penalties, such as cash fines
to penalize poor scores, these mandatory public
disclosure requirements still concern many building
owners. The standard metric of energy use intensity
doesnt necessarily reflect efficiency of the individual
building systems, but rather overall energy usage
for a given square footage of building area. Whether
right or wrong, many new Class A buildings have
been given a proverbial black eye through lower than
expected Energy Star scores compared to what we
would normally consider antiquated and obsolete
buildings. This would seem to put agendas of energy
efficiency and economic development at odds. Some
have suggested that this gap can be bridged by link-
ing a buildings energy usage to economic contribu-
tions of the businesses within that building. It should
be interesting seeing how our engineered solutions
evolve to fit into this new world.
Young: More Internet protocol-based systems will be
installed to minimize initial installation costs and to
not only allow integration into BMSs, but also allow
occupants to see a dashboard of energy consumption
for their building.
I believe the HMI will

become easier to use
and better interfaces will
be developed for use
with portable and mobile
devices.
-Steven Shapiro,
Morrison Hershfield Mission Critical
23
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Harmonic Mitigation
I
n North America, alternating current (ac) electrical
power is generated and distributed in the form of
a sinusoidal voltage waveform with a fundamental
frequency of 60 cycles/sec, or 60 Hz. In the context
of electrical power distribution, harmonics are voltage
and current waveforms superimposed on the funda-
mental, with frequencies that are multiples of the fun-
damental. These higher frequencies distort the intended
ideal sinusoid into a periodic, but very different shaped
waveform.
Many modern power electronic devices have har-
monic correction integrated into the equipment, such
as 12- and 18-pulse VFDs and active front-end VFDs.
However, many nonlinear electronic loads, such as
6-pulse VFDs, are still in operation. These nonlinear
loads generate signifcant magnitudes of ffth-order and
seventh-order harmonics in the input current, resulting
in a distorted current waveform (see Figure 1).
The characteristics of the harmonic currents pro-
duced by a rectifer depend on the number of pulses,
and are determined by the following equation:
h = kp 1
Where:
h is the harmonic number, an integral multiple
of the fundamental
k is any positive integer
p is the pulse number of the rectifer
Thus, the waveform of a typical 6-pulse VFD recti-
fer includes harmonics of the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc.,
orders, with amplitude decreasing in inverse proportion
to the order number, as a rule of thumb. In a 3-phase
circuit, harmonics divisible by 3 are canceled in each
phase. And because the conversion equipments cur-
rent pulses are symmetrical in each half wave, the
even order harmonics are canceled. While of concern,
harmonic currents drawn by nonlinear loads result
in true systemic problems when the voltage drop they
Although devices using power electronics can produce distortion in electrical distribution systems,
its up to the engineer to apply effective solutions to mitigate them.
Mitigating harmonics
in electrical systems
By Nicholas Rich, PE, LEED AP,
Interface Engineering, Seattle
Figure 1: This diagram shows time-domain waveforms for the fundamental
frequency, 5th- and 7th-order harmonics, and resultant distorted compos-
ite waveform. All graphics courtesy: Interface Engineering
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Understand current and voltage harmonics in electrical systems, and
their negative effects on the facility electrical system.
Know how electronic power equipment such as VFDs creates harmonics.
Understand characteristic and noncharacteristic harmonics.
Understand IEEE 519 guidelines for the reduction of electrical
harmonics.
Learn design techniques for mitigating harmonics with recommended
applications.
cause over electrical sources and conductors results in
harmonics in the voltage delivered to potentially all of
the building electrical system loadseven those not
related to the nonlinear loads. These resulting harmon-
ics in the building voltage can have several detrimental
effects on connected electrical equipment, such as con-
ductors, transformers, motors, and other VFDs.
Conductors: Conductors can overheat and experience
energy losses due to the skin effect, where higher fre-
quency currents are forced to travel through a smaller
cross-sectional area of the conductor, bunched toward
the surface of the conductor.
Transformers: Transformers can experience increased
eddy current and hysteresis losses due to higher frequen-
cy currents circulating in the transformer core.
Motors: Motors can experience higher iron and eddy
current losses. Mechanical oscillations induced by cur-
rent harmonics into the motor shaft can cause premature
failure and increased audible noise during operation.
Other VFDs and electronic power supplies: Distor-
tion to the increasing voltage waveform in other VFDs
and electronic (switch mode) power supplies can cause
failure of commutation circuits in dc drives and ac
drives with silicon controlled rectifers (SCRs).
ESTABLISHING MITIGATION CRITERIA
The critical question is: When do harmonics in electri-
cal systems become a signifcant enough problem that
they must be mitigated? Operational problems from
electrical harmonics tend to manifest themselves when
two conditions are met:
1. Generally, facilities with the fraction of nonlinear
loads to total electrical capacity that exceeds 15%.
2. A fnite power source at the service or within the
facility power distribution system with relatively
high source impedance, resulting in greater volt-
age distortion resulting from
the harmonic current fow.
IEEE 519-1992, Recom-
mended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Power Systems,
was written in part by the
IEEE Power Engineering
Society to help defne the
limits on what harmonics
will appear in the voltage
the utility supplies to its
customers, and the limits
on current harmonics that
facility loads inject into
the utility. Following this
standard for power systems
of 69 kV and below, the
harmonic voltage distortion
at the facilitys electrical
service connection point, or
point of common coupling
(PCC), is limited to 5.0% to-
tal harmonic distortion with
each individual harmonic
limited to 3%.
In this standard, the
highest constraint is for
facilities with the ratio of
maximum short-circuit
current (I
SC
) to maximum
demand load current (I
L
)
of less than 20, with the
following limits placed on
Harmonic Mitigation
24
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Figure 3: This diagram shows the connection and polarity arrangement of a typical delta-wye zig-zag type
transformer.
Figure 2: This diagram shows the connection and polarity arrangement of a typical delta-wye transformer.
the individual harmonic order: (Ref.
Table 10.3, IEEE Std. 519)
For odd harmonics below the
11th order: 4.0%
For odd harmonics of the 11th
to the 17th order: 2.0%
For odd harmonics of the 17th
to the 23rd order: 1.5%
For odd harmonics of the 23rd
to the 35th order: 0.6%
For odd harmonics of higher
order: 0.3%
For even harmonics, the limit is
25% of the next higher odd
harmonic.
The total demand distortion (TDD) is 5.0%.
There are various harmonic mitigation methods
available to address harmonics in the distribution sys-
tem. They are all valid solutions depending on circum-
stances, each with their own benefts and detriments.
The primary solutions are harmonic mitigating trans-
formers; active harmonic flters; and line reactors, dc
bus chokes, and passive flters.
HARMONIC MITIGATING TRANSFORMERS
In a standard delta-wye transformer, zero-sequence
currents flow through the secondary wye winding
and are coupled into the primary delta winding where
they are trapped (see Figure 2). These zero-sequence
currents can cause excessive heating and voltage
distortion. Harmonic mitigating transformers can be
implemented in pairs to mitigate 5th, 7th, and higher-
order harmonic currents by taking advantage of the
transformer phase shifts relative to each other, to
cancel a significant amount of the harmonic current at
these higher frequencies.
One type of harmonic mitigating transformer uses
a zig-zag configuration. The zig-zag transformer is
configured by winding half of the secondary turns of
one phase of the transformer on one leg of the 3-phase
transformer, with the other half of the secondary
turns on an adjacent phase (see Figure 3).
Note that harmonic mitigating transformers are not
a panacea for the elimination of harmonics in an elec-
trical system. Mitigation of 5th, 7th, and higher order
harmonic currents requires the installation of mul-
tiple transformers with a 30-deg relative phase shift
between the two, connected to a common bus in an
electrical distribution system. Also, when mitigating
these higher level harmonic currents by this means,
balance of loads between the transformers is required.
As shown in Figure 4, one transformer is a delta-
zigzag configuration harmonic mitigating transformer
with a 0-deg phase shift, and the second transformer
is a delta-wye with a 30-deg phase shift.
Voltage distortion is normally greatest at the point
where the equipment is connected to the distribution
system. Therefore, to attain maximum benefit, har-
monic mitigating transformers should be installed as
close as practical to the load that they feed.
Installation of a non-phase-shift harmonic mitigat-
ing transformer provides an effective treatment of tri-
plen (3rd, 9th, 15th, and so on) harmonic currents that
are generated by loads connected to the transformer.
Triplen harmonic currents are treated in the secondary
windings of the transformer due to the transformers
low zero-sequence impedance.
When a standard or K-rated delta-wye transformer
is installed in an electrical distribution system, the
addition of a non-phase-shift harmonic mitigating
transformer offers an economical solution for treating
higher order harmonic currents. The 30-deg phase-
shift created between the standard or K-rated delta-
wye transformer and harmonic mitigating transformer
provides treatment of 5th, 7th, 17th, and 19th order
harmonic currents to the extent of the balance of the
load between the two transformers. In this configura-
tion, the harmonic currents are canceled in the com-
mon electrical bus that feeds the transformers. Close
25
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
Harmonic Mitigation
Source
Load
AHF
L
I
source
I
a
I
load
Figure 5: This diagram shows a conceptual arrangement of an active har-
monic flter as a parallel device.
Figure 4: This diagram shows a parallel connection of a harmonic mitigating transformer and a typi-
cal delta-wye transformer.
HM transformer
Electrical bus
Standard
delta-wye transformer
Electrical panels feeding
single-phase and/or 3-phase
nonlinear loads
Harmonic Mitigation
26
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
coordination between the construction and location of
the two transformers must be executed, as the imped-
ance values of the transformers should be identical to
receive the maximum mitigation of these higher-order
harmonic currents.
ACTIVE HARMONIC FILTER (AHF)
The concept of an active flter is to produce harmonic
components of the fundamental current waveform that
are out of phase withand thus cancel the harmonic
components generated fromthe nonlinear loads.
Figure 5 conceptually illustrates how the harmonic cur-
rent generated by the AHF is injected into the system
to cancel harmonics from a VFD load. The AHF is
installed as a parallel device and is scalable, making
it a highly effective device that cancels multiple order
harmonics in the distribution system. This method
addresses harmonics from a systemic point of view
and can save significant cost/space in many applica-
tions, with performance levels that can meet a TDD
5% target.
The active harmonic flter uses a current transducer
to actively monitor the load current in real time to
react to changes in load. Some AHFs are designed to
also inherently synchronize the line current with the
voltage to approach unity displacement power factor.
The system typically performs fast Fourier transforms
to calculate the amount of harmonics present for each
harmonic order in the load current to determine the
amplitude of the frst 30 to 50 orders. The system logic
processor flters out the fundamental frequency, and
then directs the power converter to inject the phase-
inverse of only the harmonic currents back into the
circuit for cancellation of the harmonic content.
The benefts of AHFs include:
Dynamic adjustment for virtual real-time
correction of the nonlinear current
Synchronization of the current and voltage
waveforms
Adjustment using a feedback loop to prevent
leading power factor.
AHF equipment is available for implementation at
the PCC of the facility to the utility, for connection to
a distribution bus within 3-phase power distribution
systems inside facilities, and within distribution and
control equipment, such as motor control centers (see
Figure 6).
SOLUTIONS AT THE NONLINEAR LOAD
As an alternative to the systemic approach to harmonic
mitigation, some components may be more economi-
cally viable for facilities where the potential for injec-
tion of excessive current harmonics is limited to a few
specifc loads.
A line reactor is the simplest solution for reducing
harmonic current caused by nonlinear loads, typically
converter-based devices such as VFDs. Inductors or isola-
Rules of thumb
For facilities with multiple, distributed nonlinear loads, system-based solutions are typically more effective.
System-based harmonic mitigation solutions
Benefts Disadvantages
Harmonic mitigating transformers Low system losses
Mitigation of 5th, 7th, and higher order harmonic currents
Higher order harmonic cancelation requires multiple
transformers and the loads must balance
Active harmonic flters Mitigation of 5th, 7th, and higher order harmonic currents
Reduction to 5% or less
Power factor correction available
Higher maintenance requirements
Losses can be higher than for passive flters
For facilities with few, discrete, or concentrated non-linear loads, an at-the-load solution will likely be more cost effective for harmonic mitigation needs.
Benefts Disadvantages
Line reactors, dc bus chokes, and
passive flters
Relatively low cost with low residual harmonics
Reliable, relative to active flters
Requires series-connected flter
Requires use with nonlinear loads only
Induces low, leading-power-factor at light loads
Increases system losses
Primarily designed to cancel one harmonic order;
some for cancellation of higher orders
Harmonic reduction 15% to 25%
12 Burt Drive, Deer Park, NY 11729 USA
(631) 586-5125 // (800) 851-1508
www.mcgsurge.com
The new MCG 500 Series are
industrial grade, high-performance
surge protectors for multiple AC
applications including smart home,
dedicated equipment, branch/local
panel protection and outdoor
applications up to 240VAC, 1ph.
At the heart of the unit is a fresh
new design of MCGs signature
protection module which packs ve
high current, thermally protected
protection components for a total
surge capacity of 100,000 Amps.
Parallel and series connected units
can be ordered with or without the
compact NEMA 4X indoor/outdoor
enclosure with clear front door.
Finding a comprehensive protector
at an attractive price point can be
a daunting task. Call us. Five
minutes on the phone can solve
your surge protection problems.
MCG SURGE
PROTECTI ON
A REAL SURGE
PROTECTOR.
Proudly Made in the
USA since 1967
THE CLEAR CHOI CE
I N SURGE PROTECTI ON
Figure 7: This diagram shows conceptual schematics of a tuned harmonic flter and a broadband flter.
VFD
VFD
VFD
MCB
S
t
a
r
t
e
r
S
t
a
r
t
e
r
S
t
a
r
t
e
r
SPD
AHF
Figure 6: This diagram shows a typical implementation of an active harmonic flter in a motor control
center.
tion transformers, installed in series with and ahead of the load, can reduce
the harmonic current content up to 50%, depending on the amount of imped-
ance added to the line, to approach TDD levels of 30% to 40%. The most com-
mon values of ac line reactors are 3% and 5%. Typically, line reactors are less
expensive than transformers.
In lieu of inserting line reactors in series with a VFD, a dc choke can be
added to the drives dc bus, reducing approximately the same degree of har-
monics as the ac reactor. The advantage of applying dc chokes is that they are
typically physically smaller and are often mounted inside the VFD. Many VFDs
can be ordered from the manufacturer with dc chokes already installed.
PASSIVE FILTERS
Passive flters are comprised of static, linear components such as inductors,
capacitors, and resistors arranged in predetermined fashion to either atten-
uate the fow of harmonic currents through them or to shunt the harmonic
component into the flter circuit. There are several types of passive flters,
but the most effective type is the low-pass broadband flter, which offers
Harmonic Mitigation
28
P
U
R
E

P
O
W
E
R

/
/

S
P
R
I
N
G

2
0
1
4
great performance and versatility with
lower risk of resonance with the line.
Figure 7 shows a typical tuned
harmonic filter and a broadband
filter circuit. In the tuned filter,
the inductor (Lp) and capacitor (C)
provide a low impedance path for a
single (tuned) frequency. An induc-
tor on the line side (L
s
) is required to
detune the filter from the electrical
system and other filters resonance
points. This type of filter is very application specific.
It can mitigate only a single frequency, and it injects
leading reactive current (kVAR) at all times. But it is
economical if you need to deal with only a dominant
harmonic in the facility. It normally can reach a TDD
target of 20%.
BROADBAND FILTERS
A broadband flter is designed to mitigate multiple or-
ders of harmonic frequencies. Notice the similarity and
the difference of the circuit from the tuned flter. Both
inductors (L) could have impedances greater than 8%,
which means there could be a 16% voltage drop across
the flter. Its physical dimension is normally very large,
and it generates signifcantly high heat losses, typi-
cally greater than 4%. A well-designed
broadband flter can meet a TDD tar-
get of around 10%.
LOW-PASS FILTERS
Low-pass harmonic filters have
gained popularity due to their abil-
ity to attenuate multiple harmonic
frequencies to achieve low levels of
residual harmonic distortion. The
typical low-pass filter configuration
includes one or more series elements plus a set of
tuned shunt elements. The series elements increase
the input circuits effective impedance to reduce over-
all harmonics and detune the shunt circuit resonance.
The shunt elements are tuned to attenuate most of
the remaining circuits harmonics, primarily the 5th
and 7th order harmonics. This type of filter is most
commonly applied in series with and ahead of 6-pulse
rectifier loads. Note that the harmonic distortion is
reduced at the input stage of this filter. However, the
load side will have significant current and voltage dis-
tortion, and thus it is recommended that only nonlin-
ear loads be connected. Further, due to the series reac-
tance, low-pass filters produce a voltage drop under
loaded conditions, while voltage boosting will occur
under no-load conditions, so some low pass harmonic
filters may not be suitable for use with SCRs.
Engineers have many options available for miti-
gating harmonic current distortion. There is also the
option of taking no action. However, this runs the risk
of reduced equipment life, failure of sensitive micro-
processor-controlled equipment, downtime, safety
risks, and potentially even utility penalties. The best
economical and technical solution is not the same for
all cases, and a thorough cost/benefit consideration of
the application is necessary to evaluate and select the
optimized solution to a facilitys harmonics problems.
Whichever method is selected for a specific applica-
tion, as a general rule, the greatest benefit is realized
when harmonic mitigation solutions are placed close
to the loads generating excessive harmonic currents
(see Rules of thumb). With this topology, the electri-
cal system can be more effectively used for real work,
and the probability of creating resonance and harmon-
ic related is significantly reduced.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Nicholas Rich is principal and senior electrical engineer at
Interface Engineering. He has more than 25 years of experi-
ence in designing electrical power distribution, lighting, and
communications systems.
AD INDEX
ASCO Power Technologies - pg 7 402
800-800-2726 www.ascoapu.com
Caterpillar - Northeast - pg C-3 406
www.NECatDealers.com/power
CFE Media, Engineering Is Personal - pg 2
630-571-4070 www.csemag.com
Generac Industrial Power - pg C-2 400
800-436-3722 www.Generac.com/industrial
Kohler - pg C-4 407
800-544-2444 www.KOHLERPOWER.COM/INDUSTRIAL
MCG Surge Protection - pg 27 405
800-851-1508 www.mcgsurge.com
MEP GIANTS 2014 Sponsored by Eaton - pg 19
630-571-4070 www.csemag.com/giants
Russelectric Inc. - pg 11 403
800-225-5250 www.russelectric.com
Schneider Electric - pg 3 401
847-397-2600 www.schneider-electric.com
A broadband flter
is designed to
mitigate multiple
orders of harmonic
frequencies.
2013 Caterpillar All rights reserved. CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, Caterpillar Yellow, the Power Edge trade dress as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are trademarks of Caterpillar and may not be
used without permission. www.cat.com www.caterpillar.com
Whether youre powering a sporting event, or supporting recovery efforts following a hurricane, your Cat
dealer has
the equipment to help you solve the challenge. As part of the Caterpillar
dealer network, your local Cat dealer has

access to a vast rental fleet of power generation and temperature control equipment specifically designed to meet the
requirements of commercial, industrial, institutional and manufacturing applications, capable of supporting even the
most critical operating systems.
Whether youre dealing with an emergency, or planning ahead for scheduled downtime, Cat Standby Power equipment
can be on its way in minutes. Visit us online today at www.NECatDealers.com/power
Alban CAT
www.albancat.com
Baltimore, MD
800-492-6994
SINCE 1927
Giles & Ransome Inc.
www.ransome.com
Bensalem, PA
877-RANSOME
SINCE 1916 SINCE 1948
Cleveland Brothers
www.clevelandbrothers.com
Murrysville, PA
888-232-5948
Milton CAT
www.miltoncat.com
Milford, MA
866-385-8538
SINCE 1960
H.O. Penn Machinery
www.hopenn.com
Poughkeepsie, NY
845-437-4051
SINCE 1923
ONE NAME YOU CAN COUNT ON
PLANNED EVENT
UNPLANNED EVENT
TOTAL SYSTEM INTEGRATION
GENERATORS
|
TRANSFER SWITCHES
|
SWITCHGEAR
|
CONTROLS
This is a KOHLER power system. And its built to perform. How do
we know? We engineered it ourselves. Generators, transfer switches,
switchgear, controllers you name it, we make it. Every part is designed
to work with the entire system.
So when the grid goes down, youll be glad you specd Kohler.
SPEC YOUR JOB AT KOHLERPOWER.COM/INDUSTRIAL Power Systems

PP 14 Spring

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PP 14 Spring

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MORE POWER. MORE PRODUCTS.

MORE REASONS TO CHOOSE GENERAC.

data centers uniquely span

facility cooling module with two

for Data Centers, Schneider Electric products can

. The vision to see what others cant.

When implementing a power

-Douglas R. Strang Jr., S & S Engineering

I believe the HMI will

dealer network, your local Cat dealer has

You might also like