L EV I AT H A N

INTRODUCTION

NATURE (the art whereby God hath made and governs the world) is by the art o man! as in many other things! so in
this also imitated! that it "an ma#e an artii"ial animal$ %or seeing lie is b&t a motion o limbs! the beginning
whereo is in some 'rin"i'al 'art within! why may we not say that all a&tomata (engines that move themselves by
s'rings and wheels as doth a wat"h) have an artii"ial lie( %or what is the heart! b&t a s'ring) and the nerves! b&t so
many strings) and the *oints! b&t so many wheels! giving motion to the whole body! s&"h as was intended by the
Artii"er( Art goes yet &rther! imitating that rational and most e+"ellent wor# o Nat&re! man$ %or by art is "reated
that great LEVIATHAN "alled a ,-..-N/EALTH! or 0TATE (in Latin! ,IVITA0)! whi"h is b&t an artii"ial
man! tho&gh o greater stat&re and strength than the nat&ral! or whose 'rote"tion and deen"e it was intended) and in
whi"h the sovereignty is an artii"ial so&l! as giving lie and motion to the whole body) the magistrates and other
oi"ers o *&di"at&re and e+e"&tion! artii"ial *oints) reward and '&nishment (by whi"h astened to the seat o the
sovereignty! every *oint and member is moved to 'erorm his d&ty) are the nerves! that do the same in the body
nat&ral) the wealth and ri"hes o all the 'arti"&lar members are the strength) sal&s 'o'&li (the 'eo'le1s saety) its
b&siness) "o&nsellors! by whom all things need&l or it to #now are s&ggested &nto it! are the memory) e2&ity and
laws! an artii"ial reason and will) "on"ord! health) sedition! si"#ness) and "ivil war! death$ Lastly! the 'a"ts and
"ovenants! by whi"h the 'arts o this body 'oliti" were at irst made! set together! and &nited! resemble that iat! or
the Let &s ma#e man! 'rono&n"ed by God in the ,reation$
To des"ribe the nat&re o this artii"ial man! I will "onsider
%irst! the matter thereo! and the artii"er) both whi"h is man$
0e"ondly! how! and by what "ovenants it is made) what are the rights and *&st
'ower or a&thority o a sovereign) and what it is that 'reserveth and
dissolveth it$
Thirdly! what is a ,hristian ,ommonwealth$
Lastly! what is the 3ingdom o 4ar#ness$
,on"erning the irst! there is a saying m&"h &s&r'ed o late! that wisdom is a"2&ired! not by reading o boo#s! b&t o
men$
,onse2&ently where&nto! those 'ersons! that or the most 'art "an give no other 'roo o being wise! ta#e great
delight to show what they thin# they have read in men! by &n"haritable "ens&res o one another behind their ba"#s$
5&t there is another saying not o late &nderstood! by whi"h they might learn tr&ly to read one another! i they wo&ld
ta#e the 'ains) and that is! Nos"e tei's&m! Read thysel6 whi"h was not meant! as it is now &sed! to "o&ntenan"e
either the barbaro&s state o men in 'ower towards their ineriors! or to en"o&rage men o low degree to a sa&"y
behavio&r towards their betters) b&t to tea"h &s that or the similit&de o the tho&ghts and 'assions o one man! to the
tho&ghts and 'assions o another! whosoever loo#eth into himsel and "onsidereth what he doth when he does thin#!
o'ine! reason! ho'e! ear! et"$! and &'on what gro&nds) he shall thereby read and #now what are the tho&ghts and
'assions o all other men &'on the li#e o""asions$ I say the similit&de o 'assions! whi"h are the same in all men!7
desire! ear! ho'e! et"$) not the similit&de o the ob*e"ts o the 'assions! whi"h are the things desired! eared! ho'ed!
et"$6 or these the "onstit&tion individ&al! and 'arti"&lar ed&"ation! do so vary! and they are so easy to be #e't rom
o&r #nowledge! that the "hara"ters o man1s heart! blotted and "ono&nded as they are with dissembling! lying!
"o&ntereiting! and erroneo&s do"trines! are legible only to him that sear"heth hearts$ And tho&gh by men1s a"tions
we do dis"over their design sometimes) yet to do it witho&t "om'aring them with o&r own! and disting&ishing all
"ir"&mstan"es by whi"h the "ase may "ome to be altered! is to de"i'her witho&t a #ey! and be or the most 'art
de"eived! by too m&"h tr&st or by too m&"h diiden"e! as he that reads is himsel a good or evil man$
5&t let one man read another by his a"tions never so 'ere"tly! it serves him only with his a"2&aintan"e! whi"h are
b&t ew$ He that is to govern a whole nation m&st read in himsel! not this! or that 'arti"&lar man) b&t man#ind6
whi"h tho&gh it be hard to do! harder than to learn any lang&age or s"ien"e) yet! when I shall have set down my own
reading orderly and 'ers'i"&o&sly! the 'ains let another will be only to "onsider i he also ind not the same in
himsel$ %or this #ind o do"trine admitteth no other demonstration$
THE %IR0T 8ART 7 -% .AN ,HA8TER I
OF SENSE
,-N,ERNING the tho&ghts o man! I will "onsider them irst singly! and aterwards in train or de'enden"e &'on
one another$ 0ingly! they are every one a re'resentation or a''earan"e o some 2&ality! or other a""ident o a body
witho&t &s! whi"h is "ommonly "alled an ob*e"t$ /hi"h ob*e"t wor#eth on the eyes! ears! and other 'arts o man1s
body! and by diversity o wor#ing 'rod&"eth diversity o a''earan"es$ The original o them all is that whi"h we "all
sense! (or there is no "on"e'tion in a man1s mind whi"h hath not at irst! totally or by 'arts! been begotten &'on the
organs o sense)$ The rest are derived rom that original$
To #now the nat&ral "a&se o sense is not very ne"essary to the b&siness now in hand) and I have elsewhere written
o the same at large$ Nevertheless! to ill ea"h 'art o my 'resent method! I will briely deliver the same in this 'la"e$
The "a&se o sense is the e+ternal body! or ob*e"t! whi"h 'resseth the organ 'ro'er to ea"h sense! either immediately!
as in the taste and to&"h) or mediately! as in seeing! hearing! and smelling6 whi"h 'ress&re! by the mediation o
nerves and other strings and membranes o the body! "ontin&ed inwards to the brain and heart! "a&seth there a
resistan"e! or "o&nter7'ress&re! or endeavo&r o the heart to deliver itsel6 whi"h endeavo&r! be"a&se o&tward!
seemeth to be some matter witho&t$ And this seeming! or an"y! is that whi"h men "all sense) and "onsisteth! as to the
eye! in a light! or "olo&r ig&red) to the ear! in a so&nd) to the nostril! in an odo&r) to the tong&e and 'alate! in a
savo&r) and to the rest o the body! in heat! "old! hardness! sotness! and s&"h other 2&alities as we dis"ern by eeling$
All whi"h 2&alities "alled sensible are in the ob*e"t that "a&seth them b&t so many several motions o the matter! by
whi"h it 'resseth o&r organs diversely$ Neither in &s that are 'ressed are they anything else b&t diverse motions (or
motion 'rod&"eth nothing b&t motion)$ 5&t their a''earan"e to &s is an"y! the same wa#ing that dreaming$ And as
'ressing! r&bbing! or stri#ing the eye ma#es &s an"y a light! and 'ressing the ear 'rod&"eth a din) so do the bodies
also we see! or hear! 'rod&"e the same by their strong! tho&gh &nobserved a"tion$ %or i those "olo&rs and so&nds
were in the bodies or ob*e"ts that "a&se them! they "o&ld not be severed rom them! as by glasses and in e"hoes by
rele"tion we see they are6 where we #now the thing we see is in one 'la"e) the a''earan"e! in another$ And tho&gh at
some "ertain distan"e the real and very ob*e"t seem invested with the an"y it begets in &s) yet still the ob*e"t is one
thing! the image or an"y is another$ 0o that sense in all "ases is nothing else b&t original an"y "a&sed (as I have
said) by the 'ress&re that is! by the motion o e+ternal things &'on o&r eyes! ears! and other organs! there&nto
ordained$ 5&t the 'hiloso'hy s"hools! thro&gh all the &niversities o ,hristendom! gro&nded &'on "ertain te+ts o
Aristotle! tea"h another do"trine) and say! or the "a&se o vision! that the thing seen sendeth orth on every side a
visible s'e"ies! (in English) a visible show! a''arition! or as'e"t! or a being seen) the re"eiving whereo into the eye
is seeing$ And or the "a&se o hearing! that the thing heard sendeth orth an a&dible s'e"ies! that is! an a&dible
as'e"t! or a&dible being seen) whi"h! entering at the ear! ma#eth hearing$ Nay! or the "a&se o &nderstanding also!
they say the thing &nderstood sendeth orth an intelligible s'e"ies! that is! an intelligible being seen) whi"h! "oming
into the &nderstanding! ma#es &s &nderstand$ I say not this! as disa''roving the &se o &niversities6 b&t be"a&se I am
to s'ea# hereater o their oi"e in a ,ommonwealth! I m&st let yo& see on all o""asions by the way what things
wo&ld be amended in them) amongst whi"h the re2&en"y o insignii"ant s'ee"h is one$
,HA8TER II OF IMAGINATION
THAT when a thing lies still! &nless somewhat else stir it! it will lie still or ever! is a tr&th that no man do&bts o$
5&t that when a thing is in motion! it will eternally be in motion! &nless somewhat else stay it! tho&gh the reason be
the same (namely! that nothing "an "hange itsel)! is not so easily assented to$ %or men meas&re! not only other men!
b&t all other things! by themselves6 and be"a&se they ind themselves s&b*e"t ater motion to 'ain and lassit&de! thin#
everything else grows weary o motion! and see#s re'ose o its own a""ord) little "onsidering whether it be not some
other motion wherein that desire o rest they ind in themselves "onsisteth$ %rom hen"e it is that the s"hools say!
heavy bodies all downwards o&t o an a''etite to rest! and to "onserve their nat&re in that 'la"e whi"h is most
'ro'er or them) as"ribing a''etite! and #nowledge o what is good or their "onservation (whi"h is more than man
has)! to things inanimate! abs&rdly$
/hen a body is on"e in motion! it moveth (&nless something else hinder it) eternally) and whatsoever hindreth it!
"annot in an instant! b&t in time! and by degrees! 2&ite e+ting&ish it6 and as we see in the water! tho&gh the wind
"ease! the waves give not over rolling or a long time ater) so also it ha''eneth in that motion whi"h is made in the
internal 'arts o a man! then! when he sees! dreams! et"$ %or ater the ob*e"t is removed! or the eye sh&t! we still
retain an image o the thing seen! tho&gh more obs"&re than when we see it$ And this is it the Latins "all imagination!
rom the image made in seeing! and a''ly the same! tho&gh im'ro'erly! to all the other senses$ 5&t the Gree#s "all it
an"y! whi"h signiies a''earan"e! and is as 'ro'er to one sense as to another$ Imagination! thereore! is nothing b&t
de"aying sense) and is o&nd in men and many other living "reat&res! as well slee'ing as wa#ing$ The de"ay o sense
in men wa#ing is not the de"ay o the motion made in sense! b&t an obs"&ring o it! in s&"h manner as the light o the
s&n obs"&reth the light o the stars) whi"h stars do no less
e+er"ise their virt&e by whi"h they are visible in the day than in the night$ 5&t be"a&se amongst many stro#es whi"h
o&r eyes! ears! and other organs re"eive rom e+ternal bodies! the 'redominant only is sensible) thereore the light o
the s&n being 'redominant! we are not ae"ted with the a"tion o the stars$ And any ob*e"t being removed rom o&r
eyes! tho&gh the im'ression it made in &s remain! yet other ob*e"ts more 'resent s&""eeding! and wor#ing on &s! the
imagination o the 'ast is obs"&red and made wea#! as the voi"e o a man is in the noise o the day$ %rom when"e it
olloweth that the longer the time is! ater the sight or sense o any ob*e"t! the wea#er is the imagination$ %or the
"ontin&al "hange o man1s body destroys in time the 'arts whi"h in sense were moved6 so that distan"e o time! and
o 'la"e! hath one and the same ee"t in &s$ %or as at a great distan"e o 'la"e that whi"h we loo# at a''ears dim!
and witho&t distin"tion o the smaller 'arts! and as voi"es grow wea# and inarti"&late6 so also ater great distan"e o
time o&r imagination o the 'ast is wea#) and we lose! or e+am'le! o "ities we have seen! many 'arti"&lar streets)
and o a"tions! many 'arti"&lar "ir"&mstan"es$ This de"aying sense! when we wo&ld e+'ress the thing itsel (I mean
an"y itsel)! we "all imagination! as I said beore$ 5&t when we wo&ld e+'ress the de"ay! and signiy that the sense
is ading! old! and 'ast! it is "alled memory$ 0o that imagination and memory are b&t one thing! whi"h or diverse
"onsiderations hath diverse names$
.&"h memory! or memory o many things! is "alled e+'erien"e$ Again! imagination being only o those things
whi"h have been ormerly 'er"eived by sense! either all at on"e! or by 'arts at several times) the ormer (whi"h is the
imagining the whole ob*e"t! as it was 'resented to the sense) is sim'le imagination! as when one imagineth a man! or
horse! whi"h he hath seen beore$ The other is "om'o&nded! when rom the sight o a man at one time! and o a horse
at another! we "on"eive in o&r mind a "enta&r$ 0o when a man "om'o&ndeth the image o his own 'erson with the
image o the a"tions o another man! as when a man imagines himsel a Her"&les or an Ale+ander (whi"h ha''eneth
oten to them that are m&"h ta#en with reading o roman"es)! it is a "om'o&nd imagination! and 'ro'erly b&t a
i"tion o the mind$ There be also other imaginations that rise in men! tho&gh wa#ing! rom the great im'ression
made in sense6 as rom ga9ing &'on the s&n! the im'ression leaves an image o the s&n beore o&r eyes a long time
ater) and rom being long and vehemently attent &'on geometri"al ig&res! a man shall in the dar#! tho&gh awa#e!
have the images o lines and angles beore his eyes) whi"h #ind o an"y hath no 'arti"&lar name! as being a thing
that doth not "ommonly all into men1s dis"o&rse$
The imaginations o them that slee' are those we "all dreams$ And these also (as all other imaginations) have been
beore! either totally or by 'ar"els! in the sense$ And be"a&se in sense! the brain and nerves! whi"h are the ne"essary
organs o sense! are so ben&mbed in slee' as not easily to be moved by the a"tion o e+ternal ob*e"ts! there "an
ha''en in slee' no imagination! and thereore no dream! b&t what 'ro"eeds rom the agitation o the inward 'arts o
man1s body) whi"h inward 'arts! or the "onne+ion they have with the brain and other organs! when they be
distem'ered do #ee' the same in motion) whereby the imaginations there ormerly made! a''ear as i a man were
wa#ing) saving that the organs o sense being now ben&mbed! so as there is no new ob*e"t whi"h "an master and
obs"&re them with a more vigoro&s im'ression! a dream m&st needs be more "lear! in this silen"e o sense! than are
o&r wa#ing tho&ghts$ And hen"e it "ometh to 'ass that it is a hard matter! and by many tho&ght im'ossible! to
disting&ish e+a"tly between sense and dreaming$ %or my 'art! when I "onsider that in dreams I do not oten nor
"onstantly thin# o the same 'ersons! 'la"es! ob*e"ts! and a"tions that I do wa#ing! nor remember so long a train o
"oherent tho&ghts dreaming as at other times) and be"a&se wa#ing I oten observe the abs&rdity o dreams! b&t never
dream o the abs&rdities o my wa#ing tho&ghts! I am well satisied that! being awa#e! I #now I dream not) tho&gh
when I dream! I thin# mysel awa#e$
And seeing dreams are "a&sed by the distem'er o some o the inward 'arts o the body! diverse distem'ers m&st
needs "a&se dierent dreams$ And hen"e it is that lying "old breedeth dreams o ear! and raiseth the tho&ght and
image o some ear&l ob*e"t! the motion rom the brain to the inner 'arts! and rom the inner 'arts to the brain being
re"i'ro"al) and that as anger "a&seth heat in some 'arts o the body when we are awa#e! so when we slee' the
overheating o the same 'arts "a&seth anger! and raiseth &' in the brain the imagination o an enemy$ In the same
manner! as nat&ral #indness when we are awa#e "a&seth desire! and desire ma#es heat in "ertain other 'arts o the
body) so also too m&"h heat in those 'arts! while we slee'! raiseth in the brain an imagination o some #indness
shown$ In s&m! o&r dreams are the reverse o o&r wa#ing imaginations) the motion when we are awa#e beginning at
one end! and when we dream! at another$
The most dii"&lt dis"erning o a man1s dream rom his wa#ing tho&ghts is! then! when by some a""ident we
observe not that we have sle't6 whi"h is easy to ha''en to a man &ll o ear&l tho&ghts) and whose "ons"ien"e is
m&"h tro&bled) and that slee'eth witho&t the "ir"&mstan"es o going to bed! or '&tting o his "lothes! as one that
noddeth in a "hair$ %or he that ta#eth 'ains! and ind&strio&sly lays himsel to slee'! in "ase any &n"o&th and
e+orbitant an"y "ome &nto him! "annot easily thin# it other than a dream$ /e read o .ar"&s 5r&t&s (one that had
his lie given him by :&li&s ,aesar! and was also his avorite! and notwithstanding m&rdered him)! how at 8hili''i!
the night beore he gave battle to A&g&st&s ,aesar! he saw a ear&l a''arition! whi"h is "ommonly related by
historians as a vision! b&t! "onsidering the "ir"&mstan"es! one may easily *&dge to have been b&t a short dream$ %or
sitting in his tent! 'ensive and tro&bled with the horror o his rash a"t! it was not hard or him! sl&mbering in the
"old! to dream o that whi"h most arighted him) whi"h ear! as by degrees it made him wa#e! so also it m&st needs
ma#e the a''arition by degrees to vanish6 and having no ass&ran"e that he sle't! he "o&ld have no "a&se to thin# it a
dream! or anything b&t a vision$ And this is no very rare a""ident6 or even they that be 'ere"tly awa#e! i they be
timoro&s and s&'erstitio&s! 'ossessed with ear&l tales! and alone in the dar#! are s&b*e"t to the li#e an"ies! and
believe they see s'irits and dead men1s ghosts wal#ing in "h&r"hyards) whereas it is either their an"y only! or else
the #navery o s&"h 'ersons as ma#e &se o s&"h s&'erstitio&s ear to 'ass disg&ised in the night to 'la"es they wo&ld
not be #nown to ha&nt$ %rom this ignoran"e o how to disting&ish dreams! and other strong an"ies! rom vision and
sense! did arise the greatest 'art o the religion o the Gentiles in time 'ast! that worshi''ed satyrs! a&ns! nym'hs!
and the li#e) and nowadays the o'inion that r&de 'eo'le have o airies! ghosts! and goblins! and o the 'ower o
wit"hes$ %or! as or wit"hes! I thin# not that their wit"h"rat is any real 'ower! b&t yet that they are *&stly '&nished
or the alse belie they have that they "an do s&"h mis"hie! *oined with their '&r'ose to do it i they "an! their trade
being nearer to a new religion than to a "rat or s"ien"e$ And or airies! and wal#ing ghosts! the o'inion o them has!
I thin#! been on '&r'ose either ta&ght! or not "on&ted! to #ee' in "redit the &se o e+or"ism! o "rosses! o holy
water! and other s&"h inventions o ghostly men$ Nevertheless! there is no do&bt b&t God "an ma#e &nnat&ral
a''aritions6 b&t that He does it so oten as men need to ear s&"h things more than they ear the stay! or "hange! o
the "o&rse o Nat&re! whi"h he also "an stay! and "hange! is no 'oint o ,hristian aith$ 5&t evil men! &nder 'rete+t
that God "an do anything! are so bold as to say anything when it serves their t&rn! tho&gh they thin# it &ntr&e) it is
the 'art o a wise man to believe them no &rther than right reason ma#es that whi"h they say a''ear "redible$ I this
s&'erstitio&s ear o s'irits were ta#en away! and with it 'rognosti"s rom dreams! alse 'ro'he"ies! and many other
things de'ending thereon! by whi"h "raty ambitio&s 'ersons ab&se the sim'le 'eo'le! men wo&ld be wo&ld be m&"h
more itted than they are or "ivil obedien"e$ And this o&ght to be the wor# o the s"hools! b&t they rather no&rish
s&"h do"trine$ %or (not #nowing what imagination! or the senses are) what they re"eive! they tea"h6 some saying that
imaginations rise o themselves! and have no "a&se) others that they rise most "ommonly rom the will) and that
good tho&ghts are blown (ins'ired) into a man by God! and evil tho&ghts! by the 4evil) or that good tho&ghts are
'o&red (in&sed) into a man by God! and evil ones by the 4evil$ 0ome say the senses re"eive the s'e"ies o things!
and deliver them to the "ommon sense) and the "ommon sense delivers them over to the an"y! and the an"y to the
memory! and the memory to the *&dgement! li#e handing o things rom one to another! with many words ma#ing
nothing &nderstood$ The imagination that is raised in man (or any other "reat&re end&ed with the a"&lty o
imagining) by words! or other vol&ntary signs! is that we generally "all &nderstanding! and is "ommon to man and
beast$ %or a dog by "&stom will &nderstand the "all or the rating o his master) and so will many other beasts$ That
&nderstanding whi"h is 'e"&liar to man is the &nderstanding not only his will! b&t his "on"e'tions and tho&ghts! by
the se2&el and "onte+t&re o the names o things into airmations! negations! and other orms o s'ee"h6 and o this
#ind o &nderstanding I shall s'ea# hereater$
,HA8TER III OF THE CONSEQUENCE OR TRAIN OF IMAGINATIONS
5; ,-N0E<UEN,E! or train o tho&ghts! I &nderstand that s&""ession o one tho&ght to another whi"h is "alled!
to disting&ish it rom dis"o&rse in words! mental dis"o&rse$
/hen a man thin#eth on anything whatsoever! his ne+t tho&ght ater is not altogether so "as&al as it seems to be$
Not every tho&ght to every tho&ght s&""eeds indierently$ 5&t as we have no imagination! whereo we have not
ormerly had sense! in whole or in 'arts) so we have no transition rom one imagination to another! whereo we never
had the li#e beore in o&r senses$ The reason whereo is this$ All an"ies are motions within &s! reli"s o those made
in the sense) and those motions that immediately s&""eeded one another in the sense "ontin&e also together ater
sense6 in so m&"h as the ormer "oming again to ta#e 'la"e and be 'redominant! the latter olloweth! by "oheren"e o
the matter moved! in s&"h manner as water &'on a 'lain table is drawn whi"h way any one 'art o it is g&ided by the
inger$ 5&t be"a&se in sense! to one and the same thing 'er"eived! sometimes one thing! sometimes another!
s&""eedeth! it "omes to 'ass in time that in the imagining o anything! there is no "ertainty what we shall imagine
ne+t) only this is "ertain! it shall be something that s&""eeded the same beore! at one time or another$
This train o tho&ghts! or mental dis"o&rse! is o two sorts$ The irst is &ng&ided! witho&t design! and in"onstant)
wherein there is no 'assionate tho&ght to govern and dire"t those that ollow to itsel as the end and s"o'e o some
desire! or other 'assion) in whi"h "ase the tho&ghts are said to wander! and seem im'ertinent one to another! as in a
dream$ 0&"h are "ommonly the tho&ghts o men that are not only witho&t "om'any! b&t also witho&t "are o
anything) tho&gh even then their tho&ghts are as b&sy as at other times! b&t witho&t harmony) as the so&nd whi"h a
l&te o&t o t&ne wo&ld yield to any man) or in t&ne! to one that "o&ld not 'lay$ And yet in this wild ranging o the
mind! a man may ot7times 'er"eive the way o it! and the de'enden"e o one tho&ght &'on another$ %or in a
dis"o&rse o o&r 'resent "ivil war! what "o&ld seem more im'ertinent than to as#! as one did! what was the val&e o a
Roman 'enny( ;et the "oheren"e to me was maniest eno&gh$ %or the tho&ght o the war introd&"ed the tho&ght o
the delivering &' the 3ing to his enemies) the tho&ght o that bro&ght in the tho&ght o the delivering &' o ,hrist)
and that again the tho&ght o the => 'en"e! whi"h was the 'ri"e o that treason6 and then"e easily ollowed that
mali"io&s 2&estion) and all this in a moment o time! or tho&ght is 2&i"#$
The se"ond is more "onstant! as being reg&lated by some desire and design$ %or the im'ression made by s&"h things
as we desire! or ear! is strong and 'ermanent! or (i it "ease or a time) o 2&i"# ret&rn6 so strong it is sometimes as
to hinder and brea# o&r slee'$ %rom desire ariseth the tho&ght o some means we have seen 'rod&"e the li#e o that
whi"h we aim at) and rom the tho&ght o that! the tho&ght o means to that mean) and so "ontin&ally! till we "ome to
some beginning within o&r own 'ower$ And be"a&se the end! by the greatness o the im'ression! "omes oten to
mind! in "ase o&r tho&ghts begin to wander they are 2&i"#ly again red&"ed into the way6 whi"h! observed by one o
the seven wise men! made him give men this 're"e't! whi"h is now worn o&t6 res'i"e inem) that is to say! in all yo&r
a"tions! loo# oten &'on what yo& wo&ld have! as the thing that dire"ts all yo&r tho&ghts in the way to attain it$
The train o reg&lated tho&ghts is o two #inds6 one! when o an ee"t imagined we see# the "a&ses or means that
'rod&"e it) and this is "ommon to man and beast$ The other is! when imagining anything whatsoever! we see# all the
'ossible ee"ts that "an by it be 'rod&"ed) that is to say! we imagine what we "an do with it when we have it$ -
whi"h I have not at any time seen any sign! b&t in man only) or this is a "&riosity hardly in"ident to the nat&re o any
living "reat&re that has no other 'assion b&t sens&al! s&"h as are h&nger! thirst! l&st! and anger$ In s&m! the dis"o&rse
o the mind! when it is governed by design! is nothing b&t see#ing! or the a"&lty o invention! whi"h the Latins "all
saga"itas! and solertia) a h&nting o&t o the "a&ses o some ee"t! 'resent or 'ast) or o the ee"ts o some 'resent or
'ast "a&se$ 0ometimes a man see#s what he hath lost) and rom that 'la"e! and time! wherein he misses it! his mind
r&ns ba"#! rom 'la"e to 'la"e! and time to time! to ind where and when he had it) that is to say! to ind some "ertain
and limited time and 'la"e in whi"h to begin a method o see#ing$ Again! rom then"e! his tho&ghts r&n over the
same 'la"es and times to ind what a"tion or other o""asion might ma#e him lose it$ This we "all remembran"e! or
"alling to mind6 the Latins "all it reminis"entia! as it were a re7"onning o o&r ormer a"tions$
0ometimes a man #nows a 'la"e determinate! within the "om'ass whereo he is to see#) and then his tho&ghts r&n
over all the 'arts thereo in the same manner as one wo&ld swee' a room to ind a *ewel) or as a s'aniel ranges the
ield till he ind a s"ent) or as a man sho&ld r&n over the al'habet to start a rhyme$
0ometimes a man desires to #now the event o an a"tion) and then he thin#eth o some li#e a"tion 'ast! and the
events thereo one ater another! s&''osing li#e events will ollow li#e a"tions$ As he that oresees what will be"ome
o a "riminal re7"ons what he has seen ollow on the li#e "rime beore! having this order o tho&ghts) the "rime! the
oi"er! the 'rison! the *&dge! and the gallows$ /hi"h #ind o tho&ghts is "alled oresight! and 'r&den"e! or
'roviden"e! and sometimes wisdom) tho&gh s&"h "on*e"t&re! thro&gh the dii"&lty o observing all "ir"&mstan"es!
be very alla"io&s$ 5&t this is "ertain6 by how m&"h one man has more e+'erien"e o things 'ast than another) by so
m&"h also he is more 'r&dent! and his e+'e"tations the seldomer ail him$ The 'resent only has a being in nat&re)
things 'ast have a being in the memory only) b&t things to "ome have no being at all! the &t&re being b&t a i"tion o
the mind! a''lying the se2&els o a"tions 'ast to the a"tions that are 'resent) whi"h with most "ertainty is done by
him that has most e+'erien"e! b&t not with "ertainty eno&gh$ And tho&gh it be "alled 'r&den"e when the event
answereth o&r e+'e"tation) yet in its own nat&re it is b&t 'res&m'tion$ %or the oresight o things to "ome! whi"h is
'roviden"e! belongs only to him by whose will they are to "ome$ %rom him only! and s&'ernat&rally! 'ro"eeds
'ro'he"y$ The best 'ro'het nat&rally is the best g&esser) and the best g&esser! he that is most versed and st&died in
the matters he g&esses at! or he hath most signs to g&ess by$
A sign is the event ante"edent o the "onse2&ent) and "ontrarily! the "onse2&ent o the ante"edent! when the li#e
"onse2&en"es have been observed beore6 and the otener they have been observed! the less &n"ertain is the sign$
And thereore he that has most e+'erien"e in any #ind o b&siness has most signs whereby to g&ess at the &t&re
time! and "onse2&ently is the most 'r&dent6 and so m&"h more 'r&dent than he that is new in that #ind o b&siness! as
not to be e2&alled by any advantage o nat&ral and e+tem'orary wit! tho&gh 'erha's many yo&ng men thin# the
"ontrary$
Nevertheless! it is not 'r&den"e that disting&isheth man rom beast$ There be beasts that at a year old observe more
and '&rs&e that whi"h is or their good more 'r&dently than a "hild "an do at ten$ As 'r&den"e is a 'res&m'tion o
the &t&re! "ontra"ted rom the e+'erien"e o time 'ast6 so there is a 'res&m'tion o things 'ast ta#en rom other
things! not &t&re! b&t 'ast also$ %or he that hath seen by what "o&rses and degrees a lo&rishing state hath irst "ome
into "ivil war! and then to r&in) &'on the sight o the r&ins o any other state will g&ess the li#e war and the li#e
"o&rses have been there also$ 5&t this "on*e"t&re has the same &n"ertainty almost with the "on*e"t&re o the &t&re!
both being gro&nded only &'on e+'erien"e$
There is no other a"t o man1s mind! that I "an remember! nat&rally 'lanted in him! so as to need no other thing to
the e+er"ise o it b&t to be born a man! and live with the &se o his ive senses$ Those other a"&lties! o whi"h I shall
s'ea# by and by! and whi"h seem 'ro'er to man only! are a"2&ired and in"reased by st&dy and ind&stry! and o most
men learned by instr&"tion and dis"i'line! and 'ro"eed all rom the invention o words and s'ee"h$ %or besides
sense! and tho&ghts! and the train o tho&ghts! the mind o man has no other motion) tho&gh by the hel' o s'ee"h!
and method! the same a"&lties may be im'roved to s&"h a height as to disting&ish men rom all other living
"reat&res$
/hatsoever we imagine is inite$ Thereore there is no idea or "on"e'tion o anything we "all ininite$ No man "an
have in his mind an image o ininite magnit&de) nor "on"eive ininite switness! ininite time! or ininite or"e! or
ininite 'ower$ /hen we say anything is ininite! we signiy only that we are not able to "on"eive the ends and
bo&nds o the thing named! having no "on"e'tion o the thing! b&t o o&r own inability$ And thereore the name o
God is &sed! not to ma#e &s "on"eive Him (or He is in"om'rehensible! and His greatness and 'ower are
&n"on"eivable)! b&t that we may hono&r Him$ Also be"a&se whatsoever! as I said beore! we "on"eive has been
'er"eived irst by sense! either all at on"e! or by 'arts! a man "an have no tho&ght re'resenting anything not s&b*e"t
to sense$ No man thereore "an "on"eive anything! b&t he m&st "on"eive it in some 'la"e) and end&ed with some
determinate magnit&de) and whi"h may be divided into 'arts) nor that anything is all in this 'la"e! and all in another
'la"e at the same time) nor that two or more things "an be in one and the same 'la"e at on"e6 or none o these things
ever have or "an be in"ident to sense! b&t are abs&rd s'ee"hes! ta#en &'on "redit! witho&t any signii"ation at all!
rom de"eived 'hiloso'hers and de"eived! or de"eiving! 0"hoolmen$
,HA8TER IV OF SPEECH
THE INVENTI-N o 'rinting! tho&gh ingenio&s! "om'ared with the invention o letters is no great matter$ 5&t who
was the irst that o&nd the &se o letters is not #nown$ He that irst bro&ght them into Gree"e! men say! was ,adm&s!
the son o Agenor! 3ing o 8hoeni"ia$ A 'roitable invention or "ontin&ing the memory o time 'ast! and the
"on*&n"tion o man#ind dis'ersed into so many and distant regions o the earth) and withal dii"&lt! as 'ro"eeding
rom a wat"h&l observation o the diverse motions o the tong&e! 'alate! li's! and other organs o s'ee"h) whereby
to ma#e as many dieren"es o "hara"ters to remember them$ 5&t the most noble and 'roitable invention o all
other was that o s'ee"h! "onsisting o names or a''ellations! and their "onne+ion) whereby men register their
tho&ghts! re"all them when they are 'ast! and also de"lare them one to another or m&t&al &tility and "onversation)
witho&t whi"h there had been amongst men neither ,ommonwealth! nor so"iety! nor "ontra"t! nor 'ea"e! no more
than amongst lions! bears! and wolves$ The irst a&thor o s'ee"h was God himsel! that instr&"ted Adam how to
name s&"h "reat&res as He 'resented to his sight) or the 0"ri't&re goeth no &rther in this matter$ 5&t this was
s&i"ient to dire"t him to add more names! as the e+'erien"e and &se o the "reat&res sho&ld give him o""asion) and
to *oin them in s&"h manner by degrees as to ma#e himsel &nderstood) and so by s&""ession o time! so m&"h
lang&age might be gotten as he had o&nd &se or! tho&gh not so "o'io&s as an orator or 'hiloso'her has need o$ %or
I do not ind anything in the 0"ri't&re o&t o whi"h! dire"tly or by "onse2&en"e! "an be gathered that Adam was
ta&ght the names o all ig&res! n&mbers! meas&res! "olo&rs! so&nds! an"ies! relations) m&"h less the names o words
and s'ee"h! as general! s'e"ial! airmative! negative! interrogative! o'tative! ininitive! all whi"h are &se&l) and least
o all! o entity! intentionality! 2&iddity! and other insignii"ant words o the s"hool$
5&t all this lang&age gotten! and a&gmented by Adam and his 'osterity! was again lost at the tower o 5abel! when
by the hand o God every man was stri"#en or his rebellion with an oblivion o his ormer lang&age$ And being
hereby or"ed to dis'erse themselves into several 'arts o the world! it m&st needs be that the diversity o tong&es
that now is! 'ro"eeded by degrees rom them in s&"h manner as need! the mother o all inventions! ta&ght them! and
in tra"t o time grew everywhere more "o'io&s$
The general &se o s'ee"h is to transer o&r mental dis"o&rse into verbal! or the train o o&r tho&ghts into a train o
words! and that or two "ommodities) whereo one is the registering o the "onse2&en"es o o&r tho&ghts! whi"h
being a't to sli' o&t o o&r memory and '&t &s to a new labo&r! may again be re"alled by s&"h words as they were
mar#ed by$ 0o that the irst &se o names is to serve or mar#s or notes o remembran"e$ Another is when many &se
the same words to signiy! by their "onne+ion and order one to another! what they "on"eive or thin# o ea"h matter)
and also what they desire! ear! or have any other 'assion or$ And or this &se they are "alled signs$ 0'e"ial &ses o
s'ee"h are these6 irst! to register what by "ogitation we ind to be the "a&se o anything! 'resent or 'ast) and what
we ind things 'resent or 'ast may 'rod&"e! or ee"t) whi"h! in s&m! is a"2&iring o arts$ 0e"ondly! to show to others
that #nowledge whi"h we have attained) whi"h is to "o&nsel and tea"h one another$ Thirdly! to ma#e #nown to others
o&r wills and '&r'oses that we may have the m&t&al hel' o one another$ %o&rthly! to 'lease and delight o&rselves!
and others! by 'laying with o&r words! or 'leas&re or ornament! inno"ently$
To these &ses! there are also o&r "orres'ondent ab&ses$ %irst! when men register their tho&ghts wrong by the
in"onstan"y o the signii"ation o their words) by whi"h they register or their "on"e'tions that whi"h they never
"on"eived! and so de"eive themselves$ 0e"ondly! when they &se words meta'hori"ally) that is! in other sense than
that they are ordained or! and thereby de"eive others$ Thirdly! when by words they de"lare that to be their will whi"h
is not$ %o&rthly! when they &se them to grieve one another6 or seeing nat&re hath armed living "reat&res! some with
teeth! some with horns! and some with hands! to grieve an enemy! it is b&t an ab&se o s'ee"h to grieve him with the
tong&e! &nless it be one whom we are obliged to govern) and then it is not to grieve! b&t to "orre"t and amend$
The manner how s'ee"h serveth to the remembran"e o the "onse2&en"e o "a&ses and ee"ts "onsisteth in the
im'osing o names! and the "onne+ion o them$
- names! some are 'ro'er! and sing&lar to one only thing) as 8eter! :ohn! this man! this tree6 and some are "ommon
to many things) as man! horse! tree) every o whi"h! tho&gh b&t one name! is nevertheless the name o diverse
'arti"&lar things) in res'e"t o all whi"h together! it is "alled a &niversal! there being nothing in the world &niversal
b&t names) or the things named are every one o them individ&al and sing&lar$
-ne &niversal name is im'osed on many things or their similit&de in some 2&ality! or other a""ident6 and whereas a
'ro'er name bringeth to mind one thing only! &niversals re"all any one o those many$ And o names &niversal! some
are o more and some o less e+tent! the larger "om'rehending the less large) and some again o e2&al e+tent!
"om'rehending ea"h other re"i'ro"ally$ As or e+am'le! the name body is o larger signii"ation than the word man!
and "om'rehendeth it) and the names man and rational are o e2&al e+tent! "om'rehending m&t&ally one another$ 5&t
here we m&st ta#e noti"e that by a name is not always &nderstood! as in grammar! one only word! b&t sometimes by
"ir"&mlo"&tion many words together$ %or all these words! He that in his a"tions observeth the laws o his "o&ntry!
ma#e b&t one name! e2&ivalent to this one word! *&st$ 5y this im'osition o names! some o larger! some o stri"ter
signii"ation! we t&rn the re"#oning o the "onse2&en"es o things imagined in the mind into a re"#oning o the
"onse2&en"es o a''ellations$ %or e+am'le! a man that hath no &se o s'ee"h at all! (s&"h as is born and remains
'ere"tly dea and d&mb)! i he set beore his eyes a triangle! and by it two right angles (s&"h as are the "orners o a
s2&are ig&re)! he may by meditation "om'are and ind that the three angles o that triangle are e2&al to those two
right angles that stand by it$ 5&t i another triangle be shown him dierent in sha'e rom the ormer! he "annot #now
witho&t a new labo&r whether the three angles o that also be e2&al to the same$ 5&t he that hath the &se o words!
when he observes that s&"h e2&ality was "onse2&ent! not to the length o the sides! nor to any other 'arti"&lar thing
in his triangle) b&t only to this! that the sides were straight! and the angles three! and that that was all! or whi"h he
named it a triangle) will boldly "on"l&de &niversally that s&"h e2&ality o angles is in all triangles whatsoever! and
register his invention in these general terms6 Every triangle hath its three angles e2&al to two right angles$ And th&s
the "onse2&en"e o&nd in one 'arti"&lar "omes to be registered and remembered as a &niversal r&le) and dis"harges
o&r mental re"#oning o time and 'la"e! and delivers &s rom all labo&r o the mind! saving the irst) and ma#es that
whi"h was o&nd tr&e here! and now! to be tr&e in all times and 'la"es$
5&t the &se o words in registering o&r tho&ghts is in nothing so evident as in n&mbering$ A nat&ral ool that "o&ld
never learn by heart the order o n&meral words! as one! two! and three! may observe every stro#e o the "lo"#! and
nod to it! or say one! one! one! b&t "an never #now what ho&r it stri#es$ And it seems there was a time when those
names o n&mber were not in &se) and men were ain to a''ly their ingers o one or both hands to those things they
desired to #ee' a""o&nt o) and that then"e it 'ro"eeded that now o&r n&meral words are b&t ten! in any nation! and in
some b&t ive! and then they begin again$ And he that "an tell ten! i he re"ite them o&t o order! will lose himsel!
and not #now when he has done6 m&"h less will he be able to add! and s&btra"t! and 'erorm all other o'erations o
arithmeti"$ 0o that witho&t words there is no 'ossibility o re"#oning o n&mbers) m&"h less o magnit&des! o
switness! o or"e! and other things! the re"#onings whereo are ne"essary to the being or well7being o man#ind$
/hen two names are *oined together into a "onse2&en"e! or airmation! as th&s! A man is a living "reat&re) or th&s!
I he be a man! he is a living "reat&re) i the latter name living "reat&re signiy all that the ormer name man
signiieth! then the airmation! or "onse2&en"e! is tr&e) otherwise alse$ %or tr&e and alse are attrib&tes o s'ee"h!
not o things$ And where s'ee"h is not! there is neither tr&th nor alsehood$ Error there may be! as when we e+'e"t
that whi"h shall not be! or s&s'e"t what has not been) b&t in neither "ase "an a man be "harged with &ntr&th$
0eeing then that tr&th "onsisteth in the right ordering o names in o&r airmations! a man that see#eth 're"ise tr&th
had need to remember what every name he &ses stands or! and to 'la"e it a""ordingly) or else he will ind himsel
entangled in words! as a bird in lime twigs) the more he str&ggles! the more belimed$ And thereore in geometry
(whi"h is the only s"ien"e that it hath 'leased God hitherto to bestow on man#ind)! men begin at settling the
signii"ations o their words) whi"h settling o signii"ations! they "all deinitions! and 'la"e them in the beginning
o their re"#oning$
5y this it a''ears how ne"essary it is or any man that as'ires to tr&e #nowledge to e+amine the deinitions o
ormer a&thors) and either to "orre"t them! where they are negligently set down! or to ma#e them himsel$ %or the
errors o deinitions m&lti'ly themselves! a""ording as the re"#oning 'ro"eeds! and lead men into abs&rdities! whi"h
at last they see! b&t "annot avoid! witho&t re"#oning anew rom the beginning) in whi"h lies the o&ndation o their
errors$ %rom when"e it ha''ens that they whi"h tr&st to boo#s do as they that "ast &' many little s&ms into a greater!
witho&t "onsidering whether those little s&ms were rightly "ast &' or not) and at last inding the error visible! and not
mistr&sting their irst gro&nds! #now not whi"h way to "lear themselves! s'end time in l&ttering over their boo#s) as
birds that entering by the "himney! and inding themselves en"losed in a "hamber! l&tter at the alse light o a glass
window! or want o wit to "onsider whi"h way they "ame in$ 0o that in the right deinition o names lies the irst &se
o s'ee"h) whi"h is the a"2&isition o s"ien"e6 and in wrong! or no deinitions! lies the irst ab&se) rom whi"h
'ro"eed all alse and senseless tenets) whi"h ma#e those men that ta#e their instr&"tion rom the a&thority o boo#s!
and not rom their own meditation! to be as m&"h below the "ondition o ignorant men as men end&ed with tr&e
s"ien"e are above it$ %or between tr&e s"ien"e and erroneo&s do"trines! ignoran"e is in the middle$ Nat&ral sense and
imagination are not s&b*e"t to abs&rdity$ Nat&re itsel "annot err6 and as men abo&nd in "o'io&sness o lang&age) so
they be"ome more wise! or more mad! than ordinary$ Nor is it 'ossible witho&t letters or any man to be"ome either
e+"ellently wise or (&nless his memory be h&rt by disease! or ill "onstit&tion o organs) e+"ellently oolish$ %or
words are wise men1s "o&nters) they do b&t re"#on by them6 b&t they are the money o ools! that val&e them by the
a&thority o an Aristotle! a ,i"ero! or a Thomas! or any other do"tor whatsoever! i b&t a man$
0&b*e"t to names is whatsoever "an enter into or be "onsidered in an a""o&nt! and be added one to another to ma#e a
s&m! or s&btra"ted one rom another and leave a remainder$ The Latins "alled a""o&nts o money rationes! and
a""o&nting! ratio"inatio6 and that whi"h we in bills or boo#s o a""o&nt "all items! they "alled nomina) that is! names6
and then"e it seems to 'ro"eed that they e+tended the word ratio to the a"&lty o re"#oning in all other things$ The
Gree#s have b&t one word! logos! or both s'ee"h and reason) not that they tho&ght there was no s'ee"h witho&t
reason! b&t no reasoning witho&t s'ee"h) and the a"t o reasoning they "alled syllogism) whi"h signiieth s&mming
&' o the "onse2&en"es o one saying to another$ And be"a&se the same things may enter into a""o&nt or diverse
a""idents! their names are (to show that diversity) diversely wrested and diversiied$ This diversity o names may be
red&"ed to o&r general heads$
%irst! a thing may enter into a""o&nt or matter! or body) as living! sensible! rational! hot! "old! moved! 2&iet) with
all whi"h names the word matter! or body! is &nderstood) all s&"h being names o matter$
0e"ondly! it may enter into a""o&nt! or be "onsidered! or some a""ident or 2&ality whi"h we "on"eive to be in it) as
or being moved! or being so long! or being hot! et"$) and then! o the name o the thing itsel! by a little "hange or
wresting! we ma#e a name or that a""ident whi"h we "onsider) and or living '&t into the a""o&nt lie) or moved!
motion) or hot! heat) or long! length! and the li#e6 and all s&"h names are the names o the a""idents and 'ro'erties
by whi"h one matter and body is disting&ished rom another$ These are "alled names abstra"t! be"a&se severed! not
rom matter! b&t rom the a""o&nt o matter$
Thirdly! we bring into a""o&nt the 'ro'erties o o&r own bodies! whereby we ma#e s&"h distin"tion6 as when
anything is seen by &s! we re"#on not the thing itsel! b&t the sight! the "olo&r! the idea o it in the an"y) and when
anything is heard! we re"#on it not! b&t the hearing or so&nd only! whi"h is o&r an"y or "on"e'tion o it by the ear6
and s&"h are names o an"ies$
%o&rthly! we bring into a""o&nt! "onsider! and give names! to names themselves! and to s'ee"hes6 or! general!
&niversal! s'e"ial! e2&ivo"al! are names o names$ And airmation! interrogation! "ommandment! narration!
syllogism! sermon! oration! and many other s&"h are names o s'ee"hes$ And this is all the variety o names 'ositive)
whi"h are '&t to mar# somewhat whi"h is in nat&re! or may be eigned by the mind o man! as bodies that are! or
may be "on"eived to be) or o bodies! the 'ro'erties that are! or may be eigned to be) or words and s'ee"h$
There be also other names! "alled negative) whi"h are notes to signiy that a word is not the name o the thing in
2&estion) as these words6 nothing! no man! ininite! indo"ible! three want o&r! and the li#e) whi"h are nevertheless o
&se in re"#oning! or in "orre"ting o re"#oning! and "all to mind o&r 'ast "ogitations! tho&gh they be not names o
anything) be"a&se they ma#e &s re&se to admit o names not rightly &sed$
All other names are b&t insignii"ant so&nds) and those o two sorts$ -ne! when they are new! and yet their meaning
not e+'lained by deinition) whereo there have been ab&ndan"e "oined by 0"hoolmen and '&99led 'hiloso'hers$
Another! when men ma#e a name o two names! whose signii"ations are "ontradi"tory and in"onsistent) as this
name! an in"or'oreal body! or! whi"h is all one! an in"or'oreal s&bstan"e! and a great n&mber more$ %or whensoever
any airmation is alse! the two names o whi"h it is "om'osed! '&t together and made one! signiy nothing at all$
%or e+am'le! i it be a alse airmation to say a 2&adrangle is ro&nd! the word ro&nd 2&adrangle signiies nothing!
b&t is a mere so&nd$ 0o li#ewise i it be alse to say that virt&e "an be 'o&red! or blown &' and down! the words
in'o&red virt&e! inblown virt&e! are as abs&rd and insignii"ant as a ro&nd 2&adrangle$ And thereore yo& shall hardly
meet with a senseless and insignii"ant word that is not made &' o some Latin or Gree# names$ %ren"hman seldom
hears o&r 0avio&r "alled by the name o 8arole! b&t by the name o Verbe oten) yet Verbe and 8arole dier no more
b&t that one is Latin! the other %ren"h$
/hen a man! &'on the hearing o any s'ee"h! hath those tho&ghts whi"h the words o that s'ee"h! and their
"onne+ion! were ordained and "onstit&ted to signiy! then he is said to &nderstand it6 &nderstanding being nothing
else b&t "on"e'tion "a&sed by s'ee"h$ And thereore i s'ee"h be 'e"&liar to man! as or o&ght I #now it is! then is
&nderstanding 'e"&liar to him also$ And thereore o abs&rd and alse airmations! in "ase they be &niversal! there
"an be no &nderstanding) tho&gh many thin# they &nderstand then! when they do b&t re'eat the words sotly! or "on
them in their mind$ /hat #inds o s'ee"hes signiy the a''etites! aversions! and 'assions o man1s mind! and o their
&se and ab&se! I shall s'ea# when I have s'o#en o the 'assions$
The names o s&"h things as ae"t &s! that is! whi"h 'lease and dis'lease &s! be"a&se all men be not ali#e ae"ted
with the same thing! nor the same man at all times! are in the "ommon dis"o&rses o men o in"onstant signii"ation$
%or seeing all names are im'osed to signiy o&r "on"e'tions! and all o&r ae"tions are b&t "on"e'tions) when we
"on"eive the same things dierently! we "an hardly avoid dierent naming o them$ %or tho&gh the nat&re o that we
"on"eive be the same) yet the diversity o o&r re"e'tion o it! in res'e"t o dierent "onstit&tions o body and
're*&di"es o o'inion! gives everything a tin"t&re o o&r dierent 'assions$ And thereore in reasoning! a man m&st
ta#e heed o words) whi"h! besides the signii"ation o what we imagine o their nat&re! have a signii"ation also o
the nat&re! dis'osition! and interest o the s'ea#er) s&"h as are the names o virt&es and vi"es6 or one man "alleth
wisdom what another "alleth ear) and one "r&elty what another *&sti"e) one 'rodigality what another magnanimity)
and one gravity what another st&'idity! et"$ And thereore s&"h names "an never be tr&e gro&nds o any ratio"ination$
No more "an meta'hors and tro'es o s'ee"h6 b&t these are less dangero&s be"a&se they 'roess their in"onstan"y!
whi"h the other do not$
,HA8TER V OF REASON AND SCIENCE
/HEN man reasoneth! he does nothing else b&t "on"eive a s&m total! rom addition o 'ar"els) or "on"eive a
remainder! rom s&btra"tion o one s&m rom another6 whi"h! i it be done by words! is "on"eiving o the
"onse2&en"e o the names o all the 'arts! to the name o the whole) or rom the names o the whole and one 'art! to
the name o the other 'art$ And tho&gh in some things! as in n&mbers! besides adding and s&btra"ting! men name
other o'erations! as m&lti'lying and dividing) yet they are the same6 or m&lti'li"ation is b&t adding together o
things e2&al) and division! b&t s&btra"ting o one thing! as oten as we "an$ These o'erations are not in"ident to
n&mbers only! b&t to all manner o things that "an be added together! and ta#en one o&t o another$ %or as
arithmeti"ians tea"h to add and s&btra"t in n&mbers! so the geometri"ians tea"h the same in lines! ig&res (solid and
s&'eri"ial)! angles! 'ro'ortions! times! degrees o switness! or"e! 'ower! and the li#e) the logi"ians tea"h the same
in "onse2&en"es o words! adding together two names to ma#e an airmation! and two airmations to ma#e a
syllogism! and many syllogisms to ma#e a demonstration) and rom the s&m! or "on"l&sion o a syllogism! they
s&btra"t one 'ro'osition to ind the other$ /riters o 'oliti"s add together 'a"tions to ind men1s d&ties) and lawyers!
laws and a"ts to ind what is right and wrong in the a"tions o 'rivate men$ In s&m! in what matter soever there is
'la"e or addition and s&btra"tion! there also is 'la"e or reason) and where these have no 'la"e! there reason has
nothing at all to do$ -&t o all whi"h we may deine (that is to say determine) what that is whi"h is meant by this
word reason when we re"#on it amongst the a"&lties o the mind$ %or reason! in this sense! is nothing b&t re"#oning
(that is! adding and s&btra"ting) o the "onse2&en"es o general names agreed &'on or the mar#ing and signiying o
o&r tho&ghts) I say mar#ing them! when we re"#on by o&rselves) and signiying! when we demonstrate or a''rove
o&r re"#onings to other men$
And as in arithmeti" &n'ra"tised men m&st! and 'roessors themselves may oten! err! and "ast &' alse) so also in
any other s&b*e"t o reasoning! the ablest! most attentive! and most 'ra"tised men may de"eive themselves! and iner
alse "on"l&sions) not b&t that reason itsel is always right reason! as well as arithmeti" is a "ertain and inallible art6
b&t no one man1s reason! nor the reason o any one n&mber o men! ma#es the "ertainty) no more than an a""o&nt is
thereore well "ast &' be"a&se a great many men have &nanimo&sly a''roved it$ And thereore! as when there is a
"ontroversy in an a""o&nt! the 'arties m&st by their own a""ord set &' or right reason the reason o some arbitrator!
or *&dge! to whose senten"e they will both stand! or their "ontroversy m&st either "ome to blows! or be &nde"ided!
or want o a right reason "onstit&ted by Nat&re) so is it also in all debates o what #ind soever6 and when men that
thin# themselves wiser than all others "lamo&r and demand right reason or *&dge! yet see# no more b&t that things
sho&ld be determined by no other men1s reason b&t their own! it is as intolerable in the so"iety o men! as it is in 'lay
ater tr&m' is t&rned to &se or tr&m' on every o""asion that s&it whereo they have most in their hand$ %or they do
nothing else! that will have every o their 'assions! as it "omes to bear sway in them! to be ta#en or right reason! and
that in their own "ontroversies6 bewraying their want o right reason by the "laim they lay to it$
The &se and end o reason is not the inding o the s&m and tr&th o one! or a ew "onse2&en"es! remote rom the
irst deinitions and settled signii"ations o names) b&t to begin at these! and 'ro"eed rom one "onse2&en"e to
another$ %or there "an be no "ertainty o the last "on"l&sion witho&t a "ertainty o all those airmations and
negations on whi"h it was gro&nded and inerred$ As when a master o a amily! in ta#ing an a""o&nt! "asteth &' the
s&ms o all the bills o e+'ense into one s&m) and not regarding how ea"h bill is s&mmed &'! by those that give them
in a""o&nt! nor what it is he 'ays or! he advantages himsel no more than i he allowed the a""o&nt in gross! tr&sting
to every o the a""o&ntant1s s#ill and honesty6 so also in reasoning o all other things! he that ta#es &' "on"l&sions on
the tr&st o a&thors! and doth not et"h them rom the irst items in every re"#oning (whi"h are the signii"ations o
names settled by deinitions)! loses his labo&r! and does not #now anything! b&t only believeth$
/hen a man re"#ons witho&t the &se o words! whi"h may be done in 'arti"&lar things! as when &'on the sight o
any one thing! we "on*e"t&re what was li#ely to have 're"eded! or is li#ely to ollow &'on it) i that whi"h he tho&ght
li#ely to ollow ollows not! or that whi"h he tho&ght li#ely to have 're"eded it hath not 're"eded it! this is "alled
error) to whi"h even the most 'r&dent men are s&b*e"t$ 5&t when we reason in words o general signii"ation! and
all &'on a general ineren"e whi"h is alse) tho&gh it be "ommonly "alled error! it is indeed an abs&rdity! or
senseless s'ee"h$ %or error is b&t a de"e'tion! in 'res&ming that somewhat is 'ast! or to "ome) o whi"h! tho&gh it
were not 'ast! or not to "ome! yet there was no im'ossibility dis"overable$ 5&t when we ma#e a general assertion!
&nless it be a tr&e one! the 'ossibility o it is in"on"eivable$ And words whereby we "on"eive nothing b&t the so&nd
are those we "all abs&rd! insignii"ant! and nonsense$ And thereore i a man sho&ld tal# to me o a ro&nd
2&adrangle) or a""idents o bread in "heese) or immaterial s&bstan"es) or o a ree s&b*e"t) a ree will) or any ree b&t
ree rom being hindered by o''osition) I sho&ld not say he were in an error! b&t that his words were witho&t
meaning) that is to say! abs&rd$
I have said beore! in the se"ond "ha'ter! that a man did e+"el all other animals in this a"&lty! that when he
"on"eived anything whatsoever! he was a't to en2&ire the "onse2&en"es o it! and what ee"ts he "o&ld do with it$
And now I add this other degree o the same e+"ellen"e! that he "an by words red&"e the "onse2&en"es he inds to
general r&les! "alled theorems! or a'horisms) that is! he "an reason! or re"#on! not only in n&mber! b&t in all other
things whereo one may be added &nto or s&btra"ted rom another$ 5&t this 'rivilege is allayed by another) and that
is by the 'rivilege o abs&rdity! to whi"h no living "reat&re is s&b*e"t! b&t men only$ And o men! those are o all
most s&b*e"t to it that 'roess 'hiloso'hy$ %or it is most tr&e that ,i"ero saith o them somewhere) that there "an be
nothing so abs&rd b&t may be o&nd in the boo#s o 'hiloso'hers$ And the reason is maniest$ %or there is not one o
them that begins his ratio"ination rom the deinitions or e+'li"ations o the names they are to &se) whi"h is a method
that hath been &sed only in geometry! whose "on"l&sions have thereby been made indis'&table$
?$ The irst "a&se o abs&rd "on"l&sions I as"ribe to the want o method) in that they begin not their ratio"ination
rom deinitions) that is! rom settled signii"ations o their words6 as i they "o&ld "ast a""o&nt witho&t #nowing the
val&e o the n&meral words! one! two! and three$
And whereas all bodies enter into a""o&nt &'on diverse "onsiderations! whi"h I have mentioned in the 're"edent
"ha'ter! these "onsiderations being diversely named! diverse abs&rdities 'ro"eed rom the "on&sion and &nit
"onne+ion o their names into assertions$ And thereore!
@$ The se"ond "a&se o abs&rd assertions! I as"ribe to the giving o names o bodies to a""idents) or o a""idents to
bodies) as they do that say! aith is in&sed! or ins'ired) when nothing "an be 'o&red! or breathed into anything! b&t
body) and that e+tension is body) that 'hantasms are s'irits! et"$
=$ The third I as"ribe to the giving o the names o the a""idents o bodies witho&t &s to the a""idents o o&r own
bodies) as they do that say! the "olo&r is in the body) the so&nd is in the air! et"$
A$ The o&rth! to the giving o the names o bodies to names! or s'ee"hes) as they do that say that there be things
&niversal) that a living "reat&re is gen&s! or a general thing! et"$
B$ The ith! to the giving o the names o a""idents to names and s'ee"hes) as they do that say! the nat&re o a thing
is its deinition) a man1s "ommand is his will) and the li#e$
C$ The si+th! to the &se o meta'hors! tro'es! and other rhetori"al ig&res! instead o words 'ro'er$ %or tho&gh it be
law&l to say! or e+am'le! in "ommon s'ee"h! the way goeth! or leadeth hither! or thither) the 'roverb says this or
that (whereas ways "annot go! nor 'roverbs s'ea#)) yet in re"#oning! and see#ing o tr&th! s&"h s'ee"hes are not to
be admitted$
D$ The seventh! to names that signiy nothing! b&t are ta#en &' and learned by rote rom the 0"hools! as hy'ostati"al!
trans&bstantiate! "ons&bstantiate! eternal7now! and the li#e "anting o 0"hoolmen$
To him that "an avoid these things! it is not easy to all into any abs&rdity! &nless it be by the length o an a""o&nt)
wherein he may 'erha's orget what went beore$ %or all men by nat&re reason ali#e! and well! when they have good
'rin"i'les$ %or who is so st&'id as both to mista#e in geometry! and also to 'ersist in it! when another dete"ts his
error to him(
5y this it a''ears that reason is not! as sense and memory! born with &s) nor gotten by e+'erien"e only! as 'r&den"e
is) b&t attained by ind&stry6 irst in a't im'osing o names) and se"ondly by getting a good and orderly method in
'ro"eeding rom the elements! whi"h are names! to assertions made by "onne+ion o one o them to another) and so
to syllogisms! whi"h are the "onne+ions o one assertion to another! till we "ome to a #nowledge o all the
"onse2&en"es o names a''ertaining to the s&b*e"t in hand) and that is it! men "all s"ien"e$ And whereas sense and
memory are b&t #nowledge o a"t! whi"h is a thing 'ast and irrevo"able! s"ien"e is the #nowledge o "onse2&en"es!
and de'enden"e o one a"t &'on another) by whi"h! o&t o that we "an 'resently do! we #now how to do something
else when we will! or the li#e! another time6 be"a&se when we see how anything "omes abo&t! &'on what "a&ses! and
by what manner) when the li#e "a&ses "ome into o&r 'ower! we see how to ma#e it 'rod&"e the li#e ee"ts$
,hildren thereore are not end&ed with reason at all! till they have attained the &se o s'ee"h! b&t are "alled
reasonable "reat&res or the 'ossibility a''arent o having the &se o reason in time to "ome$ And the most 'art o
men! tho&gh they have the &se o reasoning a little way! as in n&mbering to some degree) yet it serves them to little
&se in "ommon lie! in whi"h they govern themselves! some better! some worse! a""ording to their dieren"es o
e+'erien"e! 2&i"#ness o memory! and in"linations to several ends) b&t s'e"ially a""ording to good or evil ort&ne!
and the errors o one another$ %or as or s"ien"e! or "ertain r&les o their a"tions! they are so ar rom it that they
#now not what it is$ Geometry they have tho&ght "on*&ring6 b&t or other s"ien"es! they who have not been ta&ght
the beginnings! and some 'rogress in them! that they may see how they be a"2&ired and generated! are in this 'oint
li#e "hildren that! having no tho&ght o generation! are made believe by the women that their brothers and sisters are
not born! b&t o&nd in the garden$ 5&t yet they that have no s"ien"e are in better and nobler "ondition with their
nat&ral 'r&den"e than men that! by misreasoning! or by tr&sting them that reason wrong! all &'on alse and abs&rd
general r&les$ %or ignoran"e o "a&ses! and o r&les! does not set men so ar o&t o their way as relying on alse r&les!
and ta#ing or "a&ses o what they as'ire to! those that are not so! b&t rather "a&ses o the "ontrary$
To "on"l&de! the light o h&mane minds is 'ers'i"&o&s words! b&t by e+a"t deinitions irst sn&ed! and '&rged rom
ambig&ity) reason is the 'a"e) in"rease o s"ien"e! the way) and the beneit o man#ind! the end$ And! on the
"ontrary! meta'hors! and senseless and ambig&o&s words are li#e ignes at&i) and reasoning &'on them is wandering
amongst inn&merable abs&rdities) and their end! "ontention and sedition! or "ontem't$
As m&"h e+'erien"e is 'r&den"e! so is m&"h s"ien"e sa'ien"e$ %or tho&gh we &s&ally have one name o wisdom or
them both) yet the Latins did always disting&ish between 'r&dentia and sa'ientia) as"ribing the ormer to e+'erien"e!
the latter to s"ien"e$ 5&t to ma#e their dieren"e a''ear more "learly! let &s s&''ose one man end&ed with an
e+"ellent nat&ral &se and de+terity in handling his arms) and another to have added to that de+terity an a"2&ired
s"ien"e o where he "an oend! or be oended by his adversary! in every 'ossible 'ost&re or g&ard6 the ability o the
ormer wo&ld be to the ability o the latter! as 'r&den"e to sa'ien"e) both &se&l! b&t the latter inallible$ 5&t they
that! tr&sting only to the a&thority o boo#s! ollow the blind blindly! are li#e him that! tr&sting to the alse r&les o a
master o en"e! vent&res 'res&m't&o&sly &'on an adversary that either #ills or disgra"es him$
The signs o s"ien"e are some "ertain and inallible) some! &n"ertain$ ,ertain! when he that 'retendeth the s"ien"e o
anything "an tea"h the same) that is to say! demonstrate the tr&th thereo 'ers'i"&o&sly to another6 &n"ertain! when
only some 'arti"&lar events answer to his 'reten"e! and &'on many o""asions 'rove so as he says they m&st$ 0igns o
'r&den"e are all &n"ertain) be"a&se to observe by e+'erien"e! and remember all "ir"&mstan"es that may alter the
s&""ess! is im'ossible$ 5&t in any b&siness! whereo a man has not inallible s"ien"e to 'ro"eed by! to orsa#e his
own nat&ral *&dgment! and be g&ided by general senten"es read in a&thors! and s&b*e"t to many e+"e'tions! is a sign
o olly! and generally s"orned by the name o 'edantry$ And even o those men themselves that in "o&n"ils o the
,ommonwealth love to show their reading o 'oliti"s and history! very ew do it in their domesti" aairs where their
'arti"&lar interest is "on"erned! having 'r&den"e eno&gh or their 'rivate aairs) b&t in '&bli" they st&dy more the
re'&tation o their own wit than the s&""ess o another1s b&siness$
,HA8TER VI OF THE INTERIOR BEGINNINGS OF VOLUNTARY MOTIONS, COMMONLY CALLED
THE PASSIONS; AND THE SPEECHES BY WHICH THEY ARE EXPRESSED
THERE be in animals two sorts o motions 'e"&liar to them6 -ne "alled vital! beg&n in generation! and "ontin&ed
witho&t interr&'tion thro&gh their whole lie) s&"h as are the "o&rse o the blood! the '&lse! the breathing! the
"on"o"tion! n&trition! e+"retion! et"$) to whi"h motions there needs no hel' o imagination6 the other is animal
motion! otherwise "alled vol&ntary motion) as to go! to s'ea#! to move any o o&r limbs! in s&"h manner as is irst
an"ied in o&r minds$ That sense is motion in the organs and interior 'arts o man1s body! "a&sed by the a"tion o the
things we see! hear! et"$! and that an"y is b&t the reli"s o the same motion! remaining ater sense! has been already
said in the irst and se"ond "ha'ters$ And be"a&se going! s'ea#ing! and the li#e vol&ntary motions de'end always
&'on a 're"edent tho&ght o whither! whi"h way! and what! it is evident that the imagination is the irst internal
beginning o all vol&ntary motion$ And altho&gh &nst&died men do not "on"eive any motion at all to be there! where
the thing moved is invisible! or the s'a"e it is moved in is! or the shortness o it! insensible) yet that doth not hinder
b&t that s&"h motions are$ %or let a s'a"e be never so little! that whi"h is moved over a greater s'a"e! whereo that
little one is 'art! m&st irst be moved over that$ These small beginnings o motion within the body o man! beore
they a''ear in wal#ing! s'ea#ing! stri#ing! and other visible a"tions! are "ommonly "alled endeavo&r$
This endeavo&r! when it is toward something whi"h "a&ses it! is "alled a''etite! or desire! the latter being the general
name! and the other otentimes restrained to signiy the desire o ood! namely h&nger and thirst$ And when the
endeavo&r is rom ward something! it is generally "alled aversion$ These words a''etite and aversion we have rom
the Latins) and they both o them signiy the motions! one o a''roa"hing! the other o retiring$ 0o also do the Gree#
words or the same! whi"h are orme and a'horme$ %or Nat&re itsel does oten 'ress &'on men those tr&ths whi"h
aterwards! when they loo# or somewhat beyond Nat&re! they st&mble at$ %or the 0"hools ind in mere a''etite to
go! or move! no a"t&al motion at all) b&t be"a&se some motion they m&st a"#nowledge! they "all it meta'hori"al
motion! whi"h is b&t an abs&rd s'ee"h) or tho&gh words may be "alled meta'hori"al! bodies and motions "annot$
That whi"h men desire they are said to love! and to hate those things or whi"h they have aversion$ 0o that desire
and love are the same thing) save that by desire! we signiy the absen"e o the ob*e"t) by love! most "ommonly the
'resen"e o the same$ 0o also by aversion! we signiy the absen"e) and by hate! the 'resen"e o the ob*e"t$
- a''etites and aversions! some are born with men) as a''etite o ood! a''etite o e+"retion! and e+oneration
(whi"h may also and more 'ro'erly be "alled aversions! rom somewhat they eel in their bodies)! and some other
a''etites! not many$ The rest! whi"h are a''etites o 'arti"&lar things! 'ro"eed rom e+'erien"e and trial o their
ee"ts &'on themselves or other men$ %or o things we #now not at all! or believe not to be! we "an have no &rther
desire than to taste and try$ 5&t aversion we have or things! not only whi"h we #now have h&rt &s! b&t also that we
do not #now whether they will h&rt &s! or not$
Those things whi"h we neither desire nor hate! we are said to "ontemn6 "ontem't being nothing else b&t an
immobility or "ont&ma"y o the heart in resisting the a"tion o "ertain things) and 'ro"eeding rom that the heart is
already moved otherwise! by other more 'otent ob*e"ts! or rom want o e+'erien"e o them$
And be"a&se the "onstit&tion o a man1s body is in "ontin&al m&tation! it is im'ossible that all the same things
sho&ld always "a&se in him the same a''etites and aversions6 m&"h less "an all men "onsent in the desire o almost
any one and the same ob*e"t$ 5&t whatsoever is the ob*e"t o any man1s a''etite or desire! that is it whi"h he or his
'art "alleth good) and the ob*e"t o his hate and aversion! evil) and o his "ontem't! vile and in"onsiderable$ %or
these words o good! evil! and "ontem'tible are ever &sed with relation to the 'erson that &seth them6 there being
nothing sim'ly and absol&tely so) nor any "ommon r&le o good and evil to be ta#en rom the nat&re o the ob*e"ts
themselves) b&t rom the 'erson o the man! where there is no ,ommonwealth) or! in a ,ommonwealth! rom the
'erson that re'resenteth it) or rom an arbitrator or *&dge! whom men disagreeing shall by "onsent set &' and ma#e
his senten"e the r&le thereo$
The Latin tong&e has two words whose signii"ations a''roa"h to those o good and evil! b&t are not 're"isely the
same) and those are '&l"hr&m and t&r'e$ /hereo the ormer signiies that whi"h by some a''arent signs 'romiseth
good) and the latter! that whi"h 'romiseth evil$ 5&t in o&r tong&e we have not so general names to e+'ress them by$
5&t or '&l"hr&m we say in some things! air) in others! bea&ti&l! or handsome! or gallant! or hono&rable! or "omely!
or amiable6 and or t&r'e) o&l! deormed! &gly! base! na&seo&s! and the li#e! as the s&b*e"t shall re2&ire) all whi"h
words! in their 'ro'er 'la"es! signiy nothing else b&t the mien! or "o&ntenan"e! that 'romiseth good and evil$ 0o that
o good there be three #inds6 good in the 'romise! that is '&l"hr&m) good in ee"t! as the end desired! whi"h is "alled
*&"&nd&m! delight&l) and good as the means! whi"h is "alled &tile! 'roitable) and as many o evil6 or evil in
'romise is that they "all t&r'e) evil in ee"t and end is molest&m! &n'leasant! tro&blesome) and evil in the means!
in&tile! &n'roitable! h&rt&l$
As in sense that whi"h is really within &s is! as I have said beore! only motion! "a&sed by the a"tion o e+ternal
ob*e"ts b&t in a''earan"e) to the sight! light and "olo&r) to the ear! so&nd) to the nostril! odo&r! et"$6 so! when the
a"tion o the same ob*e"t is "ontin&ed rom the eyes! ears! and other organs to the heart! the real ee"t there is
nothing b&t motion! or endeavo&r) whi"h "onsisteth in a''etite or aversion to or rom the ob*e"t moving$ 5&t the
a''earan"e or sense o that motion is that we either "all delight or tro&ble o mind$
This motion! whi"h is "alled a''etite! and or the a''earan"e o it delight and 'leas&re! seemeth to be a
"orroboration o vital motion! and a hel' there&nto) and thereore s&"h things as "a&sed delight were not im'ro'erly
"alled *&"&nda (a *&vando)! rom hel'ing or ortiying) and the "ontrary! molesta! oensive! rom hindering and
tro&bling the motion vital$
8leas&re thereore! or delight! is the a''earan"e or sense o good) and molestation or dis'leas&re! the a''earan"e or
sense o evil$ And "onse2&ently all a''etite! desire! and love is a""om'anied with some delight more or less) and all
hatred and aversion with more or less dis'leas&re and oen"e$
- 'leas&res! or delights! some arise rom the sense o an ob*e"t 'resent) and those may be "alled 'leas&res o sense
(the word sens&al! as it is &sed by those only that "ondemn them! having no 'la"e till there be laws)$ - this #ind are
all onerations and e+onerations o the body) as also all that is 'leasant! in the sight! hearing! smell! taste! or to&"h$
-thers arise rom the e+'e"tation that 'ro"eeds rom oresight o the end or "onse2&en"e o things! whether those
things in the sense 'lease or dis'lease6 and these are 'leas&res o the mind o him that draweth in those
"onse2&en"es! and are generally "alled *oy$ In the li#e manner! dis'leas&res are some in the sense! and "alled 'ain)
others! in the e+'e"tation o "onse2&en"es! and are "alled grie$
These sim'le 'assions "alled a''etite! desire! love! aversion! hate! *oy! and grie have their names or diverse
"onsiderations diversiied$ At irst! when they one s&""eed another! they are diversely "alled rom the o'inion men
have o the li#elihood o attaining what they desire$ 0e"ondly! rom the ob*e"t loved or hated$ Thirdly! rom the
"onsideration o many o them together$ %o&rthly! rom the alteration or s&""ession itsel$
%or a''etite with an o'inion o attaining is "alled ho'e$
The same! witho&t s&"h o'inion! des'air$
Aversion! with o'inion o h&rt rom the ob*e"t! ear$
The same! with ho'e o avoiding that h&rt by resisten"e! "o&rage$
0&dden "o&rage! anger$
,onstant ho'e! "oniden"e o o&rselves$
,onstant des'air! diiden"e o o&rselves$
Anger or great h&rt done to another! when we "on"eive the same to
be done by in*&ry! indignation$
4esire o good to another! benevolen"e! good will! "harity$ I to man generally! good nat&re$
4esire o ri"hes! "oveto&sness6 a name &sed always in signii"ation o blame! be"a&se men "ontending or them are
dis'leased with one another1s attaining them) tho&gh the desire in itsel be to be blamed! or allowed! a""ording to the
means by whi"h those ri"hes are so&ght$
4esire o oi"e! or 're"eden"e! ambition6 a name &sed also in the worse sense! or the reason beore mentioned$
4esire o things that "ond&"e b&t a little to o&r ends! and ear o things that are b&t o little hindran"e! '&sillanimity$
,ontem't o little hel's! and hindran"es! magnanimity$
.agnanimity in danger o death! or wo&nds! valo&r! ortit&de$
.agnanimity in the &se o ri"hes! liberality$
8&sillanimity in the same! wret"hedness! miserableness! or 'arsimony! as it is li#ed! or disli#ed$
Love o 'ersons or so"iety! #indness$
Love o 'ersons or 'leasing the sense only! nat&ral l&st$
Love o the same a"2&ired rom r&mination! that is! imagination o 'leas&re 'ast! l&+&ry$
Love o one sing&larly! with desire to be sing&larly beloved! the 'assion o love$ The same! with ear that the love is
not m&t&al! *ealo&sy$
4esire by doing h&rt to another to ma#e him "ondemn some a"t o his own! revenge&lness$
4esire to #now why! and how! "&riosity) s&"h as is in no living "reat&re b&t man6 so that man is disting&ished! not
only by his reason! b&t also by this sing&lar 'assion rom other animals) in whom the a''etite o ood! and other
'leas&res o sense! by 'redominan"e! ta#e away the "are o #nowing "a&ses) whi"h is a l&st o the mind! that by a
'erseveran"e o delight in the "ontin&al and indeatigable generation o #nowledge! e+"eedeth the short vehemen"e
o any "arnal 'leas&re$
%ear o 'ower invisible! eigned by the mind! or imagined rom tales '&bli"ly allowed! religion) not allowed!
s&'erstition$ And when the 'ower imagined is tr&ly s&"h as we imagine! tr&e religion$
%ear witho&t the a''rehension o why! or what! 'ani" terror) "alled so rom the ables that ma#e 8an the a&thor o
them) whereas in tr&th there is always in him that so eareth! irst! some a''rehension o the "a&se! tho&gh the rest
r&n away by e+am'le) every one s&''osing his ellow to #now why$ And thereore this 'assion ha''ens to none b&t
in a throng! or m&ltit&de o 'eo'le$
:oy rom a''rehension o novelty! admiration) 'ro'er to man! be"a&se it e+"ites the a''etite o #nowing the "a&se$
:oy arising rom imagination o a man1s own 'ower and ability is that e+&ltation o the mind whi"h is "alled
glorying6 whi"h! i gro&nded &'on the e+'erien"e o his own ormer a"tions! is the same with "oniden"e6 b&t i
gro&nded on the lattery o others! or only s&''osed by himsel! or delight in the "onse2&en"es o it! is "alled
vainglory6 whi"h name is 'ro'erly given) be"a&se a well7gro&nded "oniden"e begetteth attem't) whereas the
s&''osing o 'ower does not! and is thereore rightly "alled vain$
Grie! rom o'inion o want o 'ower! is "alled de*e"tion o mind$ The vainglory whi"h "onsisteth in the eigning or
s&''osing o abilities in o&rselves! whi"h we #now are not! is most in"ident to yo&ng men! and no&rished by the
histories or i"tions o gallant 'ersons) and is "orre"ted otentimes by age and em'loyment$ 0&dden glory is the
'assion whi"h ma#eth those grima"es "alled la&ghter) and is "a&sed either by some s&dden a"t o their own that
'leaseth them) or by the a''rehension o some deormed thing in another! by "om'arison whereo they s&ddenly
a''la&d themselves$ And it is in"ident most to them that are "ons"io&s o the ewest abilities in themselves) who are
or"ed to #ee' themselves in their own avo&r by observing the im'ere"tions o other men$ And thereore m&"h
la&ghter at the dee"ts o others is a sign o '&sillanimity$ %or o great minds one o the 'ro'er wor#s is to hel' and
ree others rom s"orn! and "om'are themselves only with the most able$
-n the "ontrary! s&dden de*e"tion is the 'assion that "a&seth wee'ing) and is "a&sed by s&"h a""idents as s&ddenly
ta#e away some vehement ho'e! or some 'ro' o their 'ower6 and they are most s&b*e"t to it that rely 'rin"i'ally on
hel's e+ternal! s&"h as are women and "hildren$ Thereore! some wee' or the loss o riends) others or their
&n#indness) others or the s&dden sto' made to their tho&ghts o revenge! by re"on"iliation$ 5&t in all "ases! both
la&ghter and wee'ing are s&dden motions! "&stom ta#ing them both away$ %or no man la&ghs at old *ests! or wee's
or an old "alamity$ Grie or the dis"overy o some dee"t o ability is shame! or the 'assion that dis"overeth itsel in
bl&shing! and "onsisteth in the a''rehension o something dishono&rable) and in yo&ng men is a sign o the love o
good re'&tation! and "ommendable6 in old men it is a sign o the same) b&t be"a&se it "omes too late! not
"ommendable$ The "ontem't o good re'&tation is "alled im'&den"e$ Grie or the "alamity o another is 'ity) and
ariseth rom the imagination that the li#e "alamity may beall himsel) and thereore is "alled also "om'assion! and
in the 'hrase o this 'resent time a ellow7eeling6 and thereore or "alamity arriving rom great wi"#edness! the best
men have the least 'ity) and or the same "alamity! those have least 'ity that thin# themselves least obno+io&s to the
same$
,ontem't! or little sense o the "alamity o others! is that whi"h men "all "r&elty) 'ro"eeding rom se"&rity o their
own ort&ne$ %or! that any man sho&ld ta#e 'leas&re in other men1s great harms! witho&t other end o his own! I do
not "on"eive it 'ossible$
Grie or the s&""ess o a "om'etitor in wealth! hono&r! or other good! i it be *oined with endeavo&r to enor"e o&r
own abilities to e2&al or e+"eed him! is "alled em&lation6 b&t *oined with endeavo&r to s&''lant or hinder a
"om'etitor! envy$
/hen in the mind o man a''etites and aversions! ho'es and ears! "on"erning one and the same thing! arise
alternately) and diverse good and evil "onse2&en"es o the doing or omitting the thing 'ro'o&nded "ome
s&""essively into o&r tho&ghts) so that sometimes we have an a''etite to it! sometimes an aversion rom it)
sometimes ho'e to be able to do it! sometimes des'air! or ear to attem't it) the whole s&m o desires! aversions!
ho'es and ears! "ontin&ed till the thing be either done! or tho&ght im'ossible! is that we "all deliberation$
Thereore o things 'ast there is no deliberation! be"a&se maniestly im'ossible to be "hanged) nor o things #nown
to be im'ossible! or tho&ght so) be"a&se men #now or thin# s&"h deliberation vain$ 5&t o things im'ossible! whi"h
we thin# 'ossible! we may deliberate! not #nowing it is in vain$ And it is "alled deliberation) be"a&se it is a '&tting
an end to the liberty we had o doing! or omitting! a""ording to o&r own a''etite! or aversion$
This alternate s&""ession o a''etites! aversions! ho'es and ears is no less in other living "reat&res than in man) and
thereore beasts also deliberate$
Every deliberation is then said to end when that whereo they deliberate is either done or tho&ght im'ossible)
be"a&se till then we retain the liberty o doing! or omitting! a""ording to o&r a''etite! or aversion$
In deliberation! the last a''etite! or aversion! immediately adhering to the a"tion! or to the omission thereo! is that
we "all the will) the a"t! not the a"&lty! o willing$ And beasts that have deliberation m&st ne"essarily also have will$
The deinition o the will! given "ommonly by the 0"hools! that it is a rational a''etite! is not good$ %or i it were!
then "o&ld there be no vol&ntary a"t against reason$ %or a vol&ntary a"t is that whi"h 'ro"eedeth rom the will! and
no other$ 5&t i instead o a rational a''etite! we shall say an a''etite res&lting rom a 're"edent deliberation! then
the deinition is the same that I have given here$ /ill! thereore! is the last a''etite in deliberating$ And tho&gh we
say in "ommon dis"o&rse! a man had a will on"e to do a thing! that nevertheless he orbore to do) yet that is 'ro'erly
b&t an in"lination! whi"h ma#es no a"tion vol&ntary) be"a&se the a"tion de'ends not o it! b&t o the last in"lination!
or a''etite$ %or i the intervenient a''etites ma#e any a"tion vol&ntary! then by the same reason all intervenient
aversions sho&ld ma#e the same a"tion invol&ntary) and so one and the same a"tion sho&ld be both vol&ntary and
invol&ntary$
5y this it is maniest that! not only a"tions that have their beginning rom "oveto&sness! ambition! l&st! or other
a''etites to the thing 'ro'o&nded! b&t also those that have their beginning rom aversion! or ear o those
"onse2&en"es that ollow the omission! are vol&ntary a"tions$
The orms o s'ee"h by whi"h the 'assions are e+'ressed are 'artly the same and 'artly dierent rom those by
whi"h we e+'ress o&r tho&ghts$ And irst generally all 'assions may be e+'ressed indi"atively) as! I love! I ear! I *oy!
I deliberate! I will! I "ommand6 b&t some o them have 'arti"&lar e+'ressions by themselves! whi"h nevertheless are
not airmations! &nless it be when they serve to ma#e other ineren"es besides that o the 'assion they 'ro"eed rom$
4eliberation is e+'ressed s&b*&n"tively) whi"h is a s'ee"h 'ro'er to signiy s&''ositions! with their "onse2&en"es)
as! I this be done! then this will ollow) and diers not rom the lang&age o reasoning! save that reasoning is in
general words! b&t deliberation or the most 'art is o 'arti"&lars$ The lang&age o desire! and aversion! is
im'erative) as! 4o this! orbear that) whi"h when the 'arty is obliged to do! or orbear! is "ommand) otherwise
'rayer) or else "o&nsel$ The lang&age o vainglory! o indignation! 'ity and revenge&lness! o'tative6 b&t o the desire
to #now! there is a 'e"&liar e+'ression "alled interrogative) as! /hat is it! when shall it! how is it done! and why so(
-ther lang&age o the 'assions I ind none6 or "&rsing! swearing! reviling! and the li#e do not signiy as s'ee"h! b&t
as the a"tions o a tong&e a""&stomed$
These orms o s'ee"h! I say! are e+'ressions or vol&ntary signii"ations o o&r 'assions6 b&t "ertain signs they be
not) be"a&se they may be &sed arbitrarily! whether they that &se them have s&"h 'assions or not$ The best signs o
'assions 'resent are either in the "o&ntenan"e! motions o the body! a"tions! and ends! or aims! whi"h we otherwise
#now the man to have$
And be"a&se in deliberation the a''etites and aversions are raised by oresight o the good and evil "onse2&en"es!
and se2&els o the a"tion whereo we deliberate! the good or evil ee"t thereo de'endeth on the oresight o a long
"hain o "onse2&en"es! o whi"h very seldom any man is able to see to the end$ 5&t or so ar as a man seeth! i the
good in those "onse2&en"es be greater than the evil! the whole "hain is that whi"h writers "all a''arent or seeming
good$ And "ontrarily! when the evil e+"eedeth the good! the whole is a''arent or seeming evil6 so that he who hath
by e+'erien"e! or reason! the greatest and s&rest 'ros'e"t o "onse2&en"es! deliberates best himsel) and is able!
when he will! to give the best "o&nsel &nto others$
,ontin&al s&""ess in obtaining those things whi"h a man rom time to time desireth! that is to say! "ontin&al
'ros'ering! is that men "all eli"ity) I mean the eli"ity o this lie$ %or there is no s&"h thing as 'er'et&al tran2&illity
o mind! while we live here) be"a&se lie itsel is b&t motion! and "an never be witho&t desire! nor witho&t ear! no
more than witho&t sense$ /hat #ind o eli"ity God hath ordained to them that devo&tly hono&r him! a man shall no
sooner #now than en*oy) being *oys that now are as in"om'rehensible as the word o 0"hoolmen! beatii"al vision! is
&nintelligible$ The orm o s'ee"h whereby men signiy their o'inion o the goodness o anything is 'raise$ That
whereby they signiy the 'ower and greatness o anything is magniying$ And that whereby they signiy the o'inion
they have o a man1s eli"ity is by the Gree#s "alled ma#arismos! or whi"h we have no name in o&r tong&e$ And th&s
m&"h is s&i"ient or the 'resent '&r'ose to have been said o the 'assions$
,HA8TER VII OF THE ENDS OR RESOLUTIONS OF DISCOURSE
-% ALL dis"o&rse governed by desire o #nowledge! there is at last an end! either by attaining or by giving over$
And in the "hain o dis"o&rse! wheresoever it be interr&'ted! there is an end or that time$
I the dis"o&rse be merely mental! it "onsisteth o tho&ghts that the thing will be! and will not be) or that it has been!
and has not been! alternately$ 0o that wheresoever yo& brea# o the "hain o a man1s dis"o&rse! yo& leave him in a
'res&m'tion o it will be! or! it will not be) or it has been! or! has not been$ All whi"h is o'inion$ And that whi"h is
alternate a''etite! in deliberating "on"erning good and evil! the same is alternate o'inion in the en2&iry o the tr&th
o 'ast and &t&re$ And as the last a''etite in deliberation is "alled the will! so the last o'inion in sear"h o the tr&th
o 'ast and &t&re is "alled the *&dgement! or resol&te and inal senten"e o him that dis"o&rseth$ And as the whole
"hain o a''etites alternate in the 2&estion o good or bad is "alled deliberation) so the whole "hain o o'inions
alternate in the 2&estion o tr&e or alse is "alled do&bt$
No dis"o&rse whatsoever "an end in absol&te #nowledge o a"t! 'ast or to "ome$ %or! as or the #nowledge o a"t! it
is originally sense! and ever ater memory$ And or the #nowledge o "onse2&en"e! whi"h I have said beore is "alled
s"ien"e! it is not absol&te! b&t "onditional$ No man "an #now by dis"o&rse that this! or that! is! has been! or will be)
whi"h is to #now absol&tely6 b&t only that i this be! that is) i this has been! that has been) i this shall be! that shall
be) whi"h is to #now "onditionally6 and that not the "onse2&en"e o one thing to another! b&t o one name o a thing
to another name o the same thing$
And thereore! when the dis"o&rse is '&t into s'ee"h! and begins with the deinitions o words! and 'ro"eeds by
"onne+ion o the same into general airmations! and o these again into syllogisms! the end or last s&m is "alled the
"on"l&sion) and the tho&ght o the mind by it signiied is that "onditional #nowledge! or #nowledge o the
"onse2&en"e o words! whi"h is "ommonly "alled s"ien"e$ 5&t i the irst gro&nd o s&"h dis"o&rse be not
deinitions! or i the deinitions be not rightly *oined together into syllogisms! then the end or "on"l&sion is again
o'inion! namely o the tr&th o somewhat said! tho&gh sometimes in abs&rd and senseless words! witho&t 'ossibility
o being &nderstood$ /hen two or more men #now o one and the same a"t! they are said to be "ons"io&s o it one
to another) whi"h is as m&"h as to #now it together$ And be"a&se s&"h are ittest witnesses o the a"ts o one
another! or o a third! it was and ever will be re'&ted a very evil a"t or any man to s'ea# against his "ons"ien"e) or
to "orr&'t or or"e another so to do6 insom&"h that the 'lea o "ons"ien"e has been always hear#ened &nto very
diligently in all times$ Aterwards! men made &se o the same word meta'hori"ally or the #nowledge o their own
se"ret a"ts and se"ret tho&ghts) and thereore it is rhetori"ally said that the "ons"ien"e is a tho&sand witnesses$ And
last o all! men! vehemently in love with their own new o'inions! tho&gh never so abs&rd! and obstinately bent to
maintain them! gave those their o'inions also that reveren"ed name o "ons"ien"e! as i they wo&ld have it seem
&nlaw&l to "hange or s'ea# against them) and so 'retend to #now they are tr&e! when they #now at most b&t that
they thin# so$
/hen a man1s dis"o&rse beginneth not at deinitions! it beginneth either at some other "ontem'lation o his own! and
then it is still "alled o'inion! or it beginneth at some saying o another! o whose ability to #now the tr&th! and o
whose honesty in not de"eiving! he do&bteth not) and then the dis"o&rse is not so m&"h "on"erning the thing! as the
'erson) and the resol&tion is "alled belie! and aith6 aith! in the man) belie! both o the man! and o the tr&th o
what he says$ 0o that in belie are two o'inions) one o the saying o the man! the other o his virt&e$ To have aith in!
or tr&st to! or believe a man! signiy the same thing) namely! an o'inion o the vera"ity o the man6 b&t to believe
what is said signiieth only an o'inion o the tr&th o the saying$ 5&t we are to observe that this 'hrase! I believe in)
as also the Latin! "redo in) and the Gree#! 'iseno eis! are never &sed b&t in the writings o divines$ Instead o them! in
other writings are '&t6 I believe him) I tr&st him) I have aith in him) I rely on him) and in Latin! "redo illi) ido illi)
and in Gree#! 'iseno anto) and that this sing&larity o the e""lesiasti" &se o the word hath raised many dis'&tes
abo&t the right ob*e"t o the ,hristian aith$
5&t by believing in! as it is in the ,reed! is meant! not tr&st in the 'erson! b&t "onession and a"#nowledgement o
the do"trine$ %or not only ,hristians! b&t all manner o men do so believe in God as to hold all or tr&th they hear
Him say! whether they &nderstand it or not! whi"h is all the aith and tr&st "an 'ossibly be had in any 'erson
whatsoever) b&t they do not all believe the do"trine o the ,reed$
%rom when"e we may iner that when we believe any saying! whatsoever it be! to be tr&e! rom arg&ments ta#en! not
rom the thing itsel! or rom the 'rin"i'les o nat&ral reason! b&t rom the a&thority and good o'inion we have o
him that hath said it) then is the s'ea#er! or 'erson we believe in! or tr&st in! and whose word we ta#e! the ob*e"t o
o&r aith) and the hono&r done in believing is done to him only$ And "onse2&ently! when we believe that the
0"ri't&res are the word o God! having no immediate revelation rom God Himsel! o&r belie! aith! and tr&st is in
the ,h&r"h) whose word we ta#e! and a"2&ies"e therein$ And they that believe that whi"h a 'ro'het relates &nto them
in the name o God ta#e the word o the 'ro'het! do hono&r to him! and in him tr&st and believe! to&"hing the tr&th
o what he relateth! whether he be a tr&e or a alse 'ro'het$ And so it is also with all other history$ %or i I sho&ld not
believe all that is written by historians o the glorio&s a"ts o Ale+ander or ,aesar! I do not thin# the ghost o
Ale+ander or ,aesar had any *&st "a&se to be oended! or anybody else b&t the historian$ I Livy say the gods made
on"e a "ow s'ea#! and we believe it not! we distr&st not God therein! b&t Livy$ 0o that it is evident that whatsoever
we believe! &'on no other reason than what is drawn rom a&thority o men only! and their writings! whether they be
sent rom God or not! is aith in men only$
,HA8TER VIII OF THE VIRTUES COMMONLY CALLED INTELLECTUAL; AND THEIR CONTRARY
DEFECTS
VIRTUE generally! in all sorts o s&b*e"ts! is somewhat that is val&ed or eminen"e) and "onsisteth in "om'arison$
%or i all things were e2&ally in all men! nothing wo&ld be 'ri9ed$ And by virt&es intelle"t&al are always &nderstood
s&"h abilities o the mind as men 'raise! val&e! and desire sho&ld be in themselves) and go "ommonly &nder the
name o a good wit) tho&gh the same word! wit! be &sed also to disting&ish one "ertain ability rom the rest$
These virt&es are o two sorts) nat&ral and a"2&ired$ 5y nat&ral! I mean not that whi"h a man hath rom his birth6 or
that is nothing else b&t sense) wherein men dier so little one rom another! and rom br&te beasts! as it is not to be
re"#oned amongst virt&es$ 5&t I mean that wit whi"h is gotten by &se only! and e+'erien"e! witho&t method! "&lt&re!
or instr&"tion$ This nat&ral wit "onsisteth 'rin"i'ally in two things6 "elerity o imagining (that is! swit s&""ession o
one tho&ght to another)) and steady dire"tion to some a''roved end$ -n the "ontrary! a slow imagination ma#eth that
dee"t or a&lt o the mind whi"h is "ommonly "alled d&llness! st&'idity! and sometimes by other names that signiy
slowness o motion! or dii"&lty to be moved$
And this dieren"e o 2&i"#ness is "a&sed by the dieren"e o men1s 'assions) that love and disli#e! some one thing!
some another6 and thereore some men1s tho&ghts r&n one way! some another! and are held to! observe dierently the
things that 'ass thro&gh their imagination$ And whereas in this s&""ession o men1s tho&ghts there is nothing to
observe in the things they thin# on! b&t either in what they be li#e one another! or in what they be &nli#e! or what
they serve or! or how they serve to s&"h a '&r'ose) those that observe their similit&des! in "ase they be s&"h as are
b&t rarely observed by others! are said to have a good wit) by whi"h! in this o""asion! is meant a good an"y$ 5&t they
that observe their dieren"es! and dissimilit&des! whi"h is "alled disting&ishing! and dis"erning! and *&dging
between thing and thing! in "ase s&"h dis"erning be not easy! are said to have a good *&dgement6 and 'arti"&larly in
matter o "onversation and b&siness! wherein times! 'la"es! and 'ersons are to be dis"erned! this virt&e is "alled
dis"retion$ The ormer! that is! an"y! witho&t the hel' o *&dgement! is not "ommended as a virt&e) b&t the latter
whi"h is *&dgement! and dis"retion! is "ommended or itsel! witho&t the hel' o an"y$ 5esides the dis"retion o
times! 'la"es! and 'ersons! ne"essary to a good an"y! there is re2&ired also an oten a''li"ation o his tho&ghts to
their end) that is to say! to some &se to be made o them$ This done! he that hath this virt&e will be easily itted with
similit&des that will 'lease! not only by ill&stration o his dis"o&rse! and adorning it with new and a't meta'hors! b&t
also! by the rarity o their invention$ 5&t witho&t steadiness! and dire"tion to some end! great an"y is one #ind o
madness) s&"h as they have that! entering into any dis"o&rse! are snat"hed rom their '&r'ose by everything that
"omes in their tho&ght! into so many and so long digressions and 'arentheses! that they &tterly lose themselves6
whi"h #ind o olly I #now no 'arti"&lar name or6 b&t the "a&se o it is sometimes want o e+'erien"e) whereby that
seemeth to a man new and rare whi"h doth not so to others6 sometimes '&sillanimity) by whi"h that seems great to
him whi"h other men thin# a trile6 and whatsoever is new! or great! and thereore tho&ght it to be told! withdraws a
man by degrees rom the intended way o his dis"o&rse$
In a good 'oem! whether it be e'i" or dramati"! as also in sonnets! e'igrams! and other 'ie"es! both *&dgement and
an"y are re2&ired6 b&t the an"y m&st be more eminent) be"a&se they 'lease or the e+travagan"y! b&t o&ght not to
dis'lease by indis"retion$
In a good history! the *&dgement m&st be eminent) be"a&se the goodness "onsisteth in the "hoi"e o the method! in
the tr&th! and in the "hoi"e o the a"tions that are most 'roitable to be #nown$ %an"y has no 'la"e! b&t only in
adorning the style$ In orations o 'raise! and in inve"tives! the an"y is 'redominant) be"a&se the design is not tr&th!
b&t to hono&r or dishono&r) whi"h is done by noble or by vile "om'arisons$ The *&dgement does b&t s&ggest what
"ir"&mstan"es ma#e an a"tion la&dable or "&l'able$
In hortatives and 'leadings! as tr&th or disg&ise serveth best to the design in hand! so is the *&dgement or the an"y
most re2&ired$ In demonstration! in "o&n"il! and all rigoro&s sear"h o tr&th! sometimes does all) e+"e't sometimes
the &nderstanding have need to be o'ened by some a't similit&de! and then there is so m&"h &se o an"y$ 5&t or
meta'hors! they are in this "ase &tterly e+"l&ded$ %or seeing they o'enly 'roess de"eit! to admit them into "o&n"il!
or reasoning! were maniest olly$
And in any dis"o&rse whatsoever! i the dee"t o dis"retion be a''arent! how e+travagant soever the an"y be! the
whole dis"o&rse will be ta#en or a sign o want o wit) and so will it never when the dis"retion is maniest! tho&gh
the an"y be never so ordinary$
The se"ret tho&ghts o a man r&n over all things holy! 'ro'hane! "lean! obs"ene! grave! and light! witho&t shame! or
blame) whi"h verbal dis"o&rse "annot do! arther than the *&dgement shall a''rove o the time! 'la"e! and 'ersons$
An anatomist or 'hysi"ian may s'ea# or write his *&dgement o &n"lean things) be"a&se it is not to 'lease! b&t 'roit6
b&t or another man to write his e+travagant and 'leasant an"ies o the same is as i a man! rom being t&mbled into
the dirt! sho&ld "ome and 'resent himsel beore good "om'any$ And it is the want o dis"retion that ma#es the
dieren"e$ Again! in 'roessed remissness o mind! and amiliar "om'any! a man may 'lay with the so&nds and
e2&ivo"al signii"ations o words! and that many times with en"o&nters o e+traordinary an"y) b&t in a sermon! or in
'&bli"! or beore 'ersons &n#nown! or whom we o&ght to reveren"e! there is no *ingling o words that will not be
a""o&nted olly6 and the dieren"e is only in the want o dis"retion$ 0o that where wit is wanting! it is not an"y that
is wanting! b&t dis"retion$ :&dgement! thereore! witho&t an"y is wit! b&t an"y witho&t *&dgement! not$ /hen the
tho&ghts o a man that has a design in hand! r&nning over a m&ltit&de o things! observes how they "ond&"e to that
design! or what design they may "ond&"e &nto) i his observations be s&"h as are not easy! or &s&al! this wit o his is
"alled 'r&den"e! and de'endeth on m&"h e+'erien"e! and memory o the li#e things and their "onse2&en"es
heretoore$ In whi"h there is not so m&"h dieren"e o men as there is in their an"ies and *&dgements) be"a&se the
e+'erien"e o men e2&al in age is not m&"h &ne2&al as to the 2&antity! b&t lies in dierent o""asions! every one
having his 'rivate designs$ To govern well a amily and a #ingdom are not dierent degrees o 'r&den"e! b&t
dierent sorts o b&siness) no more than to draw a 'i"t&re in little! or as great or greater than the lie! are dierent
degrees o art$ A 'lain h&sbandman is more 'r&dent in aairs o his own ho&se than a 8rivy ,o&nsellor in the aairs
o another man$
To 'r&den"e! i yo& add the &se o &n*&st or dishonest means! s&"h as &s&ally are 'rom'ted to men by ear or want!
yo& have that "roo#ed wisdom whi"h is "alled "rat) whi"h is a sign o '&sillanimity$ %or magnanimity is "ontem't
o &n*&st or dishonest hel's$ And that whi"h the Latins "all vers&tia (translated into English! shiting)! and is a
'&tting o o a 'resent danger or in"ommodity by engaging into a greater! as when a man robs one to 'ay another! is
b&t a shorter7sighted "rat) "alled vers&tia! rom vers&ra! whi"h signiies ta#ing money at &s&ry or the 'resent
'ayment o interest$
As or a"2&ired wit (I mean a"2&ired by method and instr&"tion)! there is none b&t reason) whi"h is gro&nded on the
right &se o s'ee"h! and 'rod&"eth the s"ien"es$ 5&t o reason and s"ien"e! I have already s'o#en in the ith and
si+th "ha'ters$ The "a&ses o this dieren"e o wits are in the 'assions! and the dieren"e o 'assions 'ro"eedeth
'artly rom the dierent "onstit&tion o the body! and 'artly rom dierent ed&"ation$ %or i the dieren"e 'ro"eeded
rom the tem'er o the brain! and the organs o sense! either e+terior or interior! there wo&ld be no less dieren"e o
men in their sight! hearing! or other senses than in their an"ies and dis"retions$ It 'ro"eeds! thereore! rom the
'assions) whi"h are dierent! not only rom the dieren"e o men1s "om'le+ions! b&t also rom their dieren"e o
"&stoms and ed&"ation$ The 'assions that most o all "a&se the dieren"es o wit are 'rin"i'ally the more or less
desire o 'ower! o ri"hes! o #nowledge! and o hono&r$ All whi"h may be red&"ed to the irst! that is! desire o
'ower$ %or ri"hes! #nowledge and hono&r are b&t several sorts o 'ower$
And thereore! a man who has no great 'assion or any o these things! b&t is as men term it indierent) tho&gh he
may be so ar a good man as to be ree rom giving oen"e! yet he "annot 'ossibly have either a great an"y or m&"h
*&dgement$ %or the tho&ghts are to the desires as s"o&ts and s'ies to range abroad and ind the way to the things
desired! all steadiness o the mind1s motion! and all 2&i"#ness o the same! 'ro"eeding rom then"e$ %or as to have no
desire is to be dead) so to have wea# 'assions is d&llness) and to have 'assions indierently or everything! giddiness
and distra"tion) and to have stronger and more vehement 'assions or anything than is ordinarily seen in others is
that whi"h men "all madness$
/hereo there be almost as may #inds as o the 'assions themselves$ 0ometimes the e+traordinary and e+travagant
'assion 'ro"eedeth rom the evil "onstit&tion o the organs o the body! or harm done them) and sometimes the h&rt!
and indis'osition o the organs! is "a&sed by the vehemen"e or long "ontin&an"e o the 'assion$ 5&t in both "ases the
madness is o one and the same nat&re$
The 'assion whose violen"e or "ontin&an"e ma#eth madness is either great vainglory! whi"h is "ommonly "alled
'ride and sel7"on"eit! or great de*e"tion o mind$
8ride s&b*e"teth a man to anger! the e+"ess whereo is the madness "alled rage! and &ry$ And th&s it "omes to 'ass
that e+"essive desire o revenge! when it be"omes habit&al! h&rteth the organs! and be"omes rage6 that e+"essive
love! with *ealo&sy! be"omes also rage6 e+"essive o'inion o a man1s own sel! or divine ins'iration! or wisdom!
learning! orm! and the li#e! be"omes distra"tion and giddiness6 the same! *oined with envy! rage6 vehement o'inion
o the tr&th o anything! "ontradi"ted by others! rage$
4e*e"tion s&b*e"ts a man to "a&seless ears! whi"h is a madness "ommonly "alled melan"holy a''arent also in
diverse manners6 as in ha&nting o solit&des and graves) in s&'erstitio&s behavio&r) and in earing some one! some
another! 'arti"&lar thing$ In s&m! all 'assions that 'rod&"e strange and &n&s&al behavio&r are "alled by the general
name o madness$ 5&t o the several #inds o madness! he that wo&ld ta#e the 'ains might enrol a legion$ And i the
e+"esses be madness! there is no do&bt b&t the 'assions themselves! when they tend to evil! are degrees o the same$
%or e+am'le! tho&gh the ee"t o olly! in them that are 'ossessed o an o'inion o being ins'ired! be not visible
always in one man by any very e+travagant a"tion that 'ro"eedeth rom s&"h 'assion! yet when many o them
"ons'ire together! the rage o the whole m&ltit&de is visible eno&gh$ %or what arg&ment o madness "an there be
greater than to "lamo&r! stri#e! and throw stones at o&r best riends( ;et this is somewhat less than s&"h a m&ltit&de
will do$ %or they will "lamo&r! ight against! and destroy those by whom all their lietime beore they have been
'rote"ted and se"&red rom in*&ry$ And i this be madness in the m&ltit&de! it is the same in every 'arti"&lar man$ %or
as in the midst o the sea! tho&gh a man 'er"eive no so&nd o that 'art o the water ne+t him! yet he is well ass&red
that 'art "ontrib&tes as m&"h to the roaring o the sea as any other 'art o the same 2&antity6 so also! tho&gh we
'er"eive no great &n2&ietness in one or two men! yet we may be well ass&red that their sing&lar 'assions are 'arts o
the seditio&s roaring o a tro&bled nation$ And i there were nothing else that bewrayed their madness! yet that very
arrogating s&"h ins'iration to themselves is arg&ment eno&gh$ I some man in 5edlam sho&ld entertain yo& with
sober dis"o&rse! and yo& desire in ta#ing leave to #now what he were that yo& might another time re2&ite his "ivility!
and he sho&ld tell yo& he were God the %ather) I thin# yo& need e+'e"t no e+travagant a"tion or arg&ment o his
madness$
This o'inion o ins'iration! "alled "ommonly! 'rivate s'irit! begins very oten rom some l&"#y inding o an error
generally held by others) and not #nowing! or not remembering! by what "ond&"t o reason they "ame to so sing&lar
a tr&th! as they thin# it! tho&gh it be many times an &ntr&th they light on! they 'resently admire themselves as being
in the s'e"ial gra"e o God Almighty! who hath revealed the same to them s&'ernat&rally by his 0'irit$ Again! that
madness is nothing else b&t too m&"h a''earing 'assion may be gathered o&t o the ee"ts o wine! whi"h are the
same with those o the evil dis'osition o the organs$ %or the variety o behavio&r in men that have dr&n# too m&"h is
the same with that o madmen6 some o them raging! others loving! others la&ghing! all e+travagantly! b&t a""ording
to their several domineering 'assions6 or the ee"t o the wine does b&t remove dissim&lation! and ta#e rom them
the sight o the deormity o their 'assions$ %or! I believe! the most sober men! when they wal# alone witho&t "are
and em'loyment o the mind! wo&ld be &nwilling the vanity and e+travagan"e o their tho&ghts at that time sho&ld
be '&bli"ly seen! whi"h is a "onession that 'assions &ng&ided are or the most 'art mere madness$
The o'inions o the world! both in an"ient and later ages! "on"erning the "a&se o madness have been two$ 0ome!
deriving them rom the 'assions) some! rom demons or s'irits! either good or bad! whi"h they tho&ght might enter
into a man! 'ossess him! and move his organs in s&"h strange and &n"o&th manner as madmen &se to do$ The ormer
sort! thereore! "alled s&"h men! madmen6 b&t the latter "alled them sometimes demonia"s (that is! 'ossessed with
s'irits)) sometimes energ&meni (that is! agitated or moved with s'irits)) and now in Italy they are "alled not only
'a99i! madmen) b&t also s'iritati! men 'ossessed$
There was on"e a great "onl&+ o 'eo'le in Abdera! a "ity o the Gree#s! at the a"ting o the tragedy o Andromeda!
&'on an e+treme hot day6 where&'on a great many o the s'e"tators! alling into evers! had this a""ident rom the
heat and rom the tragedy together! that they did nothing b&t 'rono&n"e iambi"s! with the names o 8erse&s and
Andromeda) whi"h! together with the ever! was "&red by the "oming on o winter6 and this madness was tho&ght to
'ro"eed rom the 'assion im'rinted by the tragedy$ Li#ewise there reigned a it o madness in another Gre"ian "ity
whi"h sei9ed only the yo&ng maidens! and "a&sed many o them to hang themselves$ This was by most then tho&ght
an a"t o the devil$ 5&t one that s&s'e"ted that "ontem't o lie in them might 'ro"eed rom some 'assion o the
mind! and s&''osing they did not "ontemn also their hono&r! gave "o&nsel to the magistrates to stri' s&"h as so
hanged themselves! and let them hang o&t na#ed$ This! the story says! "&red that madness$ 5&t on the other side! the
same Gre"ians did oten as"ribe madness to the o'eration o the E&menides! or %&ries) and sometimes o ,eres!
8hoeb&s! and other gods6 so m&"h did men attrib&te to 'hantasms as to thin# them aerial living bodies! and generally
to "all them s'irits$ And as the Romans in this held the same o'inion with the Gree#s! so also did the :ews) or they
"alled madmen 'ro'hets! or! a""ording as they tho&ght the s'irits good or bad! demonia"s) and some o them "alled
both 'ro'hets and demonia"s madmen) and some "alled the same man both demonia" and madman$ 5&t or the
Gentiles! it is no wonder) be"a&se diseases and health! vi"es and virt&es! and many nat&ral a""idents were with them
termed and worshi''ed as demons$ 0o that a man was to &nderstand by demon as well sometimes an ag&e as a devil$
5&t or the :ews to have s&"h o'inion is somewhat strange$ %or neither .oses nor Abraham 'retended to 'ro'hesy
by 'ossession o a s'irit! b&t rom the voi"e o God! or by a vision or dream6 nor is there anything in his law! moral
or "eremonial! by whi"h they were ta&ght there was any s&"h enth&siasm! or any 'ossession$ /hen God is said to
ta#e rom the s'irit that was in .oses! and give to the seventy elders! the s'irit o God! ta#ing it or the s&bstan"e o
God! is not divided$E The 0"ri't&res by the 0'irit o God in man mean a man1s s'irit! in"lined to godliness$ And
where it is said! F/hom I have illed with the s'irit o wisdom to ma#e garments or Aaron!FE(@) is not meant a
s'irit '&t into them! that "an ma#e garments! b&t the wisdom o their own s'irits in that #ind o wor#$ In the li#e
sense! the s'irit o man! when it 'rod&"eth &n"lean a"tions! is ordinarily "alled an &n"lean s'irit) and so other s'irits!
tho&gh not always! yet as oten as the virt&e or vi"e! so styled! is e+traordinary and eminent$ Neither did the other
'ro'hets o the -ld Testament 'retend enth&siasm! or that God s'o#e in them! b&t to them! by voi"e! vision! or
dream) and the Fb&rden o the LordF was not 'ossession! b&t "ommand$ How then "o&ld the :ews all into this
o'inion o 'ossession( I "an imagine no reason b&t that whi"h is "ommon to all men) namely! the want o "&riosity
to sear"h nat&ral "a&ses) and their 'la"ing eli"ity in the a"2&isition o the gross 'leas&res o the senses! and the
things that most immediately "ond&"e thereto$ %or they that see any strange and &n&s&al ability or dee"t in a man1s
mind! &nless they see withal rom what "a&se it may 'robably 'ro"eed! "an hardly thin# it nat&ral) and i not nat&ral!
they m&st needs thin# it s&'ernat&ral) and then what "an it be! b&t that either God or the 4evil is in him( And hen"e
it "ame to 'ass! when o&r 0avio&r was "om'assed abo&t with the m&ltit&de! those o the ho&se do&bted he was mad!
and went o&t to hold him6 b&t the 0"ribes said he had 5eel9eb&b! and that was it! by whi"h he "ast o&t devils) as i
the greater madman had awed the lesser$E(=) And that some said! FHe hath a devil! and is madF) whereas others!
holding him or a 'ro'het! said! FThese are not the words o one that hath a devil$FE(A) 0o in the -ld Testament he
that "ame to anoint :eh& was a 8ro'het) b&t some o the "om'any as#ed :eh&! F/hat "ame that madman or(FE(B) 0o
that! in s&m! it is maniest that whosoever behaved himsel in e+traordinary manner was tho&ght by the :ews to be
'ossessed either with a good or evil s'irit) e+"e't by the 0add&"ees! who erred so ar on the other hand as not to
believe there were at all any s'irits! whi"h is very near to dire"t atheism) and thereby 'erha's the more 'rovo#ed
others to term s&"h men demonia"s rather than madmen$

5&t why then does o&r 0avio&r 'ro"eed in the "&ring o them! as i they were 'ossessed! and not as it they were
mad( To whi"h I "an give no other #ind o answer b&t that whi"h is given to those that &rge the 0"ri't&re in li#e
manner against the o'inion o the motion o the earth$ The 0"ri't&re was written to show &nto men the #ingdom o
God! and to 're'are their minds to be"ome His obedient s&b*e"ts! leaving the world! and the 'hiloso'hy thereo! to
the dis'&tation o men or the e+er"ising o their nat&ral reason$ /hether the earth1s or s&n1s motion ma#e the day
and night! or whether the e+orbitant a"tions o men 'ro"eed rom 'assion or rom the 4evil! so
we worshi' him not! it is all one! as to o&r obedien"e and s&b*e"tion to God Almighty) whi"h is
the thing or whi"h the 0"ri't&re was written$ As or that o&r 0avio&r s'ea#eth to the disease as
to a 'erson! it is the &s&al 'hrase o all that "&re by words only! as ,hrist did! and en"hanters
'retend to do! whether they s'ea# to a devil or not$ %or is not ,hrist also said to have reb&#ed
the winds(E Is not he said also to reb&#e a ever(E(@) ;et this does not arg&e that a ever is a
devil$ And whereas many o those devils are said to "oness ,hrist! it is not ne"essary to
inter'ret those 'la"es otherwise than that those madmen "onessed Him$ And whereas o&r 0avio&r s'ea#eth o an
&n"lean s'irit that! having gone o&t o a man! wandereth thro&gh dry 'la"es! see#ing rest! and inding none! and
ret&rning into the same man with seven other s'irits worse than himsel)E(=) it is maniestly a 'arable! all&ding to a
man that! ater a little endeavo&r to 2&it his l&sts! is van2&ished by the strength o them! and be"omes seven times
worse than he was$ 0o that I see nothing at all in the 0"ri't&re that re2&ireth a belie that demonia"s were any other
thing b&t madmen$

There is yet another a&lt in the dis"o&rses o some men! whi"h may also be n&mbered amongst the sorts o madness)
namely! that ab&se o words! whereo I have s'o#en beore in the ith "ha'ter by the name o abs&rdity$ And that is
when men s'ea# s&"h words as! '&t together! have in them no signii"ation at all! b&t are allen &'on! by some!
thro&gh mis&nderstanding o the words they have re"eived and re'eat by rote) by others! rom intention to de"eive
by obs"&rity$ And this is in"ident to none b&t those that "onverse in 2&estions o matters in"om'rehensible! as the
0"hoolmen) or in 2&estions o abstr&se 'hiloso'hy$ The "ommon sort o men seldom s'ea# insignii"antly! and are
thereore! by those other egregio&s 'ersons! "o&nted idiots$ 5&t to be ass&red their words are witho&t anything
"orres'ondent to them in the mind! there wo&ld need some e+am'les) whi"h i any man re2&ire! let him ta#e a
0"hoolman into his hands and see i he "an translate any one "ha'ter "on"erning any dii"&lt 'oint) as the Trinity!
the 4eity! the nat&re o ,hrist! trans&bstantiation! ree will! et"$! into any o the modern
tong&es! so as to ma#e the same intelligible) or into any tolerable Latin! s&"h as they were
a"2&ainted withal that lived when the Latin tong&e was v&lgar$ /hat is the meaning o these
words6 FThe irst "a&se does not ne"essarily inlow anything into the se"ond! by or"e o the
essential s&bordination o the se"ond "a&ses! by whi"h it may hel' it to wor#(F They are the translation o the title o
the si+th "ha'ter o 0&are91s irst boo#! - the ,on"o&rse! .otion! and Hel' o God$ /hen men write whole
vol&mes o s&"h st&! are they not mad! or intend to ma#e others so( And 'arti"&larly! in the 2&estion o
trans&bstantiation) where ater "ertain words s'o#en they that say! the whiteness! ro&ndness! magnit&de! 2&ality!
"orr&'tibility! all whi"h are in"or'oreal! et"$! go o&t o the waer into the body o o&r blessed 0avio&r! do they not
ma#e those nesses! t&des! and ties to be so many s'irits 'ossessing his body( %or by s'irits they mean always things
that! being in"or'oreal! are nevertheless movable rom one 'la"e to another$ 0o that this #ind o abs&rdity may
rightly be n&mbered amongst the many sorts o madness) and all the time that! g&ided by "lear tho&ghts o their
worldly l&st! they orbear dis'&ting or writing th&s! b&t l&"id intervals$ And th&s m&"h o the virt&es and dee"ts
intelle"t&al$
E N&mbers! ??$ @B
E(@) E+od&s! @G$ =
E(=) .ar#! =$ @?
E(A) :ohn! ?>$ @>
E(B) II 3ings! H$ ??
E E .atthew! G$ @C
E(@) L&#e! A$ =H
E(=) .atthew! ?@$ A=
,HA8TER II OF THE SEVERAL SUBJECT OF KNOWLEDGE
THERE are o #nowledge two #inds! whereo one is #nowledge o a"t) the other! #nowledge o the "onse2&en"e o
one airmation to another$ The ormer is nothing else b&t sense and memory! and is absol&te #nowledge) as when we
see a a"t doing! or remember it done) and this is the #nowledge re2&ired in a witness$ The latter is "alled s"ien"e!
and is "onditional) as when we #now that6 i the ig&re shown be a "ir"le! then any straight line thro&gh the "enter
shall divide it into two e2&al 'arts$ And this is the #nowledge re2&ired in a 'hiloso'her) that is to say! o him that
'retends to reasoning$
The register o #nowledge o a"t is "alled history! whereo there be two sorts6 one "alled nat&ral history) whi"h is
the history o s&"h a"ts! or ee"ts o Nat&re! as have no de'enden"e on man1s will) s&"h as are the histories o
metals! 'lants! animals! regions! and the li#e$ The other is "ivil history! whi"h is the history o the vol&ntary a"tions
o men in ,ommonwealths$
The registers o s"ien"e are s&"h boo#s as "ontain the demonstrations o "onse2&en"es o one airmation to another)
and are "ommonly "alled boo#s o 'hiloso'hy) whereo the sorts are many! a""ording to the diversity o the matter)
and may be divided in s&"h manner as I have divided them in the ollowing table$
I$ 0,IEN,E! that is! #nowledge o "onse2&en"es) whi"h is "alled also 8HIL-0-8H;
A$ ,onse2&en"es rom a""idents o bodies nat&ral) whi"h is "alled NATURAL 8HIL-0-8H;
?$ ,onse2&en"es rom a""idents "ommon to all bodies nat&ral) whi"h are 2&antity! and motion$
a$ ,onse2&en"es rom 2&antity! and motion indeterminate) whi"h! being the 'rin"i'les or irst
o&ndation o 'hiloso'hy! is "alled 'hiloso'hia 'rima
8HIL-0-8HIA 8RI.A
b$ ,onse2&en"es rom motion! and 2&antity determined
?) ,onse2&en"es rom 2&antity! and motion determined
a) 5y ig&re! 5y n&mber
?J .athemati"s!
GE-.ETR;
ARITH.ETI,
@) ,onse2&en"es rom motion! and 2&antity o bodies in s'e"ial
a) ,onse2&en"es rom motion! and 2&antity o the great 'arts
o the world! as the earth and stars!
?J ,osmogra'hy
A0TR-N-.;
GE-GRA8H;
b) ,onse2&en"es rom motion o s'e"ial #inds! and ig&res o
body!
?J .e"hani"s! do"trine o weight
0"ien"e o ENGINEER0
AR,HITE,TURE
NAVIGATI-N
@$ 8H;0I,0! or "onse2&en"es rom 2&alities
a$ ,onse2&en"es rom 2&alities o bodies transient!
s&"h as sometimes a''ear! sometimes vanish
.ETE-R-L-G;
b$ ,onse2&en"es rom 2&alities o bodies 'ermanent
?) ,onse2&en"es rom 2&alities o stars
a) ,onse2&en"es rom the light o the
stars$ -&t o this! and the motion o
the s&n! is made the s"ien"e o
0,I-GRA8H;
b) ,onse2&en"es rom the inl&en"e o
the stars!
A0TR-L-G;
@) ,onse2&en"es o 2&alities rom li2&id
bodies that ill the s'a"e between the stars)
s&"h as are the air! or s&bstan"e etherial
=) ,onse2&en"es rom 2&alities o bodies
terrestrial
a) ,onse2&en"es rom 'arts o the
earth that are witho&t sense!
?J ,onse2&en"es rom
2&alities o minerals! as stones!
metals! et"$
@J ,onse2&en"es rom the
2&alities o vegetables
b) ,onse2&en"es rom 2&alities o
animals
?J ,onse2&en"es rom
2&alities o animals in general
aJ ,onse2&en"es rom vision!
-8TI,0
bJ ,onse2&en"es rom so&nds!
.U0I,
"J ,onse2&en"es rom
the rest o the senses
@J ,onse2&en"es rom
2&alities o men in s'e"ial
aJ ,onse2&en"es rom
'assions o men!
ETHI,0
bJ ,onse2&en"es rom s'ee"h!
i) In magniying! viliying! et"$
8-ETR;
ii) In 'ers&ading!
RHET-RI,
iii) In reasoning!
L-GI,
iv) In "ontra"ting!
The 0"ien"e o :U0T and UN:U0T
5$ ,onse2&en"es rom a""idents o 'oliti" bodies) whi"h is "alled
8-LITI,0! AN4 ,IVIL 8HIL-0-8H;
?$ - "onse2&en"es rom the instit&tion o
,-..-N/EALTH0! to the rights! and d&ties o the body
'oliti"! or sovereign
@$ - "onse2&en"es rom the same! to the d&ty and right o
the s&b*e"ts
,HA8TER I OF POWER, WORTH, DIGNITY, HONOUR AND WORTHINESS
THE 8-/ER o a man! to ta#e it &niversally! is his 'resent means to obtain some &t&re a''arent good! and is either
original or instr&mental$
Nat&ral 'ower is the eminen"e o the a"&lties o body! or mind) as e+traordinary strength! orm! 'r&den"e! arts!
elo2&en"e! liberality! nobility$ Instr&mental are those 'owers whi"h! a"2&ired by these! or by ort&ne! are means and
instr&ments to a"2&ire more) as ri"hes! re'&tation! riends! and the se"ret wor#ing o God! whi"h men "all good l&"#$
%or the nat&re o 'ower is! in this 'oint! li#e to ame! in"reasing as it 'ro"eeds) or li#e the motion o heavy bodies!
whi"h! the &rther they go! ma#e still the more haste$
The greatest o h&man 'owers is that whi"h is "om'o&nded o the 'owers o most men! &nited by "onsent! in one
'erson! nat&ral or "ivil! that has the &se o all their 'owers de'ending on his will) s&"h as is the 'ower o a
,ommonwealth6 or de'ending on the wills o ea"h 'arti"&lar) s&"h as is the 'ower o a a"tion! or o diverse$ a"tions
leag&ed$ Thereore to have servants is 'ower) to have riends is 'ower6 or they are strengths &nited$
Also! ri"hes *oined with liberality is 'ower) be"a&se it 'ro"&reth riends and servants6 witho&t liberality! not so)
be"a&se in this "ase they deend not! b&t e+'ose men to envy! as a 'rey$
Re'&tation o 'ower is 'ower) be"a&se it draweth with it the adheren"e o those that need 'rote"tion$
0o is re'&tation o love o a man1s "o&ntry! "alled 'o'&larity! or the same reason$
Also! what 2&ality soever ma#eth a man beloved or eared o many! or the re'&tation o s&"h 2&ality! is 'ower)
be"a&se it is a means to have the assistan"e and servi"e o many$
Good s&""ess is 'ower) be"a&se it ma#eth re'&tation o wisdom or good ort&ne! whi"h ma#es men either ear him
or rely on him$
Aability o men already in 'ower is in"rease o 'ower) be"a&se it gaineth love$
Re'&tation o 'r&den"e in the "ond&"t o 'ea"e or war is 'ower) be"a&se to 'r&dent men we "ommit the government
o o&rselves more willingly than to others$
Nobility is 'ower! not in all 'la"es! b&t only in those ,ommonwealths where it has 'rivileges) or in s&"h 'rivileges
"onsisteth their 'ower$
Elo2&en"e is 'ower) be"a&se it is seeming 'r&den"e$
%orm is 'ower) be"a&se being a 'romise o good! it re"ommendeth men to the avo&r o women and strangers$
The s"ien"es are small 'owers) be"a&se not eminent! and thereore! not a"#nowledged in any man) nor are at all! b&t
in a ew! and in them! b&t o a ew things$ %or s"ien"e is o that nat&re! as none "an &nderstand it to be! b&t s&"h as in
a good meas&re have attained it$
Arts o '&bli" &se! as ortii"ation! ma#ing o engines! and other instr&ments o war! be"a&se they "oner to deen"e
and vi"tory! are 'ower) and tho&gh the tr&e mother o them be s"ien"e! namely! the mathemati"s yet! be"a&se they
are bro&ght into the light by the hand o the artii"er! they be esteemed (the midwie 'assing with the v&lgar or the
mother) as his iss&e$
The val&e or worth o a man is! as o all other things! his 'ri"e) that is to say! so m&"h as wo&ld be given or the &se
o his 'ower! and thereore is not absol&te! b&t a thing de'endent on the need and *&dgement o another$ An able
"ond&"tor o soldiers is o great 'ri"e in time o war 'resent or imminent! b&t in 'ea"e not so$ A learned and
&n"orr&'t *&dge is m&"h worth in time o 'ea"e! b&t not so m&"h in war$ And as in other things! so in men! not the
seller! b&t the b&yer determines the 'ri"e$ %or let a man! as most men do! rate themselves at the highest val&e they
"an! yet their tr&e val&e is no more than it is esteemed by others$
The maniestation o the val&e we set on one another is that whi"h is "ommonly "alled hono&ring and dishono&ring$
To val&e a man at a high rate is to hono&r him) at a low rate is to dishono&r him$ 5&t high and low! in this "ase! is to
be &nderstood by "om'arison to the rate that ea"h man setteth on himsel$
The '&bli" worth o a man! whi"h is the val&e set on him by the ,ommonwealth! is that whi"h men "ommonly "all
dignity$ And this val&e o him by the ,ommonwealth is &nderstood by oi"es o "ommand! *&di"at&re! '&bli"
em'loyment) or by names and titles introd&"ed or distin"tion o s&"h val&e$
To 'ray to another or aid o any #ind is to hono&r) be"a&se a sign we have an o'inion he has 'ower to hel') and the
more dii"&lt the aid is! the more is the hono&r$
To obey s to hono&r) be"a&se no man obeys them who they thin# have no 'ower to hel' or h&rt them$ And
"onse2&ently to disobey is to dishono&r$ To give great gits to a man is to hono&r him) be"a&se it is b&ying o
'rote"tion! and a"#nowledging o 'ower$ To give little gits is to dishono&r) be"a&se it is b&t alms! and signiies an
o'inion o the need o small hel's$
To be sed&lo&s in 'romoting another1s good! also to latter! is to hono&r) as a sign we see# his 'rote"tion or aid$ To
negle"t is to dishono&r$
To give way or 'la"e to another! in any "ommodity! is to hono&r) being a "onession o greater 'ower$ To arrogate is
to dishono&r$
To show any sign o love or ear o another is hono&r) or both to love and to ear is to val&e$ To "ontemn! or less to
love or ear than he e+'e"ts! is to dishono&r) or it is &nderval&ing$
To 'raise! magniy! or "all ha''y is to hono&r) be"a&se nothing b&t goodness! 'ower! and eli"ity is val&ed$ To revile!
mo"#! or 'ity is to dishono&r$
To s'ea# to another with "onsideration! to a''ear beore him with de"en"y and h&mility! is to hono&r him) as signs
o ear to oend$ To s'ea# to him rashly! to do anything beore him obs"enely! slovenly! im'&dently is to dishono&r$
To believe! to tr&st! to rely on another! is to hono&r him) sign o o'inion o his virt&e and 'ower$ To distr&st! or not
believe! is to dishono&r$
To hear#en to a man1s "o&nsel! or dis"o&rse o what #ind soever! is to hono&r) as a sign we thin# him wise! or
elo2&ent! or witty$ To slee'! or go orth! or tal# the while! is to dishono&r$
To do those things to another whi"h he ta#es or signs o hono&r! or whi"h the law or "&stom ma#es so! is to hono&r)
be"a&se in a''roving the hono&r done by others! he a"#nowledgeth the 'ower whi"h others a"#nowledge$ To re&se
to do them is to dishono&r$
To agree with in o'inion is to hono&r) as being a sign o a''roving his *&dgement and wisdom$ To dissent is
dishono&r! and an &'braiding o error! and! i the dissent be in many things! o olly$
To imitate is to hono&r) or it is vehemently to a''rove$ To imitate one1s enemy is to dishono&r$
To hono&r those another hono&rs is to hono&r him) as a sign o a''robation o his *&dgement$ To hono&r his enemies
is to dishono&r him$
To em'loy in "o&nsel! or in a"tions o dii"&lty! is to hono&r) as a sign o o'inion o his wisdom or other 'ower$ To
deny em'loyment in the same "ases to those that see# it is to dishono&r$
All these ways o hono&ring are nat&ral! and as well within! as witho&t ,ommonwealths$ 5&t in ,ommonwealths
where he or they that have the s&'reme a&thority "an ma#e whatsoever they 'lease to stand or signs o hono&r! there
be other hono&rs$
A sovereign doth hono&r a s&b*e"t with whatsoever title! or oi"e! or em'loyment! or a"tion that he himsel will
have ta#en or a sign o his will to hono&r him$
The #ing o 8ersia hono&red .orde"ai when he a''ointed he sho&ld be "ond&"ted thro&gh the streets in the #ing1s
garment! &'on one o the #ing1s horses! with a "rown on his head! and a 'rin"e beore him! 'ro"laiming! FTh&s shall
it be done to him that the #ing will hono&r$F And yet another #ing o 8ersia! or the same another time! to one that
demanded or some great servi"e to wear one o the #ing1s robes! gave him leave so to do) b&t with this addition! that
he sho&ld wear it as the #ing1s ool) and then it was dishono&r$ 0o that o "ivil hono&r! the o&ntain is in the 'erson o
the ,ommonwealth! and de'endeth on the will o the sovereign! and is thereore tem'orary and "alled "ivil hono&r)
s&"h as are magistra"y! oi"es! titles! and in some 'la"es "oats and s"&t"heons 'ainted6 and men hono&r s&"h as have
them! as having so many signs o avo&r in the ,ommonwealth! whi"h avo&r is 'ower$
Hono&rable is whatsoever 'ossession! a"tion! or 2&ality is an arg&ment and sign o 'ower$
And thereore to be hono&red! loved! or eared o many is hono&rable! as arg&ments o 'ower$ To be hono&red o ew
or none! dishono&rable$
4ominion and vi"tory is hono&rable be"a&se a"2&ired by 'ower) and servit&de! or need or ear! is dishono&rable$
Good ort&ne! i lasting! hono&rable) as a sign o the avo&r o God$ Ill and losses! dishonorable$ Ri"hes are
honorable! or they are 'ower$ 8overty! dishonorable$ .agnanimity! liberality! ho'e! "o&rage! "oniden"e! are
honorable) or they 'ro"eed rom the "ons"ien"e o 'ower$ 8&sillanimity! 'arsimony! ear! diiden"e! are
dishonorable$
Timely resol&tion! or determination o what a man is to do! is honorable! as being the "ontem't o small dii"&lties
and dangers$ And irresol&tion! dishonorable! as a sign o too m&"h val&ing o little im'ediments and little
advantages6 or when a man has weighed things as long as the time 'ermits! and resolves not! the dieren"e o
weight is b&t little) and thereore i he resolve not! he overval&es little things! whi"h is '&sillanimity$
All a"tions and s'ee"hes that 'ro"eed! or seem to 'ro"eed! rom m&"h e+'erien"e! s"ien"e! dis"retion! or wit are
honorable) or all these are 'owers$ A"tions or words that 'ro"eed rom error! ignoran"e! or olly! dishonorable$
Gravity! as ar orth as it seems to 'ro"eed rom a mind em'loyed on something else! is honorable) be"a&se
em'loyment is a sign o 'ower$ 5&t i it seem to 'ro"eed rom a '&r'ose to a''ear grave! it is dishonorable$ %or the
gravity o the ormer is li#e the steadiness o a shi' laden with mer"handise) b&t o the li#e the steadiness o a shi'
ballasted with sand and other trash$
To be "ons'i"&o&s! that is to say! to be #nown! or wealth! oi"e! great a"tions! or any eminent good is honorable) as
a sign o the 'ower or whi"h he is "ons'i"&o&s$ -n the "ontrary! obs"&rity is dishonorable$
To be des"ended rom "ons'i"&o&s 'arents is honorable) be"a&se they the more easily attain the aids and riends o
their an"estors$ -n the "ontrary! to be des"ended rom obs"&re 'arentage is dishonorable$
A"tions 'ro"eeding rom e2&ity! *oined with loss! are honorable) as signs o magnanimity6 or magnanimity is a sign
o 'ower$ -n the "ontrary! "rat! shiting! negle"t o e2&ity! is dishonorable$
,oveto&sness o great ri"hes! and ambition o great honors! are honorable) as signs o 'ower to obtain them$
,oveto&sness! and ambition o little gains! or 'reerments! is dishono&rable$
Nor does it alter the "ase o hono&r whether an a"tion (so it be great and dii"&lt! and "onse2&ently a sign o m&"h
'ower) be *&st or &n*&st6 or hono&r "onsisteth only in the o'inion o 'ower$ Thereore! the an"ient heathen did not
thin# they dishono&red! b&t greatly hono&red the gods! when they introd&"ed them in their 'oems "ommitting ra'es!
thets! and other great! b&t &n*&st or &n"lean a"ts) in so m&"h as nothing is so m&"h "elebrated in :&'iter as his
ad&lteries) nor in .er"&ry as his ra&ds and thets) o whose 'raises! in a hymn o Homer! the greatest is this! that
being born in the morning! he had invented m&si" at noon! and beore night stolen away the "attle o A'ollo rom his
herdsmen$
Also amongst men! till there were "onstit&ted great ,ommonwealths! it was tho&ght no dishono&r to be a 'irate! or a
highway thie) b&t rather a law&l trade! not only amongst the Gree#s! b&t also amongst all other nations) as is
maniest by the o an"ient time$ And at this day! in this 'art o the world! 'rivate d&els are! and always will be!
hono&rable! tho&gh &nlaw&l! till s&"h time as there shall be hono&r ordained or them that re&se! and ignominy or
them that ma#e the "hallenge$ %or d&els also are many times ee"ts o "o&rage! and the gro&nd o "o&rage is always
strength or s#ill! whi"h are 'ower) tho&gh or the most 'art they be ee"ts o rash s'ea#ing! and o the ear o
dishono&r! in one or both the "ombatants) who! engaged by rashness! are driven into the lists to avoid disgra"e$
0"&t"heons and "oats o arms hereditary! where they have any their any eminent 'rivileges! are hono&rable)
otherwise not or their 'ower "onsisteth either in s&"h 'rivileges! or in ri"hes! or some s&"h thing as is e2&ally
hono&red in other men$ This #ind o hono&r! "ommonly "alled gentry! has been derived rom the an"ient Germans$
%or there never was any s&"h thing #nown where the German "&stoms were &n#nown$ Nor is it now anywhere in &se
where the Germans have not inhabited$ The an"ient Gree# "ommanders! when they went to war! had their shields
'ainted with s&"h devi"es as they 'leased) insom&"h as an &n'ainted b&"#ler was a sign o 'overty! and o a "ommon
soldier) b&t they transmitted not the inheritan"e o them$ The Romans transmitted the mar#s o their amilies) b&t
they were the images! not the devi"es o their an"estors$ Amongst the 'eo'le o Asia! Ari"a! and Ameri"a! there is
not! nor was ever! any s&"h thing$ Germans only had that "&stom) rom whom it has been derived into England!
%ran"e! 0'ain and Italy! when in great n&mbers they either aided the Romans or made their own "on2&ests in these
western 'arts o the world$
%or Germany! being an"iently! as all other "o&ntries in their beginnings! divided amongst an ininite n&mber o little
lords! or masters o amilies! that "ontin&ally had wars one with another! those masters! or lords! 'rin"i'ally to the
end they might! when they were "overed with arms! be #nown by their ollowers! and 'artly or ornament! both
'ainted their armor! or their s"&t"heon! or "oat! with the 'i"t&re o some beast! or other thing! and also '&t some
eminent and visible mar# &'on the "rest o their helmets$ And this ornament both o the arms and "rest des"ended by
inheritan"e to their "hildren) to the eldest '&re! and to the rest with some note o diversity! s&"h as the old master!
that is to say in 4&t"h! the Here7alt! tho&ght it$ 5&t when many s&"h amilies! *oined together! made a greater
monar"hy! this d&ty o the herald to disting&ish s"&t"heons was made a 'rivate oi"e a'art$ And the iss&e o these
lords is the great and an"ient gentry) whi"h or the most 'art bear living "reat&res noted or "o&rage and ra'ine) or
"astles! battlements! belts! wea'ons! bars! 'alisades! and other notes o war) nothing being then in hono&r! b&t virt&e
military$ Aterwards! not only #ings! b&t 'o'&lar ,ommonwealths! gave diverse manners o s"&t"heons to s&"h as
went orth to the war! or ret&rned rom it! or en"o&ragement or re"om'ense to their servi"e$ All whi"h! by an
observing reader! may be o&nd in s&"h an"ient histories! Gree# and Latin! as ma#e mention o the German nation
and manners in their times$
Titles o hono&r! s&"h as are d&#e! "o&nt! mar2&is! and baron! are hono&rable) as signiying the val&e set &'on them
by the sovereign 'ower o the ,ommonwealth6 whi"h titles were in old time titles o oi"e and "ommand derived
some rom the Romans! some rom the Germans and %ren"h$ 4&#es! in Latin! d&"es! being generals in war) "o&nts!
"omites! s&"h as bore the general "om'any o&t o riendshi'! and were let to govern and deend 'la"es "on2&ered
and 'a"iied) mar2&ises! mar"hioness! were "o&nts that governed the mar"hes! or bo&nds o the Em'ire$ /hi"h titles
o d&#e! "o&nt! and mar2&is "ame into the Em'ire abo&t the time o ,onstantine the Great! rom the "&stoms o the
German militia$ 5&t baron seems to have been a title o the Ga&ls! and signiies a great man) s&"h as were the #ings1
or 'rin"es1 men whom they em'loyed in war abo&t their 'ersons) and seems to be derived rom vir! to ber! and bar!
that signiied the same in the lang&age o the Ga&ls! that vir in Latin) and then"e to bero and baro6 so that s&"h men
were "alled berones! and ater barones) and (in 0'anish) varones$ 5&t he that wo&ld #now more! 'arti"&larly the
original o titles o hono&r! may ind it! as I have done this! in .r$ 0elden1s most e+"ellent treatise o that s&b*e"t$ In
'ro"ess o time these oi"es o hono&r! by o""asion o tro&ble! and or reasons o good and 'ea"eable government!
were t&rned into mere titles! serving! or the most 'art! to disting&ish the 're"eden"e! 'la"e! and order o s&b*e"ts in
the ,ommonwealth6 and men were made d&#es! "o&nts! mar2&ises! and barons o 'la"es! wherein they had neither
'ossession nor "ommand! and other titles also were devised to the same end$
/orthiness is a thing dierent rom the worth or val&e o a man! and also rom his merit or desert! and "onsisteth in
a 'arti"&lar 'ower or ability or that whereo he is said to be worthy) whi"h 'arti"&lar ability is &s&ally named
itness! or a'tit&de$ %or he is worthiest to be a "ommander! to be a *&dge! or to have any other "harge! that is best
itted with the 2&alities re2&ired to the well dis"harging o it) and worthiest o ri"hes! that has the 2&alities most
re2&isite or the well &sing o them6 any o whi"h 2&alities being absent! one may nevertheless be a worthy man! and
val&able or something else$ Again! a man may be worthy o ri"hes! oi"e! and em'loyment that nevertheless "an
'lead no right to have it beore another! and thereore "annot be said to merit or deserve it$ %or merit 'res&''oseth a
right! and that the thing deserved is d&e by 'romise! o whi"h I shall say more hereater when I shall s'ea# o
"ontra"ts$
,HA8TER II OF THE DIFFERENCE OF MANNERS
5; .ANNER0! I mean not here de"en"y o behavio&r) as how one man sho&ld sal&te another! or how a man sho&ld
wash his mo&th! or 'i"# his teeth beore "om'any! and s&"h other 'oints o the small morals) b&t those 2&alities o
man#ind that "on"ern their living together in 'ea"e and &nity$ To whi"h end we are to "onsider that the eli"ity o this
lie "onsisteth not in the re'ose o a mind satisied$ %or there is no s&"h inis &ltim&s (&tmost aim) nor s&mm&m
bon&m (greatest good) as is s'o#en o in the boo#s o the old moral 'hiloso'hers$ Nor "an a man any more live
whose desires are at an end than he whose senses and imaginations are at a stand$ %eli"ity is a "ontin&al 'rogress o
the desire rom one ob*e"t to another! the attaining o the ormer being still b&t the way to the latter$ The "a&se
whereo is that the ob*e"t o man1s desire is not to en*oy on"e only! and or one instant o time! b&t to ass&re orever
the way o his &t&re desire$ And thereore the vol&ntary a"tions and in"linations o all men tend not only to the
'ro"&ring! b&t also to the ass&ring o a "ontented lie! and dier only in the way! whi"h ariseth 'artly rom the
diversity o 'assions in diverse men! and 'artly rom the dieren"e o the #nowledge or o'inion ea"h one has o the
"a&ses whi"h 'rod&"e the ee"t desired$
0o that in the irst 'la"e! I '&t or a general in"lination o all man#ind a 'er'et&al and restless desire o 'ower ater
'ower! that "easeth only in death$ And the "a&se o this is not always that a man ho'es or a more intensive delight
than he has already attained to! or that he "annot be "ontent with a moderate 'ower! b&t be"a&se he "annot ass&re the
'ower and means to live well! whi"h he hath 'resent! witho&t the a"2&isition o more$ And rom hen"e it is that
#ings! whose 'ower is greatest! t&rn their endeavo&rs to the ass&ring it at home by laws! or abroad by wars6 and
when that is done! there s&""eedeth a new desire) in some! o ame rom new "on2&est) in others! o ease and sens&al
'leas&re) in others! o admiration! or being lattered or e+"ellen"e in some art or other ability o the mind$
,om'etition o ri"hes! hono&r! "ommand! or other 'ower in"lineth to "ontention! enmity! and war! be"a&se the way
o one "om'etitor to the attaining o his desire is to #ill! s&bd&e! s&''lant! or re'el the other$ 8arti"&larly! "om'etition
o 'raise in"lineth to a reveren"e o anti2&ity$ %or men "ontend with the living! not with the dead) to these as"ribing
more than d&e! that they may obs"&re the glory o the other$
4esire o ease! and sens&al delight! dis'oseth men to obey a "ommon 'ower6 be"a&se by s&"h desires a man doth
abandon the 'rote"tion that might be ho'ed or rom his own ind&stry and labo&r$ %ear o death and wo&nds
dis'oseth to the same! and or the same reason$ -n the "ontrary! needy men and hardy! not "ontented with their
'resent "ondition! as also all men that are ambitio&s o military "ommand! are in"lined to "ontin&e the "a&ses o war
and to stir &' tro&ble and sedition6 or there is no hono&r military b&t by war) nor any s&"h ho'e to mend an ill game
as by "a&sing a new sh&le$
4esire o #nowledge! and arts o 'ea"e! in"lineth men to obey a "ommon 'ower6 or s&"h desire "ontaineth a desire
o leis&re! and "onse2&ently 'rote"tion rom some other 'ower than their own$
4esire o 'raise dis'oseth to la&dable a"tions! s&"h as 'lease them whose *&dgement they val&e) or o those men
whom we "ontemn! we "ontemn also the 'raises$ 4esire o ame ater death does the same$ And tho&gh ater death
there be no sense o the 'raise given &s on earth! as being *oys that are either swallowed &' in the &ns'ea#able *oys
o heaven or e+ting&ished in the e+treme torments o hell6 yet is not s&"h ame vain) be"a&se men have a 'resent
delight therein! rom the oresight o it! and o the beneit that may redo&nd thereby to their 'osterity6 whi"h tho&gh
they now see not! yet they imagine) and anything that is 'leas&re in the sense! the same also is 'leas&re in the
imagination$
To have re"eived rom one! to whom we thin# o&rselves e2&al! greater beneits than there is ho'e to re2&ite!
dis'oseth to "o&ntereit love! b&t really se"ret hatred! and '&ts a man into the estate o a des'erate debtor that! in
de"lining the sight o his "reditor! ta"itly wishes him there where he might never see him more$ %or beneits oblige)
and obligation is thraldom) and &nre2&itable obligation! 'er'et&al thraldom) whi"h is to one1s e2&al! hate&l$ 5&t to
have re"eived beneits rom one whom we a"#nowledge or s&'erior in"lines to love) be"a&se the obligation is no
new de'ression6 and "heer&l a""e'tation (whi"h men "all gratit&de) is s&"h an hono&r done to the obliger as is ta#en
generally or retrib&tion$ Also to re"eive beneits! tho&gh rom an e2&al! or inerior! as long as there is ho'e o
re2&ital! dis'oseth to love6 or in the intention o the re"eiver! the obligation is o aid and servi"e m&t&al) rom
when"e 'ro"eedeth an em&lation o who shall e+"eed in beneiting) the most noble and 'roitable "ontention
'ossible! wherein the vi"tor is 'leased with his vi"tory! and the other revenged by "onessing it$
To have done more h&rt to a man than he "an or is willing to e+'iate in"lineth the doer to hate the s&erer$ %or he
m&st e+'e"t revenge or orgiveness) both whi"h are hate&l$
%ear o o''ression dis'oseth a man to anti"i'ate or to see# aid by so"iety6 or there is no other way by whi"h a man
"an se"&re his lie and liberty$
.en that distr&st their own s&btlety are in t&m&lt and sedition better dis'osed or vi"tory than they that s&''ose
themselves wise or "raty$ %or these love to "ons&lt) the other! earing to be "ir"&mvented to stri#e irst$ And in
sedition! men being always in the 're"in"ts o battle! to hold together and &se all advantages o or"e is a better
stratagem than any that "an 'ro"eed rom s&btlety o wit$
Vainglorio&s men! s&"h as witho&t being "ons"io&s to themselves o great s&i"ien"y! delight in s&''osing
themselves gallant men! are in"lined only to ostentation! b&t not to attem't) be"a&se when danger or dii"&lty
a''ears! they loo# or nothing b&t to have their ins&i"ien"y dis"overed$
Vain! glorio&s men! s&"h as estimate their s&i"ien"y by the lattery o other men! or the ort&ne o some 're"edent
a"tion! witho&t ass&red gro&nd o ho'e rom the tr&e #nowledge o themselves! are in"lined to rash engaging) and in
the a''roa"h o danger! or dii"&lty! to retire i they "an6 be"a&se not seeing the way o saety they will rather ha9ard
their hono&r! whi"h may be salved with an e+"&se! than their lives! or whi"h no salve is s&i"ient$
.en that have a strong o'inion o their own wisdom in matter o government are dis'osed to ambition$ 5e"a&se
witho&t '&bli" em'loyment in "o&nsel or magistra"y! the hono&r o their wisdom is lost$ And thereore elo2&ent
s'ea#ers are in"lined to ambition) or elo2&en"e seemeth wisdom! both to themselves and others$ 8&sillanimity
dis'oseth men to irresol&tion! and "onse2&ently to lose the o""asions and ittest o''ort&nities o a"tion$ %or ater
men have been in deliberation till the time o a"tion a''roa"h! i it be not then maniest what is best to be done! it is
a sign the dieren"e o motives the one way and the other are not great6 thereore not to resolve then is to lose the
o""asion by weighing o triles! whi"h is '&sillanimity$
%r&gality! tho&gh in 'oor men a virt&e! ma#eth a man &na't to a"hieve s&"h a"tions as re2&ire the strength o many
men at on"e6 or it wea#eneth their endeavo&r! whi"h to be no&rished and #e't in vigo&r by reward$
Elo2&en"e! with lattery! dis'oseth men to "onide in them that have it) be"a&se the ormer is seeming wisdom! the
latter seeming #indness$ Add to them military re'&tation and it dis'oseth men to adhere and s&b*e"t themselves to
those men that have them$ The two ormer! having given them "a&tion against danger rom him! the latter gives them
"a&tion against danger rom others$
/ant o s"ien"e! that is! ignoran"e o "a&ses! dis'oseth or rather "onstraineth a man to rely on the advi"e and
a&thority o others$ %or all men whom the tr&th "on"erns! i they rely not on their own! m&st rely on the o'inion o
some other whom they thin# wiser than themselves! and see not why he sho&ld de"eive them$
Ignoran"e o the signii"ation o words! is want o &nderstanding! dis'oseth men to ta#e on tr&st! not only the tr&th
they #now not! b&t also the errors) and whi"h is more! the nonsense o them they tr&st6 or neither error nor nonsense
"an! witho&t a 'ere"t &nderstanding o words! be dete"ted$
%rom the same it 'ro"eedeth that men give dierent names to one and the same thing rom the dieren"e o their
own 'assions6 as they that a''rove a 'rivate o'inion "all it o'inion) b&t they that misli#e it! heresy6 and yet heresy
signiies no more than 'rivate o'inion) b&t has only a greater tin"t&re o "holer$
%rom the same also it 'ro"eedeth that men "annot disting&ish! witho&t st&dy and great &nderstanding between one
a"tion o many men and many a"tions o one m&ltit&de) as or e+am'le! between the one a"tion o all the senators o
Rome in #illing ,atiline! and the many a"tions o a n&mber o senators in #illing ,aesar) and thereore are dis'osed
to ta#e or the a"tion o the 'eo'le that whi"h is a m&ltit&de o a"tions done by a m&ltit&de o men! led 'erha's by
the 'ers&asion o one$
Ignoran"e o the "a&ses! and original "onstit&tion o right! e2&ity! law! and *&sti"e! dis'oseth a man to ma#e "&stom
and e+am'le the r&le o his a"tions) in s&"h manner as to thin# that &n*&st whi"h it hath been the "&stom to '&nish)
and that *&st! o the im'&nity and a''robation whereo they "an 'rod&"e an e+am'le or (as the lawyers whi"h only
&se this alse meas&re o *&sti"e barbaro&sly "all it) a 're"edent) li#e little "hildren that have no other r&le o good
and evil manners b&t the "orre"tion they re"eive rom their 'arents and masters) save that "hildren are "onstant to
their r&le! whereas men are not so) be"a&se grown strong and st&bborn! they a''eal rom "&stom to reason! and rom
reason to "&stom! as it serves their t&rn! re"eding rom "&stom when their interest re2&ires it! and setting themselves
against reason as ot as reason is against them6 whi"h is the "a&se that the do"trine o right and wrong is 'er'et&ally
dis'&ted! both by the 'en and the sword6 whereas the do"trine o lines and ig&res is not so) be"a&se men "are not! in
that s&b*e"t! what be tr&th! as a thing that "rosses no man1s ambition! 'roit! or l&st$ %or I do&bt not! b&t i it had been
a thing "ontrary to any man1s right o dominion! or to the interest o men that have dominion! that the three angles o
a triangle sho&ld be e2&al to two angles o a s2&are! that do"trine sho&ld have been! i not dis'&ted! yet by the
b&rning o all boo#s o geometry s&''ressed! as ar as he whom it "on"erned was able$
Ignoran"e o remote "a&ses dis'oseth men to attrib&te all events to the "a&ses immediate and instr&mental6 or these
are all the "a&ses they 'er"eive$ And hen"e it "omes to 'ass that in all 'la"es men that are grieved with 'ayments to
the '&bli" dis"harge their anger &'on the '&bli"ans! that is to say! armers! "olle"tors! and other oi"ers o the '&bli"
reven&e! and adhere to s&"h as ind a&lt with the '&bli" government) and thereby! when they have engaged
themselves beyond ho'e o *&stii"ation! all also &'on the s&'reme a&thority! or ear o '&nishment! or shame o
re"eiving 'ardon$ Ignoran"e o nat&ral "a&ses dis'oseth a man to "red&lity! so as to believe many times
im'assibilities6 or s&"h #now nothing to the "ontrary! b&t that they may be tr&e! being &nable to dete"t the
im'ossibility$ And "red&lity! be"a&se men love to be hear#ened &nto in "om'any! dis'oseth them to lying6 so that
ignoran"e itsel! witho&t mali"e! is able to ma#e a man both to believe lies and tell them! and sometimes also to
invent them$
An+iety or the &t&re time dis'oseth men to in2&ire into the "a&ses o things6 be"a&se the #nowledge o them
ma#eth men the better able to order the 'resent to their best advantage$ ,&riosity! or love o the #nowledge o "a&ses!
draws a man rom "onsideration o the ee"t to see# the "a&se) and again! the "a&se o that "a&se) till o ne"essity he
m&st "ome to this tho&ght at last! that there is some "a&se whereo there is no ormer "a&se! b&t is eternal) whi"h is it
men "all God$ 0o that it is im'ossible to ma#e any 'roo&nd in2&iry into nat&ral "a&ses witho&t being in"lined
thereby to believe there is one God eternal) tho&gh they "annot have any idea o Him in their mind answerable to His
nat&re$ %or as a man that is born blind! hearing men tal# o warming themselves by the ire! and being bro&ght to
warm himsel by the same! may easily "on"eive! and ass&re himsel! there is somewhat there whi"h men "all ire and
is the "a&se o the heat he eels! b&t "annot imagine what it is li#e! nor have an idea o it in his mind s&"h as they
have that see it6 so also! by the visible things o this world! and their admirable order! a man may "on"eive there is a
"a&se o them! whi"h men "all God! and yet not have an idea or image o Him in his mind$
And they that ma#e little or no in2&iry into the nat&ral "a&ses o things! yet rom the ear that 'ro"eeds rom the
ignoran"e itsel o what it is that hath the 'ower to do them m&"h good or harm are in"lined to s&''ose! and eign
&nto themselves! several #inds o 'owers invisible! and to stand in awe o their own imaginations! and in time o
distress to invo#e them) as also in the time o an e+'e"ted good s&""ess! to give them than#s! ma#ing the "reat&res o
their own an"y their gods$ 5y whi"h means it hath "ome to 'ass that rom the inn&merable variety o an"y! men
have "reated in the world inn&merable sorts o gods$ And this ear o things invisible is the nat&ral seed o that whi"h
every one in himsel "alleth religion) and in them that worshi' or ear that 'ower otherwise than they do!
s&'erstition$
And this seed o religion! having been observed by many! some o those that have observed it have been in"lined
thereby to no&rish! dress! and orm it into laws) and to add to it! o their own invention! any o'inion o the "a&ses o
&t&re events by whi"h they tho&ght they sho&ld best be able to govern others and ma#e &nto themselves the greatest
&se o their 'owers$
,HA8TER III OF RELIGION
0EEING there are no signs nor r&it o religion b&t in man only! there is no "a&se to do&bt b&t that the seed o
religion is also only in man) and "onsisteth in some 'e"&liar 2&ality! or at least in some eminent degree thereo! not
to be o&nd in other living "reat&res$
And irst! it is 'e"&liar to the nat&re o man to be in2&isitive into the "a&ses o the events they see! some more! some
less! b&t all men so m&"h as to be "&rio&s in the sear"h o the "a&ses o their own good and evil ort&ne$
0e"ondly! &'on the sight o anything that hath a beginning! to thin# also it had a "a&se whi"h determined the same to
begin then when it did! rather than sooner or later$
Thirdly! whereas there is no other eli"ity o beasts b&t the en*oying o their 2&otidian ood! ease! and l&sts) as having
little or no oresight o the time to "ome or want o observation and memory o the order! "onse2&en"e! and
de'enden"e o the things they see) man observeth how one event hath been 'rod&"ed by another! and remembereth
in them ante"eden"e and "onse2&en"e) and when he "annot ass&re himsel o the tr&e "a&ses o things (or the "a&ses
o good and evil ort&ne or the most 'art are invisible)! he s&''oses "a&ses o them! either s&"h as his own an"y
s&ggesteth! or tr&steth to the a&thority o other men s&"h as he thin#s to be his riends and wiser than himsel$
The two irst ma#e an+iety$ %or being ass&red that there be "a&ses o all things that have arrived hitherto! or shall
arrive hereater! it is im'ossible or a man! who "ontin&ally endeavo&reth to se"&re himsel against the evil he ears!
and 'ro"&re the good he desireth! not to be in a 'er'et&al soli"it&de o the time to "ome) so that every man!
es'e"ially those that are over7'rovident! are in an estate li#e to that o 8romethe&s$ %or as 8romethe&s (whi"h!
inter'reted! is the 'r&dent man) was bo&nd to the hill ,a&"as&s! a 'la"e o large 'ros'e"t! where an eagle! eeding on
his liver! devo&red in the day as m&"h as was re'aired in the night6 so that man! whi"h loo#s too ar beore him in the
"are o &t&re time! hath his heart all the day long gnawed on by ear o death! 'overty! or other "alamity) and has no
re'ose! nor 'a&se o his an+iety! b&t in slee'$
This 'er'et&al ear! always a""om'anying man#ind in the ignoran"e o "a&ses! as it were in the dar#! m&st needs
have or ob*e"t something$ And thereore when there is nothing to be seen! there is nothing to a""&se either o their
good or evil ort&ne b&t some 'ower or agent invisible6 in whi"h sense 'erha's it was that some o the old 'oets said
that the gods were at irst "reated by h&man ear6 whi"h! s'o#en o the gods (that is to say! o the many gods o the
Gentiles)! is very tr&e$ 5&t the a"#nowledging o one God eternal! ininite! and omni'otent may more easily be
derived rom the desire men have to #now the "a&ses o nat&ral bodies! and their several virt&es and o'erations! than
rom the ear o what was to beall them in time to "ome$ %or he that! rom any ee"t he seeth "ome to 'ass! sho&ld
reason to the ne+t and immediate "a&se thereo! and rom then"e to the "a&se o that "a&se! and 'l&nge himsel
'roo&ndly in the '&rs&it o "a&ses! shall at last "ome to this! that there m&st be (as even the heathen 'hiloso'hers
"onessed) one %irst .over) that is! a irst and an eternal "a&se o all things) whi"h is that whi"h men mean by the
name o God6 and all this witho&t tho&ght o their ort&ne! the soli"it&de whereo both in"lines to ear and hinders
them rom the sear"h o the "a&ses o other things) and thereby gives o""asion o eigning o as many gods as there
be men that eign them$
And or the matter! or s&bstan"e! o the invisible agents! so an"ied! they "o&ld not by nat&ral "ogitation all &'on
any other "on"e't b&t that it was the same with that o the so&l o man) and that the so&l o man was o the same
s&bstan"e with that whi"h a''eareth in a dream to one that slee'eth) or in a loo#ing7glass to one that is awa#e)
whi"h! men not #nowing that s&"h a''aritions are nothing else b&t "reat&res o the an"y! thin# to be real and
e+ternal s&bstan"es! and thereore "all them ghosts) as the Latins "alled them imagines and &mbrae and tho&ght them
s'irits (that is! thin aerial bodies)! and those invisible agents! whi"h they eared! to be li#e them! save that they
a''ear and vanish when they 'lease$ 5&t the o'inion that s&"h s'irits were in"or'oreal! or immaterial! "o&ld never
enter into the mind o any man by nat&re) be"a&se! tho&gh men may '&t together words o "ontradi"tory
signii"ation! as s'irit and in"or'oreal! yet they "an never have the imagination o anything answering to them6 and
thereore! men that by their own meditation arrive to the a"#nowledgement o one ininite! omni'otent! and eternal
God "hoose rather to "oness He is in"om'rehensible and above their &nderstanding than to deine His nat&re by
s'irit in"or'oreal! and then "oness their deinition to be &nintelligible6 or i they give him s&"h a title! it is not
dogmati"ally! with intention to ma#e the 4ivine Nat&re &nderstood! b&t 'io&sly! to hono&r Him with attrib&tes o
signii"ations as remote as they "an rom the grossness o bodies visible$
Then! or the way by whi"h they thin# these invisible agents wro&ght their ee"ts) that is to say! what immediate
"a&ses they &sed in bringing things to 'ass! men that #now not what it is that we "all "a&sing (that is! almost all men)
have no other r&le to g&ess by b&t by observing and remembering what they have seen to 're"ede the li#e ee"t at
some other time! or times beore! witho&t seeing between the ante"edent and s&bse2&ent event any de'enden"e or
"onne+ion at all6 and thereore rom the li#e things 'ast! they e+'e"t the li#e things to "ome) and ho'e or good or
evil l&"#! s&'erstitio&sly! rom things that have no 'art at all in the "a&sing o it6 as the Athenians did or their war at
Le'anto demand another 8hormio) the 8om'eian a"tion or their war in Ari"a! another 0"i'io) and others have
done in diverse other o""asions sin"e$ In li#e manner they attrib&te their ort&ne to a stander by! to a l&"#y or
&nl&"#y 'la"e! to words s'o#en! es'e"ially i the name o God be amongst them! as "harming! and "on*&ring (the
lit&rgy o wit"hes)) insom&"h as to believe they have 'ower to t&rn a stone into bread! bread into a man! or anything
into anything$
Thirdly! or the worshi' whi"h nat&rally men e+hibit to 'owers invisible! it "an be no other b&t s&"h e+'ressions o
their reveren"e as they wo&ld &se towards men) gits! 'etitions! than#s! s&bmission o body! "onsiderate addresses!
sober behavio&r! 'remeditated words! swearing (that is! ass&ring one another o their 'romises)! by invo#ing them$
5eyond that! reason s&ggesteth nothing! b&t leaves them either to rest there! or or &rther "eremonies to rely on
those they believe to be wiser than themselves$ Lastly! "on"erning how these invisible 'owers de"lare to men the
things whi"h shall hereater "ome to 'ass! es'e"ially "on"erning their good or evil ort&ne in general! or good or ill
s&""ess in any 'arti"&lar &nderta#ing! men are nat&rally at a stand) save that &sing to "on*e"t&re o the time to "ome
by the time 'ast! they are very a't! not only to ta#e "as&al things! ater one or two en"o&nters! or 'rognosti"s o the
li#e en"o&nter ever ater! b&t also to believe the li#e 'rognosti"s rom other men o whom they have on"e "on"eived
a good o'inion$
And in these o&r things! o'inion o ghosts! ignoran"e o se"ond "a&ses! devotion towards what men ear! and ta#ing
o things "as&al or 'rognosti"s! "onsisteth the nat&ral seed o religion) whi"h! by reason o the dierent an"ies!
*&dgements! and 'assions o several men! hath grown &' into "eremonies so dierent that those whi"h are &sed by
one man are or the most 'art ridi"&lo&s to another$
%or these seeds have re"eived "&lt&re rom two sorts o men$ -ne sort have been they that have no&rished and
ordered them! a""ording to their own invention$ The other have done it by God1s "ommandment and dire"tion$ 5&t
both sorts have done it with a '&r'ose to ma#e those men that relied on them the more a't to obedien"e! laws! 'ea"e!
"harity! and "ivil so"iety$ 0o that the religion o the ormer sort is a 'art o h&man 'oliti"s) and tea"heth 'art o the
d&ty whi"h earthly #ings re2&ire o their s&b*e"ts$ And the religion o the latter sort is divine 'oliti"s) and "ontaineth
're"e'ts to those that have yielded themselves s&b*e"ts in the #ingdom o God$ - the ormer sort were all the
o&nders o ,ommonwealths! and the lawgivers o the Gentiles6 o the latter sort were Abraham! .oses! and o&r
blessed 0avio&r! by whom have been derived &nto &s the laws o the #ingdom o God$
And or that 'art o religion whi"h "onsisteth in o'inions "on"erning the nat&re o 'owers invisible! there is almost
nothing that has a name that has not been esteemed amongst the Gentiles! in one 'la"e or another! a god or devil) or
by their 'oets eigned to be animated! inhabited! or 'ossessed by some s'irit or other$
The &normed matter o the world was a god by the name o ,haos$
The heaven! the o"ean! the 'lanets! the ire! the earth! the winds! were so many gods$
.en! women! a bird! a "ro"odile! a "al! a dog! a sna#e! an onion! a lee#! were deiied$ 5esides that! they illed
almost all 'la"es with s'irits "alled demons6 the 'lains! with 8an and 8anises! or 0atyrs) the woods! with %a&ns and
Nym'hs) the sea! with Tritons and other Nym'hs) every river and o&ntain! with a ghost o his name and with
Nym'hs) every ho&se! with its Lares! or amiliars) every man! with his Geni&s) Hell! with ghosts and s'irit&al
oi"ers! as ,haron! ,erber&s! and the %&ries) and in the night time! all 'la"es with larvae! lem&res! ghosts o men
de"eased! and a whole #ingdom o airies and b&gbears$ They have also as"ribed divinity! and b&ilt tem'les! to mere
a""idents and 2&alities) s&"h as are time! night! day! 'ea"e! "on"ord! love! "ontention! virt&e! hono&r! health! r&st!
ever! and the li#e) whi"h when they 'rayed or! or against! they 'rayed to as i there were ghosts o those names
hanging over their heads! and letting all or withholding that good! or evil! or or against whi"h they 'rayed$ They
invo#ed also their own wit! by the name o .&ses) their own ignoran"e! by the name o %ort&ne) their own l&st! by
the name o ,&'id) their own rage! by the name %&ries) their own 'rivy members by the name o 8ria'&s) and
attrib&ted their 'oll&tions to in"&bi and s&""&bae6 insom&"h as there was nothing whi"h a 'oet "o&ld introd&"e as a
'erson in his 'oem whi"h they did not ma#e either a god or a devil$
The same a&thors o the religion o the Gentiles! observing the se"ond gro&nd or religion! whi"h is men1s ignoran"e
o "a&ses! and thereby their a'tness to attrib&te their ort&ne to "a&ses on whi"h there was no de'enden"e at all
a''arent! too# o""asion to obtr&de on their ignoran"e! instead o se"ond "a&ses! a #ind o se"ond and ministerial
gods) as"ribing the "a&se o e"&ndity to Ven&s! the "a&se o arts to A'ollo! o s&btlety and "rat to .er"&ry! o
tem'ests and storms to Aeol&s! and o other ee"ts to other gods) insom&"h as there was amongst the heathen almost
as great variety o gods as o b&siness$
And to the worshi' whi"h nat&rally men "on"eived it to be &sed towards their gods! namely! oblations! 'rayers!
than#s! and the rest ormerly named! the same legislators o the Gentiles have added their images! both in 'i"t&re and
s"&l't&re! that the more ignorant sort (that is to say! the most 'art or generality o the 'eo'le)! thin#ing the gods or
whose re'resentation they were made were really in"l&ded and as it were ho&sed within them! might so m&"h the
more stand in ear o them6 and endowed them with lands! and ho&ses! and oi"ers! and reven&es! set a'art rom all
other h&man &ses) that is! "onse"rated! made holy to those their idols) as "averns! groves! woods! mo&ntains! and
whole islands) and have attrib&ted to them! not only the sha'es! some o men! some o beasts! some o monsters! b&t
also the a"&lties and 'assions o men and beasts) as sense! s'ee"h! se+! l&st! generation! and this not only by mi+ing
one with another to 'ro'agate the #ind o gods! b&t also by mi+ing with men and women to beget mongrel gods! and
b&t inmates o heaven! as 5a""h&s! Her"&les! and others) besides! anger! revenge! and other 'assions o living
"reat&res! and the a"tions 'ro"eeding rom them! as ra&d! thet! ad&ltery! sodomy! and any vi"e that may be ta#en or
an ee"t o 'ower or a "a&se o 'leas&re) and all s&"h vi"es as amongst men are ta#en to be against law rather than
against hono&r$
Lastly! to the 'rognosti"s o time to "ome! whi"h are nat&rally b&t "on*e"t&res &'on the e+'erien"e o time 'ast! and
s&'ernat&rally! divine revelation! the same a&thors o the religion o the Gentiles! 'artly &'on 'retended e+'erien"e!
'artly &'on 'retended revelation! have added inn&merable other s&'erstitio&s ways o divination! and made men
believe they sho&ld ind their ort&nes! sometimes in the ambig&o&s or senseless answers o the 'riests at 4el'hi!
4elos! Ammon! and other amo&s ora"les) whi"h answers were made ambig&o&s by design! to own the event both
ways) or abs&rd! by the into+i"ating va'o&r o the 'la"e! whi"h is very re2&ent in s&l'h&ro&s "averns6 sometimes in
the leaves o the 0ibyls! o whose 'ro'he"ies! li#e those 'erha's o Nostradam&s (or the ragments now e+tant seem
to be the invention o later times)! there were some boo#s in re'&tation in the time o the Roman re'&bli"6 sometimes
in the insignii"ant s'ee"hes o madmen! s&''osed to be 'ossessed with a divine s'irit! whi"h 'ossession they "alled
enth&siasm) and these #inds o oretelling events were a""o&nted theoman"y! or 'ro'he"y6 sometimes in the as'e"t
o the stars at their nativity! whi"h was "alled horos"o'y! and esteemed a 'art o *&di"iary astrology6 sometimes in
their own ho'es and ears! "alled and ears! "alled th&moman"y! or 'resage6 sometimes in the 'redi"tion o wit"hes
that 'retended "oneren"e with the dead! whi"h is "alled ne"roman"y! "on*&ring! and wit"h"rat! and is b&t *&ggling
and "onederate #navery6 sometimes in the "as&al light or eeding o birds! "alled a&g&ry6 sometimes in the entrails
o a sa"rii"ed beast! whi"h was har&s'i"y6 sometimes in dreams6 sometimes in "roa#ing o ravens! or "hattering o
birds6 sometimes in the lineaments o the a"e! whi"h was "alled meto'os"o'y) or by 'almistry in the lines o the
hand! in "as&al words "alled omina6 sometimes in monsters or &n&s&al a""idents) as e"li'ses! "omets! rare meteors!
earth2&a#es! in&ndations! &n"o&th births! and the li#e! whi"h they "alled 'ortenta! and ostenta! be"a&se they tho&ght
them to 'ortend or oreshow some great "alamity to "ome6 sometimes in mere lottery! as "ross and 'ile) "o&nting
holes in a sieve) di''ing o verses in Homer and Virgil) and inn&merable other s&"h vain "on"eits$ 0o easy are men
to be drawn to believe anything rom s&"h men as have gotten "redit with them) and "an with gentleness! and
de+terity! ta#e hold o their ear and ignoran"e$
And thereore the irst o&nders and legislators o ,ommonwealths amongst the Gentiles! whose ends were only to
#ee' the 'eo'le in obedien"e and 'ea"e! have in all 'la"es ta#en "are6 irst! to im'rint their minds a belie that those
're"e'ts whi"h they gave "on"erning religion might not be tho&ght to 'ro"eed rom their own devi"e! b&t rom the
di"tates o some god or other s'irit) or else that they themselves were o a higher nat&re than mere mortals! that their
laws might the more easily be re"eived) so N&ma 8om'ili&s 'retended to re"eive the "eremonies he instit&ted
amongst the Romans rom the nym'h Egeria and the irst #ing and o&nder o the #ingdom o 8er& 'retended
himsel and his wie to be the "hildren o the s&n) and .ahomet! to set &' his new religion! 'retended to have
"oneren"es with the Holy Ghost in orm o a dove$ 0e"ondly! they have had a "are to ma#e it believed that the same
things were dis'leasing to the gods whi"h were orbidden by the laws$ Thirdly! to 'res"ribe "eremonies!
s&''li"ations! sa"rii"es! and estivals by whi"h they were to believe the anger o the gods might be a''eased) and
that ill s&""ess in war! great "ontagions o si"#ness! earth2&a#es! and ea"h man1s 'rivate misery "ame rom the anger
o the gods) and their anger rom the negle"t o their worshi'! or the orgetting or mista#ing some 'oint o the
"eremonies re2&ired$ And tho&gh amongst the an"ient Romans men were not orbidden to deny that whi"h in the
'oets is written o the 'ains and 'leas&res ater this lie! whi"h divers o great a&thority and gravity in that state have
in their harang&es o'enly derided! yet that belie was always more "herished! than the "ontrary$
And by these! and s&"h other instit&tions! they obtained in order to their end! whi"h was the 'ea"e o the
,ommonwealth! that the "ommon 'eo'le in their misort&nes! laying the a&lt on negle"t! or error in their
"eremonies! or on their own disobedien"e to the laws! were the less a't to m&tiny against their governors$ And being
entertained with the 'om' and 'astime o estivals and '&bli" games made in hono&r o the gods! needed nothing
else b&t bread to #ee' them rom dis"ontent! m&rm&ring! and "ommotion against the state$ And thereore the
Romans! that had "on2&ered the greatest 'art o the then #nown world! made no s"r&'le o tolerating any religion
whatsoever in the "ity o Rome itsel! &nless it had something in it that "o&ld not "onsist with their "ivil government)
nor do we read that any religion was there orbidden b&t that o the :ews! who (being the 'e"&liar #ingdom o God)
tho&ght it &nlaw&l to a"#nowledge s&b*e"tion to any mortal #ing or state whatsoever$ And th&s yo& see how the
religion o the Gentiles was a 'art o their 'oli"y$ 5&t where God himsel by s&'ernat&ral revelation 'lanted religion!
there he also made to himsel a 'e"&liar #ingdom! and gave laws! not only o behavio&r towards himsel! b&t also
towards one another) and thereby in the #ingdom o God! the 'oli"y and laws "ivil are a 'art o religion) and
thereore the distin"tion o tem'oral and s'irit&al domination hath there no 'la"e$ It is tr&e that God is #ing o all the
earth) yet may He be #ing o a 'e"&liar and "hosen nation$ %or there is no more in"ongr&ity therein than that he that
hath the general "ommand o the whole army sho&ld have withal a 'e"&liar regiment or "om'any o his own$ God is
#ing o all the earth by His 'ower! b&t o His "hosen 'eo'le! He is #ing by "ovenant$ 5&t to s'ea# more largely o
the #ingdom o God! both by nat&re and "ovenant! I have in the ollowing dis"o&rse assigned another 'la"e$
%rom the 'ro'agation o religion! it is not hard to &nderstand the "a&ses o the resol&tion o the same into its irst
seeds or 'rin"i'les) whi"h are only an o'inion o a deity! and 'owers invisible and s&'ernat&ral) that "an never be so
abolished o&t o h&man nat&re! b&t that new religions may again be made to s'ring o&t o them by the "&lt&re o s&"h
men as or s&"h '&r'ose are in re'&tation$
%or seeing all ormed religion is o&nded at irst &'on the aith whi"h a m&ltit&de hath in some one 'erson! whom
they believe not only to be a wise man and to labo&r to 'ro"&re their ha''iness! b&t also to be a holy man to whom
God Himsel vo&"hsaeth to de"lare His will s&'ernat&rally! it olloweth ne"essarily when they that have the
government o religion shall "ome to have either the wisdom o those men! their sin"erity! or their love s&s'e"ted! or
that they shall be &nable to show any 'robable to#en o divine revelation! that the religion whi"h they desire to
&'hold m&st be s&s'e"ted li#ewise and (witho&t the ear o the "ivil sword) "ontradi"ted and re*e"ted$
That whi"h ta#eth away the re'&tation o wisdom in him that ormeth a religion! or addeth to it when it is already
ormed! is the en*oining o a belie o "ontradi"tories6 or both 'arts o a "ontradi"tion "annot 'ossibly be tr&e! and
thereore to en*oin the belie o them is an arg&ment o ignoran"e! whi"h dete"ts the a&thor in that! and dis"redits
him in all things else he shall 'ro'o&nd as rom revelation s&'ernat&ral6 whi"h revelation a man may indeed have o
many things above! b&t o nothing against nat&ral reason$
That whi"h ta#eth away the re'&tation o sin"erity is the doing or saying o s&"h things as a''ear to be signs that
what they re2&ire other men to believe is not believed by themselves) all whi"h doings or sayings are thereore "alled
s"andalo&s be"a&se they be st&mbling7blo"#s that ma#e men to all in the way o religion6 as in*&sti"e! "r&elty!
'roaneness! avari"e! and l&+&ry$ %or who "an believe that he that doth ordinarily s&"h a"tions! as 'ro"eed rom any
o these roots! believeth there is any s&"h invisible 'ower to be eared as he arighteth other men withal or lesser
a&lts(
That whi"h ta#eth away the re'&tation o love is the being dete"ted o 'rivate ends6 as when the belie they re2&ire
o others "ond&"eth! or seemeth to "ond&"e! to the a"2&iring o dominion! ri"hes! dignity! or se"&re 'leas&re to
themselves only or s'e"ially$ %or that whi"h men rea' beneit by to themselves they are tho&ght to do or their own
sa#es! and not or love o others$ Lastly! the testimony that men "an render o divine "alling "an be no other than the
o'eration o mira"les! or tr&e 'ro'he"y (whi"h also is a mira"le)! or e+traordinary eli"ity$ And thereore! to those
'oints o religion whi"h have been re"eived rom them that did s&"h mira"les! those that are added by s&"h as
a''rove not their "alling by some mira"le obtain no greater belie than what the "&stom and laws o the 'la"es in
whi"h they be ed&"ated have wro&ght into them$ %or as in nat&ral things men o *&dgement re2&ire nat&ral signs and
arg&ments! so in s&'ernat&ral things they re2&ire signs s&'ernat&ral (whi"h are mira"les) beore they "onsent
inwardly and rom their hearts$
All whi"h "a&ses o the wea#ening o men1s aith do maniestly a''ear in the e+am'les ollowing$ %irst! we have the
e+am'le o the "hildren o Israel! who! when .oses that had a''roved his "alling to them by mira"les! and by the
ha''y "ond&"t o them o&t o Egy't! was absent b&t orty days! revolted rom the worshi' o the tr&e God
re"ommended to them by him! and! setting &'E a golden "al or their god! rela'sed into the idolatry o the Egy'tians
rom whom they had been so lately delivered$ And again! ater .oses! Aaron! :osh&a! and that generation whi"h had
seen the great wor#s o God in Israel were dead! another generation arose and served 5aal$E(@) 0o that .ira"les
ailing! aith also ailed$

Again! when the sons o 0am&el! being "onstit&ted by their ather *&dges in 5eer7sheba!
re"eived bribes and *&dged &n*&stly! the 'eo'le o Israel re&sed any more to have God to be
their #ing in other manner than He was #ing o other 'eo'le! and thereore "ried o&t to 0am&el
to "hoose them a #ing ater the manner o the nations$E(=) 0o that *&sti"e ailing! aith also
ailed! insom&"h as they de'osed their God rom reigning over them$
And whereas in the 'lanting o ,hristian religion the ora"les "eased in all 'arts o the Roman Em'ire! and the
n&mber o ,hristians in"reased wonder&lly every day and in every 'la"e by the 'rea"hing o the A'ostles and
Evangelists! a great 'art o that s&""ess may reasonably be attrib&ted to the "ontem't into whi"h the 'riests o the
Gentiles o that time had bro&ght themselves by their &n"leanness! avari"e! and *&ggling between 'rin"es$ Also the
religion o the ,h&r"h o Rome was 'artly or the same "a&se abolished in England and many other 'arts o
,hristendom! insom&"h as the ailing o virt&e in the 'astors ma#eth aith ail in the 'eo'le! and 'artly rom bringing
o the 'hiloso'hy and do"trine o Aristotle into religion by the 0"hoolmen) rom when"e there arose so many
"ontradi"tions and abs&rdities as bro&ght the "lergy into a re'&tation both o ignoran"e and o ra&d&lent intention!
and in"lined 'eo'le to revolt rom them! either against the will o their own 'rin"es as in %ran"e and Holland! or with
their will as in England$
E (?)E+od&s! =@$ ?! @
E(@) :&dges! @$ ??
E(=) I 0am&el! G$ =
Lastly! amongst the 'oints by the ,h&r"h o Rome de"lared ne"essary or salvation! there be so many maniestly to
the advantage o the 8o'e so many o his s'irit&al s&b*e"ts residing in the territories o other ,hristian 'rin"es that!
were it not or the m&t&al em&lation o those 'rin"es! they might witho&t war or tro&ble e+"l&de all oreign a&thority!
as easily as it has been e+"l&ded in England$ %or who is there that does not see to whose beneit it "ond&"eth to have
it believed that a #ing hath not his a&thority rom ,hrist &nless a bisho' "rown him( That a #ing! i he be a 'riest!
"annot marry( That whether a 'rin"e be born in law&l marriage! or not! m&st be *&dged by a&thority rom Rome(
That s&b*e"ts may be reed rom their allegian"e i by the "o&rt o Rome the #ing be *&dged a hereti"( That a #ing! as
,hilderi" o %ran"e! may be de'osed by a 8o'e! as 8o'e Ka"hary! or no "a&se! and his #ingdom given to one o his
s&b*e"ts( That the "lergy! and reg&lars! in what "o&ntry soever! shall be e+em't rom the *&risdi"tion o their #ing in
"ases "riminal( -r who does not see to whose 'roit redo&nd the ees o 'rivate .asses! and vales o '&rgatory! with
other signs o 'rivate interest eno&gh to mortiy the most lively aith! i! as I said! the "ivil magistrate and "&stom did
not more s&stain it than any o'inion they have o the san"tity! wisdom! or 'robity o their tea"hers( 0o that I may
attrib&te all the "hanges o religion in the world to one and the same "a&se! and that is &n'leasing 'riests) and those
not only amongst "atholi"s! b&t even in that ,h&r"h that hath 'res&med most o reormation$
,HA8TER IIII OF THE NATURAL CONDITION OF MANKIND AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY
AND MISERY
NATURE hath made men so e2&al in the a"&lties o body and mind as that! tho&gh there be o&nd one man
sometimes maniestly stronger in body or o 2&i"#er mind than another! yet when all is re"#oned together the
dieren"e between man and man is not so "onsiderable as that one man "an there&'on "laim to himsel any beneit
to whi"h another may not 'retend as well as he$ %or as to the strength o body! the wea#est has strength eno&gh to
#ill the strongest! either by se"ret ma"hination or by "onedera"y with others that are in the same danger with
himsel$
And as to the a"&lties o the mind! setting aside the arts gro&nded &'on words! and es'e"ially that s#ill o
'ro"eeding &'on general and inallible r&les! "alled s"ien"e! whi"h very ew have and b&t in ew things! as being not
a native a"&lty born with &s! nor attained! as 'r&den"e! while we loo# ater somewhat else! I ind yet a greater
e2&ality amongst men than that o strength$ %or 'r&den"e is b&t e+'erien"e! whi"h e2&al time e2&ally bestows on all
men in those things they e2&ally a''ly themselves &nto$ That whi"h may 'erha's ma#e s&"h e2&ality in"redible is
b&t a vain "on"eit o one1s own wisdom! whi"h almost all men thin# they have in a greater degree than the v&lgar)
that is! than all men b&t themselves! and a ew others! whom by ame! or or "on"&rring with themselves! they
a''rove$ %or s&"h is the nat&re o men that howsoever they may a"#nowledge many others to be more witty! or more
elo2&ent or more learned! yet they will hardly believe there be many so wise as themselves) or they see their own
wit at hand! and other men1s at a distan"e$ 5&t this 'roveth rather that men are in that 'oint e2&al! than &ne2&al$ %or
there is not ordinarily a greater sign o the e2&al distrib&tion o anything than that every man is "ontented with his
share$
%rom this e2&ality o ability ariseth e2&ality o ho'e in the attaining o o&r ends$ And thereore i any two men
desire the same thing! whi"h nevertheless they "annot both en*oy! they be"ome enemies) and in the way to their end
(whi"h is 'rin"i'ally their own "onservation! and sometimes their dele"tation only) endeavo&r to destroy or s&bd&e
one another$ And rom hen"e it "omes to 'ass that where an invader hath no more to ear than another man1s single
'ower! i one 'lant! sow! b&ild! or 'ossess a "onvenient seat! others may 'robably be e+'e"ted to "ome 're'ared with
or"es &nited to dis'ossess and de'rive him! not only o the r&it o his labo&r! b&t also o his lie or liberty$ And the
invader again is in the li#e danger o another$
And rom this diiden"e o one another! there is no way or any man to se"&re himsel so reasonable as anti"i'ation)
that is! by or"e! or wiles! to master the 'ersons o all men he "an so long till he see no other 'ower great eno&gh to
endanger him6 and this is no more than his own "onservation re2&ireth! and is generally allowed$ Also! be"a&se there
be some that! ta#ing 'leas&re in "ontem'lating their own 'ower in the a"ts o "on2&est! whi"h they '&rs&e arther
than their se"&rity re2&ires! i others! that otherwise wo&ld be glad to be at ease within modest bo&nds! sho&ld not by
invasion in"rease their 'ower! they wo&ld not be able! long time! by standing only on their deen"e! to s&bsist$ And
by "onse2&en"e! s&"h a&gmentation o dominion over men being ne"essary to a man1s "onservation! it o&ght to be
allowed him$
Again! men have no 'leas&re (b&t on the "ontrary a great deal o grie) in #ee'ing "om'any where there is no 'ower
able to overawe them all$ %or every man loo#eth that his "om'anion sho&ld val&e him at the same rate he sets &'on
himsel! and &'on all signs o "ontem't or &nderval&ing nat&rally endeavo&rs! as ar as he dares (whi"h amongst
them that have no "ommon 'ower to #ee' them in 2&iet is ar eno&gh to ma#e them destroy ea"h other)! to e+tort a
greater val&e rom his "ontemners! by damage) and rom others! by the e+am'le$ 0o that in the nat&re o man! we
ind three 'rin"i'al "a&ses o 2&arrel$ %irst! "om'etition) se"ondly! diiden"e) thirdly! glory$ The irst ma#eth men
invade or gain) the se"ond! or saety) and the third! or re'&tation$ The irst &se violen"e! to ma#e themselves
masters o other men1s 'ersons! wives! "hildren! and "attle) the se"ond! to deend them) the third! or triles! as a
word! a smile! a dierent o'inion! and any other sign o &nderval&e! either dire"t in their 'ersons or by rele"tion in
their #indred! their riends! their nation! their 'roession! or their name$ Hereby it is maniest that d&ring the time
men live witho&t a "ommon 'ower to #ee' them all in awe! they are in that "ondition whi"h is "alled war) and s&"h a
war as is o every man against every man$ %or war "onsisteth not in battle only! or the a"t o ighting! b&t in a tra"t o
time! wherein the will to "ontend by battle is s&i"iently #nown6 and thereore the notion o time is to be "onsidered
in the nat&re o war! as it is in the nat&re o weather$ %or as the nat&re o o&l weather lieth not in a shower or two o
rain! b&t in an in"lination thereto o many days together6 so the nat&re o war "onsisteth not in a"t&al ighting! b&t in
the #nown dis'osition thereto d&ring all the time there is no ass&ran"e to the "ontrary$ All other time is 'ea"e$
/hatsoever thereore is "onse2&ent to a time o war! where every man is enemy to every man! the same "onse2&ent
to the time wherein men live witho&t other se"&rity than what their own strength and their own invention shall
&rnish them withal$ In s&"h "ondition there is no 'la"e or ind&stry! be"a&se the r&it thereo is &n"ertain6 and
"onse2&ently no "&lt&re o the earth) no navigation! nor &se o the "ommodities that may be im'orted by sea) no
"ommodio&s b&ilding) no instr&ments o moving and removing s&"h things as re2&ire m&"h or"e) no #nowledge o
the a"e o the earth) no a""o&nt o time) no arts) no letters) no so"iety) and whi"h is worst o all! "ontin&al ear! and
danger o violent death) and the lie o man! solitary! 'oor! nasty! br&tish! and short$
It may seem strange to some man that has not well weighed these things that Nat&re sho&ld th&s disso"iate and
render men a't to invade and destroy one another6 and he may thereore! not tr&sting to this ineren"e! made rom the
'assions! desire 'erha's to have the same "onirmed by e+'erien"e$ Let him thereore "onsider with himsel6 when
ta#ing a *o&rney! he arms himsel and see#s to go well a""om'anied) when going to slee'! he lo"#s his doors) when
even in his ho&se he lo"#s his "hests) and this when he #nows there be laws and '&bli" oi"ers! armed! to revenge all
in*&ries shall be done him) what o'inion he has o his ellow s&b*e"ts! when he rides armed) o his ellow "iti9ens!
when he lo"#s his doors) and o his "hildren! and servants! when he lo"#s his "hests$ 4oes he not there as m&"h
a""&se man#ind by his a"tions as I do by my words( 5&t neither o &s a""&se man1s nat&re in it$ The desires! and
other 'assions o man! are in themselves no sin$ No more are the a"tions that 'ro"eed rom those 'assions till they
#now a law that orbids them) whi"h till laws be made they "annot #now! nor "an any law be made till they have
agreed &'on the 'erson that shall ma#e it$
It may 'eradvent&re be tho&ght there was never s&"h a time nor "ondition o war as this) and I believe it was never
generally so! over all the world6 b&t there are many 'la"es where they live so now$ %or the savage 'eo'le in many
'la"es o Ameri"a! e+"e't the government o small amilies! the "on"ord whereo de'endeth on nat&ral l&st! have no
government at all! and live at this day in that br&tish manner! as I said beore$ Howsoever! it may be 'er"eived what
manner o lie there wo&ld be! where there were no "ommon 'ower to ear! by the manner o lie whi"h men that
have ormerly lived &nder a 'ea"e&l government &se to degenerate into a "ivil war$ 5&t tho&gh there had never been
any time wherein 'arti"&lar men were in a "ondition o war one against another! yet in all times #ings and 'ersons o
sovereign a&thority! be"a&se o their inde'enden"y! are in "ontin&al *ealo&sies! and in the state and 'ost&re o
gladiators! having their wea'ons 'ointing! and their eyes i+ed on one another) that is! their orts! garrisons! and g&ns
&'on the rontiers o their #ingdoms! and "ontin&al s'ies &'on their neighbo&rs! whi"h is a 'ost&re o war$ 5&t
be"a&se they &'hold thereby the ind&stry o their s&b*e"ts! there does not ollow rom it that misery whi"h
a""om'anies the liberty o 'arti"&lar men$
To this war o every man against every man! this also is "onse2&ent) that nothing "an be &n*&st$ The notions o right
and wrong! *&sti"e and in*&sti"e! have there no 'la"e$ /here there is no "ommon 'ower! there is no law) where no
law! no in*&sti"e$ %or"e and ra&d are in war the two "ardinal virt&es$ :&sti"e and in*&sti"e are none o the a"&lties
neither o the body nor mind$ I they were! they might be in a man that were alone in the world! as well as his senses
and 'assions$ They are 2&alities that relate to men in so"iety! not in solit&de$ It is "onse2&ent also to the same
"ondition that there be no 'ro'riety! no dominion! no mine and thine distin"t) b&t only that to be every man1s that he
"an get! and or so long as he "an #ee' it$ And th&s m&"h or the ill "ondition whi"h man by mere nat&re is a"t&ally
'la"ed in) tho&gh with a 'ossibility to "ome o&t o it! "onsisting 'artly in the 'assions! 'artly in his reason$
The 'assions that in"line men to 'ea"e are6 ear o death) desire o s&"h things as are ne"essary to "ommodio&s
living) and a ho'e by their ind&stry to obtain them$ And reason s&ggesteth "onvenient arti"les o 'ea"e &'on whi"h
men may be drawn to agreement$ These arti"les are they whi"h otherwise are "alled the laws o nat&re! whereo I
shall s'ea# more 'arti"&larly in the two ollowing "ha'ters$
,HA8TER IIV OF THE FIRST AND SECOND NATURAL LAWS, AND OF CONTRACTS
THE right o nat&re! whi"h writers "ommonly "all *&s nat&rale! is the liberty ea"h man hath to &se his own 'ower as
he will himsel or the 'reservation o his own nat&re) that is to say! o his own lie) and "onse2&ently! o doing
anything whi"h! in his own *&dgement and reason! he shall "on"eive to be the a'test means there&nto$
5y liberty is &nderstood! a""ording to the 'ro'er signii"ation o the word! the absen"e o e+ternal im'ediments)
whi"h im'ediments may ot ta#e away 'art o a man1s 'ower to do what he wo&ld! b&t "annot hinder him rom &sing
the 'ower let him a""ording as his *&dgement and reason shall di"tate to him$
A law o nat&re! le+ nat&ralis! is a 're"e't! or general r&le! o&nd o&t by reason! by whi"h a man is orbidden to do
that whi"h is destr&"tive o his lie! or ta#eth away the means o 'reserving the same! and to omit that by whi"h he
thin#eth it may be best 'reserved$ %or tho&gh they that s'ea# o this s&b*e"t &se to "ono&nd *&s and le+! right and
law! yet they o&ght to be disting&ished! be"a&se right "onsisteth in liberty to do! or to orbear) whereas law
determineth and bindeth to one o them6 so that law and right dier as m&"h as obligation and liberty! whi"h in one
and the same matter are in"onsistent$
And be"a&se the "ondition o man (as hath been de"lared in the 're"edent "ha'ter) is a "ondition o war o every one
against every one! in whi"h "ase every one is governed by his own reason! and there is nothing he "an ma#e &se o
that may not be a hel' &nto him in 'reserving his lie against his enemies) it olloweth that in s&"h a "ondition every
man has a right to every thing! even to one another1s body$ And thereore! as long as this nat&ral right o every man to
every thing end&reth! there "an be no se"&rity to any man! how strong or wise soever he be! o living o&t the time
whi"h nat&re ordinarily alloweth men to live$ And "onse2&ently it is a 're"e't! or general r&le o reason6 that every
man o&ght to endeavo&r 'ea"e! as ar as he has ho'e o obtaining it) and when he "annot obtain it! that he may see#
and &se all hel's and advantages o war$ The irst bran"h o whi"h r&le "ontaineth the irst and &ndamental law o
nat&re! whi"h is6 to see# 'ea"e and ollow it$ The se"ond! the s&m o the right o nat&re! whi"h is6 by all means we
"an to deend o&rselves$
%rom this &ndamental law o nat&re! by whi"h men are "ommanded to endeavo&r 'ea"e! is derived this se"ond law6
that a man be willing! when others are so too! as ar orth as or 'ea"e and deen"e o himsel he shall thin# it
ne"essary! to lay down this right to all things) and be "ontented with so m&"h liberty against other men as he wo&ld
allow other men against himsel$ %or as long as every man holdeth this right! o doing anything he li#eth) so long are
all men in the "ondition o war$ 5&t i other men will not lay down their right! as well as he! then there is no reason
or anyone to divest himsel o his6 or that were to e+'ose himsel to 'rey! whi"h no man is bo&nd to! rather than to
dis'ose himsel to 'ea"e$ This is that law o the gos'el6 /hatsoever yo& re2&ire that others sho&ld do to yo&! that do
ye to them$ And that law o all men! 2&od tibi ieri non vis! alteri ne e"eris$
To lay down a man1s right to anything is to divest himsel o the liberty o hindering another o the beneit o his own
right to the same$ %or he that reno&n"eth or 'asseth away his right giveth not to any other man a right whi"h he had
not beore! be"a&se there is nothing to whi"h every man had not right by nat&re! b&t only standeth o&t o his way that
he may en*oy his own original right witho&t hindran"e rom him! not witho&t hindran"e rom another$ 0o that the
ee"t whi"h redo&ndeth to one man by another man1s dee"t o right is b&t so m&"h dimin&tion o im'ediments to
the &se o his own right original$
Right is laid aside! either by sim'ly reno&n"ing it! or by transerring it to another$ 5y sim'ly reno&n"ing! when he
"ares not to whom the beneit thereo redo&ndeth$ 5y transerring! when he intendeth the beneit thereo to some
"ertain 'erson or 'ersons$ And when a man hath in either manner abandoned or granted away his right! then is he
said to be obliged! or bo&nd! not to hinder those to whom s&"h right is granted! or abandoned! rom the beneit o it6
and that he o&ght! and it is d&ty! not to ma#e void that vol&ntary a"t o his own6 and that s&"h hindran"e is in*&sti"e!
and in*&ry! as being sine *&re) the right being beore reno&n"ed or transerred$ 0o that in*&ry or in*&sti"e! in the
"ontroversies o the world! is somewhat li#e to that whi"h in the dis'&tations o s"holars is "alled abs&rdity$ %or as it
is there "alled an abs&rdity to "ontradi"t what one maintained in the beginning) so in the world it is "alled in*&sti"e!
and in*&ry vol&ntarily to &ndo that whi"h rom the beginning he had vol&ntarily done$ The way by whi"h a man
either sim'ly reno&n"eth or transerreth his right is a de"laration! or signii"ation! by some vol&ntary and s&i"ient
sign! or signs! that he doth so reno&n"e or transer! or hath so reno&n"ed or transerred the same! to him that
a""e'teth it$ And these signs are either words only! or a"tions only) or! as it ha''eneth most oten! both words and
a"tions$ And the same are the bonds! by whi"h men are bo&nd and obliged6 bonds that have their strength! not rom
their own nat&re (or nothing is more easily bro#en than a man1s word)! b&t rom ear o some evil "onse2&en"e &'on
the r&'t&re$
/hensoever a man transerreth his right! or reno&n"eth it! it is either in "onsideration o some right re"i'ro"ally
transerred to himsel! or or some other good he ho'eth or thereby$ %or it is a vol&ntary a"t6 and o the vol&ntary
a"ts o every man! the ob*e"t is some good to himsel$ And thereore there be some rights whi"h no man "an be
&nderstood by any words! or other signs! to have abandoned or transerred$ As irst a man "annot lay down the right
o resisting them that assa&lt him by or"e to ta#e away his lie! be"a&se he "annot be &nderstood to aim thereby at
any good to himsel$ The same may be said o wo&nds! and "hains! and im'risonment! both be"a&se there is no
beneit "onse2&ent to s&"h 'atien"e! as there is to the 'atien"e o s&ering another to be wo&nded or im'risoned! as
also be"a&se a man "annot tell when he seeth men 'ro"eed against him by violen"e whether they intend his death or
not$ And lastly the motive and end or whi"h this reno&n"ing and transerring o right is introd&"ed is nothing else
b&t the se"&rity o a man1s 'erson! in his lie! and in the means o so 'reserving lie as not to be weary o it$ And
thereore i a man by words! or other signs! seem to des'oil himsel o the end or whi"h those signs were intended!
he is not to be &nderstood as i he meant it! or that it was his will! b&t that he was ignorant o how s&"h words and
a"tions were to be inter'reted$
The m&t&al transerring o right is that whi"h men "all "ontra"t$ There is dieren"e between transerring o right to
the thing! the thing! and transerring or tradition! that is! delivery o the thing itsel$ %or the thing may be delivered
together with the translation o the right! as in b&ying and selling with ready money! or e+"hange o goods or lands!
and it may be delivered some time ater$
Again! one o the "ontra"tors may deliver the thing "ontra"ted or on his 'art! and leave the other to 'erorm his 'art
at some determinate time ater! and in the meantime be tr&sted) and then the "ontra"t on his 'art is "alled 'a"t! or
"ovenant6 or both 'arts may "ontra"t now to 'erorm hereater! in whi"h "ases he that is to 'erorm in time to "ome!
being tr&sted! his 'erorman"e is "alled #ee'ing o 'romise! or aith! and the ailing o 'erorman"e! i it be
vol&ntary! violation o aith$
/hen the transerring o right is not m&t&al! b&t one o the 'arties transerreth in ho'e to gain thereby riendshi' or
servi"e rom another! or rom his riends) or in ho'e to gain the re'&tation o "harity! or magnanimity) or to deliver
his mind rom the 'ain o "om'assion) or in ho'e o reward in heaven) this is not "ontra"t! b&t git! ree git! gra"e6
whi"h words signiy one and the same thing$
0igns o "ontra"t are either e+'ress or by ineren"e$ E+'ress are words s'o#en with &nderstanding o what they
signiy6 and s&"h words are either o the time 'resent or 'ast) as! I give! I grant! I have given! I have granted! I will
that this be yo&rs6 or o the &t&re) as! I will give! I will grant! whi"h words o the &t&re are "alled 'romise$
0igns by ineren"e are sometimes the "onse2&en"e o words) sometimes the "onse2&en"e o silen"e) sometimes the
"onse2&en"e o a"tions) sometimes the "onse2&en"e o orbearing an a"tion6 and generally a sign by ineren"e! o
any "ontra"t! is whatsoever s&i"iently arg&es the will o the "ontra"tor$
/ords alone! i they be o the time to "ome! and "ontain a bare 'romise! are an ins&i"ient sign o a ree git and
thereore not obligatory$ %or i they be o the time to "ome! as! tomorrow I will give! they are a sign I have not given
yet! and "onse2&ently that my right is not transerred! b&t remaineth till I transer it by some other a"t$ 5&t i the
words be o the time 'resent! or 'ast! as! I have given! or do give to be delivered tomorrow! then is my tomorrow1s
right given away today) and that by the virt&e o the words! tho&gh there were no other arg&ment o my will$ And
there is a great dieren"e in the signii"ation o these words! volo ho" t&&m esse "ras! and "ras dabo) that is! between
I will that this be thine tomorrow! and! I will give it thee tomorrow6 or the word I will! in the ormer manner o
s'ee"h! signiies an a"t o the will 'resent) b&t in the latter! it signiies a 'romise o an a"t o the will to "ome6 and
thereore the ormer words! being o the 'resent! transer a &t&re right) the latter! that be o the &t&re! transer
nothing$ 5&t i there be other signs o the will to transer a right besides words) then! tho&gh the git be ree! yet may
the right be &nderstood to 'ass by words o the &t&re6 as i a man 'ro'o&nd a 'ri9e to him that "omes irst to the end
o a ra"e! the git is ree) and tho&gh the words be o the &t&re! yet the right 'asseth6 or i he wo&ld not have his
words so be &nderstood! he sho&ld not have let them r&n$ In "ontra"ts the right 'asseth! not only where the words are
o the time 'resent or 'ast! b&t also where they are o the &t&re! be"a&se all "ontra"t is m&t&al translation! or "hange
o right) and thereore he that 'romiseth only! be"a&se he hath already re"eived the beneit or whi"h he 'romiseth! is
to be &nderstood as i he intended the right sho&ld 'ass6 or &nless he had been "ontent to have his words so
&nderstood! the other wo&ld not have 'erormed his 'art irst$ And or that "a&se! in b&ying! and selling! and other
a"ts o "ontra"t! a 'romise is e2&ivalent to a "ovenant! and thereore obligatory$
He that 'erormeth irst in the "ase o a "ontra"t is said to merit that whi"h he is to re"eive by the 'erorman"e o the
other! and he hath it as d&e$ Also when a 'ri9e is 'ro'o&nded to many! whi"h is to be given to him only that winneth!
or money is thrown amongst many to be en*oyed by them that "at"h it) tho&gh this be a ree git! yet so to win! or so
to "at"h! is to merit! and to have it as d&e$ %or the right is transerred in the 'ro'o&nding o the 'ri9e! and in throwing
down the money! tho&gh it be not determined to whom! b&t by the event o the "ontention$ 5&t there is between these
two sorts o merit this dieren"e! that in "ontra"t I merit by virt&e o my own 'ower and the "ontra"tor1s need! b&t in
this "ase o ree git I am enabled to merit only by the benignity o the giver6 in "ontra"t I merit at the "ontra"tor1s
hand that he sho&ld de'art with his right) in this "ase o git! I merit not that the giver sho&ld 'art with his right! b&t
that when he has 'arted with it! it sho&ld be mine rather than another1s$ And this I thin# to be the meaning o that
distin"tion o the 0"hools between merit&m "ongr&i and merit&m "ondigni$ %or God Almighty! having 'romised
'aradise to those men! hoodwin#ed with "arnal desires! that "an wal# thro&gh this world a""ording to the 're"e'ts
and limits 'res"ribed by him! they say he that shall so wal# shall merit 'aradise e+ "ongr&o$ 5&t be"a&se no man "an
demand a right to it by his own righteo&sness! or any other 'ower in himsel! b&t by the ree gra"e o God only! they
say no man "an merit 'aradise e+ "ondigno$ This! I say! I thin# is the meaning o that distin"tion) b&t be"a&se
dis'&ters do not agree &'on the signii"ation o their own terms o art longer than it serves their t&rn! I will not airm
anything o their meaning6 only this I say) when a git is given indeinitely! as a 'ri9e to be "ontended or! he that
winneth meriteth! and may "laim the 'ri9e as d&e$
I a "ovenant be made wherein neither o the 'arties 'erorm 'resently! b&t tr&st one another! in the "ondition o mere
nat&re (whi"h is a "ondition o war o every man against every man) &'on any reasonable s&s'i"ion! it is void6 b&t i
there be a "ommon 'ower set over them both! with right and or"e s&i"ient to "om'el 'erorman"e! it is not void$
%or he that 'erormeth irst has no ass&ran"e the other will 'erorm ater! be"a&se the bonds o words are too wea# to
bridle men1s ambition! avari"e! anger! and other 'assions! witho&t the ear o some "oer"ive 'ower) whi"h in the
"ondition o mere nat&re! where all men are e2&al! and *&dges o the *&stness o their own ears! "annot 'ossibly be
s&''osed$ And thereore he whi"h 'erormeth irst does b&t betray himsel to his enemy! "ontrary to the right he "an
never abandon o deending his lie and means o living$
5&t in a "ivil estate! where there a 'ower set &' to "onstrain those that wo&ld otherwise violate their aith! that ear is
no more reasonable) and or that "a&se! he whi"h by the "ovenant is to 'erorm irst is obliged so to do$
The "a&se o ear! whi"h ma#eth s&"h a "ovenant invalid! m&st be always something arising ater the "ovenant made!
as some new a"t or other sign o the will not to 'erorm! else it "annot ma#e the "ovenant void$ %or that whi"h "o&ld
not hinder a man rom 'romising o&ght not to be admitted as a hindran"e o 'erorming$
He that transerreth any right transerreth the means o en*oying it! as ar as lieth in his 'ower$ As he that selleth land
is &nderstood to transer the herbage and whatsoever grows &'on it) nor "an he that sells a mill t&rn away the stream
that drives it$ And they that give to a man the right o government in sovereignty are &nderstood to give him the right
o levying money to maintain soldiers! and o a''ointing magistrates or the administration o *&sti"e$
To ma#e "ovenants with br&te beasts is im'ossible! be"a&se not &nderstanding o&r s'ee"h! they &nderstand not! nor
a""e't o any translation o right! nor "an translate any right to another6 and witho&t m&t&al a""e'tation! there is no
"ovenant$
To ma#e "ovenant with God is im'ossible b&t by mediation o s&"h as God s'ea#eth to! either by revelation
s&'ernat&ral or by His lie&tenants that govern &nder Him and in His name6 or otherwise we #now not whether o&r
"ovenants be a""e'ted or not$ And thereore they that vow anything "ontrary to any law o nat&re! vow in vain! as
being a thing &n*&st to 'ay s&"h vow$ And i it be a thing "ommanded by the law o nat&re! it is not the vow! b&t the
law that binds them$
The matter or s&b*e"t o a "ovenant is always something that alleth &nder deliberation! or to "ovenant is an a"t o
the will) that is to say! an a"t! and the last a"t! o deliberation) and is thereore always &nderstood to be something to
"ome! and whi"h *&dged 'ossible or him that "ovenanteth to 'erorm$
And thereore! to 'romise that whi"h is #nown to be im'ossible is no "ovenant$ 5&t i that 'rove im'ossible
aterwards! whi"h beore was tho&ght 'ossible! the "ovenant is valid and bindeth! tho&gh not to the thing itsel! yet to
the val&e) or! i that also be im'ossible! to the &neigned endeavo&r o 'erorming as m&"h as is 'ossible! or to more
no man "an be obliged$
.en are reed o their "ovenants two ways) by 'erorming! or by being orgiven$ %or 'erorman"e is the nat&ral end
o obligation! and orgiveness the restit&tion o liberty! as being a retranserring o that right in whi"h the obligation
"onsisted$
,ovenants entered into by ear! in the "ondition o mere nat&re! are obligatory$ %or e+am'le! i I "ovenant to 'ay a
ransom! or servi"e or my lie! to an enemy! I am bo&nd by it$ %or it is a "ontra"t! wherein one re"eiveth the beneit
o lie) the other is to re"eive money! or servi"e or it! and "onse2&ently! where no other law (as in the "ondition o
mere nat&re) orbiddeth the 'erorman"e! the "ovenant is valid$ Thereore 'risoners o war! i tr&sted with the
'ayment o their ransom! are obliged to 'ay it6 and i a wea#er 'rin"e ma#e a disadvantageo&s 'ea"e with a stronger!
or ear! he is bo&nd to #ee' it) &nless (as hath been said beore) there ariseth some new and *&st "a&se o ear to
renew the war$ And even in ,ommonwealths! i I be or"ed to redeem mysel rom a thie by 'romising him money! I
am bo&nd to 'ay it! till the "ivil law dis"harge me$ %or whatsoever I may law&lly do witho&t obligation! the same I
may law&lly "ovenant to do thro&gh ear6 and what I law&lly "ovenant! I "annot law&lly brea#$
A ormer "ovenant ma#es void a later$ %or a man that hath 'assed away his right to one man today hath it not to 'ass
tomorrow to another6 and thereore the later 'romise 'asseth no right! b&t is n&ll$
A "ovenant not to deend mysel rom or"e! by or"e! is always void$ %or (as I have shown beore) no man "an
transer or lay down his right to save himsel rom death! wo&nds! and im'risonment! the avoiding whereo is the
only end o laying down any right) and thereore the 'romise o not resisting or"e! in no "ovenant transerreth any
right! nor is obliging$ %or tho&gh a man may "ovenant th&s! &nless I do so! or so! #ill me) he "annot "ovenant th&s!
&nless I do so! or so! I will not resist yo& when yo& "ome to #ill me$ %or man by nat&re "hooseth the lesser evil!
whi"h is danger o death in resisting! rather than the greater! whi"h is "ertain and 'resent death in not resisting$ And
this is granted to be tr&e by all men! in that they lead "riminals to e+e"&tion! and 'rison! with armed men!
notwithstanding that s&"h "riminals have "onsented to the law by whi"h they are "ondemned$
A "ovenant to a""&se onesel! witho&t ass&ran"e o 'ardon! is li#ewise invalid$ %or in the "ondition o nat&re where
every man is *&dge! there is no 'la"e or a""&sation6 and in the "ivil state the a""&sation is ollowed with '&nishment!
whi"h! being or"e! a man is not obliged not to resist$ The same is also tr&e o the a""&sation o those by whose
"ondemnation a man alls into misery) as o a ather! wie! or benea"tor$ %or the testimony o s&"h an a""&ser! i it
be not willingly given! is 'res&med to be "orr&'ted by nat&re! and thereore not to be re"eived6 and where a man1s
testimony is not to be "redited! he is not bo&nd to give it$ Also a""&sations &'on tort&re are not to be re'&ted as
testimonies$ %or tort&re is to be &sed b&t as means o "on*e"t&re! and light! in the &rther e+amination and sear"h o
tr&th6 and what is in that "ase "onessed tendeth to the ease o him that is tort&red! not to the inorming o the
tort&rers! and thereore o&ght not to have the "redit o a s&i"ient testimony6 or whether he deliver himsel by tr&e
or alse a""&sation! he does it by the right o 'reserving his own lie$
The or"e o words being (as I have ormerly noted) too wea# to hold men to the 'erorman"e o their "ovenants!
there are in man1s nat&re b&t two imaginable hel's to strengthen it$ And those are either a ear o the "onse2&en"e o
brea#ing their word! or a glory or 'ride in a''earing not to need to brea# it$ This latter is a generosity too rarely
o&nd to be 'res&med on! es'e"ially in the '&rs&ers o wealth! "ommand! or sens&al 'leas&re! whi"h are the greatest
'art o man#ind$ The 'assion to be re"#oned &'on is ear) whereo there be two very general ob*e"ts6 one! the 'ower
o s'irits invisible) the other! the 'ower o those men they shall therein oend$ - these two! tho&gh the ormer be
the greater 'ower! yet the ear o the latter is "ommonly the greater ear$ The ear o the ormer is in every man his
own religion! whi"h hath 'la"e in the nat&re o man beore "ivil so"iety$ The latter hath not so) at least not 'la"e
eno&gh to #ee' men to their 'romises! be"a&se in the "ondition o mere nat&re! the ine2&ality o 'ower is not
dis"erned! b&t by the event o battle$ 0o that beore the time o "ivil so"iety! or in the interr&'tion thereo by war!
there is nothing "an strengthen a "ovenant o 'ea"e agreed on against the tem'tations o avari"e! ambition! l&st! or
other strong desire! b&t the ear o that invisible 'ower whi"h they every one worshi' as God! and ear as a revenger
o their 'eridy$ All thereore that "an be done between two men not s&b*e"t to "ivil 'ower is to '&t one another to
swear by the God he eareth6 whi"h swearing! or oath! is a orm o s'ee"h! added to a 'romise! by whi"h he that
'romiseth signiieth that &nless he 'erorm he reno&n"eth the mer"y o his God! or "alleth to him or vengean"e on
himsel$ 0&"h was the heathen orm! Let :&'iter #ill me else! as I #ill this beast$ 0o is o&r orm! I shall do th&s! and
th&s! so hel' me God$ And this! with the rites and "eremonies whi"h every one &seth in his own religion! that the ear
o brea#ing aith might be the greater$
5y this it a''ears that an oath ta#en a""ording to any other orm! or rite! than his that sweareth is in vain and no oath!
and that there is no swearing by anything whi"h the swearer thin#s not God$ %or tho&gh men have sometimes &sed to
swear by their #ings! or ear! or lattery) yet they wo&ld have it thereby &nderstood they attrib&ted to them divine
hono&r$ And that swearing &nne"essarily by God is b&t 'roaning o his name6 and swearing by other things! as men
do in "ommon dis"o&rse! is not swearing! b&t an im'io&s "&stom! gotten by too m&"h vehemen"e o tal#ing$
It a''ears also that the oath adds nothing to the obligation$ %or a "ovenant! i law&l! binds in the sight o God!
witho&t the oath! as m&"h as with it) i &nlaw&l! bindeth not at all! tho&gh it be "onirmed with an oath$
,HA8TER IV OF OTHER LAWS OF NATURE
%R-. that law o nat&re by whi"h we are obliged to transer to another s&"h rights as! being retained! hinder the
'ea"e o man#ind! there olloweth a third) whi"h is this6 that men 'erorm their "ovenants made) witho&t whi"h
"ovenants are in vain! and b&t em'ty words) and the right o all men to all things remaining! we are still in the
"ondition o war$
And in this law o nat&re "onsisteth the o&ntain and original o *&sti"e$ %or where no "ovenant hath 're"eded! there
hath no right been transerred! and every man has right to everything and "onse2&ently! no a"tion "an be &n*&st$ 5&t
when a "ovenant is made! then to brea# it is &n*&st and the deinition o in*&sti"e is no other than the not
'erorman"e o "ovenant$ And whatsoever is not &n*&st is *&st$ 5&t be"a&se "ovenants o m&t&al tr&st! where there is
a ear o not 'erorman"e on either 'art (as hath been said in the ormer "ha'ter)! are invalid! tho&gh the original o
*&sti"e be the ma#ing o "ovenants! yet in*&sti"e a"t&ally there "an be none till the "a&se o s&"h ear be ta#en away)
whi"h! while men are in the nat&ral "ondition o war! "annot be done$ Thereore beore the names o *&st and &n*&st
"an have 'la"e! there m&st be some "oer"ive 'ower to "om'el men e2&ally to the 'erorman"e o their "ovenants! by
the terror o some '&nishment greater than the beneit they e+'e"t by the brea"h o their "ovenant! and to ma#e good
that 'ro'riety whi"h by m&t&al "ontra"t men a"2&ire in re"om'ense o the &niversal right they abandon6 and s&"h
'ower there is none beore the ere"tion o a ,ommonwealth$ And this is also to be gathered o&t o the ordinary
deinition o *&sti"e in the 0"hools! or they say that *&sti"e is the "onstant will o giving to every man his own$ And
thereore where there is no own! that is! no 'ro'riety! there is no in*&sti"e) and where there is no "oer"ive 'ower
ere"ted! that is! where there is no ,ommonwealth! there is no 'ro'riety! all men having right to all things6 thereore
where there is no ,ommonwealth! there nothing is &n*&st$ 0o that the nat&re o *&sti"e "onsisteth in #ee'ing o valid
"ovenants! b&t the validity o "ovenants begins not b&t with the "onstit&tion o a "ivil 'ower s&i"ient to "om'el
men to #ee' them6 and then it is also that 'ro'riety begins$
The ool hath said in his heart! there is no s&"h thing as *&sti"e! and sometimes also with his tong&e! serio&sly
alleging that every man1s "onservation and "ontentment being "ommitted to his own "are! there "o&ld be no reason
why every man might not do what he tho&ght "ond&"ed there&nto6 and thereore also to ma#e! or not ma#e) #ee'! or
not #ee'! "ovenants was not against reason when it "ond&"ed to one1s beneit$ He does not therein deny that there be
"ovenants) and that they are sometimes bro#en! sometimes #e't) and that s&"h brea"h o them may be "alled
in*&sti"e! and the observan"e o them *&sti"e6 b&t he 2&estioneth whether in*&sti"e! ta#ing away the ear o God (or
the same ool hath said in his heart there is no God)! not sometimes stand with that reason whi"h di"tateth to every
man his own good) and 'arti"&larly then! when it "ond&"eth to s&"h a beneit as shall '&t a man in a "ondition to
negle"t not only the dis'raise and revilings! b&t also the 'ower o other men$ The #ingdom o God is gotten by
violen"e6 b&t what i it "o&ld be gotten by &n*&st violen"e( /ere it against reason so to get it! when it is im'ossible
to re"eive h&rt by it( And i it be not against reason! it is not against *&sti"e6 or else *&sti"e is not to be a''roved or
good$ %rom s&"h reasoning as this! s&""ess&l wi"#edness hath obtained the name o virt&e6 and some that in all
other things have disallowed the violation o aith! yet have allowed it when it is or the getting o a #ingdom$ And
the heathen that believed that 0at&rn was de'osed by his son :&'iter believed nevertheless the same :&'iter to be the
avenger o in*&sti"e! somewhat li#e to a 'ie"e o law in ,o#e1s ,ommentaries on Littleton) where he says i the right
heir o the "rown be attainted o treason! yet the "rown shall des"end to him! and eo instante the attainder be void6
rom whi"h instan"es a man will be very 'rone to iner that when the heir a''arent o a #ingdom shall #ill him that is
in 'ossession! tho&gh his ather! yo& may "all it in*&sti"e! or by what other name yo& will) yet it "an never be against
reason! seeing all the vol&ntary a"tions o men tend to the beneit o themselves) and those a"tions are most
reasonable that "ond&"e most to their ends$ This s'e"io&s reasoning is nevertheless alse$
%or the 2&estion is not o 'romises m&t&al! where there is no se"&rity o 'erorman"e on either side! as when there is
no "ivil 'ower ere"ted over the 'arties 'romising) or s&"h 'romises are no "ovenants6 b&t either where one o the
'arties has 'erormed already! or where there is a 'ower to ma#e him 'erorm! there is the 2&estion whether it be
against reason) that is! against the beneit o the other to 'erorm! or not$ And I say it is not against reason$ %or the
maniestation whereo we are to "onsider) irst! that when a man doth a thing! whi"h notwithstanding anything "an
be oreseen and re"#oned on tendeth to his own destr&"tion! howsoever some a""ident! whi"h he "o&ld not e+'e"t!
arriving may t&rn it to his beneit) yet s&"h events do not ma#e it reasonably or wisely done$ 0e"ondly! that in a
"ondition o war! wherein every man to every man! or want o a "ommon 'ower to #ee' them all in awe! is an
enemy! there is no man "an ho'e by his own strength! or wit! to himsel rom destr&"tion witho&t the hel' o
"onederates) where every one e+'e"ts the same deen"e by the "onederation that any one else does6 and thereore
he whi"h de"lares he thin#s it reason to de"eive those that hel' him "an in reason e+'e"t no other means o saety
than what "an be had rom his own single 'ower$ He! thereore! that brea#eth his "ovenant! and "onse2&ently
de"lareth that he thin#s he may with reason do so! "annot be re"eived into any so"iety that &nite themselves or
'ea"e and deen"e b&t by the error o them that re"eive him) nor when he is re"eived be retained in it witho&t seeing
the danger o their error) whi"h errors a man "annot reasonably re"#on &'on as the means o his se"&rity6 and
thereore i he be let! or "ast o&t o so"iety! he 'erisheth) and i he live in so"iety! it is by the errors o other men!
whi"h he "o&ld not oresee nor re"#on &'on! and "onse2&ently against the reason o his 'reservation) and so! as all
men that "ontrib&te not to his destr&"tion orbear him only o&t o ignoran"e o what is good or themselves$
As or the instan"e o gaining the se"&re and 'er'et&al eli"ity o heaven by any way! it is rivolo&s) there being b&t
one way imaginable! and that is not brea#ing! b&t #ee'ing o "ovenant$
And or the other instan"e o attaining sovereignty by rebellion) it is maniest that! tho&gh the event ollow! yet
be"a&se it "annot reasonably be e+'e"ted! b&t rather the "ontrary! and be"a&se by gaining it so! others are ta&ght to
gain the same in li#e manner! the attem't thereo is against reason$ :&sti"e thereore! that is to say! #ee'ing o
"ovenant! is a r&le o reason by whi"h we are orbidden to do anything destr&"tive to o&r lie! and "onse2&ently a law
o nat&re$
There be some that 'ro"eed &rther and will not have the law o nat&re to be those r&les whi"h "ond&"e to the
'reservation o man1s lie on earth! b&t to the attaining o an eternal eli"ity ater death) to whi"h they thin# the
brea"h o "ovenant may "ond&"e! and "onse2&ently be *&st and reasonable) s&"h are they that thin# it a wor# o merit
to #ill! or de'ose! or rebel against the sovereign 'ower "onstit&ted over them by their own "onsent$ 5&t be"a&se there
is no nat&ral #nowledge o man1s estate ater death! m&"h less o the reward that is then to be given to brea"h o
aith! b&t only a belie gro&nded &'on other men1s saying that they #now it s&'ernat&rally or that they #now those
that #new them that #new others that #new it s&'ernat&rally! brea"h o aith "annot be "alled a 're"e't o reason or
nat&re$
-thers! that allow or a law o nat&re the #ee'ing o aith! do nevertheless ma#e e+"e'tion o "ertain 'ersons) as
hereti"s! and s&"h as &se not to 'erorm their "ovenant to others) and this also is against reason$ %or i any a&lt o a
man be s&i"ient to dis"harge o&r "ovenant made! the same o&ght in reason to have been s&i"ient to have hindered
the ma#ing o it$ The names o *&st and &n*&st when they are attrib&ted to men! signiy one thing! and when they are
attrib&ted to a"tions! another$ /hen they are attrib&ted to men! they signiy "onormity! or in"onormity o manners!
to reason$ 5&t when they are attrib&ted to a"tion they signiy the "onormity! or in"onormity to reason! not o
manners! or manner o lie! b&t o 'arti"&lar a"tions$ A *&st man thereore is he that ta#eth all the "are he "an that his
a"tions may be all *&st) and an &n*&st man is he that negle"teth it$ And s&"h men are more oten in o&r lang&age
styled by the names o righteo&s and &nrighteo&s than *&st and &n*&st tho&gh the meaning be the same$ Thereore a
righteo&s man does not lose that title by one or a ew &n*&st a"tions that 'ro"eed rom s&dden 'assion! or mista#e o
things or 'ersons! nor does an &nrighteo&s man lose his "hara"ter or s&"h a"tions as he does! or orbears to do! or
ear6 be"a&se his will is not ramed by the *&sti"e! b&t by the a''arent beneit o what he is to do$ That whi"h gives to
h&man a"tions the relish o *&sti"e is a "ertain nobleness or gallantness o "o&rage! rarely o&nd! by whi"h a man
s"orns to be beholding or the "ontentment o his lie to ra&d! or brea"h o 'romise$ This *&sti"e o the manners is
that whi"h is meant where *&sti"e is "alled a virt&e) and in*&sti"e! a vi"e$ 5&t the *&sti"e o a"tions denominates men!
not *&st! b&t g&iltless6 and the in*&sti"e o the same (whi"h is also "alled in*&ry) gives them b&t the name o g&ilty$
Again! the in*&sti"e o manners is the dis'osition or a'tit&de to do in*&ry! and is in*&sti"e beore it 'ro"eed to a"t! and
witho&t s&''osing any individ&al 'erson in*&red$ 5&t the in*&sti"e o an a"tion (that is to say! in*&ry) s&''oseth an
individ&al 'erson in*&red) namely him to whom the "ovenant was made6 and thereore many times the in*&ry is
re"eived by one man when the damage redo&ndeth to another$ As when the master "ommandeth his servant to give
money to stranger) i it be not done! the in*&ry is done to the master! whom he had beore "ovenanted to obey) b&t the
damage redo&ndeth to the stranger! to whom he had no obligation! and thereore "o&ld not in*&re him$ And so also in
,ommonwealths 'rivate men may remit to one another their debts! b&t not robberies or other violen"es! whereby
they are endamaged) be"a&se the detaining o debt is an in*&ry to themselves! b&t robbery and violen"e are in*&ries to
the 'erson o the ,ommonwealth$
/hatsoever is done to a man! "onormable to his own will signiied to the doer! is not in*&ry to him$ %or i he that
doeth it hath not 'assed away his original right to do what he 'lease by some ante"edent "ovenant! there is no brea"h
o "ovenant! and thereore no in*&ry done him$ And i he have! then his will to have it done! being signiied! is a
release o that "ovenant! and so again there is no in*&ry done him$
:&sti"e o a"tions is by writers divided into "omm&tative and distrib&tive6 and the ormer they say "onsisteth in
'ro'ortion arithmeti"al) the latter in 'ro'ortion geometri"al$ ,omm&tative! thereore! they 'la"e in the e2&ality o
val&e o the things "ontra"ted or) and distrib&tive! in the distrib&tion o e2&al beneit to men o e2&al merit$ As i it
were in*&sti"e to sell dearer than we b&y! or to give more to a man than he merits$ The val&e o all things "ontra"ted
or is meas&red by the a''etite o the "ontra"tors! and thereore the *&st val&e is that whi"h they be "ontented to give$
And merit (besides that whi"h is by "ovenant! where the 'erorman"e on one 'art meriteth the 'erorman"e o the
other 'art! and alls &nder *&sti"e "omm&tative! not distrib&tive) is not d&e by *&sti"e! b&t is rewarded o gra"e only$
And thereore this distin"tion! in the sense wherein it &seth to be e+'o&nded! is not right$ To s'ea# 'ro'erly!
"omm&tative *&sti"e is the *&sti"e o a "ontra"tor) that is! a 'erorman"e o "ovenant in b&ying and selling! hiring and
letting to hire! lending and borrowing! e+"hanging! bartering! and other a"ts o "ontra"t$ And distrib&tive *&sti"e! the
*&sti"e o an arbitrator) that is to say! the a"t o deining what is *&st$ /herein! being tr&sted by them that ma#e him
arbitrator! i he 'erorm his tr&st! he is said to distrib&te to every man his own6 and this is indeed *&st distrib&tion!
and may be "alled! tho&gh im'ro'erly! distrib&tive *&sti"e! b&t more 'ro'erly e2&ity! whi"h also is a law o nat&re! as
shall be shown in d&e 'la"e$
As *&sti"e de'endeth on ante"edent "ovenant) so does gratit&de de'end on ante"edent gra"e) that is to say! ante"edent
ree git) and is the o&rth law o nat&re! whi"h may be "on"eived in this orm6 that a man whi"h re"eiveth beneit
rom another o mere gra"e endeavo&r that he whi"h giveth it have no reasonable "a&se to re'ent him o his good
will$ %or no man giveth b&t with intention o good to himsel! be"a&se git is vol&ntary) and o all vol&ntary a"ts! the
ob*e"t is to every man his own good) o whi"h i men see they shall be r&strated! there will be no beginning o
benevolen"e or tr&st! nor "onse2&ently o m&t&al hel'! nor o re"on"iliation o one man to another) and thereore
they are to remain still in the "ondition o war! whi"h is "ontrary to the irst and &ndamental law o nat&re whi"h
"ommandeth men to see# 'ea"e$ The brea"h o this law is "alled ingratit&de! and hath the same relation to gra"e that
in*&sti"e hath to obligation by "ovenant$
A ith law o nat&re is "om'laisan"e) that is to say! that every man strive to a""ommodate himsel to the rest$ %or the
&nderstanding whereo we may "onsider that there is in men1s a'tness to so"iety a diversity o nat&re! rising rom
their diversity o ae"tions! not &nli#e to that we see in stones bro&ght together or b&ilding o an edii"e$ %or as that
stone whi"h by the as'erity and irreg&larity o ig&re ta#es more room rom others than itsel ills! and or hardness
"annot be easily made 'lain! and thereby hindereth the b&ilding! is by the b&ilders "ast away as &n'roitable and
tro&blesome6 so also! a man that by as'erity o nat&re will strive to retain those things whi"h to himsel are
s&'erl&o&s! and to others ne"essary! and or the st&bbornness o his 'assions "annot be "orre"ted! is to be let or "ast
o&t o so"iety as "&mbersome there&nto$ %or seeing every man! not only by right! b&t also by ne"essity o nat&re! is
s&''osed to endeavo&r all he "an to obtain that whi"h is ne"essary or his "onservation! he that shall o''ose himsel
against it or things s&'erl&o&s is g&ilty o the war that there&'on is to ollow! and thereore doth that whi"h is
"ontrary to the &ndamental law o nat&re! whi"h "ommandeth to see# 'ea"e$ The observers o this law may be "alled
so"iable! (the Latins "all them "ommodi)) the "ontrary! st&bborn! inso"iable! orward! intra"table$
A si+th law o nat&re is this6 that &'on "a&tion o the &t&re time! a man o&ght to 'ardon the oen"es 'ast o them
that! re'enting! desire it$ %or 'ardon is nothing b&t granting o 'ea"e) whi"h tho&gh granted to them that 'ersevere in
their hostility! be not 'ea"e! b&t ear) yet not granted to them that give "a&tion o the &t&re time is sign o an
aversion to 'ea"e! and thereore "ontrary to the law o nat&re$
A seventh is6 that in revenges (that is! retrib&tion o evil or evil)! men loo# not at the greatness o the evil 'ast! b&t
the greatness o the good to ollow$ /hereby we are orbidden to inli"t '&nishment with any other design than or
"orre"tion o the oender! or dire"tion o others$ %or this law is "onse2&ent to the ne+t beore it! that "ommandeth
'ardon &'on se"&rity o the &t&re time$ 5esides! revenge witho&t res'e"t to the e+am'le and 'roit to "ome is a
tri&m'h! or glorying in the h&rt o another! tending to no end (or the end is always somewhat to "ome)) and glorying
to no end is vain7glory! and "ontrary to reason) and to h&rt witho&t reason tendeth to the introd&"tion o war! whi"h is
against the law o nat&re! and is "ommonly styled by the name o "r&elty$
And be"a&se all signs o hatred! or "ontem't! 'rovo#e to ight) insom&"h as most men "hoose rather to ha9ard their
lie than not to be revenged! we may in the eighth 'la"e! or a law o nat&re! set down this 're"e't6 that no man by
deed! word! "o&ntenan"e! or gest&re! de"lare hatred or "ontem't o another$ The brea"h o whi"h law is "ommonly
"alled "ont&mely$
The 2&estion who is the better man has no 'la"e in the "ondition o mere nat&re! where (as has been shown beore)
all men are e2&al$ The ine2&ality that now is has been introd&"ed by the laws "ivil$ I #now that Aristotle in the irst
boo# o his 8oliti"s! or a o&ndation o his do"trine! ma#eth men by nat&re! some more worthy to "ommand!
meaning the wiser sort! s&"h as he tho&ght himsel to be or his 'hiloso'hy) others to serve! meaning those that had
strong bodies! b&t were not 'hiloso'hers as he) as master and servant were not introd&"ed by "onsent o men! b&t by
dieren"e o wit6 whi"h is not only against reason! b&t also against e+'erien"e$ %or there are very ew so oolish that
had not rather govern themselves than be governed by others6 nor when the wise! in their own "on"eit! "ontend by
or"e with them who distr&st their own wisdom! do they always! or oten! or almost at any time! get the vi"tory$ I
nat&re thereore have made men e2&al! that e2&ality is to be a"#nowledged6 or i nat&re have made men &ne2&al! yet
be"a&se men that thin# themselves e2&al will not enter into "onditions o 'ea"e! b&t &'on e2&al terms! s&"h e2&ality
m&st be admitted$ And thereore or the ninth law o nat&re! I '&t this6 that every man a"#nowledge another or his
e2&al by nat&re$ The brea"h o this 're"e't is 'ride$
-n this law de'endeth another6 that at the entran"e into "onditions o 'ea"e! no man re2&ire to reserve to himsel any
right whi"h he is not "ontent sho&ld he reserved to every one o the rest$ As it is ne"essary or all men that see#
'ea"e to lay down "ertain rights o nat&re) that is to say! not to have liberty to do all they list! so is it ne"essary or
man1s lie to retain some6 as right to govern their own bodies) en*oy air! water! motion! ways to go rom 'la"e to
'la"e) and all things else witho&t whi"h a man "annot live! or not live well$ I in this "ase! at the ma#ing o 'ea"e!
men re2&ire or themselves that whi"h they wo&ld not have to be granted to others! they do "ontrary to the 're"edent
law that "ommandeth the a"#nowledgement o nat&ral e2&ality! and thereore also against the law o nat&re$ The
observers o this law are those we "all modest! and the brea#ers arrogant men$ The Gree#s "all the violation o this
law 'leone+ia) that is! a desire o more than their share$
Also! i a man he tr&sted to *&dge between man and man! it is a 're"e't o the law o nat&re that he deal e2&ally
between them$ %or witho&t that! the "ontroversies o men "annot be determined b&t by war$ He thereore that is
'artial in *&dgement! doth what in him lies to deter men rom the &se o *&dges and arbitrators! and "onse2&ently!
against the &ndamental law o nat&re! is the "a&se o war$
The observan"e o this law! rom the e2&al distrib&tion to ea"h man o that whi"h in reason belonged to him! is "alled
e2&ity! and (as I have said beore) distrib&tive *&sti"e6 the violation! a""e'tion o 'ersons! 'roso'ole'sia$
And rom this olloweth another law6 that s&"h things as "annot he divided be en*oyed in "ommon! i it "an be) and i
the 2&antity o the thing 'ermit! witho&t stint) otherwise 'ro'ortionably to the n&mber o them that have right$ %or
otherwise the distrib&tion is &ne2&al! and "ontrary to e2&ity$
5&t some things there be that "an neither be divided nor en*oyed in "ommon$ Then! the law o nat&re whi"h
'res"ribeth e2&ity re2&ireth6 that the entire right! or else (ma#ing the &se alternate) the irst 'ossession! be
determined by lot$ %or e2&al distrib&tion is o the law o nat&re) and other means o e2&al distrib&tion "annot be
imagined$
- lots there be two sorts! arbitrary and nat&ral$ Arbitrary is that whi"h is agreed on by the "om'etitors) nat&ral is
either 'rimogenit&re (whi"h the Gree# "alls #leronomia! whi"h signiies! given by lot)! or irst sei9&re$
And thereore those things whi"h "annot be en*oyed in "ommon! nor divided! o&ght to be ad*&dged to the irst
'ossessor) and in some "ases to the irst born! as a"2&ired by lot$
It is also a law o nat&re6 that all men that mediate 'ea"e he allowed sae "ond&"t$ %or the law that "ommandeth
'ea"e! as the end! "ommandeth inter"ession! as the means) and to inter"ession the means is sae "ond&"t$
And be"a&se! tho&gh men be never so willing to observe these laws! there may nevertheless arise 2&estions
"on"erning a man1s a"tion) irst! whether it were done! or not done) se"ondly! i done! whether against the law! or not
against the law) the ormer whereo is "alled a 2&estion o a"t! the latter a 2&estion o right) thereore &nless the
'arties to the 2&estion "ovenant m&t&ally to stand to the senten"e o another! they are as ar rom 'ea"e as ever$ This
other! to whose senten"e they s&bmit! is "alled an arbitrator$ And thereore it is o the law o nat&re that they that are
at "ontroversy s&bmit their right to the *&dgement o an arbitrator$
And seeing every man is 'res&med to do all things in order to his own beneit! no man is a it arbitrator in his own
"a&se6 and i he were never so it! yet e2&ity allowing to ea"h 'arty e2&al beneit! i one be admitted to be *&dge! the
other is to be admitted also) and so the "ontroversy! that is! the "a&se o war! remains! against the law o nat&re$
%or the same reason no man in any "a&se o&ght to be re"eived or arbitrator to whom greater 'roit! or hono&r! or
'leas&re a''arently ariseth o&t o the vi"tory o one 'arty than o the other6 or he hath ta#en! tho&gh an &navoidable
bribe! yet a bribe) and no man "an be obliged to tr&st him$ And th&s also the "ontroversy and the "ondition o war
remaineth! "ontrary to the law o nat&re$
And in a "ontroversy o a"t! the *&dge being to give no more "redit to one than to the other! i there be no other
arg&ments! m&st give "redit to a third) or to a third and o&rth) or more6 or else the 2&estion is &nde"ided! and let to
or"e! "ontrary to the law o nat&re$
These are the laws o nat&re! di"tating 'ea"e! or a means o the "onservation o men in m&ltit&des) and whi"h only
"on"ern the do"trine o "ivil so"iety$ There be other things tending to the destr&"tion o 'arti"&lar men) as
dr&n#enness! and all other 'arts o intem'eran"e! whi"h may thereore also be re"#oned amongst those things whi"h
the law o nat&re hath orbidden! b&t are not ne"essary to be mentioned! nor are 'ertinent eno&gh to this 'la"e$
And tho&gh this may seem too s&btle a ded&"tion o the laws o nat&re to be ta#en noti"e o by all men! whereo the
most 'art are too b&sy in getting ood! and the rest too negligent to &nderstand) yet to leave all men ine+"&sable! they
have been "ontra"ted into one easy s&m! intelligible even to the meanest "a'a"ity) and that is6 4o not that to another
whi"h tho& wo&ldest not have done to thysel! whi"h showeth him that he has no more to do in learning the laws o
nat&re b&t! when weighing the a"tions o other men with his own they seem too heavy! to '&t them into the other 'art
o the balan"e! and his own into their 'la"e! that his own 'assions and sel7love may add nothing to the weight) and
then there is none o these laws o nat&re that will not a''ear &nto him very reasonable$
The laws o nat&re oblige in oro interno) that is to say! they bind to a desire they sho&ld ta#e 'la"e6 b&t in oro
e+terno) that is! to the '&tting them in a"t! not always$ %or he that sho&ld be modest and tra"table! and 'erorm all he
'romises in s&"h time and 'la"e where no man else sho&ld do so! sho&ld b&t ma#e himsel a 'rey to others! and
'ro"&re his own "ertain r&in! "ontrary to the gro&nd o all laws o nat&re whi"h tend to nat&re1s 'reservation$ And
again! he that having s&i"ient se"&rity that others shall observe the same laws towards him! observes them not
himsel! see#eth not 'ea"e! b&t war! and "onse2&ently the destr&"tion o his nat&re by violen"e$
And whatsoever laws bind in oro interno may be bro#en! not only by a a"t "ontrary to the law! b&t also by a a"t
a""ording to it! in "ase a man thin# it "ontrary$ %or tho&gh his a"tion in this "ase be a""ording to the law! yet his
'&r'ose was against the law) whi"h! where the obligation is in oro interno! is a brea"h$
The laws o nat&re are imm&table and eternal) or in*&sti"e! ingratit&de! arrogan"e! 'ride! ini2&ity! a""e'tion o
'ersons! and the rest "an never be made law&l$ %or it "an never be that war shall 'reserve lie! and 'ea"e destroy it$
The same laws! be"a&se they oblige only to a desire and endeavo&r! mean an &neigned and "onstant endeavo&r! are
easy to be observed$ %or in that they re2&ire nothing b&t endeavo&r! he that endeavo&reth their 'erorman"e &lilleth
them) and he that &lilleth the law is *&st$
And the s"ien"e o them is the tr&e and only moral 'hiloso'hy$ %or moral 'hiloso'hy is nothing else b&t the s"ien"e
o what is good and evil in the "onversation and so"iety o man#ind$ Good and evil are names that signiy o&r
a''etites and aversions! whi"h in dierent tem'ers! "&stoms! and do"trines o men are dierent6 and diverse men
dier not only in their *&dgement on the senses o what is 'leasant and &n'leasant to the taste! smell! hearing! to&"h!
and sight) b&t also o what is "onormable or disagreeable to reason in the a"tions o "ommon lie$ Nay! the same
man! in diverse times! diers rom himsel) and one time 'raiseth! that is! "alleth good! what another time he
dis'raiseth! and "alleth evil6 rom when"e arise dis'&tes! "ontroversies! and at last war$ And thereore so long as a
man is in the "ondition o mere nat&re! whi"h is a "ondition o war! 'rivate a''etite is the meas&re o good and evil6
and "onse2&ently all men agree on this! that 'ea"e is good! and thereore also the way or means o 'ea"e! whi"h (as I
have shown beore) are *&sti"e! gratit&de! modesty! e2&ity! mer"y! and the rest o the laws o nat&re! are good) that is
to say! moral virt&es) and their "ontrary vi"es! evil$ Now the s"ien"e o virt&e and vi"e is moral 'hiloso'hy) and
thereore the tr&e do"trine o the laws o nat&re is the tr&e moral 'hiloso'hy$ 5&t the writers o moral 'hiloso'hy!
tho&gh they a"#nowledge the same virt&es and vi"es) yet! not seeing wherein "onsisted their goodness! nor that they
"ome to be 'raised as the means o 'ea"eable! so"iable! and "omortable living! 'la"e them in a medio"rity o
'assions6 as i not the "a&se! b&t the degree o daring! made ortit&de) or not the "a&se! b&t the 2&antity o a git!
made liberality$
These di"tates o reason men &sed to "all by the name o laws! b&t im'ro'erly6 or they are b&t "on"l&sions or
theorems "on"erning what "ond&"eth to the "onservation and deen"e o themselves) whereas law! 'ro'erly! is the
word o him that by right hath "ommand over others$ 5&t yet i we "onsider the same theorems as delivered in the
word o God that by right "ommandeth all things! then are they 'ro'erly "alled laws$
,HA8TER IVI OF PERSONS, AUTHORS, AND THINGS PERSONATED
A 8ER0-N is he whose words or a"tions are "onsidered! either as his own! or as re'resenting the words or a"tions o
another man! or o any other thing to whom they are attrib&ted! whether tr&ly or by i"tion$
/hen they are "onsidered as his own! then is he "alled a nat&ral 'erson6 and when they are "onsidered as
re'resenting the words and a"tions o another! then is he a eigned or artii"ial 'erson$ The word 'erson is Latin!
instead whereo the Gree#s have 'roso'on! whi"h signiies the a"e! as 'ersona in Latin signiies the disg&ise! or
o&tward a''earan"e o a man! "o&ntereited on the stage) and sometimes more 'arti"&larly that 'art o it whi"h
disg&iseth the a"e! as a mas# or vi9ard6 and rom the stage hath been translated to any re'resenter o s'ee"h and
a"tion! as well in trib&nals as theatres$ 0o that a 'erson is the same that an a"tor is! both on the stage and in "ommon
"onversation) and to 'ersonate is to a"t or re'resent himsel or another) and he that a"teth another is said to bear his
'erson! or a"t in his name (in whi"h sense ,i"ero &seth it where he says! Un&s s&stineo tres 'ersonas) mei!
adversarii! et *&di"is7 I bear three 'ersons) my own! my adversary1s! and the *&dge1s)! and is "alled in diverse
o""asions! diversely) as a re'resenter! or re'resentative! a lie&tenant! a vi"ar! an attorney! a de'&ty! a 'ro"&rator! an
a"tor! and the li#e$
- 'ersons artii"ial! some have their words and a"tions owned by those whom they re'resent$ And then the 'erson is
the a"tor! and he that owneth his words and a"tions is the a&thor! in whi"h "ase the a"tor a"teth by a&thority$ %or that
whi"h in s'ea#ing o goods and 'ossessions is "alled an owner! and in Latin domin&s in Gree# #&rios) s'ea#ing o
a"tions! is "alled a&thor$ And as the right o 'ossession is "alled dominion so the right o doing any a"tion is "alled
a&thority$ 0o that by a&thority is always &nderstood a right o doing any a"t) and done by a&thority! done by
"ommission or li"ense rom him whose right it is$
%rom hen"e it olloweth that when the a"tor ma#eth a "ovenant by a&thority! he bindeth thereby the a&thor no less
than i he had made it himsel) and no less s&b*e"teth him to all the "onse2&en"es o the same$ And thereore all that
hath been said ormerly (,ha'ter IIV) o the nat&re o "ovenants between man and man in their nat&ral "a'a"ity is
tr&e also when they are made by their a"tors! re'resenters! or 'ro"&rators! that have a&thority rom them! so ar orth
as is in their "ommission! b&t no &rther$
And thereore he that ma#eth a "ovenant with the a"tor! or re'resenter! not #nowing the a&thority he hath! doth it at
his own 'eril$ %or no man is obliged by a "ovenant whereo he is not a&thor! nor "onse2&ently by a "ovenant made
against or beside the a&thority he gave$
/hen the a"tor doth anything against the law o nat&re by "ommand o the a&thor! i he be obliged by ormer
"ovenant to obey him! not he! b&t the a&thor brea#eth the law o nat&re6 or tho&gh the a"tion be against the law o
nat&re! yet it is not his) b&t! "ontrarily! to re&se to do it is against the law o nat&re that orbiddeth brea"h o
"ovenant$
And he that ma#eth a "ovenant with the a&thor! by mediation o the a"tor! not #nowing what a&thority he hath! b&t
only ta#es his word) in "ase s&"h a&thority be not made maniest &nto him &'on demand! is no longer obliged6 or
the "ovenant made with the a&thor is not valid witho&t his "o&nter7ass&ran"e$ 5&t i he that so "ovenanteth #new
beorehand he was to e+'e"t no other ass&ran"e than the a"tor1s word! then is the "ovenant valid! be"a&se the a"tor in
this "ase ma#eth himsel the a&thor$ And thereore! as when the a&thority is evident! the "ovenant obligeth the a&thor!
not the a"tor) so when the a&thority is eigned! it obligeth the a"tor only! there being no a&thor b&t himsel$
There are ew things that are in"a'able o being re'resented by i"tion$ Inanimate things! as a "h&r"h! a hos'ital! a
bridge! may be 'ersonated by a re"tor! master! or overseer$ 5&t things inanimate "annot be a&thors! nor thereore give
a&thority to their a"tors6 yet the a"tors may have a&thority to 'ro"&re their maintenan"e! given them by those that are
owners or governors o those things$ And thereore s&"h things "annot be 'ersonated beore there be some state o
"ivil government$
Li#ewise "hildren! ools! and madmen that have no &se o reason may be 'ersonated by g&ardians! or "&rators! b&t
"an be no a&thors d&ring that time o any a"tion done by them! longer than (when they shall re"over the &se o
reason) they shall *&dge the same reasonable$ ;et d&ring the olly he that hath right o governing them may give
a&thority to the g&ardian$ 5&t this again has no 'la"e b&t in a state "ivil! be"a&se beore s&"h estate there is no
dominion o 'ersons$
An idol! or mere igment o the brain! may be 'ersonated! as were the gods o the heathen! whi"h! by s&"h oi"ers as
the state a''ointed! were 'ersonated! and held 'ossessions! and other goods! and rights! whi"h men rom time to time
dedi"ated and "onse"rated &nto them$ 5&t idols "annot be a&thors6 or an idol is nothing$ The a&thority 'ro"eeded
rom the state! and thereore beore introd&"tion o "ivil government the gods o the heathen "o&ld not be 'ersonated$
The tr&e God may be 'ersonated$ As He was6 irst! .oses! who governed the Israelites! that were that were not his!
b&t God1s 'eo'le) not in his own name! with ho" di"it .oses! b&t in God1s name! with ho" di"it 4omin&s$ 0e"ondly!
by the 0on o .an! His own 0on! o&r blessed 0avio&r :es&s ,hrist! that "ame to red&"e the :ews and ind&"e all
nations into the #ingdom o his %ather) not as o himsel! b&t as sent rom his %ather$ And thirdly! by the Holy Ghost!
or ,omorter! s'ea#ing and wor#ing in the A'ostles) whi"h Holy Ghost was a ,omorter that "ame not o himsel!
b&t was sent and 'ro"eeded rom them both$
A m&ltit&de o men are made one 'erson when they are by one man! or one 'erson! re'resented) so that it be done
with the "onsent o every one o that m&ltit&de in 'arti"&lar$ %or it is the &nity o the re'resenter! not the &nity o the
re'resented! that ma#eth the 'erson one$ And it is the re'resenter that beareth the 'erson! and b&t one 'erson6 and
&nity "annot otherwise be &nderstood in m&ltit&de$
And be"a&se the m&ltit&de nat&rally is not one! b&t many! they "annot be &nderstood or one! b&t in any a&thors! o
everything their re'resentative saith or doth in their name) every man giving their "ommon re'resenter a&thority
rom himsel in 'arti"&lar! and owning all the a"tions the re'resenter doth! in "ase they give him a&thority witho&t
stint6 otherwise! when they limit him in what and how ar he shall re'resent them! none o them owneth more than
they gave him "ommission to a"t$ And i the re'resentative "onsist o many men! the voi"e o the greater n&mber
m&st be "onsidered as the voi"e o them all$ %or i the lesser n&mber 'rono&n"e! or e+am'le! in the airmative! and
the greater in the negative! there will be negatives more than eno&gh to destroy the airmatives! and thereby the
e+"ess o negatives! standing &n"ontradi"ted! are the only voi"e the re'resentative hath$
And a re'resentative o even n&mber! es'e"ially when the n&mber is not great! whereby the "ontradi"tory voi"es are
otentimes e2&al! is thereore otentimes m&te and in"a'able o a"tion$ ;et in some "ases "ontradi"tory voi"es e2&al
in n&mber may determine a 2&estion) as in "ondemning! or absolving! e2&ality o votes! even in that they "ondemn
not! do absolve) b&t not on the "ontrary "ondemn! in that they absolve not$ %or when a "a&se is heard! not to
"ondemn is to absolve) b&t on the "ontrary to say that not absolving is "ondemning is not tr&e$ The li#e it is in
deliberation o e+e"&ting 'resently! or deerring till another time6 or when the voi"es are e2&al! the not de"reeing
e+e"&tion is a de"ree o dilation$
-r i the n&mber be odd! as three! or more! men or assemblies! whereo every one has! by a negative voi"e! a&thority
to ta#e away the ee"t o all the airmative voi"es o the rest! this n&mber is no re'resentative) by the diversity o
o'inions and interests o men! it be"omes otentimes! and in "ases o the greatest "onse2&en"e! a m&te 'erson and
&na't! as or many things else! so or the government o a m&ltit&de! es'e"ially in time o war$
- a&thors there be two sorts$ The irst sim'ly so "alled! whi"h I have beore deined to be him that owneth the
a"tion o another sim'ly$ The se"ond is he that owneth an a"tion or "ovenant o another "onditionally) that is to say!
he &nderta#eth to do it! i the other doth it not! at or beore a "ertain time$ And these a&thors "onditional are generally
"alled s&reties! in Latin! ide*&ssores and s'onsores) and 'arti"&larly or debt! 'raedes and or a''earan"e beore a
*&dge or magistrate! vades$
THE 0E,-N4 8ART 7 -% ,-..-N/EALTH
,HA8TER IVII OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION OF A COMMONWEALTH
THE inal "a&se! end! or design o men (who nat&rally love liberty! and dominion over others) in the introd&"tion o
that restraint &'on themselves! in whi"h we see them live in ,ommonwealths! is the oresight o their own
'reservation! and o a more "ontented lie thereby) that is to say! o getting themselves o&t rom that miserable
"ondition o war whi"h is ne"essarily "onse2&ent! as hath been shown! to the nat&ral 'assions o men when there is
no visible 'ower to #ee' them in awe! and tie them by ear o '&nishment to the 'erorman"e o their "ovenants! and
observation o those laws o nat&re set down in the o&rteenth and iteenth "ha'ters$
%or the laws o nat&re! as *&sti"e! e2&ity! modesty! mer"y! and! in s&m! doing to others as we wo&ld be done to! o
themselves! witho&t the terror o some 'ower to "a&se them to be observed! are "ontrary to o&r nat&ral 'assions! that
"arry &s to 'artiality! 'ride! revenge! and the li#e$ And "ovenants! witho&t the sword! are b&t words and o no
strength to se"&re a man at all$ Thereore! notwithstanding the laws o nat&re (whi"h every one hath then #e't! when
he has the will to #ee' them! when he "an do it saely)! i there be no 'ower ere"ted! or not great eno&gh or o&r
se"&rity! every man will and may law&lly rely on his own strength and art or "a&tion against all other men$ And in
all 'la"es! where men have lived by small amilies! to rob and s'oil one another has been a trade! and so ar rom
being re'&ted against the law o nat&re that the greater s'oils they gained! the greater was their hono&r) and men
observed no other laws therein b&t the laws o hono&r) that is! to abstain rom "r&elty! leaving to men their lives and
instr&ments o h&sbandry$ And as small amilies did then) so now do "ities and #ingdoms! whi"h are b&t greater
amilies (or their own se"&rity)! enlarge their dominions &'on all 'reten"es o danger! and ear o invasion! or
assistan"e that may be given to invaders) endeavo&r as m&"h as they "an to s&bd&e or wea#en their neighbo&rs by
o'en or"e! and se"ret arts! or want o other "a&tion! *&stly) and are remembered or it in ater ages with hono&r$
Nor is it the *oining together o a small n&mber o men that gives them this se"&rity) be"a&se in small n&mbers! small
additions on the one side or the other ma#e the advantage o strength so great as is s&i"ient to "arry the vi"tory! and
thereore gives en"o&ragement to an invasion$ The m&ltit&de s&i"ient to "onide in or o&r se"&rity is not
determined by any "ertain n&mber! b&t by "om'arison with the enemy we ear) and is then s&i"ient when the odds
o the enemy is not o so visible and "ons'i"&o&s moment to determine the event o war! as to move him to attem't$
And be there never so great a m&ltit&de) yet i their a"tions be dire"ted a""ording to their 'arti"&lar *&dgements! and
'arti"&lar a''etites! they "an e+'e"t thereby no deen"e! nor 'rote"tion! neither against a "ommon enemy! nor against
the in*&ries o one another$ %or being distra"ted in o'inions "on"erning the best &se and a''li"ation o their strength!
they do not hel'! b&t hinder one another! and red&"e their strength by m&t&al o''osition to nothing6 whereby they are
easily! not only s&bd&ed by a very ew that agree together! b&t also! when there is no "ommon enemy! they ma#e war
&'on ea"h other or their 'arti"&lar interests$ %or i we "o&ld s&''ose a great m&ltit&de o men to "onsent in the
observation o *&sti"e! and other laws o nat&re! witho&t a "ommon 'ower to #ee' them all in awe! we might as well
s&''ose all man#ind to do the same) and then there neither wo&ld be! nor need to be! any "ivil government or
,ommonwealth at all! be"a&se there wo&ld be 'ea"e witho&t s&b*e"tion$
Nor is it eno&gh or the se"&rity! whi"h men desire sho&ld last all the time o their lie! that they be governed and
dire"ted by one *&dgement or a limited time) as in one battle! or one war$ %or tho&gh they obtain a vi"tory by their
&nanimo&s endeavo&r against a oreign enemy! yet aterwards! when either they have no "ommon enemy! or he that
by one 'art is held or an enemy is by another 'art held or a riend! they m&st needs by the dieren"e o their
interests dissolve! and all again into a war amongst themselves$
It is tr&e that "ertain living "reat&res! as bees and ants! live so"iably one with another (whi"h are thereore by
Aristotle n&mbered amongst 'oliti"al "reat&res)! and yet have no other dire"tion than their 'arti"&lar *&dgements and
a''etites) nor s'ee"h! whereby one o them "an signiy to another what he thin#s e+'edient or the "ommon beneit6
and thereore some man may 'erha's desire to #now why man#ind "annot do the same$ To whi"h I answer!
%irst! that men are "ontin&ally in "om'etition or hono&r and dignity! whi"h these "reat&res are not) and "onse2&ently
amongst men there ariseth on that gro&nd! envy! and hatred! and inally war) b&t amongst these not so$
0e"ondly! that amongst these "reat&res the "ommon good diereth not rom the 'rivate) and being by nat&re in"lined
to their 'rivate! they 'ro"&re thereby the "ommon beneit$ 5&t man! whose *oy "onsisteth in "om'aring himsel with
other men! "an relish nothing b&t what is eminent$
Thirdly! that these "reat&res! having not! as man! the &se o reason! do not see! nor thin# they see! any a&lt in the
administration o their "ommon b&siness6 whereas amongst men there are very many that thin# themselves wiser and
abler to govern the '&bli" better than the rest! and these strive to reorm and innovate! one this way! another that
way) and thereby bring it into distra"tion and "ivil war$
%o&rthly! that these "reat&res! tho&gh they have some &se o voi"e in ma#ing #nown to one another their desires and
other ae"tions! yet they want that art o words by whi"h some men "an re'resent to others that whi"h is good in the
li#eness o evil) and evil! in the li#eness o good) and a&gment or diminish the a''arent greatness o good and evil!
dis"ontenting men and tro&bling their 'ea"e at their 'leas&re$
%ithly! irrational "reat&res "annot disting&ish between in*&ry and damage) and thereore as long as they be at ease!
they are not oended with their ellows6 whereas man is then most tro&blesome when he is most at ease) or then it is
that he loves to show his wisdom! and "ontrol the a"tions o them that govern the ,ommonwealth$
Lastly! the agreement o these "reat&res is nat&ral) that o men is by "ovenant only! whi"h is artii"ial6 and thereore
it is no wonder i there be somewhat else re2&ired! besides "ovenant! to ma#e their agreement "onstant and lasting)
whi"h is a "ommon 'ower to #ee' them in awe and to dire"t their a"tions to the "ommon beneit$
The only way to ere"t s&"h a "ommon 'ower! as may be able to deend them rom the invasion o oreigners! and the
in*&ries o one another! and thereby to se"&re them in s&"h sort as that by their own ind&stry and by the r&its o the
earth they may no&rish themselves and live "ontentedly! is to "oner all their 'ower and strength &'on one man! or
&'on one assembly o men! that may red&"e all their wills! by 'l&rality o voi"es! &nto one will6 whi"h is as m&"h as
to say! to a''oint one man! or assembly o men! to bear their 'erson) and every one to own and a"#nowledge himsel
to be a&thor o whatsoever he that so beareth their 'erson shall a"t! or "a&se to be a"ted! in those things whi"h
"on"ern the "ommon 'ea"e and saety) and therein to s&bmit their wills! every one to his will! and their *&dgements
to his *&dgement$ This is more than "onsent! or "on"ord) it is a real &nity o them all in one and the same 'erson!
made by "ovenant o every man with every man! in s&"h manner as i every man sho&ld say to every man6 I
a&thorise and give &' my right o governing mysel to this man! or to this assembly o men! on this "ondition) that
tho& give &'! thy right to him! and a&thorise all his a"tions in li#e manner$ This done! the m&ltit&de so &nited in one
'erson is "alled a ,-..-N/EALTH) in Latin! ,IVITA0$ This is the generation o that great LEVIATHAN! or
rather! to s'ea# more reverently! o that mortal god to whi"h we owe! &nder the immortal God! o&r 'ea"e and
deen"e$ %or by this a&thority! given him by every 'arti"&lar man in the ,ommonwealth! he hath the &se o so m&"h
'ower and strength "onerred on him that! by terror thereo! he is enabled to orm the wills o them all! to 'ea"e at
home! and m&t&al aid against their enemies abroad$ And in him "onsisteth the essen"e o the ,ommonwealth) whi"h!
to deine it! is6 one 'erson! o whose a"ts a great m&ltit&de! by m&t&al "ovenants one with another! have made
themselves every one the a&thor! to the end he may &se the strength and means o them all as he shall thin# e+'edient
or their 'ea"e and "ommon deen"e$
And he that "arryeth this 'erson is "alled sovereign! and said to have sovereign 'ower) and every one besides! his
s&b*e"t$
The attaining to this sovereign 'ower is by two ways$ -ne! by nat&ral or"e6 as when a man ma#eth his "hildren to
s&bmit themselves! and their "hildren! to his government! as being able to destroy them i they re&se) or by war
s&bd&eth his enemies to his will! giving them their lives on that "ondition$ The other! is when men agree amongst
themselves to s&bmit to some man! or assembly o men! vol&ntarily! on "oniden"e to be 'rote"ted by him against all
others$ This latter may be "alled a 'oliti"al ,ommonwealth! or ,ommonwealth by Instit&tion) and the ormer! a
,ommonwealth by a"2&isition$ And irst! I shall s'ea# o a ,ommonwealth by instit&tion$
,HA8TER IVIII OF THE RIGHTS OF SOVEREIGNS BY INSTITUTION
A ,-..-N/EALTH is said to be instit&ted when a m&ltit&de o men do agree! and "ovenant! every one with
every one! that to whatsoever man! or assembly o men! shall be given by the ma*or 'art the right to 'resent the
'erson o them all! that is to say! to be their re'resentative) every one! as well he that voted or it as he that voted
against it! shall a&thori9e all the a"tions and *&dgements o that man! or assembly o men! in the same manner as i
they were his own! to the end to live 'ea"eably amongst themselves! and be 'rote"ted against other men$
%rom this instit&tion o a ,ommonwealth are derived all the rights and a"&lties o him! or them! on whom the
sovereign 'ower is "onerred by the "onsent o the 'eo'le assembled$
%irst! be"a&se they "ovenant! it is to be &nderstood they are not obliged by ormer "ovenant to anything re'&gnant
here&nto$ And "onse2&ently they that have already instit&ted a ,ommonwealth! being thereby bo&nd by "ovenant to
own the a"tions and *&dgements o one! "annot law&lly ma#e a new "ovenant amongst themselves to be obedient to
any other! in anything whatsoever! witho&t his 'ermission$ And thereore! they that are s&b*e"ts to a monar"h "annot
witho&t his leave "ast o monar"hy and ret&rn to the "on&sion o a dis&nited m&ltit&de) nor transer their 'erson
rom him that beareth it to another man! other assembly o men6 or they are bo&nd! every man to every man! to own
and be re'&ted a&thor o all that already is their sovereign shall do and *&dge it to be done) so that any one man
dissenting! all the rest sho&ld brea# their "ovenant made to that man! whi"h is in*&sti"e6 and they have also every
man given the sovereignty to him that beareth their 'erson) and thereore i they de'ose him! they ta#e rom him that
whi"h is his own! and so again it is in*&sti"e$ 5esides! i he that attem'teth to de'ose his sovereign be #illed or
'&nished by him or s&"h attem't! he is a&thor o his own '&nishment! as being! by the instit&tion! a&thor o all his
sovereign shall do) and be"a&se it is in*&sti"e or a man to do anything or whi"h he may be '&nished by his own
a&thority! he is also &'on that title &n*&st$ And whereas some men have 'retended or their disobedien"e to their
sovereign a new "ovenant! made! not with men b&t with God! this also is &n*&st6 or there is no "ovenant with God
b&t by mediation o somebody that re'resenteth God1s 'erson! whi"h none doth b&t God1s lie&tenant who hath the
sovereignty &nder God$ 5&t this 'reten"e o "ovenant with God is so evident a lie! even in the 'retenders1 own
"ons"ien"es! that it is not only an a"t o an &n*&st! b&t also o a vile and &nmanly dis'osition$
0e"ondly! be"a&se the right o bearing the 'erson o them all is given to him they ma#e sovereign! by "ovenant only
o one to another! and not o him to any o them! there "an ha''en no brea"h o "ovenant on the 'art o the
sovereign) and "onse2&ently none o his s&b*e"ts! by any 'reten"e o oreit&re! "an be reed rom his s&b*e"tion$
That he whi"h is made sovereign ma#eth no "ovenant with his s&b*e"ts beore hand is maniest) be"a&se either he
m&st ma#e it with the whole m&ltit&de! as one 'arty to the "ovenant! or he m&st ma#e a several "ovenant with every
man$ /ith the whole! as one 'arty! it is im'ossible! be"a&se as they are not one 'erson6 and i he ma#e so many
several "ovenants as there be men! those "ovenants ater he hath the sovereignty are void) be"a&se what a"t soever
"an be 'retended by any one o them or brea"h thereo is the a"t both o himsel! and o all the rest! be"a&se done in
the 'erson! and by the right o every one o them in 'arti"&lar$ 5esides! i any one or more o them 'retend a brea"h
o the "ovenant made by the sovereign at his instit&tion! and others or one other o his s&b*e"ts! or himsel alone!
'retend there was no s&"h brea"h! there is in this "ase no *&dge to de"ide the "ontroversy6 it ret&rns thereore to the
sword again) and every man re"overeth the right o 'rote"ting himsel by his own strength! "ontrary to the design
they had in the instit&tion$ It is thereore in vain to grant sovereignty by way o 're"edent "ovenant$ The o'inion that
any monar"h re"eiveth his 'ower by "ovenant! that is to say! on "ondition! 'ro"eedeth rom want o &nderstanding
this easy tr&th6 that "ovenants being b&t words! and breath! have no or"e to oblige! "ontain! "onstrain! or 'rote"t any
man! b&t what it has rom the '&bli" sword) that is! rom the &ntied hands o that man! or assembly o men! that hath
the sovereignty! and whose a"tions are avo&"hed by them all! and 'erormed by the strength o them all! in him
&nited$ 5&t when an assembly o men is made sovereign! then no man imagineth any s&"h "ovenant to have 'assed
in the instit&tion6 or no man is so d&ll as to say! or e+am'le! the 'eo'le o Rome made a "ovenant with the Romans
to hold the sovereignty on s&"h or s&"h "onditions) whi"h not 'erormed! the Romans might law&lly de'ose the
Roman 'eo'le$ That men see not the reason to be ali#e in a monar"hy and in a 'o'&lar government 'ro"eedeth rom
the ambition o some that are #inder to the government o an assembly! whereo they may ho'e to 'arti"i'ate! than o
monar"hy! whi"h they des'air to en*oy$
Thirdly! be"a&se the ma*or 'art hath by "onsenting voi"es de"lared a sovereign! he that dissented m&st now "onsent
with the rest) that is! be "ontented to avow all the a"tions he shall do! or else *&stly be destroyed by the rest$ %or i he
vol&ntarily entered into the "ongregation o them that were assembled! he s&i"iently de"lared thereby his will! and
thereore ta"itly "ovenanted! to stand to what the ma*or 'art sho&ld ordain6 and thereore i he re&se to stand thereto!
or ma#e 'rotestation against any o their de"rees! he does "ontrary to his "ovenant! and thereore &n*&stly$ And
whether he be o the "ongregation or not! and whether his "onsent be as#ed or not! he m&st either s&bmit to their
de"rees or be let in the "ondition o war he was in beore) wherein he might witho&t in*&sti"e be destroyed by any
man whatsoever$
%o&rthly! be"a&se every s&b*e"t is by this instit&tion a&thor o all the a"tions and *&dgements o the sovereign
instit&ted! it ollows that whatsoever he doth! "an be no in*&ry to any o his s&b*e"ts) nor o&ght he to be by any o
them a""&sed o in*&sti"e$ %or he that doth anything by a&thority rom another doth therein no in*&ry to him by
whose a&thority he a"teth6 b&t by this instit&tion o a ,ommonwealth every 'arti"&lar man is a&thor o all the
sovereign doth) and "onse2&ently he that "om'laineth o in*&ry rom his sovereign "om'laineth o that whereo he
himsel is a&thor! and thereore o&ght not to a""&se any man b&t himsel) no! nor himsel o in*&ry! be"a&se to do
in*&ry to onesel is im'ossible$ It is tr&e that they that have sovereign 'ower may "ommit ini2&ity! b&t not in*&sti"e
or in*&ry in the 'ro'er signii"ation$
%ithly! and "onse2&ently to that whi"h was said last! no man that hath sovereign 'ower "an *&stly be '&t to death! or
otherwise in any manner by his s&b*e"ts '&nished$ %or seeing every s&b*e"t is a&thor o the a"tions o his sovereign!
he '&nisheth another or the a"tions "ommitted by himsel$
And be"a&se the end o this instit&tion is the 'ea"e and deen"e o them all! and whosoever has right to the end has
right to the means! it belonged o right to whatsoever man or assembly that hath the sovereignty to be *&dge both o
the means o 'ea"e and deen"e! and also o the hindran"es and dist&rban"es o the same) and to do whatsoever he
shall thin# ne"essary to be done! both beorehand! or the 'reserving o 'ea"e and se"&rity! by 'revention o dis"ord
at home! and hostility rom abroad) and when 'ea"e and se"&rity are lost! or the re"overy o the same$ And
thereore!
0i+thly! it is anne+ed to the sovereignty to be *&dge o what o'inions and do"trines are averse! and what "ond&"ing to
'ea"e) and "onse2&ently! on what o""asions! how ar! and what men are to be tr&sted withal in s'ea#ing to m&ltit&des
o 'eo'le) and who shall e+amine the do"trines o all boo#s beore they be '&blished$ %or the a"tions o men 'ro"eed
rom their o'inions! and in the well governing o o'inions "onsisteth the well governing o men1s a"tions in order to
their 'ea"e and "on"ord$ And tho&gh in matter o do"trine nothing to be regarded b&t the tr&th! yet this is not
re'&gnant to reg&lating o the same by 'ea"e$ %or do"trine re'&gnant to 'ea"e "an no more be tr&e! than 'ea"e and
"on"ord "an be against the law o nat&re$ It is tr&e that in a ,ommonwealth! where by the negligen"e or
&ns#ill&lness o governors and tea"hers alse do"trines are by time generally re"eived! the "ontrary tr&ths may be
generally oensive6 yet the most s&dden and ro&gh b&stling in o a new tr&th that "an be does never brea# the 'ea"e!
b&t only sometimes awa#e the war$ %or those men that are so remissly governed that they dare ta#e &' arms to
deend or introd&"e an o'inion are still in war) and their "ondition! not 'ea"e! b&t only a "essation o arms or ear o
one another) and they live! as it were! in the 'ro"in"ts o battle "ontin&ally$ It belonged thereore to him that hath the
sovereign 'ower to be *&dge! or "onstit&te all *&dges o o'inions and do"trines! as a thing ne"essary to 'ea"e) thereby
to 'revent dis"ord and "ivil war$
0eventhly! is anne+ed to the sovereignty the whole 'ower o 'res"ribing the r&les whereby every man may #now
what goods he may en*oy! and what a"tions he may do! witho&t being molested by any o his ellow s&b*e"ts6 and
this is it men "all 'ro'riety$ %or beore "onstit&tion o sovereign 'ower! as hath already been shown! all men had
right to all things! whi"h ne"essarily "a&seth war6 and thereore this 'ro'riety! being ne"essary to 'ea"e! and
de'ending on sovereign 'ower! is the a"t o that 'ower! in order to the '&bli" 'ea"e$ These r&les o 'ro'riety (or
me&m and t&&m) and o good! evil! law&l! and &nlaw&l in the a"tions o s&b*e"ts are the "ivil laws) that is to say!
the laws o ea"h ,ommonwealth in 'arti"&lar) tho&gh the name o "ivil law be now restrained to the an"ient "ivil
laws o the "ity o Rome) whi"h being the head o a great 'art o the world! her laws at that time were in these 'arts
the "ivil law$
Eighthly! is anne+ed to the sovereignty the right o *&di"at&re) that is to say! o hearing and de"iding all "ontroversies
whi"h may arise "on"erning law! either "ivil or nat&ral! or "on"erning a"t$ %or witho&t the de"ision o "ontroversies!
there is no 'rote"tion o one s&b*e"t against the in*&ries o another) the laws "on"erning me&m and t&&m are in vain!
and to every man remaineth! rom the nat&ral and ne"essary a''etite o his own "onservation! the right o 'rote"ting
himsel by his 'rivate strength! whi"h is the "ondition o war! and "ontrary to the end or whi"h every
,ommonwealth is instit&ted$
Ninthly! is anne+ed to the sovereignty the right o ma#ing war and 'ea"e with other nations and ,ommonwealths)
that is to say! o *&dging when it is or the '&bli" good! and how great or"es are to be assembled! armed! and 'aid or
that end! and to levy money &'on the s&b*e"ts to deray the e+'enses thereo$ %or the 'ower by whi"h the 'eo'le are
to be deended "onsisteth in their armies! and the strength o an army in the &nion o their strength &nder one
"ommand) whi"h "ommand the sovereign instit&ted! thereore hath! be"a&se the "ommand o the militia! witho&t
other instit&tion! ma#eth him that hath it sovereign$ And thereore! whosoever is made general o an army! he that
hath the sovereign 'ower is always generalissimo$
Tenthly! is anne+ed to the sovereignty the "hoosing o all "o&nsellors! ministers! magistrates! and oi"ers! both in
'ea"e and war$ %or seeing the sovereign is "harged with the end! whi"h is the "ommon 'ea"e and deen"e! he is
&nderstood to have 'ower to &se s&"h means as he shall thin# most it or his dis"harge$
Eleventhly! to the sovereign is "ommitted the 'ower o rewarding with ri"hes or hono&r) and o '&nishing with
"or'oral or 'e"&niary '&nishment! or with ignominy! every s&b*e"t a""ording to the law he hath ormerly made) or i
there be no law made! a""ording as he shall *&dge most to "ond&"e to the en"o&raging o men to serve the
,ommonwealth! or deterring o them rom doing disservi"e to the same$
Lastly! "onsidering what val&es men are nat&rally a't to set &'on themselves! what res'e"t they loo# or rom others!
and how little they val&e other men) rom when"e "ontin&ally arise amongst them! em&lation! 2&arrels! a"tions! and
at last war! to the destroying o one another! and dimin&tion o their strength against a "ommon enemy) it is
ne"essary that there be laws o hono&r! and a '&bli" rate o the worth o s&"h men as have deserved or are able to
deserve well o the ,ommonwealth! and that there be or"e in the hands o some or other to '&t those laws in
e+e"&tion$ 5&t it hath already been shown that not only the whole militia! or or"es o the ,ommonwealth! b&t also
the *&di"at&re o all "ontroversies! is anne+ed to the sovereignty$ To the sovereign thereore it belonged also to give
titles o hono&r! and to a''oint what order o 'la"e and dignity ea"h man shall hold! and what signs o res'e"t in
'&bli" or 'rivate meetings they shall give to one another$
These are the rights whi"h ma#e the essen"e o sovereignty! and whi"h are the mar#s whereby a man may dis"ern in
what man! or assembly o men! the sovereign 'ower is 'la"ed and resideth$ %or these are in"omm&ni"able and
inse'arable$ The 'ower to "oin money! to dis'ose o the estate and 'ersons o inant heirs! to have 're7em'tion in
mar#ets! and all other stat&te 'rerogatives may be transerred by the sovereign! and yet the 'ower to 'rote"t his
s&b*e"ts be retained$ 5&t i he transer the militia! he retains the *&di"at&re in vain! or want o e+e"&tion o the laws)
or i he grant away the 'ower o raising money! the militia is in vain) or i he give away the government o do"trines!
men will be righted into rebellion with the ear o s'irits$ And so i we "onsider any one o the said rights! we shall
'resently see that the holding o all the rest will 'rod&"e no ee"t in the "onservation o 'ea"e and *&sti"e! the end
or whi"h all ,ommonwealths are instit&ted$ And this division is it whereo it is said! a #ingdom divided in itsel
"annot stand6 or &nless this division 're"ede! division into o''osite armies "an never ha''en$ I there had not irst
been an o'inion re"eived o the greatest 'art o England that these 'owers were divided between the 3ing and the
Lords and the Ho&se o ,ommons! the 'eo'le had never been divided and allen into this ,ivil /ar) irst between
those that disagreed in 'oliti"s! and ater between the dissenters abo&t the liberty o religion! whi"h have so
instr&"ted men in this 'oint o sovereign right that there be ew now in England that do not see that these rights are
inse'arable! and will be so generally a"#nowledged at the ne+t ret&rn o 'ea"e) and so "ontin&e! till their miseries are
orgotten! and no longer! e+"e't the v&lgar be better ta&ght than they have hitherto been$
And be"a&se they are essential and inse'arable rights! it ollows ne"essarily that in whatsoever words any o them
seem to be granted away! yet i the sovereign 'ower itsel be not in dire"t terms reno&n"ed and the name o
sovereign no more given by the grantees to him that grants them! the grant is void6 or when he has granted all he
"an! i we grant ba"# the sovereignty! all is restored! as inse'arably anne+ed there&nto$
This great a&thority being indivisible! and inse'arably anne+ed to the sovereignty! there is little gro&nd or the
o'inion o them that say o sovereign #ings! tho&gh they be sing&lis ma*ores! o greater 'ower than every one o
their s&b*e"ts! yet they be &niversis minores! o less 'ower than them all together$ %or i by all together! they mean
not the "olle"tive body as one 'erson! then all together and every one signiy the same) and the s'ee"h is abs&rd$ 5&t
i by all together! they &nderstand them as one 'erson (whi"h 'erson the sovereign bears)! then the 'ower o all
together is the same with the sovereign1s 'ower) and so again the s'ee"h is abs&rd6 whi"h abs&rdity they see well
eno&gh when the sovereignty is in an assembly o the 'eo'le) b&t in a monar"h they see it not) and yet the 'ower o
sovereignty is the same in whomsoever it be 'la"ed$
And as the 'ower! so also the hono&r o the sovereign! o&ght to be greater than that o any or all the s&b*e"ts$ %or in
the sovereignty is the o&ntain o hono&r$ The dignities o lord! earl! d&#e! and 'rin"e are his "reat&res$ As in the
'resen"e o the master! the servants are e2&al! and witho&t any hono&r at all) so are the s&b*e"ts! in the 'resen"e o
the sovereign$ And tho&gh they shine some more! some less! when they are o&t o his sight) yet in his 'resen"e! they
shine no more than the stars in 'resen"e o the s&n$
5&t a man may here ob*e"t that the "ondition o s&b*e"ts is very miserable! as being obno+io&s to the l&sts and other
irreg&lar 'assions o him or them that have so &nlimited a 'ower in their hands$ And "ommonly they that live &nder a
monar"h thin# it the a&lt o monar"hy) and they that live &nder the government o demo"ra"y! or other sovereign
assembly! attrib&te all the in"onvenien"e to that orm o ,ommonwealth) whereas the 'ower in all orms! i they be
'ere"t eno&gh to 'rote"t them! is the same6 not "onsidering that the estate o man "an never be witho&t some
in"ommodity or other) and that the greatest that in any orm o government "an 'ossibly ha''en to the 'eo'le in
general is s"ar"e sensible! in res'e"t o the miseries and horrible "alamities that a""om'any a "ivil war! or that
dissol&te "ondition o masterless men witho&t s&b*e"tion to laws and a "oer"ive 'ower to tie their hands rom ra'ine
and revenge6 nor "onsidering that the greatest 'ress&re o sovereign governors 'ro"eedeth! not rom any delight or
'roit they "an e+'e"t in the damage wea#ening o their s&b*e"ts! in whose vigo&r "onsisteth their own strength and
glory! b&t in the restiveness o themselves that! &nwillingly "ontrib&ting to their own deen"e! ma#e it ne"essary or
their governors to draw rom them what they "an in time o 'ea"e that they may have means on any emergent
o""asion! or s&dden need! to resist or ta#e advantage on their enemies$ %or all men are by nat&re 'rovided o notable
m&lti'lying glasses (that is their 'assions and sel7love) thro&gh whi"h every little 'ayment a''eareth a great
grievan"e! b&t are destit&te o those 'ros'e"tive glasses (namely moral and "ivil s"ien"e) to see aar o the miseries
that hang over them and "annot witho&t s&"h 'ayments be avoided$
,HA8TER III OF THE SEVERAL KINDS OF COMMONWEALTH BY INSTITUTION, AND OF
SUCCESSION TO THE SOVEREIGN POWER
THE dieren"e o ,ommonwealths "onsisteth in the dieren"e o the sovereign! or the 'erson re'resentative o all
and every one o the m&ltit&de$ And be"a&se the sovereignty is either in one man! or in an assembly o more than
one) and into that assembly either every man hath right to enter! or not every one! b&t "ertain men disting&ished rom
the rest) it is maniest there "an be b&t three #inds o ,ommonwealth$ %or the re'resentative m&st needs be one man!
or more) and i more! then it is the assembly o all! or b&t o a 'art$ /hen the re'resentative is one man! then is the
,ommonwealth a monar"hy) when an assembly o all that will "ome together! then it is a demo"ra"y! or 'o'&lar
,ommonwealth) when an assembly o a 'art only! then it is "alled an aristo"ra"y$ -ther #ind o ,ommonwealth there
"an be none6 or either one! or more! or all! m&st have the sovereign 'ower (whi"h I have shown to be indivisible)
entire$ There be other names o government in the histories and boo#s o 'oli"y) as tyranny and oligar"hy) b&t they
are not the names o other orms o government! b&t o the same orms misli#ed$ %or they that are dis"ontented &nder
monar"hy "all it tyranny) and they that are dis'leased with aristo"ra"y "all it oligar"hy6 so also! they whi"h ind
themselves grieved &nder a demo"ra"y "all it anar"hy! whi"h signiies want o government) and yet I thin# no man
believes that want o government is any new #ind o government6 nor by the same reason o&ght they to believe that
the government is o one #ind when they li#e it! and another when they misli#e it or are o''ressed by the governors$
It is maniest that men who are in absol&te liberty may! i they 'lease! give a&thority to one man to re'resent them
every one! as well as give s&"h a&thority to any assembly o men whatsoever) and "onse2&ently may s&b*e"t
themselves! i they thin# good! to a monar"h as absol&tely as to other re'resentative$ Thereore! where there is
already ere"ted a sovereign 'ower! there "an be no other re'resentative o the same 'eo'le! b&t only to "ertain
'arti"&lar ends! by the sovereign limited$ %or that were to ere"t two sovereigns) and every man to have his 'erson
re'resented by two a"tors that! by o''osing one another! m&st needs divide that 'ower! whi"h (i men will live in
'ea"e) is indivisible) and thereby red&"e the m&ltit&de into the "ondition o war! "ontrary to the end or whi"h all
sovereignty is instit&ted$ And thereore as it is abs&rd to thin# that a sovereign assembly! inviting the 'eo'le o their
dominion to send &' their de'&ties with 'ower to ma#e #nown their advi"e or desires sho&ld thereore hold s&"h
de'&ties! rather than themselves! or the absol&te re'resentative o the 'eo'le) so it is abs&rd also to thin# the same in
a monar"hy$ And I #now not how this so maniest a tr&th sho&ld o late be so little observed6 that in a monar"hy he
that had the sovereignty rom a des"ent o si+ h&ndred years was alone "alled sovereign! had the title o .a*esty
rom every one o his s&b*e"ts! and was &n2&estionably ta#en by them or their #ing! was notwithstanding never
"onsidered as their re'resentative) that name witho&t "ontradi"tion 'assing or the title o those men whi"h at his
"ommand were sent &' by the 'eo'le to "arry their 'etitions and give him! i he 'ermitted it! their advi"e$ /hi"h
may serve as an admonition or those that are the tr&e and absol&te re'resentative o a 'eo'le! to instr&"t men in the
nat&re o that oi"e! and to ta#e heed how they admit o any other general re'resentation &'on any o""asion
whatsoever! i they mean to dis"harge the tr&st "ommitted to them$
The dieren"e between these three #inds o ,ommonwealth "onsisteth! not in the dieren"e o 'ower! b&t in the
dieren"e o "onvenien"e or a'tit&de to 'rod&"e the 'ea"e and se"&rity o the 'eo'le) or whi"h end they were
instit&ted$ And to "om'are monar"hy with the other two! we may observe6 irst! that whosoever beareth the 'erson o
the 'eo'le! or is one o that assembly that bears it! beareth also his own nat&ral 'erson$ And tho&gh he be "are&l in
his 'oliti" 'erson to 'ro"&re the "ommon interest! yet he is more! or no less! "are&l to 'ro"&re the 'rivate good o
himsel! his amily! #indred and riends) and or the most 'art! i the '&bli" interest "han"e to "ross the 'rivate! he
'reers the 'rivate6 or the 'assions o men are "ommonly more 'otent than their reason$ %rom when"e it ollows that
where the '&bli" and 'rivate interest are most "losely &nited! there is the '&bli" most advan"ed$ Now in monar"hy
the 'rivate interest is the same with the '&bli"$ The ri"hes! 'ower! and hono&r o a monar"h arise only rom the
ri"hes! strength! and re'&tation o his s&b*e"ts$ %or no #ing "an be ri"h! nor glorio&s! nor se"&re! whose s&b*e"ts are
either 'oor! or "ontem'tible! or too wea# thro&gh want! or dissension! to maintain a war against their enemies)
whereas in a demo"ra"y! or aristo"ra"y! the '&bli" 'ros'erity "oners not so m&"h to the 'rivate ort&ne o one that is
"orr&'t! or ambitio&s! as doth many times a 'eridio&s advi"e! a trea"hero&s a"tion! or a "ivil war$
0e"ondly! that a monar"h re"eiveth "o&nsel o whom! when! and where he 'leaseth) and "onse2&ently may hear the
o'inion o men versed in the matter abo&t whi"h he deliberates! o what ran# or 2&ality soever! and as long beore
the time o a"tion and with as m&"h se"re"y as he will$ 5&t when a sovereign assembly has need o "o&nsel! none are
admitted b&t s&"h as have a right thereto rom the beginning) whi"h or the most 'art are o those who have been
versed more in the a"2&isition o wealth than o #nowledge! and are to give their advi"e in long dis"o&rses whi"h
may! and do "ommonly! e+"ite men to a"tion! b&t not govern them in it$ %or the &nderstanding is by the lame o the
'assions never enlightened! b&t da99led6 nor is there any 'la"e or time wherein an assembly "an re"eive "o&nsel
se"re"y! be"a&se o their own m&ltit&de$
Thirdly! that the resol&tions o a monar"h are s&b*e"t to no other in"onstan"y than that o h&man nat&re) b&t in
assemblies! besides that o nat&re! there ariseth an in"onstan"y rom the n&mber$ %or the absen"e o a ew that wo&ld
have the resol&tion! on"e ta#en! "ontin&e irm (whi"h may ha''en by se"&rity! negligen"e! or 'rivate im'ediments)!
or the diligent a''earan"e o a ew o the "ontrary o'inion! &ndoes today all that was "on"l&ded yesterday$ %o&rthly!
that a monar"h "annot disagree with himsel! o&t o envy or interest) b&t an assembly may) and that to s&"h a height
as may 'rod&"e a "ivil war$
%ithly! that in monar"hy there is this in"onvenien"e) that any s&b*e"t! by the 'ower o one man! or the enri"hing o
a avo&rite or latterer! may be de'rived o all he 'ossesseth) whi"h I "oness is a great an inevitable in"onvenien"e$
5&t the same may as well ha''en where the sovereign 'ower is in an assembly6 or their 'ower is the same) and they
are as s&b*e"t to evil "o&nsel! and to be sed&"ed by orators! as a monar"h by latterers) and be"oming one another1s
latterers! serve one another1s "oveto&sness and ambition by t&rns$ And whereas the avo&rites o monar"hs are ew!
and they have none else to advan"e b&t their own #indred) the avo&rites o an assembly are many! and the #indred
m&"h more n&mero&s than o any monar"h$ 5esides! there is no avo&rite o a monar"h whi"h "annot as well s&""o&r
his riends as h&rt his enemies6 b&t orators! that is to say! avo&rites o sovereign assemblies! tho&gh they have great
'ower to h&rt! have little to save$ %or to a""&se re2&ires less elo2&en"e (s&"h is man1s nat&re) than to e+"&se) and
"ondemnation! than absol&tion! more resembles *&sti"e$
0i+thly! that it is an in"onvenien"e in monar"hy that the sovereignty may des"end &'on an inant! or one that "annot
dis"ern between good and evil6 and "onsisteth in this! that the &se o his 'ower m&st be in the hand o another man!
or o some assembly o men! whi"h are to govern by his right and in his name as "&rators and 'rote"tors o his
'erson and a&thority$ 5&t to say there is in"onvenien"e in '&tting the &se o the sovereign 'ower into the hand o a
man! or an assembly o men! is to say that all government is more in"onvenient than "on&sion and "ivil war$ And
thereore all the danger that "an be 'retended m&st arise rom the "ontention o those that! or an oi"e o so great
hono&r and 'roit! may be"ome "om'etitors$ To ma#e it a''ear that this in"onvenien"e 'ro"eedeth not rom that
orm o government we "all monar"hy! we are to "onsider that the 're"edent monar"h hath a''ointed who shall have
the t&ition o his inant s&""essor! either e+'ressly by testament! or ta"itly by not "ontrolling the "&stom in that "ase
re"eived6 and then s&"h in"onvenien"e! i it ha''en! is to be attrib&ted! not to the monar"hy! b&t to the ambition and
in*&sti"e o the s&b*e"ts! whi"h in all #inds o government! where the 'eo'le are not well instr&"ted in their d&ty and
the rights o sovereignty! is the same$ -r else the 're"edent monar"h hath not at all ta#en order or s&"h t&ition) and
then the law o nat&re hath 'rovided this s&i"ient r&le! that the t&ition shall be in him that hath by nat&re most
interest in the 'reservation o the a&thority o the inant! and to whom least beneit "an a""r&e by his death or
dimin&tion$ %or seeing every man by nat&re see#eth his own beneit and 'romotion! to '&t an inant into the 'ower
o those that "an 'romote themselves by his destr&"tion or damage is not t&ition! b&t trea"hery$ 0o that s&i"ient
'rovision being ta#en against all *&st 2&arrel abo&t the government &nder a "hild! i any "ontention arise to the
dist&rban"e o the '&bli" 'ea"e! it is not to be attrib&ted to the orm o monar"hy! b&t to the ambition o s&b*e"ts and
ignoran"e o their d&ty$ -n the other side! there is no great ,ommonwealth! the sovereignty whereo is in a great
assembly! whi"h is not! as to "ons&ltations o 'ea"e! and war! and ma#ing o laws! in the same "ondition as i the
government were in a "hild$ %or as a "hild wants the *&dgement to dissent rom "o&nsel given him! and is thereby
ne"essitated to ta#e the advi"e o them! or him! to whom he is "ommitted) so an assembly wanteth the liberty to
dissent rom the "o&nsel o the ma*or 'art! be it good or bad$ And as a "hild has need o a t&tor! or 'rote"tor! to
'reserve his 'erson and a&thority) so also in great ,ommonwealths the sovereign assembly! in all great dangers and
tro&bles! have need o "&stodes libertatis) that is! o di"tators! or 'rote"tors o their a&thority) whi"h are as m&"h as
tem'orary monar"hs to whom or a time they may "ommit the entire e+er"ise o their 'ower) and have! at the end o
that time! been otener de'rived thereo than inant #ings by their 'rote"tors! regents! or any other t&tors$ Tho&gh the
#inds o sovereignty be! as I have now shown! b&t three) that is to say! monar"hy! where one man has it) or
demo"ra"y! where the general assembly o s&b*e"ts hath it) or aristo"ra"y! where it is in an assembly o "ertain
'ersons nominated! or otherwise disting&ished rom the rest6 yet he that shall "onsider the 'arti"&lar
,ommonwealths that have been and are in the world will not 'erha's easily red&"e them to three! and may thereby
be in"lined to thin# there be other orms arising rom these mingled together$ As or e+am'le! ele"tive #ingdoms)
where #ings have the sovereign 'ower '&t into their hands or a time) or #ingdoms wherein the #ing hath a 'ower
limited6 whi"h governments are nevertheless by most writers "alled monar"hy$ Li#ewise i a 'o'&lar or aristo"rati"al
,ommonwealth s&bd&e an enemy1s "o&ntry! and govern the same by a 'resident! 'ro"&rator! or other magistrate! this
may seem 'erha's! at irst sight! to be a demo"rati"al or aristo"rati"al government$ 5&t it is not so$ %or ele"tive #ings
are not sovereigns! b&t ministers o the sovereign) nor limited #ings sovereigns! b&t ministers o them that have the
sovereign 'ower) nor are those 'rovin"es whi"h are in s&b*e"tion to a demo"ra"y or aristo"ra"y o another
,ommonwealth demo"rati"ally or aristo"rati"ally governed! b&t monar"hi"ally$
And irst! "on"erning an ele"tive #ing! whose 'ower is limited to his lie! as it is in many 'la"es o ,hristendom at
this day) or to "ertain years or months! as the di"tator1s 'ower amongst the Romans) i he have right to a''oint his
s&""essor! he is no more ele"tive b&t hereditary$ 5&t i he have no 'ower to ele"t his s&""essor! then there is some
other man! or assembly #nown! whi"h ater his de"ease may ele"t a new) or else the ,ommonwealth dieth! and
dissolveth with him! and ret&rneth to the "ondition o war$ I it be #nown who have the 'ower to give the sovereignty
ater his death! it is #nown also that the sovereignty was in them beore6 or none have right to give that whi"h they
have not right to 'ossess! and #ee' to themselves! i they thin# good$ 5&t i there be none that "an give the
sovereignty ater the de"ease o him that was irst ele"ted! then has he 'ower! nay he is obliged by the law o nat&re!
to 'rovide! by establishing his s&""essor! to #ee' to those that had tr&sted him with the government rom rela'sing
into the miserable "ondition o "ivil war$ And "onse2&ently he was! when ele"ted! a sovereign absol&te$
0e"ondly! that #ing whose 'ower is limited is not s&'erior to him! or them! that have the 'ower to limit it) and he that
is not s&'erior is not s&'reme) that is to say! not sovereign$ The sovereignty thereore was always in that assembly
whi"h had the right to limit him! and by "onse2&en"e the government not monar"hy! b&t either demo"ra"y or
aristo"ra"y) as o old time in 0'arta! where the #ings had a 'rivilege to lead their armies! b&t the sovereignty was in
the E'hori$
Thirdly! whereas heretoore the Roman 'eo'le governed the land o :&dea! or e+am'le! by a 'resident) yet was not
:&dea thereore a demo"ra"y! be"a&se they were not governed by any assembly into whi"h any o them had right to
enter) nor by an aristo"ra"y! be"a&se they were not governed by any assembly into whi"h any man "o&ld enter by
their ele"tion6 b&t they were governed by one 'erson! whi"h tho&gh as to the 'eo'le o Rome was an assembly o the
'eo'le! or demo"ra"y) yet as to the 'eo'le o :&dea! whi"h had no right at all o 'arti"i'ating in the government! was
a monar"h$ %or tho&gh where the 'eo'le are governed by an assembly! "hosen by themselves o&t o their own
n&mber! the government is "alled a demo"ra"y! or aristo"ra"y) yet when they are governed by an assembly not o
their own "hoosing! it is a monar"hy) not o one man over another man! b&t o one 'eo'le over another 'eo'le$
- all these orms o government! the matter being mortal! so that not only monar"hs! b&t also whole assemblies die!
it is ne"essary or the "onservation o the 'ea"e o men that as there was order ta#en or an artii"ial man! so there be
order also ta#en or an artii"ial eternity o lie) witho&t whi"h men that are governed by an assembly sho&ld ret&rn
into the "ondition o war in every age) and they that are governed by one man! as soon as their governor dieth$ This
artii"ial eternity is that whi"h men "all the right o s&""ession$
There is no 'ere"t orm o government! where the dis'osing o the s&""ession is not in the 'resent sovereign$ %or i
it be in any other 'arti"&lar man! or 'rivate assembly! it is in a 'erson s&b*e"t! and may be ass&med by the sovereign
at his 'leas&re) and "onse2&ently the right is in himsel$ And i it be in no 'arti"&lar man! b&t let to a new "hoi"e)
then is the ,ommonwealth dissolved! and the right is in him that "an get it! "ontrary to the intention o them that did
instit&te the ,ommonwealth or their 'er'et&al! and not tem'orary! se"&rity$
In a demo"ra"y! the whole assembly "annot ail &nless the m&ltit&de that are to be governed ail$ And thereore
2&estions o the right o s&""ession have in that orm o government no 'la"e at all$
In an aristo"ra"y! when any o the assembly dieth! the ele"tion o another into his room belonged to the assembly! as
the sovereign! to whom belonged the "hoosing o all "o&nsellors and oi"ers$ %or that whi"h the re'resentative doth!
as a"tor! every one o the s&b*e"ts doth! as a&thor$ And tho&gh the sovereign assembly may give 'ower to others to
ele"t new men! or s&''ly o their "o&rt! yet it is still by their a&thority that the ele"tion is made) and by the same it
may! when the '&bli" shall re2&ire it! be re"alled$
The greatest dii"&lty abo&t the right o s&""ession is in monar"hy6 and the dii"&lty ariseth rom this! that at irst
sight! it is not maniest who is to a''oint the s&""essor) nor many times who it is whom he hath a''ointed$ %or in
both these "ases! there is re2&ired a more e+a"t ratio"ination than every man is a""&stomed to &se$ As to the 2&estion
who shall a''oint the s&""essor o a monar"h that hath the sovereign a&thority) that is to say! who shall determine o
the right o inheritan"e (or ele"tive #ings and 'rin"es have not the sovereign 'ower in 'ro'riety! b&t in &se only)! we
are to "onsider that either he that is in 'ossession has right to dis'ose o the s&""ession! or else that right is again in
the dissolved m&ltit&de$ %or the death o him that hath the sovereign 'ower in 'ro'erty leaves the m&ltit&de witho&t
any sovereign at all) that is! witho&t any re'resentative in whom they sho&ld be &nited! and be "a'able o doing any
one a"tion at all6 and thereore they are in"a'able o ele"tion o any new monar"h! every man having e2&al right to
s&bmit himsel to s&"h as he thin#s best able to 'rote"t him) or! i he "an! 'rote"t himsel by his own sword) whi"h is
a ret&rn to "on&sion and to the "ondition o a war o every man against every man! "ontrary to the end or whi"h
monar"hy had its irst instit&tion$ Thereore it is maniest that by the instit&tion o monar"hy! the dis'osing o the
s&""essor is always let to the *&dgement and will o the 'resent 'ossessor$
And or the 2&estion whi"h may arise sometimes! who it is that the monar"h in 'ossession hath designed to the
s&""ession and inheritan"e o his 'ower! it is determined by his e+'ress words and testament) or by other ta"it signs
s&i"ient$
5y e+'ress words! or testament! when it is de"lared by him in his lietime! viva vo"e! or by writing) as the irst
em'erors o Rome de"lared who sho&ld be their heirs$ %or the word heir does not o itsel im'ly the "hildren or
nearest #indred o a man) b&t whomsoever a man shall any way de"lare he wo&ld have to s&""eed him in his estate$
I thereore a monar"h de"lare e+'ressly that s&"h a man shall be his heir! either by word or writing! then is that man
immediately ater the de"ease o his 'rede"essor invested in the right o being monar"h$
5&t where testament and e+'ress words are wanting! other nat&ral signs o the will are to be ollowed6 whereo the
one is "&stom$ And thereore where the "&stom is that the ne+t o #indred absol&tely s&""eedeth! there also the ne+t
o #indred hath right to the s&""ession) or that! i the will o him that was in 'ossession had been otherwise! he
might easily have de"lared the same in his lietime$ And li#ewise where the "&stom is that the ne+t o the male
#indred s&""eedeth! there also the right o s&""ession is in the ne+t o the #indred male! or the same reason$ And so
it is i the "&stom were to advan"e the emale$ %or whatsoever "&stom a man may by a word "ontrol! and does not! it
is a nat&ral sign he wo&ld have that "&stom stand$
5&t where neither "&stom nor testament hath 're"eded! there it is to he &nderstood) irst! that a monar"h1s will is that
the government remain monar"hi"al! be"a&se he hath a''roved that government in himsel$ 0e"ondly! that a "hild o
his own! male or emale! be 'reerred beore any other! be"a&se men are 'res&med to be more in"lined by nat&re to
advan"e their own "hildren than the "hildren o other men) and o their own! rather a male than a emale! be"a&se
men are nat&rally itter than women or a"tions o labo&r and danger$ Thirdly! where his own iss&e aileth! rather a
brother than a stranger! and so still the nearer in blood rather than the more remote! be"a&se it is always 'res&med
that the nearer o #in is the nearer in ae"tion) and it is evident that a man re"eives always! by rele"tion! the most
hono&r rom the greatness o his nearest #indred$
5&t i it be law&l or a monar"h to dis'ose o the s&""ession by words o "ontra"t! or testament! men may 'erha's
ob*e"t a great in"onvenien"e6 or he may sell or give his right o governing to a stranger) whi"h! be"a&se strangers
(that is! men not &sed to live &nder the same government! nor s'ea#ing the same lang&age) do "ommonly &nderval&e
one another! may t&rn to the o''ression o his s&b*e"ts! whi"h is indeed a great in"onvenien"e6 b&t it 'ro"eedeth not
ne"essarily rom the s&b*e"tion to a stranger1s government! b&t rom the &ns#ill&lness o the governors! ignorant o
the tr&e r&les o 'oliti"s$ And thereore the Romans! when they had s&bd&ed many nations! to ma#e their government
digestible were wont to ta#e away that grievan"e as m&"h as they tho&ght ne"essary by giving sometimes to whole
nations! and sometimes to 'rin"i'al men o every nation they "on2&ered! not only the 'rivileges! b&t also the name o
Romans) and too# many o them into the 0enate! and oi"es o "harge! even in the Roman "ity$ And this was it o&r
most wise #ing! 3ing :ames! aimed at in endeavo&ring the &nion o his two realms o England and 0"otland$ /hi"h!
i he "o&ld have obtained! had in all li#elihood 'revented the "ivil wars whi"h both those #ingdoms! at this 'resent!
miserable$ It is not thereore any in*&ry to the 'eo'le or a monar"h to dis'ose o the s&""ession by will) tho&gh by
the a&lt o many 'rin"es! it hath been sometimes o&nd in"onvenient$ - the law&lness o it! this also is an
arg&ment) that whatsoever in"onvenien"e "an arrive by giving a #ingdom to a stranger! may arrive also by so
marrying with strangers! as the right o s&""ession may des"end &'on them6 yet this by all men is a""o&nted law&l$
,HA8TER II OF DOMINION PATERNAL AND DESPOTICAL
A ,-..-N/EALTH by a"2&isition is that where the sovereign 'ower is a"2&ired by or"e) and it is a"2&ired by
or"e when men singly! or many together by 'l&rality o voi"es! or ear o death! or bonds! do a&thorise all the
a"tions o that man! or assembly! that hath their lives and liberty in his 'ower$
And this #ind o dominion! or sovereignty! diereth rom sovereignty by instit&tion only in this! that men who
"hoose their sovereign do it or ear o one another! and not o him whom they instit&te6 b&t in this "ase! they s&b*e"t
themselves to him they are araid o$ In both "ases they do it or ear6 whi"h is to be noted by them that hold all s&"h
"ovenants! as 'ro"eed rom ear o death or violen"e! void6 whi"h! i it were tr&e! no man in any #ind o
,ommonwealth "o&ld be obliged to obedien"e$ It is tr&e that in a ,ommonwealth on"e instit&ted! or a"2&ired!
'romises 'ro"eeding rom ear o death or violen"e are no "ovenants! nor obliging! when the thing 'romised is
"ontrary to the laws) b&t the reason is not be"a&se it was made &'on ear! b&t be"a&se he that 'romiseth hath no right
in the thing 'romised$ Also! when he may law&lly 'erorm! and doth not! it is not the invalidity o the "ovenant that
absolveth him! b&t the senten"e o the sovereign$ -therwise! whensoever a man law&lly 'romiseth! he &nlaw&lly
brea#eth6 b&t when the sovereign! who is the a"tor! a"2&itteth him! then he is a"2&itted by him that e+torted the
'romise! as by the a&thor o s&"h absol&tion$
5&t the rights and "onse2&en"es o sovereignty are the same in both$ His 'ower "annot! witho&t his "onsent! be
transerred to another6 he "annot oreit it6 he "annot be a""&sed by any o his s&b*e"ts o in*&ry6 he "annot be
'&nished by them6 he is *&dge o what is ne"essary or 'ea"e! and *&dge o do"trines6 he is sole legislator! and
s&'reme *&dge o "ontroversies! and o the times and o""asions o war and 'ea"e6 to him it belonged to "hoose
magistrates! "o&nsellors! "ommanders! and all other oi"ers and ministers) and to determine o rewards and
'&nishments! hono&r and order$ The reasons whereo are the same whi"h are alleged in the 're"edent "ha'ter or the
same rights and "onse2&en"es o sovereignty by instit&tion$
4ominion is a"2&ired two ways6 by generation and by "on2&est$ The right o dominion by generation is that whi"h
the 'arent hath over his "hildren! and is "alled 'aternal$ And is not so derived rom the generation! as i thereore the
'arent had dominion over his "hild be"a&se he begat him! b&t rom the "hild1s "onsent! either e+'ress or by other
s&i"ient arg&ments de"lared$ %or as to the generation! God hath ordained to man a hel'er! and there be always two
that are e2&ally 'arents6 the dominion thereore over the "hild sho&ld belong e2&ally to both! and he be e2&ally
s&b*e"t to both! whi"h is im'ossible) or no man "an obey two masters$ And whereas some have attrib&ted the
dominion to the man only! as being o the more e+"ellent se+! they misre"#on in it$ %or there is not always that
dieren"e o strength or 'r&den"e between the man and the woman as that the right "an be determined witho&t war$
In ,ommonwealths this "ontroversy is de"ided by the "ivil law6 and or the most 'art! b&t not always! the senten"e is
in avo&r o the ather! be"a&se or the most 'art ,ommonwealths have been ere"ted by the athers! not by the
mothers o amilies$ 5&t the 2&estion lieth now in the state o mere nat&re where there are s&''osed no laws o
matrimony! no laws or the ed&"ation o "hildren! b&t the law o nat&re and the nat&ral in"lination o the se+es! one
to another! and to their "hildren$ In this "ondition o mere nat&re! either the 'arents between themselves dis'ose o
the dominion over the "hild by "ontra"t! or do not dis'ose thereo at all$ I they dis'ose thereo! the right 'asseth
a""ording to the "ontra"t$ /e ind in history that the Ama9ons "ontra"ted with the men o the neighbo&ring
"o&ntries! to whom they had re"o&rse or iss&e! that the iss&e male sho&ld be sent ba"#! b&t the emale remain with
themselves6 so that the dominion o the emales was in the mother$
I there be no "ontra"t! the dominion is in the mother$ %or in the "ondition o mere nat&re! where there are no
matrimonial laws! it "annot be #nown who is the ather &nless it be de"lared by the mother) and thereore the right o
dominion over the "hild de'endeth on her will! and is "onse2&ently hers$ Again! seeing the inant is irst in the 'ower
o the mother! so as she may either no&rish or e+'ose it) i she no&rish it! it oweth its lie to the mother! and is
thereore obliged to obey her rather than any other) and by "onse2&en"e the dominion over it is hers$ 5&t i she
e+'ose it! and another ind and no&rish it! dominion is in him that no&risheth it$ %or it o&ght to obey him by whom it
is 'reserved! be"a&se 'reservation o lie being the end or whi"h one man be"omes s&b*e"t to another! every man is
s&''osed to 'romise obedien"e to him in whose 'ower it is to save or destroy him$
I the mother be the ather1s s&b*e"t! the "hild is in the ather1s 'ower) and i the ather be the mother1s s&b*e"t (as
when a sovereign 2&een marrieth one o her s&b*e"ts)! the "hild is s&b*e"t to the mother! be"a&se the ather also is her
s&b*e"t$
I a man and a woman! monar"hs o two several #ingdoms! have a "hild! and "ontra"t "on"erning who shall have the
dominion o him! the right o the dominion 'asseth by the "ontra"t$ I they "ontra"t not! the dominion olloweth the
dominion o the 'la"e o his residen"e$ %or the sovereign o ea"h "o&ntry hath dominion over all that reside therein$
He that hath the dominion over the "hild hath dominion also over the "hildren o the "hild! and over their "hildren1s
"hildren$ %or he that hath dominion over the 'erson o a man hath dominion over all that is his! witho&t whi"h
dominion were b&t a title witho&t the ee"t$
The right o s&""ession to 'aternal dominion 'ro"eedeth in the same manner as doth the right o s&""ession to
monar"hy! o whi"h I have already s&i"iently s'o#en in the 're"edent "ha'ter$
4ominion a"2&ired by "on2&est! or vi"tory in war! is that whi"h some writers "all des'oti"al rom 4es'otes! whi"h
signiieth a lord or master! and is the dominion o the master over his servant$ And this dominion is then a"2&ired to
the vi"tor when the van2&ished! to avoid the 'resent stro#e o death! "ovenanteth! either in e+'ress words or by other
s&i"ient signs o the will! that so long as his lie and the liberty o his body is allowed him! the vi"tor shall have the
&se thereo at his 'leas&re$ And ater s&"h "ovenant made! the van2&ished is a servant! and not beore6 or by the
word servant (whether it be derived rom servire! to serve! or rom servare! to save! whi"h I leave to grammarians to
dis'&te) is not meant a "a'tive! whi"h is #e't in 'rison! or bonds! till the owner o him that too# him! or bo&ght him
o one that did! shall "onsider what to do with him6 or s&"h men! "ommonly "alled slaves! have no obligation at all)
b&t may brea# their bonds! or the 'rison) and #ill! or "arry away "a'tive their master! *&stly6 b&t one that! being
ta#en! hath "or'oral liberty allowed him) and &'on 'romise not to r&n away! nor to do violen"e to his master! is
tr&sted by him$
It is not thereore the vi"tory that giveth the right o dominion over the van2&ished! b&t his own "ovenant$ Nor is he
obliged be"a&se he is "on2&ered) that is to say! beaten! and ta#en! or '&t to light) b&t be"a&se he "ometh in and
s&bmitteth to the vi"tor) nor is the vi"tor obliged by an enemy1s rendering himsel! witho&t 'romise o lie! to s'are
him or this his yielding to dis"retion) whi"h obliges not the vi"tor longer than in his own dis"retion he shall thin# it$
And that whi"h men do when they demand! as it is now "alled! 2&arter (whi"h the Gree#s "alled Kogria! ta#ing alive)
is to evade the 'resent &ry o the vi"tor by s&bmission! and to "om'o&nd or their lie with ransom or servi"e6 and
thereore he that hath 2&arter hath not his lie given! b&t deerred till &rther deliberation) or it is not a yielding on
"ondition o lie! b&t to dis"retion$ And then only is his lie in se"&rity! and his servi"e d&e! when the vi"tor hath
tr&sted him with his "or'oral liberty$ %or slaves that wor# in 'risons! or etters! do it not o d&ty! b&t to avoid the
"r&elty o their tas#7masters$
The master o the servant is master also o all he hath! and may e+a"t the &se thereo) that is to say! o his goods! o
his labo&r! o his servants! and o his "hildren! as oten as he shall thin# it$ %or he holdeth his lie o his master by
the "ovenant o obedien"e) that is! o owning and a&thorising whatsoever the master shall do$ And in "ase the master!
i he re&se! #ill him! or "ast him into bonds! or otherwise '&nish him or his disobedien"e! he is himsel the a&thor
o the same! and "annot a""&se him o in*&ry$
In s&m! the rights and "onse2&en"es o both 'aternal and des'oti"al dominion are the very same with those o a
sovereign by instit&tion) and or the same reasons6 whi"h reasons are set down in the 're"edent "ha'ter$ 0o that or a
man that is monar"h o diverse nations! he hath in one the sovereignty by instit&tion o the 'eo'le assembled! and in
another by "on2&est) that is by the s&bmission o ea"h 'arti"&lar! to avoid death or bonds) to demand o one nation
more than o the other! rom the title o "on2&est! as being a "on2&ered nation! is an a"t o ignoran"e o the rights o
sovereignty$ %or the sovereign is absol&te over both ali#e) or else there is no sovereignty at all! and so every man
may law&lly 'rote"t himsel! i he "an! with his own sword! whi"h is the "ondition o war$
5y this it a''ears that a great amily! i it be not 'art o some ,ommonwealth! is o itsel! as to the rights o
sovereignty! a little monar"hy) whether that amily "onsist o a man and his "hildren! or o a man and his servants! or
o a man and his "hildren and servants together) wherein the ather or master is the sovereign$ 5&t yet a amily is not
'ro'erly a ,ommonwealth! &nless it be o that 'ower by its own n&mber! or by other o''ort&nities! as not to be
s&bd&ed witho&t the ha9ard o war$ %or where a n&mber o men are maniestly too wea# to deend themselves
&nited! every one may &se his own reason in time o danger to save his own lie! either by light! or by s&bmission to
the enemy! as he shall thin# best) in the same manner as a very small "om'any o soldiers! s&r'rised by an army! may
"ast down their arms and demand 2&arter! or r&n away rather than be '&t to the sword$ And th&s m&"h shall s&i"e
"on"erning what I ind by s'e"&lation! and ded&"tion! o sovereign rights! rom the nat&re! need! and designs o men
in ere"ting o ,ommonwealths! and '&tting themselves &nder monar"hs or assemblies entr&sted with 'ower eno&gh
or their 'rote"tion$
Let &s now "onsider what the 0"ri't&re tea"heth in the same 'oint$ To .oses the "hildren o Israel say th&s6 F0'ea#
tho& to &s! and we will hear thee) b&t let not God s'ea# to &s! lest we die$FE This is absol&te obedien"e to .oses$
,on"erning the right o #ings! God Himsel! by the mo&th o 0am&el! saith! FThis shall be the right o the #ing yo&
will have to reign over yo&$ He shall ta#e yo&r sons! and set them to drive his "hariots! and to be his horsemen! and
to r&n beore his "hariots! and gather in his harvest) and to ma#e his engines o war! and instr&ments o his "hariots)
and shall ta#e yo&r da&ghters to ma#e 'er&mes! to be his "oo#s! and ba#ers$ He shall ta#e yo&r ields! yo&r
vineyards! and yo&r olive7yards! and give them to his servants$ He shall ta#e the tithe o yo&r "orn and wine! and
give it to the men o his "hamber! and to his other servants$ He shall ta#e yo&r man7servants! and yo&r maidservants!
and the "hoi"e o yo&r yo&th! and em'loy them in his b&siness$ He shall ta#e the tithe o yo&r lo"#s) and yo& shall
be his servants$FE(@) This is absol&te 'ower! and s&mmed &' in the last words! yo& shall be his servants$ Again! when
the 'eo'le heard what 'ower their #ing was to have! yet they "onsented thereto! and say th&s! F/e will be as all other
nations! and o&r #ing shall *&dge o&r "a&ses! and go beore &s! to "ond&"t o&r wars$FE(=) Here is "onirmed the right
that sovereigns have! both to the militia and to all *&di"at&re) in whi"h is "ontained as absol&te 'ower as one man "an
'ossibly transer to another$ Again! the 'rayer o 3ing 0olomon to God was this6 FGive to thy servant &nderstanding!
to *&dge thy 'eo'le! and to dis"ern between good and evil$FE(A) It belonged thereore to the sovereign to be *&dge!
and to 'res"ribe the r&les o dis"erning good and evil6 whi"h r&les are laws) and thereore in him is the legislative
'ower$ 0a&l so&ght the lie o 4avid) yet when it was in his 'ower to slay 0a&l! and his servants wo&ld have done it!
4avid orbade them! saying! FGod orbid I sho&ld do s&"h an a"t against my Lord! the anointed o God$FE(B) %or
obedien"e o servants 0t$ 8a&l saith! F0ervants obey yo&r masters in all thingsF)E(C) and! F,hildren obey yo&r 'arents
in all things$FE(D) There is sim'le obedien"e in those that are s&b*e"t to 'aternal or des'oti"al dominion$ Again! FThe
s"ribes and 8harisees sit in .oses1 "hair! and thereore all that they shall bid yo& observe! that observe and do$FE(G)
There again is sim'le obedien"e$ And 0t$ 8a&l! F/arn them that they s&b*e"t themselves to 'rin"es! and to those that
are in a&thority! and obey them$FE(H) This obedien"e is also sim'le$ Lastly! o&r 0avio&r Himsel a"#nowledges that
men o&ght to 'ay s&"h ta+es as are by #ings im'osed! where He says! FGive to ,aesar that whi"h is ,aesar1sF) and
'aid s&"h ta+es Himsel$ And that the #ing1s word is s&i"ient to ta#e anything rom any s&b*e"t! when there is need)
and that the #ing is *&dge o that need6 or He Himsel! as #ing o the :ews! "ommanded his 4is"i'les to ta#e the ass
and ass1s "olt to "arry him into :er&salem! saying! FGo into the village over against yo&! and yo& shall ind a she ass
tied! and her "olt with her) &ntie them! and bring them to me$ And i any man as# yo&! what yo& mean by it! say the
Lord hath need o them6 and they will let them go$FE(?>) They will not as# whether his ne"essity be a s&i"ient title)
nor whether he be *&dge o that ne"essity) b&t a"2&ies"e in the will o the Lord$ E E+od&s! @>$ ?H E(@) I 0am&el! G$
??7?D E(=) Ibid$! G$ ?H! @> E(A) I 3ings! =$ H E(B) I 0am&el! @A$ C E(C) ,olossians! =$ @@ E(D) Ibid$! =$ @> E(G)
.atthew! @=$ @! = E(H) Tit&s! =$ ? E(?>) .atthew! @?$ @! =
To these 'la"es may be added also that o Genesis! F;o& shall be as gods! #nowing good and evil$FE And! F/ho told
thee that tho& wast na#ed( Hast tho& eaten o the tree! o whi"h I "ommanded thee tho& sho&ldest not eat(FE(@) %or
the "ogni9an"e or *&di"at&re o good and evil! being orbidden by the name o the r&it o the tree o #nowledge! as a
trial o Adam1s obedien"e! the devil to inlame the ambition o the woman! to whom that r&it already seemed
bea&ti&l! told her that by tasting it they sho&ld be as gods! #nowing good and evil$ /here&'on having both eaten!
they did indeed ta#e &'on them God1s oi"e! whi"h is *&di"at&re o good and evil! b&t a"2&ired no new ability to
disting&ish between them aright$ And whereas it is said that! having eaten! they saw they were na#ed) no man hath so
inter'reted that 'la"e as i they had been ormerly blind! and saw not their own s#ins6 the meaning is 'lain that it was
then they irst *&dged their na#edness (wherein it was God1s will to "reate them) to be &n"omely) and by being
ashamed did ta"itly "ens&re God Himsel$ And there&'on God saith! FHast tho& eaten!F et"$! as i He sho&ld say!
doest tho& that owest me obedien"e ta#e &'on thee to *&dge o my "ommandments( /hereby it is "learly! tho&gh
allegori"ally! signiied that the "ommands o them that have the right to "ommand are not by their s&b*e"ts to be
"ens&red nor dis'&ted$ E Genesis! =$ B E(@) Ibid$! =$ ??
0o that it a''eareth 'lainly! to my &nderstanding! both rom reason and 0"ri't&re! that the sovereign 'ower! whether
'la"ed in one man! as in monar"hy! or in one assembly o men! as in 'o'&lar and aristo"rati"al ,ommonwealths! is
as great as 'ossibly men "an be imagined to ma#e it$ And tho&gh o so &nlimited a 'ower! men may an"y many evil
"onse2&en"es! yet the "onse2&en"es o the want o it! whi"h is 'er'et&al war o every man against his neighbo&r! are
m&"h worse$ The "ondition o man in this lie shall never be witho&t in"onvenien"es) b&t there ha''eneth in no
,ommonwealth any great in"onvenien"e b&t what 'ro"eeds rom the s&b*e"ts1 disobedien"e and brea"h o those
"ovenants rom whi"h the ,ommonwealth hath its being$ And whosoever! thin#ing sovereign 'ower too great! will
see# to ma#e it less! m&st s&b*e"t himsel to the 'ower that "an limit it) that is to say! to a greater$ The greatest
ob*e"tion is that o the 'ra"ti"e) when men as# where and when s&"h 'ower has by s&b*e"ts been a"#nowledged$ 5&t
one may as# them again! when or where has there been a #ingdom long ree rom sedition and "ivil war( In those
nations whose ,ommonwealths have been long7lived! and not been destroyed b&t by oreign war! the s&b*e"ts never
did dis'&te o the sovereign 'ower$ 5&t howsoever! an arg&ment rom the 'ra"ti"e o men that have not sited to the
bottom! and with e+a"t reason weighed the "a&ses and nat&re o ,ommonwealths! and s&er daily those miseries
that 'ro"eed rom the ignoran"e thereo! is invalid$ %or tho&gh in all 'la"es o the world men sho&ld lay the
o&ndation o their ho&ses on the sand! it "o&ld not then"e be inerred that so it o&ght to be$ The s#ill o ma#ing and
maintaining ,ommonwealths "onsisteth in "ertain r&les! as doth arithmeti" and geometry) not! as tennis 'lay! on
'ra"ti"e only6 whi"h r&les neither 'oor men have the leis&re! nor men that have had the leis&re have hitherto had the
"&riosity or the method! to ind o&t$
,HA8TER III OF THE LIBERTY OF SUBJECTS
LI5ERT;! or reedom! signiieth 'ro'erly the absen"e o o''osition (by o''osition! I mean e+ternal im'ediments o
motion)) and may be a''lied no less to irrational and inanimate "reat&res than to rational$ %or whatsoever is so tied!
or environed! as it "annot move b&t within a "ertain s'a"e! whi"h s'a"e is determined by the o''osition o some
e+ternal body! we say it hath not liberty to go &rther$ And so o all living "reat&res! whilst they are im'risoned! or
restrained with walls or "hains) and o the water whilst it is #e't in by ban#s or vessels that otherwise wo&ld s'read
itsel into a larger s'a"e) we &se to say they are not at liberty to move in s&"h manner as witho&t those e+ternal
im'ediments they wo&ld$ 5&t when the im'ediment o motion is in the "onstit&tion o the thing itsel! we &se not to
say it wants the liberty! b&t the 'ower! to move) as when a stone lieth still! or a man is astened to his bed by
si"#ness$
And a""ording to this 'ro'er and generally re"eived meaning o the word! a reeman is he that! in those things whi"h
by his strength and wit he is able to do! is not hindered to do what he has a will to$ 5&t when the words ree and
liberty are a''lied to anything b&t bodies! they are ab&sed) or that whi"h is not s&b*e"t to motion is not to s&b*e"t to
im'ediment6 and thereore! when it is said! or e+am'le! the way is ree! no liberty o the way is signiied! b&t o
those that wal# in it witho&t sto'$ And when we say a git is ree! there is not meant any liberty o the git! b&t o the
giver! that was not bo&nd by any law or "ovenant to give it$ 0o when we s'ea# reely! it is not the liberty o voi"e! or
'ron&n"iation! b&t o the man! whom no law hath obliged to s'ea# otherwise than he did$ Lastly! rom the &se o the
words ree will! no liberty "an be inerred o the will! desire! or in"lination! b&t the liberty o the man) whi"h
"onsisteth in this! that he inds no sto' in doing what he has the will! desire! or in"lination to do$
%ear and liberty are "onsistent6 as when a man throweth his goods into the sea or ear the shi' sho&ld sin#! he doth it
nevertheless very willingly! and may re&se to do it i he will) it is thereore the a"tion o one that was ree6 so a man
sometimes 'ays his debt! only or ear o im'risonment! whi"h! be"a&se no body hindered him rom detaining! was
the a"tion o a man at liberty$ And generally all a"tions whi"h men do in ,ommonwealths! or ear o the law! are
a"tions whi"h the doers had liberty to omit$ Liberty and ne"essity are "onsistent6 as in the water that hath not only
liberty! b&t a ne"essity o des"ending by the "hannel) so! li#ewise in the a"tions whi"h men vol&ntarily do! whi"h!
be"a&se they 'ro"eed their will! 'ro"eed rom liberty! and yet be"a&se every a"t o man1s will and every desire and
in"lination 'ro"eedeth rom some "a&se! and that rom another "a&se! in a "ontin&al "hain (whose irst lin# is in the
hand o God! the irst o all "a&ses)! 'ro"eed rom ne"essity$ 0o that to him that "o&ld see the "onne+ion o those
"a&ses! the ne"essity o all men1s vol&ntary a"tions wo&ld a''ear maniest$ And thereore God! that seeth and
dis'oseth all things! seeth also that the liberty o man in doing what he will is a""om'anied with the ne"essity o
doing that whi"h God will and no more! nor less$ %or tho&gh men may do many things whi"h God does not
"ommand! nor is thereore a&thor o them) yet they "an have no 'assion! nor a''etite to anything! o whi"h a''etite
God1s will is not the "a&se$ And did not His will ass&re the ne"essity o man1s will! and "onse2&ently o all that on
man1s will de'endeth! the liberty o men wo&ld be a "ontradi"tion and im'ediment to the omni'oten"e and liberty o
God$ And this shall s&i"e! as to the matter in hand! o that nat&ral liberty! whi"h only is 'ro'erly "alled liberty$
5&t as men! or the attaining o 'ea"e and "onservation o themselves thereby! have made an artii"ial man! whi"h
we "all a ,ommonwealth) so also have they made artii"ial "hains! "alled "ivil laws! whi"h they themselves! by
m&t&al "ovenants! have astened at one end to the li's o that man! or assembly! to whom they have given the
sovereign 'ower! and at the other to their own ears$ These bonds! in their own nat&re b&t wea#! may nevertheless be
made to hold! by the danger! tho&gh not by the dii"&lty o brea#ing them$ In relation to these bonds only it is that I
am to s'ea# now o the liberty o s&b*e"ts$ %or seeing there is no ,ommonwealth in the world wherein there be r&les
eno&gh set down or the reg&lating o all the a"tions and words o men (as being a thing im'ossible)6 it olloweth
ne"essarily that in all #inds o a"tions! by the laws 'retermitted! men have the liberty o doing what their own
reasons shall s&ggest or the most 'roitable to themselves$ %or i we ta#e liberty in the 'ro'er sense! or "or'oral
liberty) that is to say! reedom rom "hains and 'rison! it were very abs&rd or men to "lamo&r as they do or the
liberty they so maniestly en*oy$ Again! i we ta#e liberty or an e+em'tion rom laws! it is no less abs&rd or men to
demand as they do that liberty by whi"h all other men may be masters o their lives$ And yet as abs&rd as it is! this is
it they demand! not #nowing that the laws are o no 'ower to 'rote"t them witho&t a sword in the hands o a man! or
men! to "a&se those laws to be '&t in e+e"&tion$ The liberty o a s&b*e"t lieth thereore only in those things whi"h! in
reg&lating their a"tions! the sovereign hath 'retermitted6 s&"h as is the liberty to b&y! and sell! and otherwise "ontra"t
with one another) to "hoose their own abode! their own diet! their own trade o lie! and instit&te their "hildren as
they themselves thin# it) and the li#e$
Nevertheless we are not to &nderstand that by s&"h liberty the sovereign 'ower o lie and death is either abolished or
limited$ %or it has been already shown that nothing the sovereign re'resentative "an do to a s&b*e"t! on what 'reten"e
soever! "an 'ro'erly be "alled in*&sti"e or in*&ry) be"a&se every s&b*e"t is a&thor o every a"t the sovereign doth! so
that he never wanteth right to any thing! otherwise than as he himsel is the s&b*e"t o God! and bo&nd thereby to
observe the laws o nat&re$ And thereore it may and doth oten ha''en in ,ommonwealths that a s&b*e"t may be '&t
to death by the "ommand o the sovereign 'ower! and yet neither do the other wrong) as when :e'hthah "a&sed his
da&ghter to be sa"rii"ed6 in whi"h! and the li#e "ases! he that so dieth had liberty to do the a"tion! or whi"h he is
nevertheless! witho&t in*&ry! '&t to death$ And the same holdeth also in a sovereign 'rin"e that '&tteth to death an
inno"ent s&b*e"t$ %or tho&gh the a"tion be against the law o nat&re! as being "ontrary to e2&ity (as was the #illing o
Uriah by 4avid)) yet it was not an in*&ry to Uriah! b&t to God$ Not to Uriah! be"a&se the right to do what he 'leased
was given him by Uriah himsel) and yet to God! be"a&se 4avid was God1s s&b*e"t and 'rohibited all ini2&ity by the
law o nat&re$ /hi"h distin"tion! 4avid himsel! when he re'ented the a"t! evidently "onirmed! saying! FTo thee
only have I sinned$F In the same manner! the 'eo'le o Athens! when they banished the most 'otent o their
,ommonwealth or ten years! tho&ght they "ommitted no in*&sti"e) and yet they never 2&estioned what "rime he had
done! b&t what h&rt he wo&ld do6 nay! they "ommanded the banishment o they #new not whom) and every "iti9en
bringing his oyster shell into the mar#et 'la"e! written with the name o him he desired sho&ld be banished! witho&t
a"t&ally a""&sing him sometimes banished an Aristides! or his re'&tation o *&sti"e) and sometimes a s"&rrilo&s
*ester! as Hy'erbol&s! to ma#e a *est o it$ And yet a man "annot say the sovereign 'eo'le o Athens wanted right to
banish them) or an Athenian the liberty to *est! or to be *&st$
The liberty whereo there is so re2&ent and hono&rable mention in the histories and 'hiloso'hy o the an"ient
Gree#s and Romans! and in the writings and dis"o&rse o those that rom them have re"eived all their learning in the
'oliti"s! is not the liberty o 'arti"&lar men! b&t the liberty o the ,ommonwealth6 whi"h is the same with that whi"h
every man then sho&ld have! i there were no "ivil laws nor ,ommonwealth at all$ And the ee"ts o it also be the
same$ %or as amongst masterless men! there is 'er'et&al war o every man against his neighbo&r) no inheritan"e to
transmit to the son! nor to e+'e"t rom the ather) no 'ro'riety o goods or lands) no se"&rity) b&t a &ll and absol&te
liberty in every 'arti"&lar man6 so in states and ,ommonwealths not de'endent on one another! every
,ommonwealth! not every man! has an absol&te liberty to do what it shall *&dge! that is to say! what that man or
assembly that re'resenteth it shall *&dge! most "ond&"ing to their beneit$ 5&t withal! they live in the "ondition o a
'er'et&al war! and &'on the "onines o battle! with their rontiers armed! and "annons 'lanted against their
neighbo&rs ro&nd abo&t$ The Athenians and Romans were ree) that is! ree ,ommonwealths6 not that any 'arti"&lar
men had the liberty to resist their own re'resentative! b&t that their re'resentative had the liberty to resist! or invade!
other 'eo'le$ There is written on the t&rrets o the "ity o L&"a in great "hara"ters at this day! the word LI5ERTA0)
yet no man "an then"e iner that a 'arti"&lar man has more liberty or imm&nity rom the servi"e o the
,ommonwealth there than in ,onstantino'le$ /hether a ,ommonwealth be monar"hi"al or 'o'&lar! the reedom is
still the same$
5&t it is an easy thing or men to be de"eived by the s'e"io&s name o liberty) and! or want o *&dgement to
disting&ish! mista#e that or their 'rivate inheritan"e and birthright whi"h is the right o the '&bli" only$ And when
the same error is "onirmed by the a&thority o men in re'&tation or their writings on this s&b*e"t! it is no wonder i
it 'rod&"e sedition and "hange o government$ In these western 'arts o the world we are made to re"eive o&r
o'inions "on"erning the instit&tion and rights o ,ommonwealths rom Aristotle! ,i"ero! and other men! Gree#s and
Romans! that! living &nder 'o'&lar states! derived those rights! not rom the 'rin"i'les o nat&re! b&t trans"ribed
them into their boo#s o&t o the 'ra"ti"e o their own ,ommonwealths! whi"h were 'o'&lar) as the grammarians
des"ribe the r&les o lang&age o&t o the 'ra"ti"e o the time) or the r&les o 'oetry o&t o the 'oems o Homer and
Virgil$ And be"a&se the Athenians were ta&ght (to #ee' them rom desire o "hanging their government) that they
were reemen! and all that lived &nder monar"hy were slaves) thereore Aristotle '&ts it down in his 8oliti"s FIn
demo"ra"y! liberty is to be s&''osed6 or it is "ommonly held that no man is ree in any other government$FE And as
Aristotle! so ,i"ero and other writers have gro&nded their "ivil do"trine on the o'inions o the Romans! who were
ta&ght to hate monar"hy6 at irst! by them that! having de'osed their sovereign! shared amongst them the sovereignty
o Rome) and aterwards by their s&""essors$ And by reading o these Gree# and Latin a&thors! men rom their
"hildhood have gotten a habit! &nder a alse show o liberty! o avo&ring t&m&lts! and o li"entio&s "ontrolling the
a"tions o their sovereigns) and again o "ontrolling those "ontrollers) with the e&sion o so m&"h blood! as I thin# I
may tr&ly say there was never anything so dearly bo&ght as these western 'arts have bo&ght the learning o the
Gree# and Latin tong&es$ E Aristotle! 8oliti"s! 5# VI
To "ome now to the 'arti"&lars o the tr&e liberty o a s&b*e"t) that is to say! what are the things whi"h! tho&gh
"ommanded by the sovereign! he may nevertheless witho&t in*&sti"e re&se to do) we are to "onsider what rights we
'ass away when we ma#e a ,ommonwealth) or! whi"h is all one! what liberty we deny o&rselves by owning all the
a"tions! witho&t e+"e'tion! o the man or assembly we ma#e o&r sovereign$ %or in the a"t o o&r s&bmission
"onsisteth both o&r obligation and o&r liberty) whi"h m&st thereore be inerred by arg&ments ta#en rom then"e)
there being no obligation on any man whi"h ariseth not rom some a"t o his own) or all men e2&ally are by nat&re
ree$ And be"a&se s&"h arg&ments m&st either be drawn rom the e+'ress words! FI a&thorise all his a"tions!F or rom
the intention o him that s&bmitteth himsel to his 'ower (whi"h intention is to be &nderstood by the end or whi"h
he so s&bmitteth)! the obligation and liberty o the s&b*e"t is to be derived either rom those words! or others
e2&ivalent! or else rom the end o the instit&tion o sovereignty) namely! the 'ea"e o the s&b*e"ts within themselves!
and their deen"e against a "ommon enemy$
%irst thereore! seeing sovereignty by instit&tion is by "ovenant o every one to every one) and sovereignty by
a"2&isition! by "ovenants o the van2&ished to the vi"tor! or "hild to the 'arent) it is maniest that every s&b*e"t has
liberty in all those things the right whereo "annot by "ovenant be transerred$ I have shown beore! in the o&rteenth
,ha'ter! that "ovenants not to deend a man1s own body are void$ Thereore!
I the sovereign "ommand a man! tho&gh *&stly "ondemned! to #ill! wo&nd! or maim himsel) or not to resist those
that assa&lt him) or to abstain rom the &se o ood! air! medi"ine! or any other thing witho&t whi"h he "annot live)
yet hath that man the liberty to disobey$
I a man be interrogated by the sovereign! or his a&thority! "on"erning a "rime done by himsel! he is not bo&nd
(witho&t ass&ran"e o 'ardon) to "oness it) be"a&se no man! as I have shown in the same "ha'ter! "an be obliged by
"ovenant to a""&se himsel$ Again! the "onsent o a s&b*e"t to sovereign 'ower is "ontained in these words! FI
a&thorise! or ta#e &'on me! all his a"tionsF) in whi"h there is no restri"tion at all o his own ormer nat&ral liberty6
or by allowing him to #ill me! I am not bo&nd to #ill mysel when he "ommands me$ It is one thing to say! F3ill me!
or my ellow! i yo& 'leaseF) another thing to say! FI will #ill mysel! or my ellow$F It olloweth! thereore! that
No man is bo&nd by the words themselves! either to #ill himsel or any other man) and "onse2&ently! that the
obligation a man may sometimes have! &'on the "ommand o the sovereign! to e+e"&te any dangero&s or
dishono&rable oi"e! de'endeth not on the words o o&r s&bmission! b&t on the intention) whi"h is to be &nderstood
by the end thereo$ /hen thereore o&r re&sal to obey r&strates the end or whi"h the sovereignty was ordained!
then there is no liberty to re&se) otherwise! there is$
U'on this gro&nd a man that is "ommanded as a soldier to ight against the enemy! tho&gh his sovereign have right
eno&gh to '&nish his re&sal with death! may nevertheless in many "ases re&se! witho&t in*&sti"e) as when he
s&bstit&teth a s&i"ient soldier in his 'la"e6 or in this "ase he deserteth not the servi"e o the ,ommonwealth$ And
there is allowan"e to be made or nat&ral timoro&sness! not only to women (o whom no s&"h dangero&s d&ty is
e+'e"ted)! b&t also to men o eminine "o&rage$ /hen armies ight! there is on one side! or both! a r&nning away) yet
when they do it not o&t o trea"hery! b&t ear! they are not esteemed to do it &n*&stly! b&t dishono&rably$ %or the same
reason! to avoid battle is not in*&sti"e! b&t "owardi"e$ 5&t he that enrolleth himsel a soldier! or ta#eth im'ressed
money! ta#eth away the e+"&se o a timoro&s nat&re! and is obliged! not only to go to the battle! b&t also not to r&n
rom it witho&t his "a'tain1s leave$ And when the deen"e o the ,ommonwealth re2&ireth at on"e the hel' o all that
are able to bear arms! every one is obliged) be"a&se otherwise the instit&tion o the ,ommonwealth! whi"h they have
not the '&r'ose or "o&rage to 'reserve! was in vain$
To resist the sword o the ,ommonwealth in deen"e o another man! g&ilty or inno"ent! no man hath liberty)
be"a&se s&"h liberty ta#es away rom the sovereign the means o 'rote"ting &s! and is thereore destr&"tive o the
very essen"e o government$ 5&t in "ase a great many men together have already resisted the sovereign 'ower
&n*&stly! or "ommitted some "a'ital "rime or whi"h every one o them e+'e"teth death! whether have they not the
liberty then to *oin together! and assist! and deend one another( ,ertainly they have6 or they b&t deend their lives!
whi"h the g&ilty man may as well do as the inno"ent$ There was indeed in*&sti"e in the irst brea"h o their d&ty6
their bearing o arms s&bse2&ent to it! tho&gh it be to maintain what they have done! is no new &n*&st a"t$ And i it be
only to deend their 'ersons! it is not &n*&st at all$ 5&t the oer o 'ardon ta#eth rom them to whom it is oered the
'lea o sel7deen"e! and ma#eth their 'erseveran"e in assisting or deending the rest &nlaw&l$
As or other liberties! they de'end on the silen"e o the law$ In "ases where the sovereign has 'res"ribed no r&le!
there the s&b*e"t hath the liberty to do! or orbear! a""ording to his own dis"retion$ And thereore s&"h liberty is in
some 'la"es more! and in some less) and in some times more! in other times less! a""ording as they that have the
sovereignty shall thin# most "onvenient$ As or e+am'le! there was a time when in England a man might enter into
his own land! and dis'ossess s&"h as wrong&lly 'ossessed it! by or"e$ 5&t in ater times that liberty o or"ible
entry was ta#en away by a stat&te made by the #ing in 8arliament$ And in some 'la"es o the world men have the
liberty o many wives6 in other 'la"es! s&"h liberty is not allowed$
I a s&b*e"t have a "ontroversy with his sovereign o debt! or o right o 'ossession o lands or goods! or "on"erning
any servi"e re2&ired at his hands! or "on"erning any 'enalty! "or'oral or 'e"&niary! gro&nded on a 're"edent law! he
hath the same liberty to s&e or his right as i it were against a s&b*e"t! and beore s&"h *&dges as are a''ointed by the
sovereign$ %or seeing the sovereign demandeth by or"e o a ormer law! and not by virt&e o his 'ower! he de"lareth
thereby that he re2&ireth no more than shall a''ear to be d&e by that law$ The s&it thereore is not "ontrary to the will
o the sovereign! and "onse2&ently the s&b*e"t hath the liberty to demand the hearing o his "a&se! and senten"e
a""ording to that law$ 5&t i he demand or ta#e anything by 'reten"e o his 'ower! there lieth! in that "ase! no a"tion
o law6 or all that is done by him in virt&e o his 'ower is done by the a&thority o every s&b*e"t! and "onse2&ently!
he that brings an a"tion against the sovereign brings it against himsel$
I a monar"h! or sovereign assembly! grant a liberty to all or any o his s&b*e"ts! whi"h grant standing! he is disabled
to 'rovide or their saety) the grant is void! &nless he dire"tly reno&n"e or transer the sovereignty to another$ %or in
that he might o'enly (i it had been his will)! and in 'lain terms! have reno&n"ed or transerred it and did not! it is to
be &nderstood it was not his will! b&t that the grant 'ro"eeded rom ignoran"e o the re'&gnan"y between s&"h a
liberty and the sovereign 'ower6 and thereore the sovereignty is still retained! and "onse2&ently all those 'owers
whi"h are ne"essary to the e+er"ising thereo) s&"h as are the 'ower o war and 'ea"e! o *&di"at&re! o a''ointing
oi"ers and "o&nsellors! o levying money! and the rest named in the eighteenth ,ha'ter$
The obligation o s&b*e"ts to the sovereign is &nderstood to last as long! and no longer! than the 'ower lasteth by
whi"h he is able to 'rote"t them$ %or the right men have by nat&re to 'rote"t themselves! when none else "an 'rote"t
them! "an by no "ovenant be relin2&ished$ The sovereignty is the so&l o the ,ommonwealth) whi"h! on"e de'arted
rom the body! the members do no more re"eive their motion rom it$ The end o obedien"e is 'rote"tion) whi"h!
wheresoever a man seeth it! either in his own or in another1s sword! nat&re a''lieth his obedien"e to it! and his
endeavo&r to maintain it$ And tho&gh sovereignty! in the intention o them that ma#e it! be immortal) yet is it in its
own nat&re! not only s&b*e"t to violent death by oreign war! b&t also thro&gh the ignoran"e and 'assions o men it
hath in it! rom the very instit&tion! many seeds o a nat&ral mortality! by intestine dis"ord$
I a s&b*e"t be ta#en 'risoner in war! or his 'erson or his means o lie be within the g&ards o the enemy! and hath
his lie and "or'oral liberty given him on "ondition to be s&b*e"t to the vi"tor! he hath liberty to a""e't the "ondition)
and! having a""e'ted it! is the s&b*e"t o him that too# him) be"a&se he had no other way to 'reserve himsel$ The
"ase is the same i he be detained on the same terms in a oreign "o&ntry$ 5&t i a man be held in 'rison! or bonds! or
is not tr&sted with the liberty o his body! he "annot be &nderstood to be bo&nd by "ovenant to s&b*e"tion! and
thereore may! i he "an! ma#e his es"a'e by any means whatsoever$
I a monar"h shall relin2&ish the sovereignty! both or himsel and his heirs! his s&b*e"ts ret&rn to the absol&te liberty
o nat&re) be"a&se! tho&gh nat&re may de"lare who are his sons! and who are the nearest o his #in! yet it de'endeth
on his own will! as hath been said in the 're"edent "ha'ter! who shall be his heir$ I thereore he will have no heir!
there is no sovereignty! nor s&b*e"tion$ The "ase is the same i he die witho&t #nown #indred! and witho&t
de"laration o his heir$ %or then there "an no heir be #nown! and "onse2&ently no s&b*e"tion be d&e$
I the sovereign banish his s&b*e"t! d&ring the banishment he is not s&b*e"t$ 5&t he that is sent on a message! or hath
leave to travel! is still s&b*e"t) b&t it is by "ontra"t between sovereigns! not by virt&e o the "ovenant o s&b*e"tion$
%or whosoever entereth into another1s dominion is s&b*e"t to all the laws thereo! &nless he have a 'rivilege by the
amity o the sovereigns! or by s'e"ial li"ense$
I a monar"h s&bd&ed by war render himsel s&b*e"t to the vi"tor! his s&b*e"ts are delivered rom their ormer
obligation! and be"ome obliged to the vi"tor$ 5&t i he be held 'risoner! or have not the liberty o his own body! he is
not &nderstood to have given away the right o sovereignty) and thereore his s&b*e"ts are obliged to yield obedien"e
to the magistrates ormerly 'la"ed! governing not in their own name! b&t in his$ %or! his right remaining! the 2&estion
is only o the administration) that is to say! o the magistrates and oi"ers) whi"h i he have not means to name! he is
s&''osed to a''rove those whi"h he himsel had ormerly a''ointed$
,HA8TER IIII OF SYSTEMS SUBJECT POLITICAL AND PRIVATE
HAVING s'o#en o the generation! orm! and 'ower o a ,ommonwealth! I am in order to s'ea# ne+t o the 'arts
thereo$ And irst o systems! whi"h resemble the similar 'arts or m&s"les o a body nat&ral$ 5y systems! I
&nderstand any n&mbers o men *oined in one interest or one b&siness$ - whi"h some are reg&lar! and some
irreg&lar$ Reg&lar are those where one man! or assembly o men! is "onstit&ted re'resentative o the whole n&mber$
All other are irreg&lar$
- reg&lar! some are absol&te and inde'endent! s&b*e"t to none b&t their own re'resentative6 s&"h are only
,ommonwealths! o whi"h I have s'o#en already in the ive last 're"edent "ha'ters$ -thers are de'endent) that is to
say! s&bordinate to some sovereign 'ower! to whi"h every one! as also their re'resentative! is s&b*e"t$
- systems s&bordinate! some are 'oliti"al! and some 'rivate$ 8oliti"al (otherwise "alled bodies 'oliti" and 'ersons
in law) are those whi"h are made by a&thority rom the sovereign 'ower o the ,ommonwealth$ 8rivate are those
whi"h are "onstit&ted by s&b*e"ts amongst themselves! or by a&thority rom a stranger$ %or no a&thority derived rom
oreign 'ower! within the dominion o another! is '&bli" there! b&t 'rivate$
And o 'rivate systems! some are law&l) some &nlaw&l6 law&l are those whi"h are allowed by the ,ommonwealth)
all other are &nlaw&l$ Irreg&lar systems are those whi"h! having no re'resentative! "onsist only in "on"o&rse o
'eo'le) whi"h i not orbidden by the ,ommonwealth! nor made on evil design (s&"h as are "onl&+ o 'eo'le to
mar#ets! or shows! or any other harmless end)! are law&l$ 5&t when the intention is evil! or (i the n&mber be
"onsiderable) &n#nown! they are &nlaw&l$
In bodies 'oliti" the 'ower o the re'resentative is always limited6 and that whi"h 'res"ribeth the limits thereo is the
'ower sovereign$ %or 'ower &nlimited is absol&te sovereignty$ And the sovereign! in every ,ommonwealth! is the
absol&te re'resentative o all the s&b*e"ts) and thereore no other "an be re'resentative o any 'art o them! b&t so ar
orth as he shall give leave6 and to give leave to a body 'oliti" o s&b*e"ts to have an absol&te re'resentative! to all
intents and '&r'oses! were to abandon the government o so m&"h o the ,ommonwealth! and to divide the
dominion! "ontrary to their 'ea"e and deen"e! whi"h the sovereign "annot be &nderstood to do! by any grant that
does not 'lainly and dire"tly dis"harge them o their s&b*e"tion$ %or "onse2&en"es o words are not the signs o his
will! when other "onse2&en"es are signs o the "ontrary) b&t rather signs o error and misre"#oning! to whi"h all
man#ind is too 'rone$
The bo&nds o that 'ower whi"h is given to the re'resentative o a body 'oliti" are to be ta#en noti"e o rom two
things$ -ne is their writ! or letters rom the sovereign6 the other is the law o the ,ommonwealth$
%or tho&gh in the instit&tion or a"2&isition o a ,ommonwealth! whi"h is inde'endent! there needs no writing!
be"a&se the 'ower o the re'resentative has there no other bo&nds b&t s&"h as are set o&t by the &nwritten law o
nat&re) yet in s&bordinate bodies! there are s&"h diversities o limitation ne"essary! "on"erning their b&sinesses!
times! and 'la"es! as "an neither be remembered witho&t letters! nor ta#en noti"e o! &nless s&"h letters be 'atent!
that they may be read to them! and withal sealed! or testiied! with the seals or other 'ermanent signs o the a&thority
sovereign$
And be"a&se s&"h limitation is not always easy or 'erha's 'ossible to be des"ribed in writing! the ordinary laws!
"ommon to all s&b*e"ts! m&st determine what the re'resentative may law&lly do in all "ases where the letters
themselves are silent$ And thereore
In a body 'oliti"! i the re'resentative be one man! whatsoever he does in the 'erson o the body whi"h is not
warranted in his letters! nor by the laws! is his own a"t! and not the a"t o the body! nor o any other member thereo
besides himsel6 be"a&se &rther than his letters or the laws limit! he re'resenteth no man1s 'erson! b&t his own$ 5&t
what he does a""ording to these is the a"t o every one6 or o the a"t o the sovereign every one is a&thor! be"a&se he
is their re'resentative &nlimited) and the a"t o him that re"edes not rom the letters o the sovereign is the a"t o the
sovereign! and thereore every member o the body is a&thor o it$
5&t i the re'resentative be an assembly! whatsoever that assembly shall de"ree! not warranted by their letters or the
laws! is the a"t o the assembly! or body 'oliti"! and the a"t o every one by whose vote the de"ree was made) b&t not
the a"t o any man that being 'resent voted to the "ontrary) nor o any man absent! &nless he voted it by 'ro"reation$
It is the a"t o the assembly be"a&se voted by the ma*or 'art) and i it be a "rime! the assembly may be '&nished! as
ar orth as it is "a'able! as by dissol&tion! or oreit&re o their letters (whi"h is to s&"h artii"ial and i"titio&s
bodies! "a'ital) or! i the assembly have a "ommon sto"#! wherein none o the inno"ent members have 'ro'riety! by
'e"&niary m&l"t$ %or rom "or'oral 'enalties nat&re hath bodies 'oliti"$ 5&t they that gave not their vote are
thereore inno"ent! be"a&se the assembly "annot re'resent any man in things &nwarranted by their letters! and
"onse2&ently are not involved in their votes$
I the 'erson o the body 'oliti"! being in one man! borrow money o a stranger! that is! o one that is not o the same
body (or no letters need limit borrowing! seeing it is let to men1s own in"linations to limit lending)! the debt is the
re'resentative1s$ %or i he sho&ld have a&thority rom his letters to ma#e the members 'ay what he borroweth! he
sho&ld have by "onse2&en"e the sovereignty o them) and thereore the grant were either void! as 'ro"eeding rom
error! "ommonly in"ident to h&man nat&re! and an ins&i"ient sign o the will o the granter) or i it be avowed by
him! then is the re'resenter sovereign! and alleth not &nder the 'resent 2&estion! whi"h is only o bodies
s&bordinate$ No member thereore is obliged to 'ay the debt so borrowed! b&t the re'resentative himsel6 be"a&se he
that lendeth it! being a stranger to the letters! and to the 2&alii"ation o the body! &nderstandeth those only or his
debtors that are engaged) and seeing the re'resenter "an engage himsel! and none else! has him only debtor! who
m&st thereore 'ay him! o&t o the "ommon sto"#! i there be any! or! i there be none! o&t o his own estate$
I he "ome into debt by "ontra"t! or m&l"t! the "ase is the same$
5&t when the re'resentative is an assembly! and the debt to a stranger) all they! and only they! are res'onsible or the
debt that gave their votes to the borrowing o it! or to the "ontra"t that made it d&e! or to the a"t or whi"h the m&l"t
was im'osed) be"a&se every one o those in voting did engage himsel or the 'ayment6 or he that is a&thor o the
borrowing is obliged to the 'ayment! even o the whole debt! tho&gh when 'aid by any one! he be dis"harged$ 5&t i
the debt be to one o the assembly! the assembly only is obliged to the 'ayment! o&t o their "ommon sto"#! i they
have any6 or having liberty o vote! i he vote the money shall be borrowed! he votes it shall be 'aid) i he vote it
shall not be borrowed! or be absent! yet be"a&se in lending he voteth the borrowing! he "ontradi"teth his ormer vote!
and is obliged by the latter! and be"omes both borrower and lender! and "onse2&ently "annot demand 'ayment rom
any 'arti"&lar man! b&t rom the "ommon treas&ry only) whi"h ailing! he hath no remedy! nor "om'laint b&t against
himsel! that being 'rivy to the a"ts o the assembly! and to their means to 'ay! and not being enor"ed! did
nevertheless thro&gh his own olly lend his money$
It is maniest by this that in bodies 'oliti" s&bordinate! and s&b*e"t to a sovereign 'ower! it is sometimes not only
law&l! b&t e+'edient! or a 'arti"&lar man to ma#e o'en 'rotestation against the de"rees o the re'resentative
assembly! and "a&se their dissent to be registered! or to ta#e witness o it) be"a&se otherwise they may be obliged to
'ay debts "ontra"ted! and be res'onsible or "rimes "ommitted by other men$ 5&t in a sovereign assembly that liberty
is ta#en away! both be"a&se he that 'rotesteth there denies their sovereignty! and also be"a&se whatsoever is
"ommanded by the sovereign 'ower is as to the s&b*e"t (tho&gh not so always in the sight o God) *&stiied by the
"ommand6 or o s&"h "ommand every s&b*e"t is the a&thor$
The variety o bodies is almost ininite6 or they are not only disting&ished by the several aairs or whi"h they are
"onstit&ted! wherein there is an &ns'ea#able diversity) b&t also by the times! 'la"es! and n&mbers! s&b*e"t to many
limitations$ And as to their aairs! some are ordained or government) as irst! the government o a 'rovin"e may be
"ommitted to an assembly o men! wherein all resol&tions shall de'end on the votes o the ma*or 'art) and then this
assembly is a body 'oliti"! and their 'ower limited by "ommission$ This word 'rovin"e signiies a "harge or "are o
b&siness! whi"h he whose it is "ommitteth to another man to be administered or and &nder him) and thereore when
in one ,ommonwealth there be diverse "o&ntries that have their laws distin"t one rom another! or are ar distant in
'la"e! the administration o the government being "ommitted to diverse 'ersons! those "o&ntries where the sovereign
is not resident! b&t governs by "ommission! are "alled 'rovin"es$ 5&t o the government o a 'rovin"e! by an
assembly residing in the 'rovin"e itsel! there be ew e+am'les$ The Romans! who had the sovereignty o many
'rovin"es! yet governed them always by 'residents and 'raetors) and not by assemblies! as they governed the "ity o
Rome and territories ad*a"ent$ In li#e manner! when there were "olonies sent rom England to 'lant Virginia! and
0&mmer Islands! tho&gh the government o them here were "ommitted to assemblies in London! yet did those
assemblies never "ommit the government &nder them to any assembly there! b&t did to ea"h 'lantation send one
governor6 or tho&gh every man! where he "an be 'resent by nat&re! desires to 'arti"i'ate o government) yet where
they "annot be 'resent! they are by nat&re also in"lined to "ommit the government o their "ommon interest rather to
a monar"hi"al! than a 'o'&lar! orm o government6 whi"h is also evident in those men that have great 'rivate
estates) who! when they are &nwilling to ta#e the 'ains o administering the b&siness that belongs to them! "hoose
rather to tr&st one servant than an assembly either o their riends or servants$ 5&t howsoever it be in a"t! yet we
may s&''ose the government o a 'rovin"e or "olony "ommitted to an assembly6 and when it is! that whi"h in this
'la"e I have to say is this6 that whatsoever debt is by that assembly "ontra"ted! or whatsoever &nlaw&l a"t is
de"reed! is the a"t only o those that assented! and not o any that dissented! or were absent! or the reasons beore
alleged$ Also that an assembly residing o&t o the bo&nds o that "olony whereo they have the government "annot
e+e"&te any 'ower over the 'ersons or goods o any o the "olony! to sei9e on them or debt! or other d&ty! in any
'la"e witho&t the "olony itsel! as having no *&risdi"tion nor a&thority elsewhere! b&t are let to the remedy whi"h the
law o the 'la"e alloweth them$ And tho&gh the assembly have right to im'ose m&l"t &'on any o their members that
shall brea# the laws they ma#e) yet o&t o the "olony itsel! they have no right to e+e"&te the same$ And that whi"h is
said here o the rights o an assembly or the government o a 'rovin"e! or a "olony! is a''li"able also to an assembly
or the government o a town! a &niversity! or a "ollege! or a "h&r"h! or or any other government over the 'ersons o
men$
And generally! in all bodies 'oliti"! i any i any 'arti"&lar member "on"eive himsel in*&red by the body itsel! the
"ogni9an"e o his "a&se belonged to the sovereign! and those the sovereign hath ordained or *&dges in s&"h "a&ses!
or shall ordain or that 'arti"&lar "a&se) and not to the body itsel$ %or the whole body is in this "ase his ellow
s&b*e"t! whi"h! in a sovereign assembly! is otherwise6 or there! i the sovereign be not *&dge! tho&gh in his own
"a&se! there "an be no *&dge at all$
In a body 'oliti"! or the well ordering o oreign trai"! the most "ommodio&s re'resentative is an assembly o all
the members) that is to say! s&"h a one as every one that advent&reth his money may be 'resent at all the
deliberations and resol&tions o the body! i they will themselves$ %or 'roo whereo we are to "onsider the end or
whi"h men that are mer"hants! and may b&y and sell! e+'ort and im'ort their mer"handise! a""ording to their own
dis"retions! do nevertheless bind themselves &' in one "or'oration$ It is tr&e! there be ew mer"hants that with the
mer"handise they b&y at home "an reight a shi' to e+'ort it) or with that they b&y abroad! to bring it home) and have
thereore need to *oin together in one so"iety! where every man may either 'arti"i'ate o the gain! a""ording to the
'ro'ortion o his advent&re! or ta#e his own! and sell what he trans'orts! or im'orts! at s&"h 'ri"es as he thin#s it$
5&t this is no body 'oliti"! there being no "ommon re'resentative to oblige them to any other law than that whi"h is
"ommon to all other s&b*e"ts$ The end o their in"or'orating is to ma#e their gain the greater) whi"h is done two
ways6 by sole b&ying! and sole selling! both at home and abroad$ 0o that to grant to a "om'any o mer"hants to be a
"or'oration! or body 'oliti"! is to grant them a do&ble mono'oly! whereo one is to be sole b&yers) another to be sole
sellers$ %or when there is a "om'any in"or'orate or any 'arti"&lar oreign "o&ntry! they only e+'ort the "ommodities
vendible in that "o&ntry) whi"h is sole b&ying at home! and sole selling abroad$ %or at home there is b&t one b&yer!
and abroad b&t one that selleth) both whi"h is gain&l to the mer"hant! be"a&se thereby they b&y at home at lower!
and sell abroad at higher! rates6 and abroad there is b&t one b&yer o oreign mer"handise! and b&t one that sells them
at home! both whi"h again are gain&l to the advent&rers$
- this do&ble mono'oly one 'art is disadvantageo&s to the 'eo'le at home! the other to oreigners$ %or at home by
their sole e+'ortation they set what 'ri"e they 'lease on the h&sbandry and handiwor#s o the 'eo'le! and by the sole
im'ortation! what 'ri"e they 'lease on all oreign "ommodities the 'eo'le have need o! both whi"h are ill or the
'eo'le$ -n the "ontrary! by the sole selling o the native "ommodities abroad! and sole b&ying the oreign
"ommodities &'on the 'la"e! they raise the 'ri"e o those! and abate the 'ri"e o these! to the disadvantage o the
oreigner6 or where b&t one selleth! the mer"handise is the dearer) and where b&t one b&yeth! the "hea'er6 s&"h
"or'orations thereore are no other than mono'olies! tho&gh they wo&ld be very 'roitable or a ,ommonwealth! i!
being bo&nd &' into one body in oreign mar#ets! they were at liberty at home! every man to b&y and sell at what
'ri"e he "o&ld$
The end then o these bodies o mer"hants! being not a "ommon beneit to the whole body (whi"h have in this "ase
no "ommon sto"#! b&t what is ded&"ted o&t o the 'arti"&lar advent&res! or b&ilding! b&ying! vi"t&alling and
manning o shi's)! b&t the 'arti"&lar gain o every advent&rer! it is reason that every one be a"2&ainted with the
em'loyment o his own) that is! that every one be o the assembly that shall have the 'ower to order the same) and be
a"2&ainted with their a""o&nts$ And thereore the re'resentative o s&"h a body m&st be an assembly! where every
member o the body may be 'resent at the "ons&ltations! i he will$
I a body 'oliti" o mer"hants "ontra"t a debt to a stranger by the a"t o their re'resentative assembly! every member
is liable by himsel or the whole$ %or a stranger "an ta#e no noti"e o their 'rivate laws! b&t "onsidereth them as so
many 'arti"&lar men! obliged every one to the whole 'ayment! till 'ayment made by one dis"hargeth all the rest6 b&t
i the debt be to one o the "om'any! the "reditor is debtor or the whole to himsel! and "annot thereore demand his
debt! b&t only rom the "ommon sto"#! i there be any$
I the ,ommonwealth im'ose a ta+ &'on the body! it is &nderstood to be laid &'on every member 'ro'ortionably to
his 'arti"&lar advent&re in the "om'any$ %or there is in this "ase no other "ommon sto"#! b&t what is made o their
'arti"&lar advent&res$
I a m&l"t be laid &'on the body or some &nlaw&l a"t! they only are liable by whose votes the a"t was de"reed! or
by whose assistan"e it was e+e"&ted) or in none o the rest is there any other "rime b&t being o the body) whi"h! i a
"rime! be"a&se the body was ordained by the a&thority o the ,ommonwealth! is not his$
I one o the members be indebted to the body! he may be s&ed by the body! b&t his goods "annot be ta#en! nor his
'erson im'risoned by the a&thority o the body) b&t only by a&thority o the ,ommonwealth6 or they "an do it by
their own a&thority! they "an by their own a&thority give *&dgement that the debt is d&e) whi"h is as m&"h as to be
*&dge in their own "a&se$
These bodies made or the government o men! or o trai"! be either 'er'et&al! or or a time 'res"ribed by writing$
5&t there be bodies also whose times are limited! and that only by the nat&re o their b&siness$ %or e+am'le! i a
sovereign monar"h! or a sovereign assembly! shall thin# it to give "ommand to the towns and other several 'arts o
their territory to send to him their de'&ties to inorm him o the "ondition and ne"essities o the s&b*e"ts! or to advise
with him or the ma#ing o good laws! or or any other "a&se! as with one 'erson re'resenting the whole "o&ntry!
s&"h de'&ties! having a 'la"e and time o meeting assigned them! are there! and at that time! a body 'oliti"!
re'resenting every s&b*e"t o that dominion) b&t it is only or s&"h matters as shall be 'ro'o&nded &nto them by that
man! or assembly! that by the sovereign a&thority sent or them) and when it shall be de"lared that nothing more shall
be 'ro'o&nded! nor debated by them! the body is dissolved$ %or i they were the absol&te re'resentative o the
'eo'le! then were it the sovereign assembly) and so there wo&ld be two sovereign assemblies! or two sovereigns!
over the same 'eo'le) whi"h "annot "onsist with their 'ea"e$ And thereore where there is on"e a sovereignty! there
"an be no absol&te re'resentation o the 'eo'le! b&t by it$ And or the limits o how ar s&"h a body shall re'resent
the whole 'eo'le! they are set orth in the writing by whi"h they were sent or$ %or the 'eo'le "annot "hoose their
de'&ties to other intent than is in the writing dire"ted to them rom their sovereign e+'ressed$ 8rivate bodies reg&lar
and law&l are those that are "onstit&ted witho&t letters! or other written a&thority! saving the laws "ommon to all
other s&b*e"ts$ And be"a&se they be &nited in one 'erson re'resentative! they are held or reg&lar) s&"h as are all
amilies! in whi"h the ather or master ordereth the whole amily$ %or he obligeth his "hildren! and servants! as ar as
the law 'ermitteth! tho&gh not &rther! be"a&se none o them are bo&nd to obedien"e in those a"tions whi"h the law
hath orbidden to be done$ In all other a"tions! d&ring the time they are &nder domesti" government! they are s&b*e"t
to their athers and masters! as to their immediate sovereigns$ %or the ather and master being beore the instit&tion
o ,ommonwealth absol&te sovereigns in their own amilies! they lose aterward no more o their a&thority than the
law o the ,ommonwealth ta#eth rom them$
8rivate bodies reg&lar! b&t &nlaw&l! are those that &nite themselves into one 'erson re'resentative! witho&t any
'&bli" a&thority at all) s&"h as are the "or'orations o beggars! thieves and gi'sies! the better to order their trade o
begging and stealing) and the "or'orations o men that by a&thority rom any oreign 'erson themselves in another1s
dominion! or the easier 'ro'agation o do"trines! and or ma#ing a 'arty against the 'ower o the ,ommonwealth$
Irreg&lar systems! in their nat&re b&t leag&es! or sometimes mere "on"o&rse o 'eo'le witho&t &nion to any 'arti"&lar
design! not by obligation o one to another! b&t 'ro"eeding only rom a similit&de o wills and in"linations! be"ome
law&l! or &nlaw&l! a""ording to the law&lness! or &nlaw&lness! o every 'arti"&lar man1s design therein6 and his
design is to be &nderstood by the o""asion$ The leag&es o s&b*e"ts! be"a&se leag&es are "ommonly made or m&t&al
deen"e! are in a ,ommonwealth (whi"h is no more than a leag&e o all the s&b*e"ts together) or the most 'art
&nne"essary! and savo&r o &nlaw&l design) and are or that "a&se &nlaw&l! and go "ommonly by the name o
a"tions! or "ons'ira"ies$ %or a leag&e being a "onne+ion o men by "ovenants! i there be no 'ower given to any one
man or assembly (as in the "ondition o mere nat&re) to "om'el them to 'erorman"e! is so long only valid as there
ariseth no *&st "a&se o distr&st6 and thereore leag&es between ,ommonwealths! over whom there is no h&man
'ower established to #ee' them all in awe! are not only law&l! b&t also 'roitable or the time they last$ 5&t leag&es
o the s&b*e"ts o one and the same ,ommonwealth! where every one may obtain his right by means o the sovereign
'ower! are &nne"essary to the maintaining o 'ea"e and *&sti"e! and! in "ase the design o them be evil or &n#nown to
the ,ommonwealth! &nlaw&l$ %or all &niting o strength by 'rivate men is! i or evil intent! &n*&st) i or intent
&n#nown! dangero&s to the '&bli"! and &n*&stly "on"ealed$
I the sovereign 'ower be in a great assembly! and a n&mber o men! 'art o the assembly! witho&t a&thority "ons&lt a
'art to "ontrive the g&idan"e o the rest! this is a a"tion! or "ons'ira"y &nlaw&l! as being a ra&d&lent sed&"ing o
the assembly or their 'arti"&lar interest$ 5&t i he whose 'rivate interest is to be debated and *&dged in the assembly
ma#e as many riends as he "an! in him it is no in*&sti"e! be"a&se in this "ase he is no 'art o the assembly$ And
tho&gh he hire s&"h riends with money! &nless there be an e+'ress law against it! yet it is not in*&sti"e$ %or
sometimes! as men1s manners are! *&sti"e "annot be had witho&t money! and every man may thin# his own "a&se *&st
till it be heard and *&dged$
In all ,ommonwealths! i a 'rivate man entertain more servants than the government o his estate and law&l
em'loyment he has or them re2&ires! it is a"tion! and &nlaw&l$ %or having the 'rote"tion o the ,ommonwealth! he
needeth not the deen"e o 'rivate or"e$ And whereas in nations not thoro&ghly "ivili9ed! several n&mero&s amilies
have lived in "ontin&al hostility and invaded one another with 'rivate or"e! yet it is evident eno&gh that they have
done &n*&stly! or else that they had no ,ommonwealth$ And as a"tions or #indred! so also a"tions or government
o religion! as o 8a'ists! 8rotestants! et"$! or o state! as 'atri"ians and 'lebeians o old time in Rome! and o
aristo"rati"als and demo"rati"als o old time in Gree"e! are &n*&st! as being "ontrary to the 'ea"e and saety o the
'eo'le! and a ta#ing o the sword o&t o the hand o the sovereign$
,on"o&rse o 'eo'le is an irreg&lar system! the law&lness or &nlaw&lness whereo de'endeth on the o""asion! and
on the n&mber o them that are assembled$ I the o""asion be law&l! and maniest! the "on"o&rse is law&l) as the
&s&al meeting o men at "h&r"h! or at a '&bli" show! in &s&al n&mbers6 or i the n&mbers be e+traordinarily great!
the o""asion is not evident) and "onse2&ently he that "annot render a 'arti"&lar and good a""o&nt o his being
amongst them is to be *&dged "ons"io&s o an &nlaw&l and t&m&lt&o&s design$ It may be law&l or a tho&sand men
to *oin in a 'etition to be delivered to a *&dge or magistrate) yet i a tho&sand men "ome to 'resent it! it is a
t&m&lt&o&s assembly! be"a&se there needs b&t one or two or that '&r'ose$ 5&t in s&"h "ases as these! it is not a set
n&mber that ma#es the assembly &nlaw&l! b&t s&"h a n&mber as the 'resent oi"ers are not able to s&''ress and
bring to *&sti"e$
/hen an &n&s&al n&mber o men assemble against a man whom they a""&se! the assembly is an &nlaw&l t&m&lt)
be"a&se they may deliver their a""&sation to the magistrate by a ew! or by one man$ 0&"h was the "ase o 0t$ 8a&l at
E'hes&s) where 4emetri&s! and a great n&mber o other men! bro&ght two o 8a&l1s "om'anions beore the
magistrate! saying with one voi"e! FGreat is 4iana o the E'hesiansF) whi"h was their way o demanding *&sti"e
against them or tea"hing the 'eo'le s&"h do"trine as was against their religion and trade$ The o""asion here!
"onsidering the laws o that 'eo'le! was *&st) yet was their assembly *&dged &nlaw&l! and the magistrate
re'rehended them or it! in these words! FI 4emetri&s and the other wor#men "an a""&se any man o any thing!
there be 'leas! and de'&ties) let them a""&se one another$ And i yo& have any other thing to demand! yo&r "ase may
be *&dged in an assembly law&lly "alled$ %or we are in danger to be a""&sed or this day1s sedition! be"a&se there is
no "a&se by whi"h any man "an render any reason o this "on"o&rse o 'eo'le$FE /here he "alleth an assembly
whereo men "an give no *&st a""o&nt! a sedition! and s&"h as they "o&ld not answer or$ And this is all I shall say
"on"erning systems! and assemblies o 'eo'le! whi"h may be "om'ared! as I said! to the similar 'arts o man1s body6
s&"h as be law&l! to the m&s"les) s&"h as are &nlaw&l! to wens! biles! and a'ostems! engendered by the &nnat&ral
"onl&+ o evil h&mo&rs$ E A"ts! ?H$ A>
,HA8TER IIIII OF THE PUBLIC MINISTERS OF SOVEREIGN POWER
IN THE last "ha'ter I have s'o#en o the similar 'arts o a ,ommonwealth6 in this I shall s'ea# o the 'arts
organi"al! whi"h are '&bli" ministers$
A '&bli" minister is he that by the sovereign! whether a monar"h or an assembly! is em'loyed in any aairs! with
a&thority to re'resent in that em'loyment the 'erson o the ,ommonwealth$ And whereas every man or assembly
that hath sovereignty re'resenteth two 'ersons! or! as the more "ommon 'hrase is! has two "a'a"ities! one nat&ral and
another 'oliti") as a monar"h hath the 'erson not only o the ,ommonwealth! b&t also o a man! and a sovereign
assembly hath the 'erson not only o the ,ommonwealth! b&t also o the assembly6 they that be servants to them in
their nat&ral "a'a"ity are not '&bli" ministers) b&t those only that serve them in the administration o the '&bli"
b&siness$ And thereore neither &shers! nor sergeants! nor other oi"ers that wait on the assembly or no other
'&r'ose b&t or the "ommodity o the men assembled! in an aristo"ra"y or demo"ra"y) nor stewards! "hamberlains!
"oerers! or any other oi"ers o the ho&sehold o a monar"h! are '&bli" ministers in a monar"hy$
- '&bli" ministers! some have "harge "ommitted to them o a general administration! either o the whole dominion
or o a 'art thereo$ - the whole! as to a 'rote"tor! or regent! may be "ommitted by the 'rede"essor o an inant #ing!
d&ring his minority! the whole administration o his #ingdom$ In whi"h "ase! every s&b*e"t is so ar obliged to
obedien"e as the ordinan"es he shall ma#e! and the "ommands he shall give! be in the #ing1s name! and not
in"onsistent with his sovereign 'ower$ - a 'art! or 'rovin"e) as when either a monar"h or a sovereign assembly
shall give the general "harge thereo to a governor! lie&tenant! 'ree"t or vi"eroy6 and in this "ase also! every one o
that 'rovin"e is obliged to all he shall do in the name o the sovereign! and that not in"om'atible with the sovereign1s
right$ %or s&"h 'rote"tors! vi"eroys! and governors have no other right b&t what de'ends on the sovereigns will) and
no "ommission that "an be given them "an be inter'reted or a de"laration o the will to transer the sovereignty!
witho&t e+'ress and 'ers'i"&o&s words to that '&r'ose$ And this #ind o '&bli" ministers resembleth the nerves and
tendons that move the several limbs o a body nat&ral$
-thers have s'e"ial administration) that is to say! "harges o some s'e"ial b&siness! either at home or abroad6 as at
home! irst! or the e"onomy o a ,ommonwealth! they that have a&thority "on"erning the treas&ry! as trib&tes!
im'ositions! rents! ines! or whatsoever '&bli" reven&e! to "olle"t! re"eive! iss&e! or ta#e the a""o&nts thereo! are
'&bli" ministers6 ministers! be"a&se they serve the 'erson re'resentative! and "an do nothing against his "ommand!
nor witho&t his a&thority) '&bli"! be"a&se they serve him in his 'oliti"al "a'a"ity$
0e"ondly! they that have a&thority "on"erning the militia) to have the "&stody o arms! orts! 'orts) to levy! 'ay! or
"ond&"t soldiers) or to 'rovide or any ne"essary thing or the &se o war! either by land or sea! are '&bli" ministers$
5&t a soldier witho&t "ommand! tho&gh he ight or the ,ommonwealth! does not thereore re'resent the 'erson o it)
be"a&se there is none to re'resent it to$ %or every one that hath "ommand re'resents it to them only whom he
"ommandeth$
They also that have a&thority to tea"h! or to enable others to tea"h the 'eo'le their d&ty to the sovereign 'ower! and
instr&"t them in the #nowledge o what is *&st and &n*&st! thereby to render them more a't to live in godliness and in
'ea"e amongst themselves! and resist the '&bli" enemy! are '&bli" ministers6 ministers! in that they do it not by their
own a&thority! b&t by another1s) and '&bli"! be"a&se they do it! or sho&ld do it! by no a&thority b&t that o the
sovereign$ The monar"h or the sovereign assembly only hath immediate a&thority rom God to tea"h and instr&"t the
'eo'le) and no man b&t the sovereign re"eiveth his 'ower 4ei gratia sim'ly) that is to say! rom the avo&r o none
b&t God6 all other re"eive theirs rom the avo&r and 'roviden"e o God and their sovereigns) as in a monar"hy 4ei
gratia et regis) or 4ei 'rovidentia et vol&ntate regis$ They also to whom *&risdi"tion is given are '&bli" ministers$ %or
in their seats o *&sti"e they re'resent the 'erson o the sovereign) and their senten"e is his senten"e) or! as hath been
beore de"lared! all *&di"at&re is essentially anne+ed to the sovereignty) and thereore all other *&dges are b&t
ministers o him or them that have the sovereign 'ower$ And as "ontroversies are o two sorts! namely o a"t and o
law) so are *&dgements! some o a"t! some o law6 and "onse2&ently in the same "ontroversy! there may be two
*&dges! one o a"t! another o law$
And in both these "ontroversies! there may arise a "ontroversy between the 'arty *&dged and the *&dge) whi"h!
be"a&se they be both s&b*e"ts to the sovereign! o&ght in e2&ity to be *&dged by men agreed on by "onsent o both)
or no man "an be *&dge in his own "a&se$ 5&t the sovereign is already agreed on or *&dged by them both! and is
thereore either to hear the "a&se! and determine it himsel! or a''oint or *&dge s&"h as they shall both agree on$ And
this agreement is then &nderstood to be made between them diverse ways) as irst! i the deendant be allowed to
e+"e't against s&"h o his *&dges whose interest ma#eth him s&s'e"t them (or as to the "om'lainant! he hath already
"hosen his own *&dge)) those whi"h he e+"e'teth not against are *&dges he himsel agrees on$ 0e"ondly! i he a''eal
to any other *&dge! he "an a''eal no &rther) or his a''eal is his "hoi"e$ Thirdly! i he a''eal to the sovereign
himsel! and he by himsel! or by delegates whi"h the 'arties shall agree on! give senten"e) that senten"e is inal6 or
the deendant is *&dged by his own *&dges! that is to say! by himsel$
These 'ro'erties o *&st and rational *&di"at&re "onsidered! I "annot orbear to observe the e+"ellent "onstit&tion o
the "o&rts o *&sti"e established both or "ommon and also or '&bli" 'leas in England$ 5y "ommon 'leas! I mean
those where both the "om'lainant and deendant are s&b*e"ts6 and by '&bli" (whi"h are also "alled 'leas o the
"rown) those where the "om'lainant is the sovereign$ %or whereas there were two orders o men! whereo one was
lords! the other "ommons! the lords had this 'rivilege! to have or *&dges in all "a'ital "rimes none b&t lords) and o
them! as many as wo&ld be 'resent) whi"h being ever a"#nowledged as a 'rivilege o avo&r! their *&dges were none
b&t s&"h as they had themselves desired$ And in all "ontroversies! every s&b*e"t (as also in "ivil "ontroversies the
lords) had or *&dges men o the "o&ntry where the matter in "ontroversy lay) against whi"h he might ma#e his
e+"e'tions! till at last twelve men witho&t e+"e'tion being agreed on! they were *&dged by those twelve$ 0o that
having his own *&dges! there "o&ld be nothing alleged by the 'arty why the senten"e sho&ld not be inal$ These
'&bli" 'ersons! with a&thority rom the sovereign 'ower! either to instr&"t or *&dge the 'eo'le! are s&"h members o
the ,ommonwealth as may itly be "om'ared to the organs o voi"e in a body nat&ral$
8&bli" ministers are also all those that have a&thority rom the sovereign to 'ro"&re the e+e"&tion o *&dgements
given) to '&blish the sovereigns "ommands) to s&''ress t&m&lts) to a''rehend and im'rison malea"tors) and other
a"ts tending to the "onservation o the 'ea"e$ %or every a"t they do by s&"h a&thority is the a"t o the
,ommonwealth) and their servi"e answerable to that o the hands in a body nat&ral$
8&bli" ministers abroad are those that re'resent the 'erson o their own sovereign to oreign states$ 0&"h are
ambassadors! messengers! agents! and heralds! sent by '&bli" a&thority! and on '&bli" b&siness$
5&t s&"h as are sent by a&thority only o some 'rivate 'arty o a tro&bled state! tho&gh they be re"eived! are neither
'&bli" nor 'rivate ministers o the ,ommonwealth! be"a&se none o their a"tions have the ,ommonwealth or
a&thor$ Li#ewise! an ambassador sent rom a 'rin"e to "ongrat&late! "ondole! or to assist at a solemnity) tho&gh the
a&thority be '&bli"! yet be"a&se the b&siness is 'rivate! and belonging to him in his nat&ral "a'a"ity! is a 'rivate
'erson$ Also i a man be sent into another "o&ntry! se"retly to e+'lore their "o&nsels and strength) tho&gh both the
a&thority and the b&siness be '&bli"! yet be"a&se there is none to ta#e noti"e o any 'erson in him! b&t his own! he is
b&t a 'rivate minister) b&t yet a minister o the ,ommonwealth) and may be "om'ared to an eye in the body nat&ral$
And those that are a''ointed to re"eive the 'etitions or other inormations o the 'eo'le! and are! as it were! the
'&bli" ear! are '&bli" ministers and re'resent their sovereign in that oi"e$ Neither a "o&nsellor! nor a "o&n"il o
state! i we "onsider with no a&thority *&di"at&re or "ommand! b&t only o giving advi"e to the sovereign when it is
re2&ired! or o oering it when it is not re2&ired! is a '&bli" 'erson$ %or the advi"e is addressed to the sovereign
only! whose 'erson "annot in his own 'resen"e be re'resented to him by another$ 5&t a body o "o&nsellors are never
witho&t some other a&thority! either o *&di"at&re or o immediate administration6 as in a monar"hy! they re'resent
the monar"h in delivering his "ommands to the '&bli" ministers6 in a demo"ra"y! the "o&n"il or senate 'ro'o&nds the
res&lt o their deliberations to the 'eo'le! as a "o&n"il) b&t when they a''oint *&dges! or hear "a&ses! or give
a&dien"e to ambassadors! it is in the 2&ality o a minister o the 'eo'le6 and in an aristo"ra"y the "o&n"il o state is
the sovereign assembly itsel! and gives "o&nsel to none b&t themselves$
,HA8TER IIIV OF THE NUTRITION AND PROCREATION OF A COMMONWEALTH
THE NUTRITI-N o a ,ommonwealth "onsisteth in the 'lenty and distrib&tion o materials "ond&"ing to lie6 in
"on"o"tion or 're'aration! and! when "on"o"ted! in the "onveyan"e o it by "onvenient "ond&its to the '&bli" &se$
As or the 'lenty o matter! it is a thing limited by nat&re to those "ommodities whi"h! rom the two breasts o o&r
"ommon mother! land and sea! God &s&ally either reely giveth or or labo&r selleth to man#ind$
%or the matter o this n&triment "onsisting in animals! vegetables! and minerals! God hath reely laid them beore &s!
in or near to the a"e o the earth! so as there needeth no more b&t the labo&r and ind&stry o re"eiving them$
Insom&"h as 'lenty de'endeth! ne+t to God1s avo&r! merely on the labo&r and ind&stry o men$
This matter! "ommonly "alled "ommodities! is 'artly native and 'artly oreign6 native! that whi"h is to be had within
the territory o the ,ommonwealth) oreign! that whi"h is im'orted rom witho&t$ And be"a&se there is no territory
&nder the dominion o one ,ommonwealth! e+"e't it be o very vast e+tent! that 'rod&"eth all things need&l or the
maintenan"e and motion o the whole body) and ew that 'rod&"e not something more than ne"essary) the
s&'erl&o&s "ommodities to be had within be"ome no more s&'erl&o&s! b&t s&''ly these wants at home! by
im'ortation o that whi"h may be had abroad! either by e+"hange! or by *&st war! or by labo&r6 or a man1s labo&r
also is a "ommodity e+"hangeable or beneit! as well as any other thing6 and there have been ,ommonwealths that!
having no more territory than hath served them or habitation! have nevertheless not only maintained! b&t also
in"reased their 'ower! 'artly by the labo&r o trading rom one 'la"e to another! and 'artly by selling the
man&a"t&res! whereo the materials were bro&ght in rom other 'la"es$
The distrib&tion o the materials o this no&rishment is the "onstit&tion o mine! and thine! and his) that is to say! in
one word! 'ro'riety) and belonged in all #inds o ,ommonwealth to the sovereign 'ower$ %or where there is no
,ommonwealth! there is! as hath been already shown! a 'er'et&al war o every man against his neighbo&r) and
thereore everything is his that getteth it and #ee'eth it by or"e) whi"h is neither 'ro'riety nor "omm&nity! b&t
&n"ertainty$ /hi"h is so evident that even ,i"ero! a 'assionate deender o liberty! in a '&bli" 'leading attrib&teth all
'ro'riety to the law "ivil6 FLet the "ivil law!F saith he! Fbe on"e abandoned! or b&t negligently g&arded! not to say
o''ressed! and there is nothing that any man "an be s&re to re"eive rom his an"estor! or leave to his "hildren$F And
again6 FTa#e away the "ivil law! and no man #nows what is his own! and what another man1s$F 0eeing thereore the
introd&"tion o 'ro'riety is an ee"t o ,ommonwealth! whi"h "an do nothing b&t by the 'erson that re'resents it! it
is the a"t only o the sovereign) and "onsisteth in the laws! whi"h none "an ma#e that have not the sovereign 'ower$
And this they well #new o old! who "alled that Nomos (that is to say! distrib&tion)! whi"h we "all law) and deined
*&sti"e by distrib&ting to every man his own$
In this distrib&tion! the irst law is or division o the land itsel6 wherein the sovereign assigneth to every man a
'ortion! a""ording as he! and not a""ording as any s&b*e"t! or any n&mber o them! shall *&dge agreeable to e2&ity
and the "ommon good$ The "hildren o Israel were a ,ommonwealth in the wilderness) b&t wanted the "ommodities
o the earth till they were masters o the Land o 8romise) whi"h aterward was divided amongst them! not by their
own dis"retion! b&t by the dis"retion o Elea9ar the 'riest! and :osh&a their general6 who when there were twelve
tribes! ma#ing them thirteen by s&bdivision o the tribe o :ose'h! made nevertheless b&t twelve 'ortions o the land!
and ordained or the tribe o Levi no land! b&t assigned them the tenth 'art o the whole r&its) whi"h division was
thereore arbitrary$ And tho&gh a 'eo'le "oming into 'ossession o a land by war do not always e+terminate the
an"ient inhabitants! as did the :ews! b&t leave to many! or most! or all o them their estates) yet it is maniest they
hold them aterwards! as o the vi"tor1s distrib&tion) as the 'eo'le o England held all theirs o /illiam the
,on2&eror$
%rom when"e we may "olle"t that the 'ro'riety whi"h a s&b*e"t hath in his lands "onsisteth in a right to e+"l&de all
other s&b*e"ts rom the &se o them) and not to e+"l&de their sovereign! be it an assembly or a monar"h$ %or seeing
the sovereign! that is to say! the ,ommonwealth (whose 'erson he re'resenteth)! is &nderstood to do nothing b&t in
order to the "ommon 'ea"e and se"&rity! this distrib&tion o lands is to be &nderstood as done in order to the same6
and "onse2&ently! whatsoever distrib&tion he shall ma#e in 're*&di"e thereo is "ontrary to the will o every s&b*e"t
that "ommitted his 'ea"e and saety to his dis"retion and "ons"ien"e! and thereore by the will o every one o them
is to be re'&ted void$ It is tr&e that a sovereign monar"h! or the greater 'art o a sovereign assembly! may ordain the
doing o many things in '&rs&it o their 'assions! "ontrary to their own "ons"ien"es! whi"h is a brea"h o tr&st and o
the law o nat&re) b&t this is not eno&gh to a&thori9e any s&b*e"t! either to ma#e war &'on! or so m&"h as to a""&se o
in*&sti"e! or any way to s'ea# evil o their sovereign) be"a&se they have a&thori9ed all his a"tions! and! in bestowing
the sovereign 'ower! made them their own$ 5&t in what "ases the "ommands o sovereigns are "ontrary to e2&ity and
the law o nat&re is to be "onsidered hereater in another 'la"e$
In the distrib&tion o land! the ,ommonwealth itsel may be "on"eived to have a 'ortion! and 'ossess and im'rove
the same by their re'resentative) and that s&"h 'ortion may be made s&i"ient to s&stain the whole e+'ense to the
"ommon 'ea"e and deen"e ne"essarily re2&ired6 whi"h were very tr&e! i there "o&ld be any re'resentative
"on"eived ree rom h&man 'assions and inirmities$ 5&t the nat&re o men being as it is! the setting orth o '&bli"
land! or o any "ertain reven&e or the ,ommonwealth! is in vain! and tendeth to the dissol&tion o government! to
the "ondition o mere nat&re! and war! as soon as ever the sovereign 'ower alleth into the hands o a monar"h! or o
an assembly! that are either too negligent o money or too ha9ardo&s in engaging the '&bli" sto"# into long or "ostly
war$ ,ommonwealths "an end&re no diet6 or seeing their e+'ense is not limited by their own a''etite b&t by e+ternal
a""idents! and the a''etites o their neighbo&rs! the '&bli" ri"hes "annot be limited by other limits than those whi"h
the emergent o""asions shall re2&ire$ And whereas in England! there were by the ,on2&eror diverse lands reserved to
his own &se (besides orests and "hases! either or his re"reation or or 'reservation o woods)! and diverse servi"es
reserved on the land he gave his s&b*e"ts) yet it seems they were not reserved or his maintenan"e in his '&bli"! b&t
in his nat&ral "a'a"ity6 or he and his s&""essors did! or all that! lay arbitrary ta+es on all s&b*e"ts1 land when they
*&dged it ne"essary$ -r i those '&bli" lands and servi"es were ordained as a s&i"ient maintenan"e o the
,ommonwealth! it was "ontrary to the s"o'e o the instit&tion! being (as it a''eared by those ens&ing ta+es)
ins&i"ient and (as it a''ears by the late small reven&e o the ,rown) s&b*e"t to alienation and dimin&tion$ It is
thereore in vain to assign a 'ortion to the ,ommonwealth! whi"h may sell or give it away! and does sell and give it
away when it is done by their re'resentative$
As the distrib&tion o lands at home! so also to assign in what 'la"es! and or what "ommodities! the s&b*e"t shall
trai" abroad belonged to the sovereign$ %or i it did belong to 'rivate 'ersons to &se their own dis"retion therein!
some o them wo&ld be drawn or gain! both to &rnish the enemy with means to h&rt the ,ommonwealth! and h&rt it
themselves by im'orting s&"h things as! 'leasing men1s a''etites! be nevertheless no+io&s! or at least &n'roitable to
them$ And thereore it belonged to the ,ommonwealth (that is! to the sovereign only) to a''rove or disa''rove both
o the 'la"es and matter o oreign trai"$
%&rther! seeing it is not eno&gh to the s&stentation o a ,ommonwealth that every man have a 'ro'riety in a 'ortion
o land! or in some ew "ommodities! or a nat&ral 'ro'erty in some &se&l art! and there is no art in the world b&t is
ne"essary either or the being or well7being almost o every 'arti"&lar man) it is ne"essary that men distrib&te that
whi"h they "an s'are! and transer their 'ro'riety therein m&t&ally one to another by e+"hange and m&t&al "ontra"t$
And thereore it belonged to the ,ommonwealth (that is to say! to the sovereign) to a''oint in what manner all #inds
o "ontra"t between s&b*e"ts (as b&ying! selling! e+"hanging! borrowing! lending! letting! and ta#ing to hire) are to be
made! and by what words and words and sign they shall be &nderstood or valid$ And or the matter and distrib&tion
o the no&rishment to the several members o the ,ommonwealth! th&s m&"h! "onsidering the model o the whole
wor#! is s&i"ient$
5y "on"o"tion! I &nderstand the red&"ing o all "ommodities whi"h are not 'resently "ons&med! b&t reserved or
no&rishment in time to "ome! to something o e2&al val&e! and withal so 'ortable as not to hinder the motion o men
rom 'la"e to 'la"e) to the end a man may have in what 'la"e soever s&"h no&rishment as the 'la"e aordeth$ And
this is nothing else b&t gold! and silver! and money$ %or gold and silver! being! as it ha''ens! almost in all "o&ntries
o the world highly val&ed! is a "ommodio&s meas&re o the val&e o all things else between nations) and money! o
what matter soever "oined by the sovereign o a ,ommonwealth! is a s&i"ient meas&re o the val&e o all things
else between the s&b*e"ts o that ,ommonwealth$ 5y the means o whi"h meas&res all "ommodities! movable and
immovable! are made to a""om'any a man to all 'la"es o his resort! within and witho&t the 'la"e o his ordinary
residen"e) and the same 'asseth rom man to man within the ,ommonwealth! and goes ro&nd abo&t! no&rishing! as it
'asseth! every 'art thereo) in so m&"h as this "on"o"tion is! as it were! the sang&ii"ation o the ,ommonwealth6 or
nat&ral blood is in li#e manner made o the r&its o the earth) and! "ir"&lating! no&risheth by the way every member
o the body o man$
And be"a&se silver and gold have their val&e rom the matter itsel! they have irst this 'rivilege) that the val&e o
them "annot be altered by the 'ower o one nor o a ew ,ommonwealths) as being a "ommon meas&re o the
"ommodities o all 'la"es$ 5&t base money may easily be enhan"ed or abased$ 0e"ondly! they have the 'rivilege to
ma#e ,ommonwealths move and stret"h o&t their arms! when need is! into oreign "o&ntries) and s&''ly! not only
'rivate s&b*e"ts that travel! b&t also whole armies with 'rovision$ 5&t that "oin! whi"h is not "onsiderable or the
matter! b&t or the stam' o the 'la"e! being &nable to end&re "hange o air! hath its ee"t at home only) where also it
is s&b*e"t to the "hange o laws! and thereby to have the val&e diminished! to the 're*&di"e many times o those that
have it$
The "ond&its and ways by whi"h it is "onveyed to the '&bli" &se are o two sorts6 one! that "onveyeth it to the '&bli"
"oers) the other! that iss&eth the same o&t again or '&bli" 'ayments$ - the irst sort are "olle"tors! re"eivers! and
treas&rers) o the se"ond are the treas&rers again! and the oi"ers a''ointed or 'ayment o several '&bli" or 'rivate
ministers$ And in this also the artii"ial man maintains his resemblan"e with the nat&ral) whose veins! re"eiving the
blood rom the several 'arts o the body! "arry it to the heart) where! being made vital! the heart by the arteries sends
it o&t again! to enliven and enable or motion all the members o the same$
The 'ro"reation or "hildren o a ,ommonwealth are those we "all 'lantations! or "olonies) whi"h are n&mbers o
men sent o&t rom the ,ommonwealth! &nder a "ond&"tor or governor! to inhabit a oreign "o&ntry! either ormerly
void o inhabitants! or made void then by war$ And when a "olony is settled! they are either a ,ommonwealth o
themselves! dis"harged o their s&b*e"tion to their sovereign that sent them (as hath been done by many
,ommonwealths o an"ient time)! in whi"h "ase the ,ommonwealth rom whi"h they went was "alled their
metro'olis! or mother! and re2&ires no more o them than athers re2&ire o the "hildren whom they eman"i'ate and
ma#e ree rom their domesti" government! whi"h is hono&r and riendshi') or else they remain &nited to their
metro'olis! as were the "olonies o the 'eo'le o Rome) and then they are no ,ommonwealths themselves! b&t
'rovin"es! and 'arts o the ,ommonwealth that sent them$ 0o that the right o "olonies! saving hono&r and leag&e
with their metro'olis! de'endeth wholly on their li"ense! or letters! by whi"h their sovereign a&thori9ed them to
'lant$
,HA8TER IIV OF COUNSEL
H-/ alla"io&s it is to *&dge o the nat&re o things by the ordinary and in"onstant &se o words a''eareth in
nothing more than in the "on&sion o "o&nsels and "ommands! arising rom the im'erative manner o s'ea#ing in
them both! and in many other o""asions besides$ %or the words do this are the words not only o him that
"ommandeth) b&t also o him that giveth "o&nsel) and o him that e+horteth) and yet there are b&t ew that see not
that these are very dierent things) or that "annot disting&ish between when they when they 'er"eive who it is that
s'ea#eth! and to whom the s'ee"h is dire"ted! and &'on what o""asion$ 5&t inding those 'hrases in men1s writings!
and being not able or not willing to enter into a "onsideration o the "ir"&mstan"es! they mista#e sometimes the
're"e'ts o "o&nsellors or the 're"e'ts o them that "ommand) and sometimes the "ontrary) a""ording as it best
agreeth with the "on"l&sions they wo&ld iner! or the a"tions they a''rove$ To avoid whi"h mista#es and render to
those terms o "ommanding! "o&nselling! and e+horting! their 'ro'er and distin"t signii"ations! I deine them th&s$
,ommand is where a man saith! F4o this!F or F4o not this!F witho&t e+'e"ting other reason than the will o him that
says it$ %rom this it olloweth maniestly that he that "ommandeth 'retendeth thereby his own beneit6 or the reason
o his "ommand is his own will only! and the 'ro'er ob*e"t o every man1s will is some good to himsel$ ,o&nsel is
where a man saith! F4o!F or F4o not this!F and ded&"eth his reasons rom the beneit that arriveth by it to him to
whom he saith it$ And rom this it is evident that he that giveth "o&nsel 'retendeth only (whatsoever he intendeth)
the good o him to whom he giveth it$
Thereore between "o&nsel and "ommand! one great dieren"e is that "ommand is dire"ted to a man1s own beneit!
and "o&nsel to the beneit o another man$ And rom this ariseth another dieren"e! that a man may be obliged to do
what he is "ommanded) as when he hath "ovenanted to obey6 b&t he "annot be obliged to do as he is "o&nselled!
be"a&se the h&rt o not ollowing it is his own) or i he sho&ld "ovenant to ollow it! then is the "o&nsel t&rned into
the nat&re o a "ommand$ A third dieren"e between them is that no man "an 'retend a right to be o another man1s
"o&nsel) be"a&se he is not to 'retend beneit by it to himsel6 b&t to demand right to "o&nsel another arg&es a will to
#now his designs! or to gain some other good to himsel) whi"h! as I said beore! is o every man1s will the 'ro'er
ob*e"t$
This also is in"ident to the nat&re o "o&nsel) that whatsoever it be! he that as#eth it "annot in e2&ity a""&se or '&nish
it6 or to as# "o&nsel o another is to 'ermit him to give s&"h "o&nsel as he shall thin# best) and "onse2&ently! he that
giveth "o&nsel to his sovereign (whether a monar"h or an assembly) when he as#eth it! "annot in e2&ity be '&nished
or it! whether the same be "onormable to the o'inion o the most! or not! so it be to the 'ro'osition in debate$ %or i
the sense o the assembly "an be ta#en noti"e o! beore the debate be ended! they sho&ld neither as# nor ta#e any
&rther "o&nsel) or sense o the assembly is the resol&tion o the debate and end o all deliberation$ And generally he
that demandeth "o&nsel is a&thor o it! and thereore "annot '&nish it) and what the sovereign "annot! no man else
"an$ 5&t i one s&b*e"t giveth "o&nsel to another to do anything "ontrary to the laws! whether that "o&nsel 'ro"eed
rom evil intention or rom ignoran"e only! it is '&nishable by the ,ommonwealth) be"a&se ignoran"e o the law is
no good e+"&se! where every man is bo&nd to ta#e noti"e o the laws to whi"h he is s&b*e"t$
E+hortation! and dehortation is "o&nsel! a""om'anied with signs in him that giveth it o vehement desire to have it
ollowed) or! to say it more briely! "o&nsel vehemently 'ressed$ %or he that e+horteth doth not ded&"e the
"onse2&en"es o what he adviseth to be done! and tie himsel therein to the rigor o tr&e reasoning! b&t en"o&rages
him he "o&nselleth to a"tion6 as he that dehorteth deterreth him rom it$ And thereore they have in their s'ee"hes a
regard to the "ommon 'assions and o'inions o men! in ded&"ing their reasons) and ma#e &se o similit&des!
meta'hors! e+am'les! and other tools o oratory! to 'ers&ade their hearers o the &tility! hono&r! or *&sti"e o
ollowing their advi"e$
%rom when"e may be inerred! irst! that e+hortation and dehortation is dire"ted to the good o him that giveth the
"o&nsel! not o him that as#eth it! whi"h is "ontrary to the d&ty o a "o&nsellor) who! by the deinition o "o&nsel!
o&ght to regard! not his own beneit! b&t his whom he adviseth$ And that he dire"teth his "o&nsel to his own beneit
is maniest eno&gh by the long and vehement &rging! or by the artii"ial giving thereo) whi"h being not re2&ired o
him! and "onse2&ently 'ro"eeding rom his own o""asions! is dire"ted 'rin"i'ally to his own beneit! and b&t
a""identally to the good o him that is "o&nselled! or not at all$
0e"ondly! that the &se o e+hortation and dehortation lieth only where a man is to s'ea# to a m&ltit&de! be"a&se when
the s'ee"h is addressed to one! he may interr&'t him and e+amine his reasons more rigoro&sly than "an be done in a
m&ltit&de) whi"h are too many to enter into dis'&te and dialog&e with him that s'ea#eth indierently to them all at
on"e$
Thirdly! that they that e+hort and dehort! where they are re2&ired to give "o&nsel! are "orr&'t "o&nsellors and! as it
were! bribed by their own interest$ %or tho&gh the "o&nsel they give be never so good! yet he that gives it is no more
a good "o&nsellor than he that giveth a *&st senten"e or a reward is a *&st *&dge$ 5&t where a man may law&lly
"ommand! as a ather in his amily! or a leader in an army! his e+hortations and dehortations are not only law&l! b&t
also ne"essary and la&dable6 b&t when they are no more "o&nsels! b&t "ommands) whi"h when they are or e+e"&tion
o so&r labo&r! sometimes ne"essity! and always h&manity! re2&ireth to be sweetened in the delivery by
en"o&ragement! and in the t&ne and 'hrase o "o&nsel rather than in harsher lang&age o "ommand$
E+am'les o the dieren"e between "ommand and "o&nsel we may ta#e rom the orms o s'ee"h that e+'ress them
in Holy 0"ri't&re$ FHave no other Gods b&t meF) F.a#e to thysel no graven imageF) FTa#e not God1s name in vainF)
F0an"tiy the 0abbathF) FHono&r thy 'arentsF) F3ill notF) F0teal not!F et"$ are "ommands! be"a&se the reason or
whi"h we are to obey them is drawn rom the will o God o&r 3ing! whom we are obliged to obey$ 5&t these words!
F0ell all tho& hast) give it to the 'oor) and ollow me!F are "o&nsel! be"a&se the reason or whi"h we are to do so is
drawn rom o&r own beneit! whi"h is this) that we shall have Ftreas&re in Heaven$F These words! FGo into the
village over against yo&! and yo& shall ind an ass tied! and her "olt) loose her! and bring her to me!F are a "ommand)
or the reason o their a"t is drawn rom the will o their master6 b&t these words! FRe'ent! and be ba'ti9ed in the
name o :es&s!F are "o&nsel) be"a&se the reason why we sho&ld so do tendeth not to any beneit o God Almighty!
who shall still be 3ing in what manner soever we rebel! b&t o o&rselves! who have no other means o avoiding the
'&nishment hanging over &s or o&r sins$
As the dieren"e o "o&nsel rom "ommand hath been now ded&"ed rom the nat&re o "o&nsel! "onsisting in a
ded&"ing o the beneit or h&rt that may arise to him that is to be to be "o&nselled! by the ne"essary or 'robable
"onse2&en"es o the a"tion he 'ro'o&ndeth) so may also the dieren"es between a't and ine't "o&nsellors be derived
rom the same$ %or e+'erien"e! being b&t memory o the "onse2&en"es o li#e a"tions ormerly observed! and
"o&nsel b&t the s'ee"h whereby that e+'erien"e is made #nown to another! the virt&es and dee"ts o "o&nsel are the
same with the virt&es and dee"ts intelle"t&al6 and to the 'erson o a ,ommonwealth! his "o&nsellors serve him in the
'la"e o memory and mental dis"o&rse$ 5&t with this resemblan"e o the ,ommonwealth to a nat&ral man! there is
one dissimilit&de *oined! o great im'ortan"e) whi"h is that a nat&ral man re"eiveth his e+'erien"e rom the nat&ral
ob*e"ts o sense! whi"h wor# &'on him witho&t 'assion or interest o their own) whereas they that give "o&nsel to the
re'resentative 'erson o a ,ommonwealth may have! and have oten! their 'arti"&lar ends and 'assions that render
their "o&nsels always s&s'e"ted! and many times &naith&l$ And thereore we may set down or the irst "ondition o
a good "o&nsellor6 that his ends and interest be not in"onsistent with the ends and interest o him he "o&nselleth$
0e"ondly! be"a&se the oi"e o a "o&nsellor! when an a"tion "omes into deliberation! is to ma#e maniest the
"onse2&en"es o it in s&"h manner as he that is "o&nselled may be tr&ly and evidently inormed! he o&ght to
'ro'o&nd his advi"e in s&"h orm o s'ee"h as may ma#e the tr&th most evidently a''ear) that is to say! with as irm
ratio"ination! as signii"ant and 'ro'er lang&age! and as briely! as the eviden"e will 'ermit$ And thereore rash and
&nevident ineren"es! s&"h as are et"hed only rom e+am'les! or a&thority o boo#s! and are not arg&ments o what
is good or evil! b&t witnesses o a"t or o o'inion) obs"&re! "on&sed! and ambig&o&s e+'ressions) also all
meta'hori"al s'ee"hes tending to the stirring &' o 'assion (be"a&se s&"h reasoning and s&"h e+'ressions are &se&l
only to de"eive or to lead him we "o&nsel towards other ends than his own)! are re'&gnant to the oi"e o a
"o&nsellor$
Thirdly! be"a&se the ability o "o&nselling 'ro"eedeth rom e+'erien"e and long st&dy! and no man is 'res&med to
have e+'erien"e in all those things that to the administration o a great ,ommonwealth are ne"essary to be #nown!
no man is 'res&med to be a good "o&nsellor b&t in s&"h b&siness as he hath not only been m&"h versed in! b&t hath
also m&"h meditated on and "onsidered$ %or seeing the b&siness o a ,ommonwealth is this) to 'reserve the 'eo'le
in 'ea"e at home! and deend them against oreign invasion) we shall ind it re2&ires great #nowledge o the
dis'osition o man#ind! o the rights o government! and o the nat&re o e2&ity! law! *&sti"e! and hono&r! not to be
attained witho&t st&dy) and o the strength! "ommodities! 'la"es! both o their own "o&ntry and their neighbo&rs1) as
also o the in"linations and designs o all nations that may any way annoy them$ And this is not attained to witho&t
m&"h e+'erien"e$ - whi"h things! not only the whole s&m! b&t every one o the 'arti"&lars re2&ires the age and
observation o a man in years! and o more than ordinary st&dy$ The wit re2&ired or "o&nsel! as I have said beore
(,ha'ter VIII)! is *&dgement$ And the dieren"es o men in that 'oint "ome rom dierent ed&"ation) o some! to
one #ind o st&dy or b&siness! and o others! to another$ /hen or the doing o anything there be inallible r&les (as in
engines and edii"es! the r&les o geometry)! all the e+'erien"e o the world "annot e2&al his "o&nsel that has learned
or o&nd o&t the r&le$ And when there is no s&"h r&le! he that hath most e+'erien"e in that 'arti"&lar #ind o b&siness
has therein the best *&dgement! and is the best "o&nsellor$
%o&rthly! to be able to give "o&nsel to a ,ommonwealth! in a b&siness that hath reeren"e to another ,ommonwealth!
it is ne"essary to be a"2&ainted with the intelligen"es and letters that "ome rom then"e! and with all the re"ords o
treaties and other transa"tions o state between them) whi"h none "an do b&t s&"h as the re'resentative shall thin# it$
5y whi"h we may see that they who are not "alled to "o&nsel "an have no good "o&nsel in s&"h "ases to obtr&de$
%ithly! s&''osing the n&mber o "o&nsellors e2&al! a man is better "o&nselled by hearing them a'art than in an
assembly) and that or many "a&ses$ %irst! in hearing them a'art! yo& have the advi"e o every man) b&t in an
assembly many o them deliver their advi"e with aye or no! or with their hands or eet! not moved by their own
sense! b&t by the elo2&en"e o another! or or ear o dis'leasing some that have s'o#en! or the whole by
"ontradi"tion! or or ear o a''earing d&ller in a''rehension than those that have a''la&ded the "ontrary o'inion$
0e"ondly! in an assembly o many there "annot "hoose b&t be some interests are "ontrary to that o the '&bli") and
these their interests ma#e 'assionate! and 'assion elo2&ent! and elo2&en"e draws others into the same advi"e$ %or the
'assions o men! whi"h as&nder are moderate! as the heat o one brand) in assembly are li#e many brands that
inlame one another (es'e"ially when they blow one another with orations) to the setting o the ,ommonwealth on
ire! &nder 'reten"e o "o&nselling it$ Thirdly! in hearing every man a'art! one may e+amine! when there is need! the
tr&th or 'robability o his reasons! and o the gro&nds o the advi"e he gives! by re2&ent interr&'tions and
ob*e"tions) whi"h "annot be done in an assembly! where in every dii"&lt 2&estion a man is rather astonied and
da99led with the variety o dis"o&rse &'on it! than inormed o the "o&rse he o&ght to ta#e$ 5esides! there "annot be
an assembly o many! "alled together or advi"e! wherein there be not some that have the ambition the ambition to be
tho&ght elo2&ent! and also learned in the 'oliti"s) and give not their advi"e with "are o the b&siness 'ro'o&nded! b&t
o the a''la&se o their motley orations! made o the diverse "olored threads or shreds o thread or shreds o a&thors)
whi"h is an im'ertinen"e! at least! that ta#es away the time o serio&s "ons&ltation! and in the se"ret way o
"o&nselling a'art is easily avoided$ %o&rthly! in deliberations that o&ght to be #e't se"ret! whereo there be many
o""asions in '&bli" b&siness! the "o&nsels o many! and es'e"ially in assemblies! are dangero&s) and thereore great
assemblies are ne"essitated to "ommit s&"h aairs to lesser n&mbers! and o s&"h 'ersons as are most versed! and in
whose idelity they have most "oniden"e$
To "on"l&de! who is there that so ar a''roves ar a''roves the ta#ing o "o&nsel rom a great assembly o
"o&nsellors! that wisheth or! or wo&ld a""e't o their 'ains! when there is a 2&estion o marrying his "hildren!
dis'osing o his lands! governing his ho&sehold! or managing his 'rivate estate! es'e"ially i there be amongst them
s&"h as wish not his 'ros'erity( A man that doth his b&siness by the hel' o many 'r&dent "o&nsellors! with every
one "ons&lting a'art in his 'ro'er element! does it best) as he that &seth able se"onds at tennis 'lay! 'la"ed in their
'ro'er stations$ He does ne+t best that &seth his own *&dgement only) as he that has no se"ond at all$ 5&t he that is
"arried &' and down to his b&siness in a ramed "o&nsel! whi"h "annot move b&t by the 'l&rality o "onsenting
o'inions! the e+e"&tion whereo is "ommonly! o&t o envy or interest! retarded by the 'art dissenting! does it worst o
all! and li#e one that is "arried to the ball! tho&gh by good 'layers! yet in a wheelbarrow! or other rame! heavy o
itsel! and retarded by the also by the in"on"&rrent *&dgements and endeavo&rs o them that drive it) and so m&"h the
more! as they be more that set their hands to it) and most o all! when there is one or more amongst them that desire
to have him lose$ And tho&gh it be tr&e that many eyes see more than one! yet it is not to be &nderstood o many
"o&nsellors! b&t then only when the inal resol&tion is in one in one man$ -therwise! be"a&se many eyes see the
same thing in diverse lines! and are a't to loo# as2&int towards their 'rivate beneit) they that desire not to miss their
mar#! tho&gh they loo# abo&t with two eyes! yet they never aim b&t with one6 and thereore no great 'o'&lar
,ommonwealth was ever #e't &'! b&t either by a oreign enemy that &nited them) or by the re'&tation o some one
eminent man amongst them) or by the se"ret "o&nsel o a ew) or by the m&t&al ear o e2&al a"tions) and not by the
o'en "ons&ltations o the assembly$ And as or very little ,ommonwealths! be they 'o'&lar or monar"hi"al! there is
no h&man wisdom "an &'hold them longer than the *ealo&sy lasteth o their 'otent neighbo&rs$
,HA8TER IIVI OF CIVIL LAWS
5; "ivil laws! I &nderstand the laws that men are thereore bo&nd to observe! be"a&se they are members! not o this
or that ,ommonwealth in 'arti"&lar! b&t o a ,ommonwealth$ %or the #nowledge o 'arti"&lar laws belongeth to
them that 'roess the st&dy o the laws o their several "o&ntries) b&t the #nowledge o "ivil law in general! to any
man$ The an"ient law o Rome was "alled their "ivil law! rom the word "ivitas! whi"h signiies a ,ommonwealth6
and those "o&ntries whi"h! having been &nder the Roman Em'ire and governed by that law! retain still s&"h 'art
thereo as they thin# it! "all that 'art the "ivil law to disting&ish it rom the rest o their own "ivil laws$ 5&t that is
not it I intend to s'ea# o here) my design being not to show what is law here and there! b&t what is law) as 8lato!
Aristotle! ,i"ero! and diverse others have done! witho&t ta#ing &'on them the 'roession o the st&dy o the law$
And irst it is maniest that law in general is not "o&nsel! b&t "ommand) nor a "ommand o any man to any man! b&t
only o him whose "ommand is addressed to one ormerly obliged to obey him$ And as or "ivil law! it addeth only
the name o the 'erson "ommanding! whi"h is 'ersona "ivitatis! the 'erson o the ,ommonwealth$
/hi"h "onsidered! I deine "ivil law in this manner$ ,ivil law is to every s&b*e"t those r&les whi"h the
,ommonwealth hath "ommanded him! by word! writing! or other s&i"ient sign o the will! to ma#e &se o or the
distin"tion o right and wrong) that is to say! o that is "ontrary and what is not "ontrary to the r&le$
In whi"h deinition there is nothing that is that is not at irst sight evident$ %or every man seeth that some laws are
addressed to all the s&b*e"ts in general) some to 'arti"&lar 'rovin"es) some to 'arti"&lar vo"ations) and some to
'arti"&lar men) and are thereore laws to every o those to whom the "ommand is dire"ted! and to none else$ As also!
that laws are the r&les o *&st and &n*&st! nothing being re'&ted &n*&st that is not "ontrary to some law$ Li#ewise! that
none "an ma#e laws b&t the ,ommonwealth! be"a&se o&r s&b*e"tion is to the ,ommonwealth only) and that
"ommands are to be signiied by s&i"ient signs! be"a&se a man #nows not otherwise how to obey them$ And
thereore! whatsoever "an rom this deinition by ne"essary "onse2&en"e be ded&"ed! o&ght to be a"#nowledged or
tr&th$ Now I ded&"e rom it this that olloweth$
?$ The legislator in all ,ommonwealths is only the sovereign! be he one man! as in a monar"hy! or one assembly o
men! as in a demo"ra"y or aristo"ra"y$ %or the legislator is he that ma#eth the law$ And the ,ommonwealth only
'res"ribes and "ommandeth the observation o those r&les whi"h we "all law6 thereore the ,ommonwealth is the
legislator$ 5&t the ,ommonwealth is no 'erson! nor has "a'a"ity to do anything b&t by the re'resentative! that is! the
sovereign) and thereore the sovereign is the sole legislator$ %or the same reason! none "an abrogate a law made! b&t
the sovereign! be"a&se a law is not abrogated b&t by another law that orbiddeth it to be '&t in e+e"&tion$
@$ The sovereign o a ,ommonwealth! be it an assembly or one man! is not s&b*e"t to the "ivil laws$ %or having
'ower to ma#e and re'eal laws! he may! when he 'leaseth! ree himsel rom that s&b*e"tion by re'ealing those laws
that tro&ble him! and ma#ing o new) and "onse2&ently he was ree beore$ %or he is ree that "an be ree when he
will6 nor is it 'ossible or any 'erson to be bo&nd to himsel! be"a&se he that "an bind "an release) and thereore he
that is bo&nd to himsel only is not bo&nd$
=$ /hen long &se obtaineth the a&thority o a law! it is not the length o time that ma#eth the a&thority! b&t the will o
the sovereign signiied by his silen"e (or silen"e is sometimes an signiied by his silen"e (or silen"e is sometimes
an arg&ment o "onsent)) and it is no longer law! than the sovereign shall be silent therein$ And thereore i the
sovereign shall have a 2&estion o right gro&nded! not &'on his 'resent will! b&t &'on the laws ormerly made! the
length o time shall bring no 're*&di"e to his right6 b&t the 2&estion shall be *&dged by e2&ity$ %or many &n*&st
a"tions and &n*&st senten"es go &n"ontrolled a longer time than any man "an remember$ And o&r lawyers a""o&nt no
"&stoms law b&t s&"h as reasonable! and that evil "&stoms are to be abolished6 b&t the *&dgement o what is
reasonable! and o what is to be abolished! belonged to him that ma#eth the law! whi"h is the sovereign assembly or
monar"h$
A$ The law o nat&re and the "ivil law "ontain ea"h other and are o e2&al e+tent$ %or the laws o nat&re! whi"h
"onsist in e2&ity! *&sti"e! gratit&de! and other moral virt&es on these de'ending! in the "ondition o mere nat&re (as I
have said beore in the end o the iteenth ,ha'ter)! are not 'ro'erly laws! b&t 2&alities that dis'ose men to 'ea"e
and to obedien"e$ /hen a ,ommonwealth is on"e settled! then are they a"t&ally laws! and not beore) as being then
the "ommands o the ,ommonwealth) and thereore also "ivil laws6 or it is the sovereign 'ower that obliges men to
obey them$ %or the dieren"es o 'rivate men! to de"lare what is e2&ity! what is *&sti"e! and is moral virt&e! and to
ma#e them binding! there is need o the ordinan"es o sovereign 'ower! and '&nishments to be ordained or s&"h as
shall brea# them) whi"h ordinan"es are thereore 'art o the "ivil law$ The law o nat&re thereore is a 'art o the "ivil
law in all ,ommonwealths o the world$ Re"i'ro"ally also! the "ivil law is a 'art o the di"tates o nat&re$ %or *&sti"e!
that is to say! 'erorman"e o "ovenant! and giving to every man his own! is a di"tate o the law o nat&re$ 5&t every
s&b*e"t in a ,ommonwealth hath "ovenanted to obey the "ivil law) either one with another! as when they assemble to
ma#e a "ommon re'resentative! or with the re'resentative itsel one by one when! s&bd&ed by the sword! they
'romise obedien"e that they may re"eive lie) and thereore obedien"e to the "ivil law is 'art also o the law o
nat&re$ ,ivil and nat&ral law are not dierent #inds! b&t dierent 'arts o law) whereo one 'art! being written! is
"alled "ivil the other &nwritten! nat&ral$ 5&t the right o nat&re! that is! the nat&ral liberty o man! may by the "ivil
law be abridged and restrained6 nay! the end o ma#ing laws is no other b&t s&"h restraint! witho&t whi"h there
"annot 'ossibly be any 'ea"e$ And law was bro&ght into the world or nothing else b&t to limit the nat&ral liberty o
'arti"&lar men in s&"h manner as they might not h&rt! b&t assist one another! and *oin together against a "ommon
enemy$
B$ I the sovereign o one ,ommonwealth s&bd&e a 'eo'le that have lived &nder other written laws! and aterwards
govern them by the same laws by whi"h they were governed beore! yet those laws are the "ivil laws o the vi"tor!
and not o the van2&ished ,ommonwealth$ %or the legislator is he! not by whose a&thority the laws were irst made!
b&t by whose a&thority they now "ontin&e to be laws$ And thereore where there be diverse 'rovin"es within the
dominion o a ,ommonwealth! and in those 'rovin"es diversity o laws! whi"h "ommonly are "alled the "&stoms o
ea"h several 'rovin"e! we are not to &nderstand that s&"h "&stoms have their or"e only rom length o time) b&t that
they were an"iently laws written! or otherwise made #nown! or the "onstit&tions and stat&tes o their sovereigns)
and are now laws! not by virt&e o the 'res"ri'tion o time! b&t by the "onstit&tions o their 'resent sovereigns$ 5&t i
an &nwritten law! in all the 'rovin"es o a dominion! shall be generally observed! and no ini2&ity a''ear in the &se
thereo! that law "an be no other b&t a law o nat&re! e2&ally obliging all man#ind$
C$ 0eeing then all laws! written and &nwritten! have their a&thority and or"e rom the will o the ,ommonwealth)
that is to say! rom the will o the re'resentative! whi"h in a monar"hy is the monar"h! and in other ,ommonwealths
the sovereign assembly) a man may wonder rom when"e 'ro"eed s&"h o'inions as are o&nd in the boo#s o lawyers
o eminen"e in several ,ommonwealths! dire"tly or by "onse2&en"e ma#ing the legislative 'ower de'end on 'rivate
men or s&bordinate *&dges$ As or e+am'le! that the "ommon law hath no "ontroller b&t the 8arliament) whi"h is tr&e
only where a 'arliament has the sovereign 'ower! and "annot be assembled nor dissolved! b&t by their own
dis"retion$ %or i there be a right in any else to dissolve them! there is a right also to "ontrol them! and "onse2&ently
to "ontrol their "ontrollings$ And i there be no s&"h right! then the "ontroller o laws is not 'arlament&m! b&t re+ in
'arlamento$ And where a 'arliament is sovereign! i it sho&ld assemble never so many or so wise men rom the
"o&ntries s&b*e"t to them! or whatsoever "a&se! yet there is no man will believe that s&"h an assembly hath thereby
a"2&ired to themselves a legislative 'ower$ Item! that the two arms o a ,ommonwealth are or"e and *&sti"e) the
irst whereo is in the #ing! the other de'osited in the hands o the 8arliament$ As i a ,ommonwealth "o&ld "onsist
where the or"e were in any hand whi"h *&sti"e had not the a&thority to "ommand and govern$
D$ That law "an never be against reason! o&r lawyers are agreed6 and that not the letter (that is! every "onstr&"tion o
it)! b&t that whi"h is a""ording to the intention o the legislator! is the law$ And it is tr&e6 b&t the do&bt is o whose
reason it is that shall be re"eived or law$ It is not meant o any 'rivate reason) or then there wo&ld be as m&"h
"ontradi"tion in the laws as there is in the 0"hools) nor yet! as 0ir Edward ,o#e ma#es it! an FArtii"ial 'ere"tion o
reason! gotten by long st&dy! observation! and e+'erien"e!F as his was$ %or it is 'ossible long st&dy may in"rease and
"onirm erroneo&s senten"es6 and where men b&ild on alse gro&nds! the more they b&ild! the greater is the r&in6 and
o those that st&dy and observe with e2&al time and diligen"e! the reasons and resol&tions are! and m&st remain!
dis"ordant6 and thereore it is not that *&ris 'r&dentia! or wisdom o s&bordinate *&dges! b&t the reason o this o&r
artii"ial man the ,ommonwealth! and his "ommand! that ma#eth law6 and the ,ommonwealth being in their
re'resentative b&t one 'erson! there "annot easily arise any "ontradi"tion in the laws) and when there doth! the same
reason is able! by inter'retation or alteration! to ta#e it away$ In all "o&rts o *&sti"e! the sovereign (whi"h is the
'erson o the ,ommonwealth) is he that *&dgeth6 the s&bordinate *&dge o&ght to have regard to the reason whi"h
moved his sovereign to ma#e s&"h law! that his senten"e may be a""ording there&nto! whi"h then is his sovereigns
senten"e) otherwise it is his own! and an &n*&st one$
G$ %rom this! that the law is a "ommand! and a "ommand "onsisteth in de"laration or maniestation o the will o him
that "ommandeth! by voi"e! writing! or some other s&i"ient arg&ment o the same! we may &nderstand that the
"ommand o the ,ommonwealth is law only to those that have means to ta#e noti"e o it$ -ver nat&ral ools!
"hildren! or madmen there is no law! no more than over br&te beasts) nor are they "a'able o the title o *&st or &n*&st!
be"a&se they had never 'ower to ma#e any "ovenant or to &nderstand the "onse2&en"es thereo! and "onse2&ently
never too# &'on them to a&thori9e the a"tions o any sovereign! as they m&st do that ma#e to themselves a
,ommonwealth$ And as those rom whom nat&re or a""ident hath ta#en away the noti"e o all laws in general) so
also every man! rom whom any a""ident not 'ro"eeding rom his own dea&lt! hath ta#en away the means to ta#e
noti"e o any 'arti"&lar law! is e+"&sed i he observe it not) and to s'ea# 'ro'erly! that law is no law to him$ It is
thereore ne"essary to "onsider in this 'la"e what arg&ments and signs be s&i"ient or the #nowledge o what is the
law) that is to say! what is the will o the sovereign! as well in monar"hies as in other orms o government$
And irst! i it be a law that obliges all the s&b*e"ts witho&t e+"e'tion! and is not written! nor otherwise '&blished in
s&"h 'la"es as they may ta#e noti"e thereo! it is a law o nat&re$ %or whatever men are to ta#e #nowledge o or law!
not &'on other men1s words! b&t every one rom his own reason! m&st be s&"h as is agreeable to the reason o all
men) whi"h no law "an be! b&t the law o nat&re$ The laws o nat&re thereore need not any '&blishing nor
'ro"lamation) as being "ontained in this one senten"e! a''roved by all the world! 4o not that to another whi"h tho&
thin#est &nreasonable to be done by another to thysel$
0e"ondly! i it be a law that obliges only some "ondition o men! or one 'arti"&lar man! and be not written! nor
'&blished by word! then also it is a law o nat&re! and #nown by the same arg&ments and signs that disting&ish those
in s&"h a "ondition rom other s&b*e"ts$ %or whatsoever law is not written! or some way '&blished by him that ma#es
it law! "an be #nown no way b&t by the reason o him that is to obey it) and is thereore also a law not only "ivil! b&t
nat&ral$ %or e+am'le! i the sovereign em'loy a '&bli" minister! witho&t written instr&"tions what to do! he is obliged
to ta#e or instr&"tions the di"tates o reason6 as i he ma#e a *&dge! the *&dge is to ta#e noti"e that his senten"e o&ght
to be a""ording to the reason o his sovereign! whi"h being always &nderstood to be e2&ity! he is bo&nd to it by the
law o nat&re6 or i an ambassador! he is! in all things not "ontained in his written instr&"tions! to ta#e or instr&"tion
that whi"h reason di"tates to be most "ond&"ing to his sovereign1s interest) and so o all other ministers o the
sovereignty! '&bli" and 'rivate$ All whi"h instr&"tions o nat&ral reason may be "om'rehended &nder one name o
idelity! whi"h is a bran"h o nat&ral *&sti"e$
The law o nat&re e+"e'ted! it belonged to the essen"e o all other laws to be made #nown to every man that shall be
obliged to obey them! either by word! or writing! or some other a"t #nown to 'ro"eed rom the sovereign a&thority$
%or the will o another "annot be &nderstood b&t by his own word! or a"t! or by "on*e"t&re ta#en rom his s"o'e and
'&r'ose) whi"h in the 'erson o the ,ommonwealth is to be s&''osed always "onsonant to e2&ity and reason$ And in
an"ient time! beore letters were in "ommon &se! the laws were many times '&t into verse) that the r&de 'eo'le!
ta#ing 'leas&re in singing or re"iting them! might the more easily retain them in memory$ And or the same reason
0olomon adviseth a man to bind the Ten ,ommandments &'on his ten ingers$E And or the Law whi"h .oses gave
to the 'eo'le o Israel at the renewing o the ,ovenant! he biddeth them to tea"h it their "hildren! by dis"o&rsing o it
both at home and &'on the way! at going to bed and at rising rom bed) and to write it &'on the 'osts and doors o
their ho&ses)E(@) and to assemble the 'eo'le! man! woman! and "hild! to hear it read$E(=) E 8roverbs! D$ = E(@)
4e&teronomy! ??$ ?H E(=) Ibid$! =?$ ?@
Nor is it eno&gh the law be written and '&blished! b&t also that there be maniest signs that it 'ro"eedeth rom the
will o the sovereign$ %or 'rivate men! when they have! or thin# they have! or"e eno&gh to se"&re their &n*&st
designs! and "onvoy them saely to their ambitio&s ends! may '&blish or laws what they 'lease! witho&t or against
the legislative a&thority$ There is thereore re2&isite! not only a de"laration o the law! b&t also s&i"ient signs o the
a&thor and a&thority$ The a&thor or legislator is s&''osed in every ,ommonwealth to be evident! be"a&se he is the
sovereign! who! having been "onstit&ted by the "onsent o every one! is s&''osed by every one to be s&i"iently
#nown$ And tho&gh the ignoran"e and se"&rity o men be s&"h! or the most 'art! as that when the memory o the
irst "onstit&tion o their ,ommonwealth is worn o&t! they do not "onsider by whose 'ower they &se to be deended
against their enemies! and to have their ind&stry 'rote"ted! and to be righted when in*&ry is done them) yet be"a&se
no man that "onsiders "an ma#e 2&estion o it! no e+"&se "an be derived rom the ignoran"e o where the sovereignty
is 'la"ed$ And it is a di"tate o nat&ral reason! and "onse2&ently an evident law o nat&re! that no man o&ght to
wea#en that 'ower the 'rote"tion whereo he hath himsel demanded or wittingly re"eived against others$ Thereore
o who is sovereign! no man! b&t by his own a&lt (whatsoever evil men s&ggest)! "an ma#e any do&bt$ The dii"&lty
"o"sisteth in the eviden"e o the a&thority derived rom him) the removing whereo de'endeth on the #nowledge o
the '&bli" registers! '&bli" "o&nsels! '&bli" ministers! and '&bli" seals) by whi"h all laws are s&i"iently veriied)
veriied! I say! not a&thori9ed6 or the verii"ation is b&t the testimony and re"ord) not the a&thority o the law! whi"h
"onsisteth in the "ommand o the sovereign only$
I thereore a man have a 2&estion o in*&ry! de'ending on the law o nat&re) that is to say! on "ommon e2&ity) the
senten"e o the *&dge! that by "ommission hath a&thority to ta#e "ogni9an"e o s&"h "a&ses! is a s&i"ient
verii"ation o the law o nat&re in that individ&al "ase$ %or tho&gh the advi"e o one that 'roesseth the st&dy o the
law be &se&l or the avoiding o "ontention! yet it is b&t advi"e6 it is the *&dge m&st tell men what is law! &'on the
hearing o the "ontroversy$
5&t when the 2&estion is o in*&ry! or "rime! &'on a written law! every man by re"o&rse to the registers by himsel or
others may! i he will! be s&i"iently inormed! beore he do s&"h in*&ry! or "ommit the "rime! whether it be an in*&ry
or not) nay! he o&ght to do so6 or when a man do&bts whether the a"t he goeth abo&t be *&st or &n*&st! and may
inorm himsel i he will! the doing is &nlaw&l$ In li#e manner! he that s&''oseth himsel in*&red! in a "ase
determined by the written law! whi"h he may by himsel or others see and "onsider) i he "om'lain beore he
"ons&lts with the law! he does &n*&stly! and bewrayeth a dis'osition rather to ve+ other men than to demand his own
right$
I the 2&estion be o obedien"e to a '&bli" oi"er! to have seen his "ommission with the '&bli" seal! and heard it
read! or to have had the means to be inormed o it! i a man wo&ld! is a s&i"ient verii"ation o his a&thority$ %or
every man is obliged to do his best endeavo&r to inorm himsel o all written laws that may "on"ern his own &t&re
a"tions$
The legislator #nown! and the laws either by writing or by the light o nat&re s&i"iently '&blished! there wanteth yet
another very material "ir"&mstan"e to ma#e them obligatory$ %or it is not the letter! b&t the intendment! or meaning)
that is to say! the a&thenti" inter'retation o the law (whi"h is the sense o the legislator)! in whi"h the nat&re o the
law "onsisteth) and thereore the inter'retation o all laws de'endeth on the a&thority sovereign) and the inter'reters
"an be none b&t those whi"h the sovereign! to whom only the s&b*e"t oweth obedien"e! shall a''oint$ %or else! by the
"rat o an inter'reter! the law may be made to bear a sense "ontrary to that o the sovereign! by whi"h means the
inter'reter be"omes the legislator$
All laws! written and &nwritten! have need o inter'retation$ The &nwritten law o nat&re! tho&gh it be easy to s&"h as
witho&t 'artiality and 'assion ma#e &se o their nat&ral reason! and thereore leaves the violators thereo witho&t
e+"&se) yet "onsidering there be very ew! 'erha's none! that in some "ases are not blinded by sel7love! or some
other 'assion! it is now be"ome o all laws the most obs"&re! and has "onse2&ently the greatest need o able
inter'reters$ The written laws! i laws! i they be short! are easily misinter'reted! or the diverse signii"ations o a
word or two) i long! they be more obs"&re by the diverse signii"ations o many words6 in so m&"h as no written
law! delivered in ew or many words! "an be well &nderstood witho&t a 'ere"t &nderstanding o the inal "a&ses or
whi"h the law was made) the #nowledge o whi"h inal "a&ses is in the legislator$ To him thereore there "annot be
any #not in the law insol&ble! either by inding o&t the ends to &ndo it by! or else by ma#ing what ends he will (as
Ale+ander did with his sword in the Gordian #not) by the legislative 'ower) whi"h no other inter'reter "an do$
The inter'retation o the laws o nat&re in a ,ommonwealth de'endeth not on the boo#s o moral 'hiloso'hy$ The
a&thority o writers! witho&t the a&thority o the ,ommonwealth! ma#eth not their o'inions law! be they never so
tr&e$ That whi"h I have written in this treatise "on"erning the moral virt&es! and o their ne"essity or the 'ro"&ring
and maintaining 'ea"e! tho&gh it be evident tr&th! is not thereore 'resently law! b&t be"a&se in all ,ommonwealths
in the world it is 'art o the "ivil law$ %or tho&gh it be nat&rally reasonable! yet it is by the sovereign 'ower that it is
law6 otherwise! it were a great error to "all the laws o nat&re &nwritten law) whereo we see so many vol&mes
'&blished! and in them so many "ontradi"tions o one another and o themselves$
The inter'retation o the law o nat&re is the senten"e o the *&dge "onstit&ted by the sovereign a&thority to hear and
determine s&"h "ontroversies as de'end thereon! and "onsisteth in the a''li"ation o the law to the 'resent "ase$ %or
in the a"t o *&di"at&re the *&dge doth no more b&t "onsider whether the demand o the 'arty be "onsonant to nat&ral
reason and e2&ity) and the senten"e he giveth is thereore the inter'retation o the law o nat&re) whi"h inter'retation
is a&thenti"! not be"a&se it is his 'rivate senten"e! b&t be"a&se he giveth it by a&thority o the sovereign! whereby it
be"omes the sovereign1s senten"e) whi"h is law or that time to the 'arties 'leading$
5&t be"a&se there is no *&dge s&bordinate! nor sovereign! b&t may err in a *&dgement e2&ity) i aterward in another
li#e "ase he ind it more "onsonant to e2&ity to give a "ontrary senten"e! he is obliged to do it$ No man1s error
be"omes his own law! nor obliges him to 'ersist in it$ Neither! or the same reason! be"omes it a law to other *&dges!
tho&gh sworn to ollow it$ %or tho&gh a wrong senten"e given by a&thority o the sovereign! i he #now and allow it!
in s&"h laws as are m&table! be a "onstit&tion o a new law in "ases in whi"h every little "ir"&mstan"e is the same)
yet in laws imm&table! s&"h as are the laws o nat&re! they are no laws to the same or other *&dges in the li#e "ases
or ever ater$ 8rin"es s&""eed one another) and one *&dge 'asseth! another "ometh) nay! heaven and earth shall 'ass)
b&t not one tittle o the law o nat&re shall 'ass) or it is the eternal law o God$ Thereore all the senten"es o
're"edent *&dges that have ever been "annot all together ma#e a law "ontrary to nat&ral e2&ity$ Nor any e+am'les o
ormer *&dges "an warrant an &nreasonable senten"e! or dis"harge the 'resent *&dge o the tro&ble o st&dying what is
e2&ity (in the "ase he is to *&dge) rom the 'rin"i'les o his own nat&ral reason$ %or e+am'le sa#e! it is against the
law o nat&re to '&nish the inno"ent) and inno"ent is he that a"2&itteth himsel *&di"ially and is a"#nowledged or
inno"ent by the *&dge$ 8&t the "ase now that a man is a""&sed o a "a'ital "rime! and seeing the 'ower and mali"e o
some enemy! and the re2&ent "orr&'tion and 'artiality o *&dges! r&nneth away or ear o the event! and aterwards
is ta#en and bro&ght to a legal trial! and ma#eth it s&i"iently a''ear he was not g&ilty o the "rime! and being
thereo a"2&itted is nevertheless "ondemned to lose his goods) this is a maniest "ondemnation o the inno"ent$ I say
thereore that there is no 'la"e in the world where this "an be an inter'retation o a law o nat&re! or be made a law
by the senten"es o 're"edent *&dges that had done the same$ %or he that *&dged it irst *&dged &n*&stly) and no
in*&sti"e "an be a 'attern o *&dgement to s&""eeding *&dges$ A written law may orbid inno"ent men to ly! and they
may be '&nished or lying6 b&t that lying or ear o in*&ry sho&ld be ta#en or 'res&m'tion o g&ilt! ater a man is
already absolved o the "rime *&di"ially! is "ontrary to the nat&re o a 'res&m'tion! whi"h hath no 'la"e ater
*&dgement given$ ;et this is set down by a great lawyer or the "ommon law o England6 FI a man!F saith he! Fthat is
inno"ent be a""&sed o elony! and or ear lyeth or the same) albeit he *&di"ially a"2&itteth himsel o the elony)
yet i it be o&nd that he led or the elony! he shall! notwithstanding his inno"en"y! oreit all his goods! "hattels!
debts! and d&ties$ %or as to the oreit&re o them! the law will admit no 'roo against the 'res&m'tion in law!
gro&nded &'on his light$F Here yo& see an inno"ent man! *&di"ially a"2&itted! notwithstanding his inno"en"y (when
no written law orbade him to ly) ater his a"2&ittal! &'on a 'res&m'tion in law! "ondemned to lose all the goods he
hath$ I the law gro&nd &'on his light a 'res&m'tion o the a"t! whi"h was "a'ital! the senten"e o&ght to have been
"a'ital6 the 'res&m'tion were not o the a"t! or what then o&ght he to lose his goods( This thereore is no law o
England) nor is the "ondemnation gro&nded &'on a 'res&m'tion o law! b&t &'on the 'res&m'tion o the *&dges$ It is
also against law to say that no 'roo shall be admitted against a 'res&m'tion o law$ %or all *&dges! sovereign and
s&bordinate! i they re&se to hear 'roo! re&se to do *&sti"e6 or tho&gh the senten"e be *&st! yet the *&dges that
"ondemn! witho&t hearing the 'roos oered! are &n*&st *&dges) and their 'res&m'tion is b&t 're*&di"e) whi"h no
man o&ght to bring with him to the seat o *&sti"e whatsoever 're"edent *&dgements or e+am'les he shall 'retend to
ollow$ There be other things o this nat&re! wherein men1s *&dgements have been 'erverted by tr&sting to 're"edents6
b&t this is eno&gh to show that tho&gh the senten"e o the *&dge be a law to the 'arty 'leading! yet it is no law any
*&dge that shall s&""eed him in that oi"e$
In li#e manner! when 2&estion is o the meaning o written laws! he is not the inter'reter o them that writeth a
"ommentary &'on them$ %or "ommentaries are "ommonly more s&b*e"t to "avil than the te+t! and thereore need
other "ommentaries) and so there will be no end o s&"h inter'retation$ And thereore &nless there be an inter'reter
a&thori9ed by the sovereign! rom whi"h the s&bordinate *&dges are not to re"ede! the inter'reter "an be no other than
the ordinary *&dges! in the same manner as they are in "ases o the &nwritten law) and their senten"es are to be ta#en
by them that 'lead or laws in that 'arti"&lar "ase! b&t not to bind other *&dges in li#e "ases to give li#e *&dgements$
%or a *&dge may err in the inter'retation even o written laws) b&t no error o a s&bordinate *&dge "an "hange the law!
whi"h is the general senten"e o the sovereign$ In written laws men &se to ma#e a dieren"e between the letter and
the senten"e o the law6 and when by the letter is meant whatsoever "an be gathered rom the bare words! it is well
disting&ished$ %or the signii"ations o almost all are either in themselves! or in the meta'hori"al &se o them!
ambig&o&s) and may be drawn in arg&ment to ma#e many senses) b&t there is only one sense o the law$ 5&t i by the
letter be meant the literal sense! then the letter and the senten"e or intention o the law is all one$ %or the literal sense
is that whi"h the legislator intended sho&ld by the letter o the law be signiied$ Now the intention o the legislator is
always s&''osed to be e2&ity6 or it were a great "ont&mely or a *&dge to thin# otherwise o the sovereign$ He o&ght
thereore! i the word o the law do not &lly a&thori9e a reasonable senten"e! to s&''ly it with the law o nat&re) or i
the "ase be dii"&lt! to res'ite *&dgement till he have re"eived more am'le a&thority$ %or e+am'le! a written law
ordaineth that he whi"h is thr&st o&t o his ho&se by or"e shall be restored by or"e$ It ha''ens that a man by
negligen"e leaves his ho&se em'ty! and ret&rning is #e't o&t by or"e! in whi"h "ase there is no s'e"ial law ordained$
It is evident that this "ase is "ontained in the same law) or else there is no remedy or him at all! whi"h is to be
s&''osed against the intention o the legislator$ Again! the word o the law "ommandeth to *&dge a""ording to the
eviden"e$ A man is a""&sed alsely o a a"t whi"h the *&dge himsel saw done by another! and not by him that is
a""&sed$ In this "ase neither shall the letter o the law be ollowed to the "ondemnation o the inno"ent! nor shall the
*&dge give senten"e against the eviden"e o the witnesses! be"a&se the letter o the law is to the "ontrary) b&t 'ro"&re
o the sovereign that another be made *&dge! and himsel witness$ 0o that the in"ommodity that ollows the bare
words o a written law may lead him to the intention o the law! whereby to inter'ret the same the better) tho&gh no
in"ommodity "an warrant a senten"e against the law$ %or every *&dge o right and wrong is not *&dge o what is
"ommodio&s or in"ommodio&s to the ,ommonwealth$
The abilities re2&ired in a good inter'reter o the law! that is to say! in a good *&dge! are not the same with those o
an advo"ate) namely! the st&dy o the laws$ %or a *&dge! as he o&ght to ta#e noti"e o the a"t rom none b&t the
witnesses! so also he o&ght to ta#e noti"e o the law rom nothing b&t the stat&tes and "onstit&tions o the sovereign!
alleged in the 'leading! or de"lared to him by some that have a&thority rom the sovereign 'ower to de"lare them)
and need not ta#e "are beorehand what he shall *&dge) or it shall be given him what he shall say "on"erning the
a"t! by witnesses) and what he shall say in 'oint o law! rom those that shall in their 'leadings show it! and by
a&thority inter'ret it &'on the 'la"e$ The Lords o 8arliament in England were *&dges! and most dii"&lt "a&ses have
been heard and determined by them) yet ew o them were m&"h versed in the st&dy o the laws! and ewer had made
'roession o them) and tho&gh they "ons&lted with lawyers that were a''ointed to be 'resent there or that '&r'ose!
yet they alone had the a&thority o giving senten"e$ In li#e manner! in the ordinary trials o right! twelve men o the
"ommon 'eo'le are the *&dges and give senten"e! not only o the a"t! b&t o the right) and 'rono&n"e sim'ly or the
"om'lainant or or the deendant) that is to say! are *&dges not only o the a"t! b&t also o the right) and in a 2&estion
o "rime! not only determine whether done or not done! b&t also whether it be m&rder! homi"ide! elony! assa&lt! and
the li#e! whi"h are determinations o law6 b&t be"a&se they are not s&''osed to #now the law o themselves! there is
one that hath a&thority to inorm them o it in the 'arti"&lar "ase they are to *&dge o$ 5&t yet i they *&dge not
a""ording to that he tells them! they are not s&b*e"t thereby to any 'enalty) &nless it be made a''ear they did it
against their "ons"ien"es! or had been "orr&'ted by reward$
The things that ma#e a good *&dge or good inter'reter o the laws are! irst! a right &nderstanding o that 'rin"i'al
law o nat&re "alled e2&ity) whi"h! de'ending not on the reading o other men1s writings! b&t on the goodness o a
man1s own nat&ral reason and meditation! is 'res&med to be in those most that had most leis&re! and had the most
in"lination to meditate thereon$ 0e"ondly! "ontem't o &nne"essary ri"hes and 'reerments$ Thirdly! to be able in
*&dgement to divest himsel o all ear! anger! hatred! love! and "om'assion$ %o&rthly! and lastly! 'atien"e to hear!
diligent attention in hearing! and memory to retain! digest! and a''ly what he hath heard$
The dieren"e and division o the laws has been made in diverse manners! a""ording to the dierent methods o
those men that have written o them$ %or it is a thing that de'endeth on nat&re! b&t on the s"o'e o the writer! and is
s&bservient to every man1s 'ro'er method$ In the Instit&tions o :&stinian! we ind seven sorts o "ivil laws6
?$ The edi"ts! "onstit&tions! and e'istles o 'rin"e) that is! o the em'eror! be"a&se the whole 'ower o the 'eo'le was
in him$ Li#e these are the 'ro"lamations o the #ings o England$
@$ The de"rees o the whole 'eo'le o Rome! "om'rehending the 0enate! when they were '&t to the 2&estion by the
0enate$ These were laws! at irst! by the virt&e o the sovereign 'ower residing in the 'eo'le) and s&"h o them as by
the em'erors were not abrogated remained laws by the a&thority im'erial$ %or all laws that bind are &nderstood to be
laws by his a&thority that has 'ower to re'eal them$ 0omewhat li#e to these laws are the A"ts o 8arliament in
England$
=$ The de"rees o the "ommon 'eo'le! e+"l&ding the 0enate! when they were '&t to the 2&estion by the trib&ne o the
'eo'le$ %or s&"h o them as were not abrogated by the em'erors! remained laws by the a&thority im'erial$ Li#e to
these were the orders o the Ho&se o ,ommons in England$
A$ 0enat&s "ons&lta! the orders o the 0enate6 be"a&se when the 'eo'le o Rome grew so n&mero&s as it was
in"onvenient to assemble them! it was tho&ght it by the em'eror that men sho&ld "ons&lt the 0enate instead o the
'eo'le6 and these have some resemblan"e with the A"ts o ,o&n"il$
B$ The edi"ts o 'raetors! and in some "ases o the aediles6 s&"h as are the "hie *&sti"es in the "o&rts o England$
C$ Res'onsa 'r&dent&m! whi"h were the senten"es and o'inions o those lawyers to whom the em'eror gave
a&thority to inter'ret the law! the law! and to give answer to s&"h as in matter o law demanded their advi"e) whi"h
answers the *&dges in giving *&dgement were obliged by the "onstit&tions o the em'eror to observe6 and sho&ld be
li#e the re'orts o "ases *&dged! i other *&dges be by the law o England bo&nd to observe them$ %or the *&dges o
the "ommon law o England are not 'ro'erly *&dges! b&t *&ris "ons&lti) o whom the *&dges! who are either the lords!
or twelve men o the "o&ntry! are in 'oint o law to as# advi"e$
D$ Also! &nwritten "&stoms! whi"h in their own nat&re are an imitation o law! by the ta"it "onsent o the em'eror! in
"ase they be not "ontrary to the law o nat&re! are very laws$
Another division o laws is into nat&ral and 'ositive$ Nat&ral are those whi"h have been laws rom all eternity! and
are "alled not only nat&ral! b&t also moral laws! "onsisting in the moral virt&es) as *&sti"e! e2&ity! and all habits o the
mind that "ond&"e to 'ea"e and "harity! o whi"h I have already s'o#en in the o&rteenth and iteenth ,ha'ters$
8ositive are those whi"h have not been rom eternity! b&t have been made laws by the will o those that have had the
sovereign 'ower over others! and are either written or made #nown to men by some other arg&ment o the will o
their legislator$
Again! o 'ositive laws some are h&man! some divine6 and o h&man 'ositive laws! some are distrib&tive! some
'enal$ 4istrib&tive are those that determine the rights o the s&b*e"ts! de"laring to every man what it is by whi"h he
a"2&ireth and holdeth a 'ro'riety in lands or goods! and a right or liberty o a"tion6 and these s'ea# to all the
s&b*e"ts$ 8enal are those whi"h de"lare what 'enalty shall be inli"ted on those that violate the law) and s'ea# to the
ministers and oi"ers ordained or e+e"&tion$ %or tho&gh every one o&ght to be inormed o the '&nishments
ordained beorehand or their transgression) nevertheless the "ommand is not addressed to the delin2&ent (who
"annot be s&''osed will aith&lly '&nish himsel)! b&t to '&bli" ministers a''ointed to see the 'enalty e+e"&ted$
And these 'enal laws are or the most 'art written together with the laws distrib&tive! and are sometimes "alled
*&dgements$ %or all laws are general *&dgements! or senten"es o the legislator) as also every 'arti"&lar *&dgement is
a law to him whose "ase is *&dged$
4ivine 'ositive laws (or nat&ral laws! being eternal and &niversal! are all divine) are those whi"h! being the
"ommandments o God! not rom all eternity! nor &niversally addressed to all men! b&t only to a "ertain 'eo'le or to
"ertain 'ersons! are de"lared or s&"h by those whom God hath a&thori9ed to de"lare them$ 5&t this a&thority o man
to de"lare what be these 'ositive o God! how "an it be #nown( God may "ommand a man! by a s&'ernat&ral way! to
deliver laws to other men$ 5&t be"a&se it is o the essen"e o law that he who is to be obliged be ass&red o the
a&thority o him that de"lareth it! whi"h we "annot nat&rally ta#e noti"e to be rom God! how "an a man witho&t
s&'ernat&ral revelations be ass&red o the revelation re"eived by the de"larer( And how "an he be bo&nd to obey
bo&nd to obey them( %or the irst 2&estion! how a man "an be ass&red o the revelation o another witho&t a
revelation 'arti"&larly to himsel! it is evidently im'ossible6 or tho&gh a man may be ind&"ed to believe s&"h
revelation! rom the mira"les they see him do! or rom seeing the e+traordinary san"tity o his lie! or rom seeing the
e+traordinary wisdom! or e+traordinary eli"ity o his a"tions! all whi"h are mar#s o God1s e+traordinary avo&r) yet
they are not ass&red eviden"es o s'e"ial revelation$ .ira"les are marvello&s wor#s) b&t that whi"h is marvello&s to
one may not be so to another$ 0an"tity may be eigned) and the visible eli"ities o this world are most oten the wor#
o God by nat&ral and ordinary "a&ses$ And thereore no man "an inallibly #now by nat&ral reason that another has
had a s&'ernat&ral revelation o God1s will b&t only a belie) every one! as the signs thereo shall a''ear greater or
lesser! a irmer or a wea#er belie$
5&t or the se"ond! how he "an be bo&nd to obey them! it is not so hard$ %or i the law de"lared be not against the
law o nat&re! whi"h is &ndo&btedly God1s law! and he &nderta#e to obey it! he is bo&nd by his own a"t) bo&nd I say
to obey it! b&t not bo&nd to believe it6 or men1s belie! and interior "ogitations! are not s&b*e"t to the "ommands! b&t
only to the o'eration o God! ordinary or e+traordinary$ %aith o s&'ernat&ral law is not a &lilling! b&t only an
assenting to the same) and not a d&ty that we e+hibit to God! b&t a git whi"h God reely giveth to whom He
'leaseth) as also &nbelie is not a brea"h o any o His laws! b&t a re*e"tion o them all! e+"e't the laws nat&ral$ 5&t
this that I say will be made yet "learer by! the e+am'les and testimonies "on"erning this 'oint in Holy 0"ri't&re$ The
"ovenant God made with Abraham in a s&'ernat&ral manner was th&s! FThis is the "ovenant whi"h tho& shalt
observe between me and thee and thy seed ater thee$FE Abraham1s seed had not this revelation! nor were yet in
being) yet they are a 'arty to the "ovenant! and bo&nd to obey what Abraham sho&ld de"lare to them or God1s law)
whi"h they "o&ld not be b&t in virt&e o the obedien"e they owed to their 'arents! who (i they be s&b*e"t to no other
earthly 'ower! as here in the "ase o Abraham) have sovereign 'ower over their "hildren and servants$ Again! where
God saith to Abraham! FIn thee shall all nations o the earth be blessed6 or I #now tho& wilt "ommand thy "hildren
and thy ho&se ater thee to #ee' the way o the Lord! and to observe righteo&sness and *&dgement!F it is maniest the
obedien"e o his amily! who had no revelation! de'ended on their ormer obligation to obey their sovereign$ At
.o&nt 0inai .oses only went &' to God) the 'eo'le were orbidden to a''roa"h on 'ain o death) yet were they
bo&nd to obey all that .oses de"lared to them or God1s law$ U'on what gro&nd! b&t on this s&bmission o their own!
F0'ea# tho& to &s! and we will hear thee) b&t let not God s'ea# to &s! lest we dieF( 5y whi"h two 'la"es it
s&i"iently a''eareth that in a ,ommonwealth a s&b*e"t that has no "ertain and ass&red revelation 'arti"&larly to
himsel "on"erning the will o God is to obey or s&"h the "ommand o the ,ommonwealth6 or i men were at
liberty to ta#e or God1s "ommandments their own dreams and an"ies! or the dreams and an"ies o 'rivate men!
s"ar"e two men wo&ld agree &'on what is God1s "ommandment) and yet in res'e"t o them every man wo&ld des'ise
the "ommandments o the ,ommonwealth$ I "on"l&de! thereore! that in all things not "ontrary to the moral law (that
is to say! to the law o nat&re)! all s&b*e"ts are bo&nd to obey that or divine law whi"h is de"lared to be so by the
laws o the ,ommonwealth$ /hi"h also is evident to any man1s reason) or whatsoever is not against the law o
nat&re may be made law in the name o them that have the sovereign 'ower) there is no reason men sho&ld be the
less obliged by it when it is 'ro'o&nded in the name o God$ 5esides! there is no 'la"e in the world where men are
'ermitted to 'retend other "ommandments o God than are de"lared or s&"h by the ,ommonwealth$ ,hristian states
'&nish those that revolt rom ,hristian religion) and all other states! those that set &' any religion by them orbidden$
%or in whatsoever is not reg&lated by the ,ommonwealth! it is e2&ity (whi"h is the law o nat&re! and thereore an
eternal law o God) that every man e2&ally en*oy his liberty$ E Genesis! ?D$ ?>
There is also another distin"tion o laws into &ndamental and not &ndamental6 b&t I "o&ld never see in any a&thor
what a &ndamental law signiieth$ Nevertheless one may very reasonably disting&ish laws in that manner$
%or a &ndamental law in every ,ommonwealth is that whi"h! being ta#en away! the ,ommonwealth aileth and is
&tterly dissolved! as a b&ilding whose o&ndation is destroyed$ And thereore a &ndamental law is that by whi"h
s&b*e"ts are bo&nd to &'hold whatsoever 'ower is given to the sovereign! whether a monar"h or a sovereign
assembly! witho&t whi"h the ,ommonwealth "annot stand) s&"h as is the 'ower o war and 'ea"e! o *&di"at&re! o
ele"tion o oi"ers! and o doing whatsoever he shall thin# ne"essary or the '&bli" good$ Not &ndamental is that!
the abrogating whereo draweth not with it the dissol&tion o the ,ommonwealth) s&"h as are the laws "on"erning
"ontroversies between s&b*e"t and s&b*e"t$ Th&s m&"h o the division o laws$
I ind the words le+ "ivilis and *&s "ivile! that is to say! and law and right "ivil! 'romis"&o&sly &sed or the same
thing! even in the most learned a&thors) whi"h nevertheless o&ght not to be so$ %or right is liberty! namely that liberty
whi"h the "ivil law leaves &s6 b&t "ivil law is an obligation! and ta#es rom &s the liberty whi"h the law o nat&re
gave &s$ Nat&re gave a right to every man to se"&re himsel by his own strength! and to invade a s&s'e"ted neighbo&r
by way o 'revention6 b&t the "ivil law ta#es away that liberty! in all "ases where the 'rote"tion o the law may be
saely stayed or$ Insom&"h as le+ and *&s are as dierent as obligation and liberty$
Li#ewise laws and "harters are ta#en 'romis"&o&sly or the same thing$ ;et "harters are donations o the sovereign)
and not laws! b&t e+em'tions rom law$ The 'hrase o a law is *&beo! in*&ngo) I "ommand and en*oin6 the 'hrase o a
"harter is dedi! "on"essi) I have given! I have granted6 b&t what is given or granted to a man is not or"ed &'on him
by a law$ A law may be made to bind all the s&b*e"ts o a ,ommonwealth6 a liberty or "harter is only to one man or
some one 'art o the 'eo'le$ %or to say all the 'eo'le o a ,ommonwealth have liberty in any "ase whatsoever is to
say that! in s&"h "ase! there hath been no law made) or else! having been made! is now abrogated$
,HA8TER IIVII OF CRIMES, EXCUSES, AND EXTENUATIONS
A sin is not only a transgression o a law! b&t also any "ontem't o the legislator$ %or s&"h "ontem't is a brea"h o all
his laws at on"e! and thereore may "onsist! not only in the "ommission o a a"t! or in the s'ea#ing o words by the
laws orbidden! or in the omission o what the law "ommandeth! b&t also in the intention or '&r'ose to transgress$
%or the '&r'ose to brea# the law is some degree o "ontem't o him to whom it belonged to see it e+e"&ted$ To be
delighted in the imagination only o being 'ossessed o another man1s goods! servants! or wie! witho&t any intention
to ta#e them rom him by or"e or ra&d! is no brea"h o the law! that saith! FTho& shalt not "ovetF6 nor is the 'leas&re
a man may have in imagining or dreaming o the death o him rom whose lie he e+'e"teth nothing b&t damage and
dis'leas&re! a sin) b&t the resolving to '&t some a"t in e+e"&tion that tendeth thereto$ %or to be 'leased in the i"tion
o that whi"h wo&ld 'lease a man i it were real is a 'assion so adherent to the nat&re both o man and every other
living "reat&re! as to ma#e it a sin were to ma#e sin o being a man$ Th "onsideration o this has made me thin# them
too severe! both to themselves and others! that maintain that the irst motions o the mind! tho&gh "he"#ed with the
ear o God! be sins$ 5&t I "oness it is saer to err on that hand than on the other$
A "rime is a sin "onsisting in the "ommitting by deed or word o that whi"h the law orbiddeth! or the omission o
what it hath "ommanded$ 0o that every "rime is a sin) b&t not every sin a "rime$ To intend to steal or #ill is a sin!
tho&gh it never a''ear in word or a"t6 or God that seeth the tho&ght o man "an lay it to his "harge6 b&t till it a''ear
by something done! or said! by whi"h the intention may be arg&ed by a h&man *&dge! it hath not the name o "rime6
whi"h distin"tion the Gree#s observed in the word amartema and eg#lema or aitia) whereo the ormer (whi"h is
translated sin) signiieth any swerving rom the law whatsoever) b&t the two latter (whi"h are translated "rime)
signiy that sin only whereo one man may a""&se another$ 5&t o intentions! whi"h never a''ear by any o&tward a"t!
there is no 'la"e or h&man a""&sation$ In li#e manner the Latins by 'e""at&m! whi"h is sin! signiy all manner o
deviation rom the law) b&t by "rimen (whi"h word they derive rom "erno! whi"h signiies to 'er"eive) they mean
only s&"h sins as may be made a''ear beore a *&dge! and thereore are not mere intentions$
%rom this relation o sin to the law! and o "rime to the "ivil law! may be inerred! irst! that where law "easeth! sin
"easeth$ 5&t be"a&se the law o nat&re is eternal! violation o "ovenants! ingratit&de! arrogan"e! and all a"ts "ontrary
to any moral virt&e "an never "ease to be sin$ 0e"ondly! that the "ivil law "easing! "rimes "ease6 or there being no
other law remaining b&t that o nat&re! there is no 'la"e or a""&sation) every man being his own *&dge! and a""&sed
only by his own "ons"ien"e! and "leared by the &'rightness o his own intention$ /hen thereore his intention is
right! his a"t is no sin) i otherwise! his a"t is sin! b&t not "rime$ Thirdly! that when the sovereign 'ower "easeth!
"rime also "easeth6 or where there is no s&"h 'ower! there is no 'rote"tion to be had rom the law) and thereore
every one may 'rote"t himsel by his own 'ower6 or no man in the instit&tion o sovereign 'ower "an be s&''osed
to give away the right o 'reserving his own body! or the saety whereo all sovereignty was ordained$ 5&t this is to
be &nderstood only o those that have not themselves "ontrib&ted to the ta#ing away o the 'ower that 'rote"ted
them6 or that was a "rime rom the beginning$
The so&r"e o every "rime is some dee"t o the &nderstanding! or some error in reasoning! or some s&dden or"e o
the 'assions$ 4ee"t in the &nderstanding is ignoran"e) in reasoning! erroneo&s o'inion$ Again! ignoran"e is o three
sorts) o the law! and o the sovereign! and o the 'enalty$ Ignoran"e o the law o nat&re e+"&seth no man! be"a&se
every man that hath attained to the &se o reason is s&''osed to #now he o&ght not to do to another what he wo&ld
not have done to himsel$ Thereore into what 'la"e soever a man shall "ome! i he do anything "ontrary to that law!
it is a "rime$ I a man "ome rom the Indies hither! and 'ers&ade men here to re"eive a new religion! or tea"h them
anything that tendeth to disobedien"e o the laws o this "o&ntry! tho&gh he be never so well 'ers&aded o the tr&th o
what he tea"heth! he "ommits a "rime! and may be *&stly '&nished or the same! not only be"a&se his do"trine is
alse! b&t also be"a&se he does that whi"h he wo&ld not a''rove in another) namely! that "oming rom hen"e! he
sho&ld endeavo&r to alter the religion there$ 5&t ignoran"e o the "ivil law shall e+"&se a man in a strange "o&ntry till
it be de"lared to him! be"a&se till then no "ivil law is binding$
In the li#e manner! i the "ivil law o a man1s own "o&ntry be not so s&i"iently de"lared as he may #now it i he
will) nor the a"tion against the law o nat&re) the ignoran"e is a good e+"&se6 in other "ases ignoran"e o the "ivil law
e+"&seth not$
Ignoran"e o the sovereign 'ower the 'la"e o a man1s ordinary residen"e e+"&seth him not! be"a&se he o&ght to ta#e
noti"e o the 'ower by whi"h he hath been 'rote"ted there$
Ignoran"e o the 'enalty! where the law is de"lared! e+"&seth no man6 or in brea#ing the law! whi"h witho&t a ear
o 'enalty to ollow were not a law! b&t vain words! he &ndergoeth the 'enalty! tho&gh he #now not what it is)
be"a&se whosoever vol&ntarily doth any a"tion! a""e'teth all the #nown "onse2&en"es o it) b&t '&nishment is a
#nown "onse2&en"e o the violation o the laws in every ,ommonwealth) whi"h '&nishment! i it be determined
already by the law! he is s&b*e"t to that) i not! then is he s&b*e"t to arbitrary '&nishment$ %or it is reason that he
whi"h does in*&ry! witho&t other limitation than that o his own will! sho&ld s&er '&nishment witho&t other
limitation than that o his will whose law is thereby violated$
5&t when a 'enalty is either anne+ed to the "rime in the law itsel! or hath been &s&ally inli"ted in the li#e "ases!
there the delin2&ent is e+"&sed rom a greater 'enalty$ %or the '&nishment ore#nown! i not great eno&gh to deter
men rom the a"tion! is an invitement to it6 be"a&se when men "om'are the beneit o their in*&sti"e with the harm o
their '&nishment! by ne"essity o nat&re they "hoose that whi"h a''eareth best or themselves6 and thereore when
they are '&nished more than the law had ormerly determined! or more than others were '&nished or the same
"rime! it is the law that tem'ted and de"eiveth them$
No law made ater a a"t done "an ma#e it a "rime6 be"a&se i the a"t be against the law o nat&re! the law was
beore the a"t) and a 'ositive law "annot be ta#en noti"e o beore it be made! and thereore "annot be obligatory$
5&t when the law that orbiddeth a a"t is made beore the a"t be done! yet he that doth the a"t is liable to the
'enalty ordained ater! in "ase no lesser 'enalty were made #nown beore! neither by writing nor by e+am'le! or the
reason immediately beore alleged$
%rom dee"t in reasoning (that is to say! rom error)! men are 'rone to violate the laws three ways$ %irst! by
'res&m'tion o alse 'rin"i'les6 as when men! rom having observed how in all 'la"es and in all ages &n*&st a"tions
have been a&thorised by the or"e and vi"tories o those who have "ommitted them) and that! 'otent men brea#ing
thro&gh the "obweb laws o their "o&ntry! the wea#er sort and those that have ailed in their enter'rises have been
esteemed the only "riminals) have there&'on ta#en or 'rin"i'les and gro&nds o their reasoning that *&sti"e is b&t a
vain word6 that whatsoever a man "an get by his own ind&stry and ha9ard is his own6 that the 'ra"ti"e o all nations
"annot be &n*&st6 that e+am'les o ormer times are good arg&ments o doing the li#e again) and many more o that
#ind6 whi"h being granted! no a"t in itsel "an be a "rime! b&t m&st be made so! not by the law! b&t by the s&""ess o
them that "ommit it) and the same a"t be virt&o&s or vi"io&s ort&ne 'leaseth) so that what .ari&s ma#es a "rime!
0ylla shall ma#e meritorio&s! and ,aesar (the same laws standing) t&rn again into a "rime! to the 'er'et&al
dist&rban"e o the 'ea"e o the ,ommonwealth$
0e"ondly! by alse tea"hers that either misinter'ret the law o nat&re! ma#ing it thereby re'&gnant to the law "ivil! or
by tea"hing or laws s&"h do"trines o their own! or traditions o ormer times! as are in"onsistent with the d&ty o a
s&b*e"t$
Thirdly! by erroneo&s ineren"es rom tr&e 'rin"i'les) whi"h ha''ens "ommonly to men that are hasty and 're"i'itate
in "on"l&ding and resolving what to do) s&"h as are they that have both a great o'inion o their own &nderstanding
and believe that things o this nat&re re2&ire not time and st&dy! b&t only "ommon e+'erien"e and a good nat&ral wit!
whereo no man thin#s himsel &n'rovided6 whereas the #nowledge o right and wrong! whi"h is no less dii"&lt!
there is no man will 'retend to witho&t great and long st&dy$ And o those dee"ts in reasoning! there is none that "an
e+"&se! tho&gh some o them may e+ten&ate! a "rime in any man that 'retendeth to the administration o his own
'rivate b&siness) m&"h less in them that &nderta#e a '&bli" "harge! be"a&se they 'retend to the reason &'on the want
whereo they wo&ld gro&nd their e+"&se$
- the 'assions that most re2&ently are the "a&ses o "rime! one is vainglory! or a oolish overrating o their own
worth) as i dieren"e o worth were an ee"t o their wit! or ri"hes! or blood! or some other nat&ral 2&ality! not
de'ending on the will o those that have the sovereign a&thority$ %rom when"e 'ro"eedeth a 'res&m'tion that the
'&nishments ordained by the laws! and e+tended generally to all s&b*e"ts! o&ght not to be inli"ted on them with the
same rigor they are inli"ted on 'oor! obs"&re! and sim'le men! "om'rehended &nder the name o the v&lgar$
Thereore it ha''eneth "ommonly that s&"h as val&e themselves by the greatness o their wealth advent&re on
"rimes! &'on ho'e o es"a'ing '&nishment by "orr&'ting '&bli" *&sti"e! or obtaining 'ardon by money or other
rewards$
And that s&"h as have m&ltit&de o 'otent #indred! and 'o'&lar men that have gained re'&tation amongst the
m&ltit&de! ta#e "o&rage to violate the laws rom a ho'e o o''ressing the 'ower to whom it belonged to '&t them in
e+e"&tion$
And that s&"h as have a great and alse o'inion o their own wisdom ta#e &'on them to re'rehend the a"tions and
"all in 2&estion the a&thority o them that govern! and so to &nsettle the laws with their '&bli" dis"o&rse! as that
nothing shall be a "rime b&t what their own designs re2&ire sho&ld be so$ It ha''eneth also to the same men to be
'rone to all s&"h "rimes as "onsist in "rat! and in de"eiving o their neighbo&rs) be"a&se they thin# their designs are
too s&btle to be 'er"eived$ These I say are ee"ts o a alse 'res&m'tion o their own wisdom$ %or o them that are
the irst movers in the dist&rban"e o ,ommonwealth (whi"h "an never ha''en witho&t a "ivil war)! very ew are let
alive long eno&gh to see their new designs established6 so that the beneit o their "rimes redo&ndeth to 'osterity and
s&"h as wo&ld least have wished it6 whi"h arg&es they were not so wise as they tho&ght they were$ And those that
de"eive &'on ho'e o not being observed do "ommonly de"eive themselves! the dar#ness in whi"h they believe they
lie hidden being nothing else b&t their own blindness! and are no wiser than "hildren that thin# all hid by hiding their
own eyes$
And generally all vainglorio&s men! &nless they be withal timoro&s! are s&b*e"t to anger) as being more 'rone than
others to inter'ret or "ontem't the ordinary liberty o "onversation6 and there are ew "rimes that may not be
'rod&"ed by anger$
As or the 'assions! o hate! l&st! ambition! and "oveto&sness! what "rimes they are a't to 'rod&"e is so obvio&s to
every man1s e+'erien"e and &nderstanding as there needeth nothing to be said o them! saving that they are
inirmities! so anne+ed to the nat&re! both o man and all other living "reat&res! as that their ee"ts "annot be
hindered b&t by e+traordinary &se o reason! or a "onstant severity in '&nishing them$ %or in those things men hate!
they ind a "ontin&al and &navoidable molestation) whereby either a man1s 'atien"e m&st be everlasting! or he m&st
be eased by removing the 'ower o that whi"h molesteth him6 the ormer is dii"&lt) the latter is many times
im'ossible witho&t some violation o the law$ Ambition and "oveto&sness are 'assions also that are 'er'et&ally
in"&mbent and 'ressing) whereas reason is not 'er'et&ally 'resent to resist them6 and thereore whensoever the ho'e
o im'&nity a''ears! their ee"ts 'ro"eed$ And or l&st! what it wants in the lasting! it hath in the vehemen"e! whi"h
s&i"eth to weigh down the a''rehension o all easy or &n"ertain '&nishments$
- all 'assions! that whi"h in"lineth men least to brea# the laws is ear$ Nay! e+"e'ting some genero&s nat&res! it is
the only thing (when there is a''earan"e o 'roit or 'leas&re by brea#ing the laws) that ma#es men #ee' them$ And
yet in many "ases a "rime may be "ommitted thro&gh ear$
%or not every ear *&stiies the a"tion it 'rod&"eth! b&t the ear only o "or'oreal h&rt! whi"h we "all bodily ear! and
rom whi"h a man "annot see how to be delivered b&t by the a"tion$ A man is assa&lted! ears 'resent death! rom
whi"h he sees not how to es"a'e b&t by wo&nding him that assa&lteth him) i he wo&nd him to death! this is no
"rime! be"a&se no man is s&''osed! at the ma#ing o a ,ommonwealth to have abandoned the deen"e o his lie or
limbs! where the law "annot arrive time eno&gh to his assistan"e$ 5&t to #ill a man be"a&se rom his a"tions or his
threatenings I may arg&e he will #ill me when he "an (seeing I have time and means to demand 'rote"tion rom the
sovereign 'ower) is a "rime$ Again! a man re"eives words o disgra"e! or some little in*&ries! or whi"h they that
made the laws had assigned no '&nishment! nor tho&ght it worthy o a man that hath the &se o reason to ta#e noti"e
o! and is araid &nless he revenge it he shall all into "ontem't! and "onse2&ently be obno+io&s to the li#e in*&ries
rom others) and to avoid this! brea#s the law! and 'rote"ts himsel or the &t&re by the terror o his 'rivate revenge$
This is a "rime6 or the h&rt is not "or'oreal! b&t antasti"al! and (tho&gh! in this "orner o the world! made sensible
by a "&stom not many years sin"e beg&n! amongst yo&ng and vain men) so light as a gallant man! and one that is
ass&red o his own "o&rage! "annot ta#e noti"e o$ Also a man may stand in ear o s'irits! either thro&gh his own
s&'erstition or thro&gh too m&"h "redit given to other men that tell him o strange dreams and visions) and thereby
be made believe they will h&rt him or doing or omitting diverse things whi"h! nevertheless! to do or omit is "ontrary
to the laws) and that whi"h is so done! or omitted! is not to be e+"&sed by this ear! b&t is a "rime$ %or! as I have
shown beore in the se"ond ,ha'ter! dreams be nat&rally b&t the an"ies remaining in slee'! ater the im'ressions o&r
senses had ormerly re"eived wa#ing) and! when men are by any a""ident &nass&red they have sle't! seem to be real
visions) and thereore he that 'res&mes to brea# the law &'on his own or another1s dream or 'retended vision! or
&'on other an"y o the 'ower o invisible s'irits than is 'ermitted by the ,ommonwealth! leaveth the law o nat&re!
whi"h is a "ertain oen"e! and olloweth the imagery o his own or another 'rivate man1s brain! whi"h he "an never
#now whether it signiieth anything or nothing! nor whether he that tells his dream say tr&e or lie) whi"h i every
'rivate man sho&ld have leave to do (as they m&st! by the law o nat&re! i any one have it)! there "o&ld no law be
made to hold! and so all ,ommonwealth wo&ld be dissolved$
%rom these dierent so&r"es o "rimes! it a''ears already that all "rimes are not! as the 0toi"s o old time maintained!
o the same alloy$ There is 'la"e! not only or e+"&se! by whi"h that whi"h seemed a "rime is 'roved to be none at
all) b&t also or e+ten&ation! by whi"h the "rime! that seemed great! is made less$ %or tho&gh all "rimes do e2&ally
deserve the name o in*&sti"e! as all deviation rom a straight line is e2&ally "roo#edness! whi"h the 0toi"s rightly
observed) yet it does not ollow that all "rimes are e2&ally &n*&st! no more than that all "roo#ed lines are e2&ally
"roo#ed) whi"h the 0toi"s! not observing! held it as great a "rime to #ill a hen! against the law! as to #ill one1s ather$
That whi"h totally e+"&seth a a"t! and ta#es away rom it the nat&re o a "rime! "an be none b&t that whi"h! at the
same time! ta#eth away the obligation o the law$ %or the a"t "ommitted on"e against the law! i he that "ommitted it
be obliged to the law! "an be no other than a "rime$
The want o means to #now the law totally e+"&seth6 or the law whereo a man has no means to inorm himsel is
not obligatory$ 5&t the want o diligen"e to en2&ire shall not be "onsidered as a want o means) nor shall any man
that 'retendeth to reason eno&gh or the government o his own aairs be s&''osed to want means to #now the laws
o nat&re) be"a&se they are #nown by the reason he 'retends to6 only "hildren and madmen are e+"&sed rom
oen"es against the law nat&ral$
/here a man is "a'tive! or in the 'ower o the enemy (and he is then in the 'ower o the enemy when his 'erson! or
his means o living! is so)! i it be witho&t his own a&lt! the obligation o the law "easeth) be"a&se he m&st obey the
enemy! or die! and "onse2&ently s&"h obedien"e is no "rime6 or no man is obliged (when the 'rote"tion o the law
aileth) not to 'rote"t himsel by the best means he "an$
I a man by the terror o 'resent death be "om'elled to do a a"t against the law! he is totally e+"&sed) be"a&se no law
"an oblige a man to abandon his own 'reservation$ And s&''osing s&"h a law were obligatory! yet a man wo&ld
reason th&s6 FI I do it not! I die 'resently) i I do it! I die aterwards) thereore by doing it! there is time o lie
gained$F Nat&re thereore "om'els him to the a"t$
/hen a man is destit&te o ood or other thing ne"essary or his lie! and "annot 'reserve himsel any other way b&t
by some a"t against the law) as i in a great amine he ta#e the ood by or"e! or stealth! whi"h he "annot obtain or
money! nor "harity) or in deen"e o his lie! snat"h away another man1s sword) he is totally e+"&sed or the reason
ne+t beore alleged$
Again! a"ts done against the law! by the a&thority o another! are by that a&thority e+"&sed against the a&thor!
be"a&se no man o&ght to a""&se his own a"t in another that is b&t his instr&ment6 b&t it is not e+"&sed against a third
'erson thereby in*&red! be"a&se in the violation o the law both the a&thor and a"tor are "riminals$ %rom hen"e it
olloweth that when that man or assembly that hath the sovereign 'ower "ommandeth a man to do that whi"h is
"ontrary to a ormer law! the doing o it is totally e+"&sed6 or he o&ght not to "ondemn it himsel! be"a&se he is the
a&thor) and what "annot *&stly be "ondemned by the sovereign "annot *&stly be '&nished by any other$ 5esides! when
the sovereign "ommandeth anything to be done against his own ormer law! the "ommand! as to that 'arti"&lar a"t!
is an abrogation o the law$
I that man or assembly that hath the sovereign 'ower dis"laim any right essential to the sovereignty! whereby there
a""r&eth to the s&b*e"t any liberty in"onsistent with the sovereign 'ower) that is to say! with the very being o a
,ommonwealth) i the s&b*e"t shall re&se to obey the "ommand in anything! "ontrary to the liberty granted! this is
nevertheless a sin! and "ontrary to the d&ty o the s&b*e"t6 or he to ta#e noti"e o what is in"onsistent with the
sovereignty! be"a&se it was ere"ted by his own "onsent and or his own deen"e! and that s&"h liberty as is
in"onsistent with it was granted thro&gh ignoran"e o the evil "onse2&en"e thereo$ 5&t i he not only disobey! b&t
also resist a '&bli" minister in the e+e"&tion o it! then it is a "rime! be"a&se he might have been righted! witho&t any
brea"h o the 'ea"e! &'on "om'laint$
The degrees o "rime are ta#en on diverse s"ales! and meas&red! irst! by the malignity o the so&r"e! or "a&se6
se"ondly! by the "ontagion o the e+am'le6 thirdly! by the mis"hie o the ee"t6 and o&rthly! by the "on"&rren"e o
times! 'la"es! and 'ersons$
The same a"t done against the law! i it 'ro"eed rom 'res&m'tion o strength! ri"hes! or riends to resist those that
are to e+e"&te the law! is a greater "rime than i it 'ro"eed rom ho'e o not being dis"overed! or o es"a'e by light6
or 'res&m'tion o im'&nity by or"e is a root rom when"e s'ringeth! at all times! and &'on all tem'tations! a
"ontem't o all laws) whereas in the latter "ase the a''rehension o danger that ma#es a man ly renders him more
obedient or the &t&re$ A "rime whi"h #now to be so is greater than the same "rime 'ro"eeding rom a alse
'ers&asion that it is law&l6 or he that "ommitteth it against his own "ons"ien"e 'res&meth on his or"e! or other
'ower! whi"h en"o&rages him to "ommit the same again! b&t he that doth it by error! ater the error shown him! is
"onormable to the law$
He whose error 'ro"eeds rom the a&thority o a tea"her! or an inter'reter o the law '&bli"ly a&thorised! is not so
a&lty as he whose error 'ro"eedeth rom a 'erem'tory '&rs&it o his own 'rin"i'les and reasoning6 or what is
ta&ght by one that tea"heth by '&bli" a&thority! the ,ommonwealth tea"heth! and hath a resemblan"e o law! till the
same a&thority "ontrolleth it) and in all "rimes that "ontain not in them a denial o the sovereign 'ower! nor are
against an evident law! e+"&seth totally) whereas he that gro&ndeth his a"tions on his 'rivate *&dgement o&ght!
a""ording to the re"tit&de or error thereo! to stand or all$
The same a"t! i it have been "onstantly '&nished in other men! is a greater "rime than i there have been many
're"edent e+am'les o im'&nity$ %or those e+am'les are so many ho'es o im'&nity! given by the sovereign himsel6
and be"a&se he whi"h &rnishes a man with s&"h a ho'e and 'res&m'tion o mer"y! as en"o&rageth him to oend!
hath his 'art in the oen"e! he "annot reasonably "harge the oender with the whole$
A "rime arising rom a s&dden 'assion is not so great as when the same ariseth rom long meditation6 or in the
ormer "ase there is a 'la"e or e+ten&ation in the "ommon inirmity o h&man nat&re) b&t he that doth it with
'remeditation has &sed "ir"&ms'e"tion! and "ast his eye on the law! on the '&nishment! and on the "onse2&en"e
thereo to h&man so"iety) all whi"h in "ommitting the "rime he hath "ontemned and 'ost'oned to his own a''etite$
5&t there is no s&ddenness o 'assion s&i"ient or a total e+"&se6 or all the time between the irst #nowing o the
law! and the "ommission o the a"t! shall be ta#en or a time o deliberation! be"a&se he o&ght! by meditation o the
law! to re"tiy the irreg&larity o his 'assions$
/here the law is '&bli"ly! and with assid&ity! beore all the 'eo'le read and inter'reted! a a"t done against it is a
greater "rime than where men are let witho&t s&"h instr&"tion to en2&ire o it with dii"&lty! &n"ertainty! and
interr&'tion o their "allings! and be inormed by 'rivate men6 or in this "ase! 'art o the a&lt is dis"harged &'on
"ommon inirmity) b&t in the ormer there is a''arent negligen"e! whi"h is not witho&t some "ontem't o the
sovereign 'ower$
Those a"ts whi"h the law e+'ressly "ondemneth! b&t the lawma#er by other maniest signs o his will ta"itly
a''roveth! are less "rimes than the same a"ts "ondemned both by the law and lawma#er$ %or seeing the will o the
lawma#er is a law! there a''ear in this "ase two "ontradi"tory laws) whi"h wo&ld totally e+"&se! i men were bo&nd
to ta#e noti"e o the sovereigns a''robation! by other arg&ments than are e+'ressed by his "ommand$ 5&t be"a&se
there are '&nishments "onse2&ent! not only to the transgression o his law! b&t also to the observing o it he is in 'art
a "a&se o the transgression! and thereore "annot reasonably im'&te the whole "rime to the delin2&ent$ %or e+am'le!
the law "ondemneth d&els) the '&nishment is made "a'ital6 on the "ontrary 'art! he that re&seth d&el is s&b*e"t to
"ontem't and s"orn! witho&t remedy) and sometimes by the sovereign himsel tho&ght &nworthy to have any "harge
or 'reerment in war6 i there&'on he a""e't d&el! "onsidering all men law&lly endeavo&r to obtain the good o'inion
o them that have the sovereign 'ower! he o&ght not in reason to be rigoro&sly '&nished! seeing 'art o the a&lt may
be dis"harged on the '&nisher6 whi"h I say! not as wishing liberty o 'rivate revenges! or any other #ind o
disobedien"e! b&t a "are in governors not to "o&ntenan"e anything obli2&ely whi"h dire"tly they orbid$ The
e+am'les o 'rin"es! to those that see them! are! and ever have been! more 'otent to govern their a"tions than the
laws themselves$ And tho&gh it be o&r d&ty to do! not what they do! b&t what they say) yet will that d&ty never be
'erormed till it 'lease God to give men an e+traordinary and s&'ernat&ral gra"e to ollow that 're"e't$
Again! i we "om'are "rimes by the mis"hie o their ee"ts) irst! the same a"t when it redo&nds to the damage o
many is greater than when it redo&nds to the h&rt o ew$ And thereore when a a"t h&rteth! not only in the 'resent!
b&t also by e+am'le in the &t&re! it is a greater "rime than i it h&rt only in the 'resent6 or the ormer is a ertile
"rime! and m&lti'lies to the h&rt o many) the latter is barren$ To maintain do"trines "ontrary to the religion
established in the ,ommonwealth is a greater a&lt in an a&thorised 'rea"her than in a 'rivate 'erson6 so also is it to
live 'roanely! in"ontinently! or do any irreligio&s a"t whatsoever$ Li#ewise in a 'roessor o the law! to maintain any
'oint! or do any a"t! that tendeth to the wea#ening o the sovereign 'ower is a greater "rime than in another man6
also in a man that hath s&"h re'&tation or wisdom as that his "o&nsels are ollowed! or his a"tions imitated by many!
his a"t against the law is a greater "rime than the same a"t in another6 or s&"h men not only "ommit "rime! b&t
tea"h it or law to all other men$ And generally all "rimes are the greater by the s"andal they give) that is to say! by
be"oming st&mbling7blo"#s to the wea#! that loo# not so m&"h &'on the way they go in! as &'on the light that other
men "arry beore them$
Also a"ts o hostility against the 'resent state o the ,ommonwealth are greater "rimes than the same a"ts done to
'rivate men6 or the damage e+tends itsel to all6 s&"h are the betraying o the strengths or revealing o the se"rets o
the ,ommonwealth to an enemy) also all attem'ts &'on the re'resentative o the ,ommonwealth! be it a monar"h or
an assembly) and all endeavo&rs by word or deed to diminish the a&thority o the same! either in the 'resent time or
in s&""ession6 whi"h "rimes the Latins &nderstand by "rimina laesae ma*estatis! and "onsist in design! or a"t!
"ontrary to a &ndamental law$
Li#ewise those "rimes whi"h render *&dgements o no ee"t are greater "rimes than in*&ries done to one or a ew
'ersons) as to re"eive money to give alse *&dgement or testimony is a greater "rime than otherwise to de"eive a man
o the li#e or a greater s&m) be"a&se not only he has wrong! that alls by s&"h *&dgements! b&t all *&dgements are
rendered &seless! and o""asion ministered to or"e and 'rivate revenges$
Also robbery and de'e"&lation o the '&bli" treas&ry or reven&es is a greater "rime than the robbing or dera&ding o
a 'rivate man! be"a&se to rob the '&bli" is to rob many at on"e) also the "o&ntereit &s&r'ation o '&bli" ministry! the
"o&ntereiting o '&bli" seals! or '&bli" "oin! than "o&ntereiting o a 'rivate man1s 'erson or his seal! be"a&se the
ra&d thereo e+tendeth to the damage o many$
- a"ts against the law done to 'rivate men! the greater "rime is that where the damage! in the "ommon o'inion o
men! is most sensible$ And thereore6
To #ill against the law is a greater "rime than any other in*&ry! lie 'reserved$
And to #ill with torment! greater than sim'ly to #ill$
And m&tilation o a limb! greater than the s'oiling a man o his goods$
And the s'oiling a man o his goods by terror o death or wo&nds! than by "landestine s&rre'tion$
And by "landestine s&rre'tion! than by "onsent ra&d&lently obtained$
And the violation o "hastity by or"e! greater than by lattery$
And o a woman married! than o a woman not married$
%or all these things are "ommonly so val&ed) tho&gh some men are more! and some less! sensible o the same
oen"e$ 5&t the law regardeth not the 'arti"&lar! b&t the general in"lination o man#ind$
And thereore the oen"e men ta#e rom "ont&mely! in words or gest&re! when they 'rod&"e no other harm than the
'resent grie o him that is re'roa"hed! hath been negle"ted in the laws o the Gree#s! Romans! and other both
an"ient and modern ,ommonwealths) s&''osing the tr&e "a&se o s&"h grie to "onsist! not in the "ont&mely (whi"h
ta#es no hold &'on men "ons"io&s o their own virt&e)! b&t in the '&sillanimity o him that is oended by it$
Also a "rime against a 'rivate man is m&"h aggravated by the 'erson! time! and 'la"e$ %or to #ill one1s 'arent is a
greater "rime than to #ill another6 or the 'arent o&ght to have the hono&r o a sovereign (tho&gh he have s&rrendered
his 'ower to the "ivil law)! be"a&se he had it originally by nat&re$ And to rob a 'oor man is a greater "rime than to
rob a ri"h man! be"a&se it is to the 'oor a more sensible damage$
And a "rime "ommitted in the time or 'la"e a''ointed or devotion is greater than i "ommitted at another time or
'la"e6 or it 'ro"eeds rom a greater "ontem't o the law$
.any other "ases o aggravation and e+ten&ation might be added) b&t by these I have set down! it is obvio&s to every
man to ta#e the altit&de o any other "rime 'ro'osed$
Lastly! be"a&se in almost all "rimes there is an in*&ry done! not only to some 'rivate men! b&t also to the
,ommonwealth! the same "rime! when the a""&sation is in the name o the ,ommonwealth! is "alled '&bli" "rime)
and when in the name o a 'rivate man! a 'rivate "rime) and the 'leas a""ording there&'on "alled '&bli"! *&di"ia
'&bli"a! 'leas o the "rown) or 'rivate 'leas$ As in an a""&sation o m&rder! i the a""&ser be a 'rivate man! the 'lea
is a 'rivate 'lea) i the a""&ser be the sovereign! the 'lea is a '&bli" 'lea$
,HA8TER IIVIII OF PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS
A '&nishment is an evil inli"ted by '&bli" a&thority on him that hath done or omitted that whi"h is *&dged by the
same a&thority to be a transgression o the law! to the end that the will o men may thereby the better be dis'osed to
obedien"e$
5eore I iner anything rom this deinition! there is a 2&estion to be answered o m&"h im'ortan"e) whi"h is! by
what door the right or a&thority o '&nishing! in any "ase! "ame in$ %or by that whi"h has been said beore! no man is
s&''osed bo&nd by "ovenant not to resist violen"e) and "onse2&ently it "annot be intended that he gave any right to
another to lay violent hands &'on his 'erson$ In the ma#ing o a ,ommonwealth every man giveth away the right o
deending another! b&t not o deending himsel$ Also he obligeth himsel to assist him that hath the sovereignty in
the '&nishing o another! b&t o himsel not$ 5&t to "ovenant to assist the sovereign in doing h&rt to another! &nless
he that so "ovenanteth have a right to do it himsel! is not to give him a right to '&nish$ It is maniest thereore that
the right whi"h the ,ommonwealth (that is! he or they that re'resent it) hath to '&nish is not gro&nded on any
"on"ession or git o the s&b*e"ts$ 5&t I have also shown ormerly that beore the instit&tion o ,ommonwealth!
every man had a right to everything! and to do whatsoever he tho&ght ne"essary to his own 'reservation) s&bd&ing!
h&rting! or #illing any man in order there&nto$ And this is the o&ndation o that right o '&nishing whi"h is e+er"ised
in every ,ommonwealth$ %or the s&b*e"ts did not give the sovereign that right) b&t only! in laying down theirs!
strengthened him to &se his own as he sho&ld thin# it or the 'reservation o them all6 so that it was not given! b&t
let to him! and to him only) and! e+"e'ting the limits set him by nat&ral law! as entire as in the "ondition o mere
nat&re! and o war o every one against his neighbo&r$
%rom the deinition o '&nishment! I iner! irst! that neither 'rivate revenges nor in*&ries o 'rivate men "an 'ro'erly
be styled '&nishment! be"a&se they 'ro"eed not rom '&bli" a&thority$
0e"ondly! that to be negle"ted and &n'reerred by the '&bli" avo&r is not a '&nishment! be"a&se no new evil is
thereby on any man inli"ted) he is only let in the estate he was in beore$
Thirdly! that the evil inli"ted by '&bli" a&thority! witho&t 're"edent '&bli" "ondemnation! is not to be styled by the
name o '&nishment! b&t o a hostile a"t! be"a&se the a"t or whi"h a man is '&nished o&ght irst to be *&dged by
'&bli" a&thority to be a transgression o the law$
%o&rthly! that the evil inli"ted by &s&r'ed 'ower! and *&dges witho&t a&thority rom the sovereign! is not
'&nishment! b&t an a"t o hostility! be"a&se the a"ts o 'ower &s&r'ed have not or a&thor the 'erson "ondemned! and
thereore are not a"ts o '&bli" a&thority$
%ithly! that all evil whi"h is inli"ted witho&t intention or 'ossibility o dis'osing the delin2&ent or! by his e+am'le!
other men to obey the laws is not '&nishment! b&t an a"t o hostility! be"a&se witho&t s&"h an end no h&rt done is
"ontained &nder that name$
0i+thly! whereas to "ertain a"tions there be anne+ed by nat&re diverse h&rt&l "onse2&en"es) as when a man in
assa&lting another is himsel slain or wo&nded) or when he alleth into si"#ness by the doing o some &nlaw&l a"t)
s&"h h&rt! tho&gh in res'e"t o God! who is the a&thor o nat&re! it may be said to be inli"ted! and thereore a
'&nishment divine) yet it is not "ontained in the name o '&nishment in res'e"t o men! be"a&se it is not inli"ted by
the a&thority o man$
0eventhly! i the harm inli"ted be less than the beneit o "ontentment that nat&rally olloweth the "rime "ommitted!
that harm is not within the deinition and is rather the 'ri"e or redem'tion than the '&nishment o a "rime6 be"a&se it
is o the nat&re o '&nishment to have or end the dis'osing o men to obey the law) whi"h end (i it be less than the
beneit o the transgression) it attaineth not! b&t wor#eth a "ontrary ee"t$
Eighthly! i a '&nishment be determined and 'res"ribed in the law itsel! and ater the "rime "ommitted there be a
greater '&nishment inli"ted! the e+"ess is not '&nishment! b&t an a"t o hostility$ %or seeing the aim o '&nishment
is not a revenge! b&t terror) and the terror o a great '&nishment &n#nown is ta#en away by the de"laration o a less!
the &ne+'e"ted addition is no 'art o the '&nishment$ 5&t where there is no '&nishment at all determined by the law!
there whatsoever is inli"ted hath the nat&re o '&nishment$ %or he that goes abo&t the violation o a law! wherein no
'enalty is determined! e+'e"teth an indeterminate! that is to say! an arbitrary '&nishment$
Ninthly! harm inli"ted or a a"t done beore there was a law that orbade it is not '&nishment! b&t an a"t o hostility6
or beore the law! there is no transgression o the law6 b&t '&nishment s&''oseth a a"t *&dged to have been a
transgression o the law) thereore harm inli"ted beore the law made is not '&nishment! b&t an a"t o hostility$
Tenthly! h&rt inli"ted on the re'resentative o the ,ommonwealth is not '&nishment! b&t an a"t o hostility6 be"a&se
it is o the nat&re o '&nishment to be inli"ted by '&bli" a&thority! whi"h is the a&thority only o the re'resentative
itsel$
Lastly! harm inli"ted &'on one that is a de"lared enemy alls not &nder the name o '&nishment6 be"a&se seeing they
were either never s&b*e"t to the law! and thereore "annot transgress it) or having been s&b*e"t to it! and 'roessing to
be no longer so! by "onse2&en"e deny they "an transgress it! all the harms that "an be done them m&st be ta#en as
a"ts o hostility$ 5&t in de"lared hostility all inli"tion o evil is law&l$ %rom when"e it olloweth that i a s&b*e"t
shall by a"t or word wittingly and deliberately deny the a&thority o the re'resentative o the ,ommonwealth
(whatsoever 'enalty hath been ormerly ordained or treason)! he may law&lly be made to s&er whatsoever the
re'resentative will6 or in denying s&b*e"tion! he denies s&"h '&nishment as by the law hath been ordained! and
thereore s&ers as an enemy o the ,ommonwealth) that is! a""ording to the will o the re'resentative$ %or the
'&nishments set down in the law are to s&b*e"ts! not to enemies) s&"h as are they that! having been by their own a"t
s&b*e"ts! deliberately revolting! deny the sovereign 'ower$
The irst and most general distrib&tion o '&nishments is into divine and h&man$ - the ormer I shall have o""asion
to s'ea# in a more "onvenient 'la"e hereater$ H&man are those '&nishments that be inli"ted by the "ommandment
o man) and are either "or'oral! or 'e"&niary! or ignominy! or im'risonment! or e+ile! or mi+ed o these$
,or'oral '&nishment is that whi"h is inli"ted on the body dire"tly! and a""ording to the intention o him that
inli"teth it6 s&"h as are stri'es! or wo&nds! or de'rivation o s&"h 'leas&res o the body as were beore law&lly
en*oyed$ And o these! some be "a'ital! some less than "a'ital$ ,a'ital is the inli"tion o death) and that either
sim'ly or with torment$ Less than "a'ital are stri'es! wo&nds! "hains! and any other "or'oral 'ain not in its own
nat&re mortal$ %or i &'on the inli"tion o a '&nishment death ollow! not in the intention o the inli"ter! the
'&nishment is not to be esteemed "a'ital! tho&gh the harm 'rove mortal by an a""ident not to be oreseen) in whi"h
"ase death is not inli"ted! b&t hastened$
8e"&niary '&nishment is that whi"h "onsisteth not only in the de'rivation o a s&m o money! b&t also o lands! or
any other goods whi"h are &s&ally bo&ght and sold or money$ And in "ase the law that ordaineth s&"h a '&nishment
be made with design to gather money rom s&"h as shall transgress the same! it is not 'ro'erly a '&nishment! b&t the
'ri"e o 'rivilege and e+em'tion rom the law! whi"h doth not absol&tely orbid the a"t b&t only to those that are not
able to 'ay the money6 e+"e't where the law is nat&ral! or 'art o religion) or in that "ase it is not an e+em'tion rom
the law! b&t a transgression o it$ As where a law e+a"teth a 'e"&niary m&l"t o them that ta#e the name o God in
vain! the 'ayment o the m&l"t is not the 'ri"e o a dis'ensation to swear! b&t the '&nishment o the transgression o
a law indis'ensable$ In li#e manner i the law im'ose a s&m o money to be 'aid to him that has been in*&red! this is
b&t a satisa"tion or the h&rt done him! and e+ting&isheth the a""&sation o the 'arty in*&red! not the "rime o the
oender$
Ignominy is the inli"tion o s&"h evil as is made dishono&rable) or the de'rivation o s&"h good as is made
hono&rable by the ,ommonwealth$ %or there be some things hono&rable by nat&re) as the ee"ts o "o&rage!
magnanimity! strength! wisdom! and other abilities o body and mind6 others made hono&rable by the
,ommonwealth) as badges! titles! oi"es! or any other sing&lar mar# o the sovereigns avo&r$ The ormer! tho&gh
they may ail by nat&re or a""ident! "annot be ta#en away by a law) and thereore the loss o them is not '&nishment$
5&t the latter may be ta#en away by the '&bli" a&thority that made them hono&rable! and are 'ro'erly '&nishments6
s&"h are! degrading men "ondemned! o their badges! titles! and oi"es) or de"laring them in"a'able o the li#e in
time to "ome$
Im'risonment is when a man is by '&bli" a&thority de'rived o liberty! and may ha''en rom two diverse ends)
whereo one is the sae "&stody o a man a""&sed) the other is the inli"ting o 'ain on a man "ondemned$ The ormer
is not '&nishment! be"a&se no man is s&''osed to be '&nished beore he be *&di"ially heard and de"lared g&ilty$ And
thereore whatsoever h&rt a man is made to s&er by bonds or restraint beore his "a&se be heard! over and above
that whi"h is ne"essary to ass&re his "&stody! is against the law o nat&re$ 5&t the latter is '&nishment be"a&se evil!
and inli"ted by '&bli" a&thority or somewhat that has by the same a&thority been *&dged a transgression o the law$
Under this word im'risonment! I "om'rehend all restraint o motion "a&sed by an e+ternal obsta"le! be it a ho&se!
whi"h is "alled by the general name o a 'rison) or an island! as when men are said to be "onined to it) or a 'la"e
where men are set to wor#! as in old time men have been "ondemned to 2&arries! and in these times to galleys) or be
it a "hain or any other s&"h im'ediment$
E+ile (banishment) is when a man is or a "rime "ondemned to de'art o&t o the dominion o the ,ommonwealth! or
o&t o a "ertain 'art thereo! and d&ring a 'rei+ed time! or or ever! not to ret&rn into it) and seemeth not in its own
nat&re! witho&t other "ir"&mstan"es! to be a '&nishment! b&t rather an es"a'e! or a '&bli" "ommandment to avoid
'&nishment by light$ And ,i"ero says there was never any s&"h '&nishment ordained in the "ity o Rome) b&t "alls
it a re&ge o men in danger$ %or i a man banished be nevertheless 'ermitted to en*oy his goods! and the reven&e o
his lands! the mere "hange o air is no '&nishment) nor does it tend to that beneit o the ,ommonwealth or whi"h
all '&nishments are ordained! that is to say! to the orming o men1s wills to the observation o the law) b&t many
times to the damage o the ,ommonwealth$ %or a banished man is a law&l enemy o the ,ommonwealth that
banished him! as being no more a member o the same$ 5&t i he be withal de'rived o his lands! or goods! then the
'&nishment lieth not in the e+ile! b&t is to be re"#oned amongst '&nishments 'e"&niary$
All '&nishments o inno"ent s&b*e"ts! be they great or little! are against the law o nat&re6 or '&nishment is only or
transgression o the law! and thereore there "an be no '&nishment o the inno"ent$ It is thereore a violation! irst! o
that law o nat&re whi"h orbiddeth all men! in their revenges! to loo# at anything b&t some &t&re good6 or there "an
arrive no good to the ,ommonwealth by '&nishing the inno"ent$ 0e"ondly! o that whi"h orbiddeth ingratit&de6 or
seeing all sovereign 'ower is originally given by the "onsent o every one o the s&b*e"ts! to the end they sho&ld as
long as they are obedient be 'rote"ted thereby! the '&nishment o the inno"ent is a rendering o evil or good$ And
thirdly! o the law that "ommandeth e2&ity) that is to say! an e2&al distrib&tion o *&sti"e! whi"h in '&nishing the
inno"ent is not observed$ 5&t the inli"tion o what evil soever on an inno"ent man that is not a s&b*e"t! i it be or
the beneit o the ,ommonwealth! and witho&t violation o any ormer "ovenant! is no brea"h o the law o nat&re$
%or all men that are not s&b*e"ts are either enemies! or else they have "eased rom being so by some 're"edent
"ovenants$ 5&t against enemies! whom the ,ommonwealth *&dgeth "a'able to do them h&rt! it is law&l by the
original right o nat&re to ma#e war) wherein the sword *&dgeth not! nor doth the vi"tor ma#e distin"tion o no"ent
and inno"ent as to the time 'ast! nor has other res'e"t o mer"y than as it "ond&"eth to the good o his own 'eo'le$
And &'on this gro&nd it is that also in s&b*e"ts who deliberately deny the a&thority o the ,ommonwealth
established! the vengean"e is law&lly e+tended! not only to the athers! b&t also to the third and o&rth generation not
yet in being! and "onse2&ently inno"ent o the a"t or whi"h they are ali"ted6 be"a&se the nat&re o this oen"e
"onsisteth in the reno&n"ing o s&b*e"tion! whi"h is a rela'se into the "ondition o war "ommonly "alled rebellion)
and they that so oend! s&er not as s&b*e"ts! b&t as enemies$ %or rebellion is b&t war renewed$
Reward is either o git or by "ontra"t$ /hen by "ontra"t! it is "alled salary and wages) whi"h is beneit d&e or
servi"e 'erormed or 'romised$ /hen o git! it is beneit 'ro"eeding rom the gra"e o them that bestow it! to
en"o&rage or enable men to do them servi"e$ And thereore when the sovereign o a ,ommonwealth a''ointeth a
salary to any '&bli" oi"e! he that re"eiveth it is bo&nd in *&sti"e to 'erorm his oi"e) otherwise! he is bo&nd only in
hono&r to a"#nowledgement and an endeavo&r o re2&ital$ %or tho&gh men have no law&l remedy when they be
"ommanded to 2&it their 'rivate b&siness to serve the '&bli"! witho&t reward or salary! yet they are not bo&nd thereto
by the law o nat&re! nor by the instit&tion o the ,ommonwealth! &nless the servi"e "annot otherwise be done)
be"a&se it is s&''osed the sovereign may ma#e &se o all their means! insom&"h as the most "ommon soldier may
demand the wages o his warare as a debt$
The beneits whi"h a sovereign bestoweth on a s&b*e"t! or ear o some 'ower and ability he hath to do h&rt to the
,ommonwealth! are not 'ro'erly rewards6 or they are not salaries! be"a&se there is in this "ase no "ontra"t
s&''osed! every man being obliged already not to do the ,ommonwealth disservi"e6 nor are they gra"es! be"a&se
they be e+torted by ear! whi"h o&ght not to be in"ident to the sovereign 'ower6 b&t are rather sa"rii"es! whi"h the
sovereign! "onsidered in his nat&ral 'erson! and not in the 'erson o the ,ommonwealth! ma#es or the a''easing the
dis"ontent o him he thin#s more 'otent than himsel) and en"o&rage not to obedien"e! b&t! on the "ontrary! to the
"ontin&an"e and in"reasing o &rther e+tortion$
And whereas some salaries are "ertain! and 'ro"eed rom the '&bli" treas&ry) and others &n"ertain and "as&al!
'ro"eeding rom the e+e"&tion o the oi"e or whi"h the salary is ordained) the latter is in some "ases h&rt&l to the
,ommonwealth! as in the "ase o *&di"at&re$ %or where the beneit o the *&dges! and ministers o a "o&rt o *&sti"e!
ariseth or the m&ltit&de o "a&ses that are bro&ght to their "ogni9an"e! there m&st needs ollow two in"onvenien"es6
one is the no&rishing o s&its) or the more s&its! the greater beneit6 and another that de'ends on that! whi"h is
"ontention whi"h is abo&t *&risdi"tion) ea"h "o&rt drawing to itsel as many "a&ses as it "an$ 5&t in oi"es o
e+e"&tion there are not those in"onvenien"es! be"a&se their em'loyment "annot be in"reased by any endeavo&r o
their own$ And th&s m&"h shall s&i"e or the nat&re o '&nishment and reward) whi"h are! as it were! the nerves and
tendons that move the limbs and *oints o a ,ommonwealth$
Hitherto I have set orth the nat&re o man! whose 'ride and other 'assions have "om'elled him to s&bmit himsel to
government) together with the great 'ower o his governor! whom I "om'ared to LEVIATHAN! ta#ing that
"om'arison o&t o the two last verses o the one7and7ortieth o :ob) where God! having set orth the great 'ower o
Leviathan! "alleth him #ing o the 'ro&d$ FThere is nothing!F saith he! Fon earth to be "om'ared with him$ He is
made so as not to be araid$ He seeth every high thing below him) and is #ing o all the "hildren o 'ride$F 5&t
be"a&se he is mortal! and s&b*e"t to de"ay! as all other earthly "reat&res are) and be"a&se there is that in heaven!
tho&gh not on earth! that he sho&ld stand in ear o! and whose laws he o&ght to obey) I shall in the ne+t ollowing
"ha'ters s'ea# o his diseases and the "a&ses o his mortality! and o what laws o nat&re he is bo&nd to obey$
,HA8TER IIII OF THOSE THINGS THAT WEAKEN OR TEND TO THE DISSOLUTION OF A
COMMONWEALTH
TH-UGH nothing "an be immortal whi"h mortals ma#e) yet! i men had the &se o reason they 'retend to! their
,ommonwealths might be se"&red! at least! rom 'erishing by internal diseases$ %or by the nat&re o their instit&tion!
they are designed to live as long as man#ind! or as the laws o nat&re! or as *&sti"e itsel! whi"h gives them lie$
Thereore when they "ome to be dissolved! not by e+ternal violen"e! b&t intestine disorder! the a&lt is not in men as
they are the matter! b&t as they are the ma#ers and orderers o them$ %or men! as they be"ome at last weary o
irreg&lar *ostling and hewing one another! and desire with all their hearts to "onorm themselves into one irm and
lasting edii"e) so or want both o the art o ma#ing it laws to s2&are their a"tions by! and also o h&mility and
'atien"e to s&er the r&de and "&mbersome 'oints o their 'resent greatness to be ta#en o! they "annot witho&t the
hel' o a very able ar"hite"t be "om'iled into any other than a "ra9y b&ilding! s&"h as! hardly lasting o&t their own
time! m&st ass&redly all &'on the heads o their 'osterity$
Amongst the inirmities thereore o a ,ommonwealth! I will re"#on in the irst 'la"e those that arise rom an
im'ere"t instit&tion! and resemble the diseases o a nat&ral body! whi"h 'ro"eed rom a dee"t&o&s 'ro"reation$
- whi"h this is one6 that a man to obtain a #ingdom is sometimes "ontent with less 'ower than to the 'ea"e and
deen"e o the ,ommonwealth is ne"essarily re2&ired$ %rom when"e it "ometh to 'ass that when the e+er"ise o the
'ower laid by is or the '&bli" saety to be res&med! it hath the resemblan"e o an &n*&st a"t! whi"h dis'oseth great
n&mbers o men! when o""asion is 'resented! to rebel) in the same manner as the bodies o "hildren gotten by
diseased 'arents are s&b*e"t either to &ntimely death! or to '&rge the ill 2&ality derived rom their vi"io&s "on"e'tion!
by brea#ing o&t into biles and s"abs$ And when #ings deny themselves some s&"h ne"essary 'ower! it is not always
(tho&gh sometimes) o&t o ignoran"e o what is ne"essary to the oi"e they &nderta#e! b&t many times o&t o a ho'e
to re"over the same again at their 'leas&re6 wherein they reason not well) be"a&se s&"h as will hold them to their
'romises shall be maintained against them by oreign ,ommonwealths) who in order to the good o their own
s&b*e"ts let sli' ew o""asions to wea#en the estate o their neighbo&rs$ 0o was Thomas 5e"#et! Ar"hbisho' o
,anterb&ry! s&''orted against Henry the 0e"ond by the 8o'e) the s&b*e"tion o e""lesiasti"s to the ,ommonwealth
having been dis'ensed with by /illiam the ,on2&eror at his re"e'tion! when he too# an oath not to inringe the
liberty o the ,h&r"h$ And so were the barons! whose 'ower was by /illiam R&&s! to have their hel' in transerring
the s&""ession rom his elder brother to himsel! in"reased to a degree in"onsistent with the sovereign 'ower!
maintained in their rebellion against 3ing :ohn by the %ren"h$
Nor does this ha''en in monar"hy only$ %or whereas the style o the an"ient Roman ,ommonwealth was! FThe
0enate and 8eo'le o RomeF) neither senate nor 'eo'le 'retended to the whole 'ower) whi"h irst "a&sed the
seditions o Tiberi&s Gra""h&s! ,ai&s Gra""h&s! L&"i&s 0at&rnin&s! and others) and aterwards the wars between the
senate and the 'eo'le &nder .ari&s and 0ylla) and again &nder 8om'ey and ,aesar to the e+tin"tion o their
demo"ra"y and the setting &' o monar"hy$ The 'eo'le o Athens bo&nd themselves b&t rom one only a"tion! whi"h
was that no man on 'ain o death sho&ld 'ro'o&nd the renewing o the war or the island o 0alamis) and yet thereby!
i 0olon had not "a&sed to be given o&t he was mad! and aterwards in gest&re and habit o a madman! and in verse!
'ro'o&nded it to the 'eo'le that lo"#ed abo&t him! they had had an enemy 'er'et&ally in readiness! even at the gates
o their "ity6 s&"h damage! or shits! are all ,ommonwealths or"ed to that have their 'ower never so little limited$
In the se"ond 'la"e! I observe the diseases o a ,ommonwealth that 'ro"eed rom the 'oison o seditio&s do"trines!
whereo one is that every 'rivate man is *&dge o good and evil a"tions$ This is tr&e in the "ondition o mere nat&re!
where there are no "ivil laws) and also &nder "ivil government in s&"h "ases as are not determined by the law$ 5&t
otherwise! it is maniest that the meas&re o good and evil a"tions is the "ivil law) and the *&dge the legislator! who is
always re'resentative o the ,ommonwealth$ %rom this alse do"trine! men are dis'osed to debate with themselves
and dis'&te the "ommands o the ,ommonwealth! and aterwards to obey or disobey them as in their 'rivate
*&dgments they shall thin# it) whereby the ,ommonwealth is distra"ted and wea#ened$
Another do"trine re'&gnant to "ivil so"iety is that whatsoever a man does against his "ons"ien"e is sin) and it
de'endeth on the 'res&m'tion o ma#ing himsel *&dge o good and evil$ %or a man1s "ons"ien"e and his *&dgement
is the same thing) and as the *&dgement! so also the "ons"ien"e may be erroneo&s$ Thereore! tho&gh he that is
s&b*e"t to no "ivil law sinneth in all he does against his "ons"ien"e! be"a&se he has no other r&le to ollow b&t his
own reason! yet it is not so with him that lives in a ,ommonwealth! be"a&se the law is the '&bli" "ons"ien"e by
whi"h he hath already &nderta#en to be g&ided$ -therwise in s&"h diversity as there is o 'rivate "ons"ien"es! whi"h
are b&t 'rivate o'inions! the ,ommonwealth m&st needs be distra"ted! and no man dare to obey the sovereign 'ower
arther than it shall seem good in his own eyes$
It hath been also "ommonly ta&ght that aith and san"tity are not to be attained by st&dy and reason! b&t by
s&'ernat&ral ins'iration or in&sion$ /hi"h granted! I see not why any man sho&ld render a reason o his aith) or
why every ,hristian sho&ld not be also a 'ro'het) or why any man sho&ld ta#e the law o his "o&ntry rather than his
own ins'iration or the r&le o his a"tion$ And th&s we all again into the a&lt o ta#ing &'on &s to *&dge o good and
evil) or to ma#e *&dges o it s&"h 'rivate men as 'retend to be s&'ernat&rally ins'ired! to the dissol&tion o all "ivil
government$ %aith "omes by hearing! and hearing by those a""idents whi"h g&ide &s into the 'resen"e o them that
s'ea# to &s) whi"h a""idents are all "ontrived by God Almighty! and yet are not s&'ernat&ral! b&t only! or the great
n&mber o them that "on"&r to every ee"t! &nobservable$ %aith and san"tity are indeed not very re2&ent) b&t yet
they are not mira"les! b&t bro&ght to 'ass by ed&"ation! dis"i'line! "orre"tion! and other nat&ral ways by whi"h God
wor#eth them in His ele"t! at s&"h time as He thin#eth it$ And these three o'inions! 'erni"io&s to 'ea"e and
government! have in this 'art o the world 'ro"eeded "hiely rom tong&es and 'ens o &nlearned divines) who!
*oining the words o Holy 0"ri't&re together otherwise is agreeable to reason! do what they "an to ma#e men thin#
that san"tity and nat&ral reason "annot stand together$
A o&rth o'inion re'&gnant to the nat&re o a ,ommonwealth is this6 that he that hath the sovereign 'ower is s&b*e"t
to the "ivil laws$ It is tr&e that sovereigns are all s&b*e"t to the laws o nat&re! be"a&se s&"h laws be divine and divine
and "annot by any man or ,ommonwealth be abrogated$ 5&t to those laws whi"h the sovereign himsel! that is!
whi"h the ,ommonwealth! ma#eth! he is not s&b*e"t$ %or to be s&b*e"t to laws is to be to be s&b*e"t to the
,ommonwealth! that is! to the sovereign re'resentative! that is! to himsel whi"h is not s&b*e"tion! b&t reedom rom
the laws$ /hi"h error! be"a&se it setteth the laws above the sovereign! setteth also a *&dge above him! and a 'ower to
'&nish him) whi"h is to ma#e a new sovereign) and again or the same reason a third to '&nish the se"ond) and so
"ontin&ally witho&t end! to the "on&sion and dissol&tion o the ,ommonwealth$
A ith do"trine that tendeth to the dissol&tion o a ,ommonwealth is that every 'rivate man has an absol&te
'ro'riety in his goods! s&"h as e+"l&deth the right o the sovereign$ Every man has indeed a 'ro'riety that e+"l&des
the right o every other s&b*e"t6 and he has it only rom the sovereign 'ower! witho&t the 'rote"tion whereo every
other man sho&ld have right to the same$ 5&t the right o the sovereign also be e+"l&ded! he "annot 'erorm the
oi"e they have '&t him into! whi"h is to deend them both rom oreign enemies and rom the in*&ries o one
another) and "onse2&ently there is no longer a ,ommonwealth$
And i the 'ro'riety o s&b*e"ts e+"l&de not the right o the sovereign re'resentative to their goods) m&"h less! to
their oi"es o *&di"at&re or e+e"&tion in whi"h they re'resent the sovereign himsel$
There is a si+th do"trine! 'lainly and dire"tly against the essen"e o a ,ommonwealth! and it is this6 that the
sovereign 'ower may be divided$ %or what is it to divide the 'ower o a ,ommonwealth! b&t to dissolve it) or
'owers divided m&t&ally destroy ea"h other$ And or these do"trines men are "hiely beholding to some o those that!
ma#ing 'roession o the laws! endeavo&r to ma#e them de'end &'on their own learning! and not &'on the legislative
'ower$
And as alse do"trine! so also otentimes the e+am'le o dierent government in a neighbo&ring nation dis'oseth
men to alteration o the orm already settled$ 0o the 'eo'le o the :ews were stirred &' to re*e"t God! and to "all &'on
the 'ro'het 0am&el or a #ing ater the manner o the nations6 so also the lesser "ities o Gree"e were "ontin&ally
dist&rbed with seditions o the aristo"rati"al and demo"rati"al a"tions) one 'art o almost every ,ommonwealth
desiring to imitate the La"edaemonians) the other! the Athenians$ And I do&bt not b&t many men have been "ontented
to see the late tro&bles in England o&t o an imitation o the Low ,o&ntries! s&''osing there needed no more to grow
ri"h than to "hange! as they had done! the orm o their government$ %or the "onstit&tion o man1s nat&re is o itsel
s&b*e"t to desire novelty6 when thereore they are 'rovo#ed to the same by the neighbo&rhood also o those that have
been enri"hed by it! it is almost im'ossible to be "ontent with those that soli"it them to "hange) and love the irst
beginnings! tho&gh they be grieved with the "ontin&an"e o disorder) li#e hot bloods that! having gotten the it"h! tear
themselves with their own nails till they "an end&re the smart no longer$
And as to rebellion in 'arti"&lar against monar"hy! one o the most re2&ent "a&ses o it is the reading o the boo#s o
'oli"y and histories o the an"ient Gree#s and Romans) rom whi"h yo&ng men! and all others that are &n'rovided o
the antidote o solid reason! re"eiving a strong and delight&l im'ression o the great e+'loits o war a"hieved by the
"ond&"tors o their armies! re"eive withal a 'leasing idea o all they have done besides) and imagine their great
'ros'erity not to have 'ro"eeded rom the em&lation o 'arti"&lar men! b&t rom the virt&e o their 'o'&lar orm o
government not "onsidering the re2&ent seditions and "ivil wars 'rod&"ed by the im'ere"tion o their 'oli"y$ %rom
the reading! I say! o s&"h boo#s! men have &nderta#en to #ill their #ings! be"a&se the Gree# and Latin writers in
their boo#s and dis"o&rses o 'oli"y ma#e it law&l and la&dable or any man so to do! 'rovided beore he do it he
"all him tyrant$ %or they say not regi"ide! that is! #illing o a #ing! b&t tyranni"ide! that is! #illing o a tyrant! is
law&l$ %rom the same boo#s they that live &nder a monar"h "on"eive an the o'inion that the s&b*e"ts in a 'o'&lar
,ommonwealth en*oy liberty! b&t that in a monar"hy they are all slaves$ I say! they that live &nder a monar"hy
"on"eive s&"h an o'inion) not that they live &nder a 'o'&lar government6 or they ind no s&"h matter$ In s&m! I
"annot imagine how anything "an be more 're*&di"ial to a monar"hy than the allowing o s&"h boo#s to be '&bli"ly
read! witho&t 'resent a''lying s&"h "orre"tives o dis"reet masters as are it to ta#e away their venom6 whi"h venom
I will not do&bt to "om'are to the biting o a mad dog! whi"h is a disease that 'hysi"ians "all hydro'hobia! or ear o
water$ %or as he that is so bitten has a "ontin&al torment o thirst! and yet abhorreth water) and is in s&"h an estate as
i the 'oison endeavo&red to "onvert him into a dog) so when a monar"hy is on"e bitten to the 2&i"# by those
demo"rati"al writers that "ontin&ally snarl at that estate! it wanteth nothing more than a strong monar"h! whi"h
nevertheless o&t o a "ertain tyranno'hobia! or ear o being strongly governed! when they have him! they abhor$
As there have been do"tors that hold there be three so&ls in a man) so there be also that thin# there may be more
so&ls! that is! more sovereigns! than one in a ,ommonwealth) and set &' a s&'rema"y against the sovereignty)
"anons against laws) and a ghostly a&thority against the "ivil) wor#ing on men1s minds with words and distin"tions
that o themselves signiy nothing! b&t bewray! by their obs"&rity! that there wal#eth (as some thin# invisibly)
another #ingdom! as it were a #ingdom o airies! in the dar#$ Now seeing it is maniest that the "ivil 'ower and the
'ower o the ,ommonwealth is the same thing) and that s&'rema"y! and the 'ower o ma#ing "anons! and granting
a"&lties! im'lieth a ,ommonwealth) it olloweth that where one is sovereign! another s&'reme) where one "an ma#e
laws! and another ma#e "anons) there m&st needs be two ,ommonwealths! o one and the same s&b*e"ts) whi"h is a
#ingdom divided in itsel! and "annot stand$ %or notwithstanding the insignii"ant distin"tion o tem'oral and
ghostly! they are still two #ingdoms! and every s&b*e"t is s&b*e"t to two masters$ %or seeing the ghostly 'ower
"hallengeth the right to de"lare what is sin! it "hallengeth by "onse2&en"e to de"lare what is law! sin being nothing
b&t the transgression o the law) and again! the "ivil 'ower "hallenging to de"lare what is law! every s&b*e"t m&st
obey two masters! who both will have their "ommands be observed as law! whi"h is im'ossible$ -r! i it be b&t one
#ingdom! either the "ivil! whi"h is the 'ower o the ,ommonwealth! m&st be s&bordinate to the ghostly! and then
there is no sovereignty b&t the ghostly) or the ghostly m&st be s&bordinate to the tem'oral! and then there is no
s&'rema"y b&t the tem'oral$ /hen thereore these two 'owers o''ose one another! the ,ommonwealth "annot b&t
be in great danger o "ivil war and dissol&tion$ %or the "ivil a&thority being more visible! and standing in the "learer
light o nat&ral reason! "annot "hoose b&t draw to it in all times a very "onsiderable 'art o the 'eo'le6 and the
s'irit&al! tho&gh it stand in the dar#ness o 0"hool distin"tions and hard words) yet! be"a&se the ear o dar#ness and
ghosts is greater than other ears! "annot want a 'arty s&i"ient to tro&ble! and sometimes to destroy! a
,ommonwealth$ And this is a disease whi"h not &nitly may be "om'ared to the e'ile'sy! or alling si"#ness (whi"h
the :ews too# to be one #ind o 'ossession by s'irits)! in the body nat&ral$ %or as in this disease there is an &nnat&ral
s'irit or wind in the head that obstr&"teth the roots o the nerves and! moving them violently! ta#eth the motion
whi"h nat&rally they sho&ld have rom the 'ower o the so&l in the brain) thereby "a&seth violent and irreg&lar
motions! whi"h men "all "onv&lsions! in the 'arts) insom&"h as he that is sei9ed therewith alleth down sometimes
into the water! and sometimes into the ire! as a man de'rived o his senses6 so also in the body 'oliti"! when the
s'irit&al 'ower moveth the members o a ,ommonwealth by the terror o '&nishments and ho'e o rewards! whi"h
are the nerves o it! otherwise than by the "ivil 'ower! whi"h is the so&l o the ,ommonwealth! they o&ght to be
moved) and by strange and hard words s&o"ates their &nderstanding) it m&st needs thereby distra"t the 'eo'le! and
either overwhelm the ,ommonwealth with o''ression! or "ast it into the ire o a "ivil war$
0ometimes also in the merely "ivil government there be more than one so&l6 as when the 'ower o levying money!
whi"h is the n&tritive a"&lty! has de'ended on a general assembly) the 'ower o "ond&"t and "ommand! whi"h is the
motive a"&lty! on one man) and the 'ower o ma#ing laws! whi"h is the rational a"&lty! on the a""idental "onsent!
not only o those two! b&t also o a third6 this endangereth the ,ommonwealth! sometimes or want o "onsent to
good laws! b&t most oten or want o s&"h no&rishment as is ne"essary to lie and motion$ %or altho&gh ew 'er"eive
that s&"h government is not government! b&t division o the ,ommonwealth into three a"tions! and "all it mi+ed
monar"hy) yet the tr&th is that it is not one inde'endent ,ommonwealth! b&t three inde'endent a"tions) nor one
re'resentative 'erson! b&t three$ In the #ingdom o God there may be three 'ersons inde'endent! witho&t brea"h o
&nity in God that reigneth) b&t where men reign! that be s&b*e"t to diversity o o'inions! it "annot be so$ And
thereore i the #ing bear the 'erson o the 'eo'le! and the general assembly bear also the 'erson o the 'eo'le! and
another assembly bear the 'erson o a 'art o the 'eo'le! they are not one 'erson! nor one sovereign) b&t three
'ersons! and three sovereigns$
To what disease in the nat&ral body o man I may e+a"tly "om'are this irreg&larity o a ,ommonwealth! I #now not$
5&t I have seen a man that had another man growing o&t o his side! with a head! arms! breast! and stoma"h o his
own6 i he had had another man growing o&t o his other side! the "om'arison might then have been e+a"t$ Hitherto I
have named s&"h diseases o a ,ommonwealth as are o the greatest and most 'resent danger$ There be other! not so
great! whi"h nevertheless are not &nit to be observed$ As irst! the dii"&lty o raising money or the ne"essary &ses
o the ,ommonwealth! es'e"ially in the a''roa"h o war$ This dii"&lty ariseth rom the o'inion that every s&b*e"t
hath o a 'ro'riety in his lands and goods e+"l&sive o the sovereign1s right to the &se o the same$ %rom when"e it
"ometh to 'ass that the sovereign 'ower! whi"h oreseeth the ne"essities and dangers o the ,ommonwealth! inding
the 'assage o money to the '&bli" treas&ry obstr&"ted by the tena"ity o the 'eo'le! whereas it o&ght to e+tend itsel!
to en"o&nter and 'revent s&"h dangers in their beginnings! "ontra"teth itsel as long as it "an! and when it "annot
longer! str&ggles with the 'eo'le by stratagems o law to obtain little s&ms! whi"h! not s&i"ing! he is ain at last
violently to o'en the way or 'resent s&''ly or 'erish) and! being '&t oten to these e+tremities! at last red&"eth the
'eo'le to their d&e tem'er! or else the ,ommonwealth m&st 'erish$ Insom&"h as we may "om'are this distem'er
very a'tly to an ag&e) wherein! the leshy 'arts being "ongealed! or by venomo&s matter obstr&"ted! the veins whi"h
by their nat&ral "o&rse em'ty themselves into the heart! are not (as they o&ght to be) s&''lied rom the arteries!
whereby there s&""eedeth at irst a "old "ontra"tion and trembling o the limbs) and aterwards a hot and strong
endeavo&r o the heart to or"e a 'assage or the blood) and beore it "an do that! "ontenteth itsel with the small
rereshments o s&"h things as "ool or a time! till! i nat&re be strong eno&gh! it brea# at last the "ont&ma"y o the
'arts obstr&"ted! and dissi'ateth the venom into sweat) or! i nat&re be too wea#! the 'atient dieth$
Again! there is sometimes in a ,ommonwealth a disease whi"h resembleth the 'le&risy) and that is when the treas&ry
o the ,ommonwealth! lowing o&t o its d&e "o&rse! is gathered together in too m&"h ab&ndan"e in one or a ew
'rivate men! by mono'olies or by arms o the '&bli" reven&es) in the same manner as the blood in a 'le&risy! getting
into the membrane o the breast! breedeth there an inlammation! a""om'anied with a ever and 'ain&l stit"hes$
Also! the 'o'&larity o a 'otent s&b*e"t! &nless the ,ommonwealth have very good "a&tion o his idelity! is a
dangero&s disease) be"a&se the 'eo'le! whi"h sho&ld re"eive their motion rom the a&thority o the sovereign! by the
lattery and by the re'&tation o an ambitio&s man! are drawn away rom their obedien"e to the laws to ollow a man
o whose virt&es and designs they have no #nowledge$ And this is "ommonly o more danger in a 'o'&lar
government than in a monar"hy! be"a&se an army is o so great or"e and m&ltit&de as it may easily be made believe
they are the 'eo'le$ 5y this means it was that :&li&s ,aesar! who was set &' by the 'eo'le against the senate! having
won to himsel the ae"tions o his army! made himsel master both o senate and 'eo'le$ And this 'ro"eeding o
'o'&lar and ambitio&s men is 'lain rebellion! and may be resembled to the ee"ts o wit"h"rat$
Another inirmity o a ,ommonwealth is the immoderate greatness o a town! when it is able to &rnish o&t o its
own "ir"&it the n&mber and e+'ense o a great army) as also the great n&mber o "or'orations! whi"h are as it were
many lesser ,ommonwealths in the bowels o a greater! li#e worms in the entrails o a nat&ral man$ To may be
added! liberty o dis'&ting against absol&te 'ower by 'retenders to 'oliti"al 'r&den"e) whi"h tho&gh bred or the
most 'art in the lees o the 'eo'le! yet animated by alse do"trines are 'er'et&ally meddling with the &ndamental
laws! to the molestation o the ,ommonwealth! li#e the little worms whi"h 'hysi"ians "all as"arides$
/e may &rther add the insatiable a''etite! or b&limia! o enlarging dominion! with the in"&rable wo&nds thereby
many times re"eived rom the enemy) and the wens! o &n&nited "on2&ests! whi"h are many times a b&rden! and with
less danger lost than #e't) as also the lethargy o ease! and "ons&m'tion o riot and vain e+'ense$
Lastly! when in a war! oreign or intestine! the enemies get a inal vi"tory! so as! the or"es o the ,ommonwealth
#ee'ing the ield no longer! there is no &rther 'rote"tion o s&b*e"ts in their loyalty! then is the ,ommonwealth
dissolved! and every man at liberty to 'rote"t himsel by s&"h "o&rses as his own dis"retion shall s&ggest &nto him$
%or the sovereign is the '&bli" so&l! giving lie and motion to the ,ommonwealth! whi"h e+'iring! the members are
governed by it no more than the "ar"ass o a man by his de'arted! tho&gh immortal! so&l$ %or tho&gh the right o a
sovereign monar"h "annot be e+ting&ished by the a"t o another! yet the obligation o the members may$ %or he that
wants 'rote"tion may see# it anywhere) and! when he hath it! is obliged (witho&t ra&d&lent 'reten"e o having
s&bmitted himsel o&t o ear) to 'rote"t his 'rote"tion as long as he is able$ 5&t when the 'ower o an assembly is
on"e s&''ressed! the right o the same 'erisheth &tterly! be"a&se the assembly itsel is e+tin"t) and "onse2&ently!
there is no 'ossibility or sovereignty to re7enter$
,HA8TER III OF THE OFFICE OF THE SOVEREIGN REPRESENTATIVE
THE oi"e o the sovereign! be it a monar"h or an assembly! "onsisteth in the end or whi"h he was tr&sted with the
sovereign 'ower! namely the 'ro"&ration o the saety o the 'eo'le! to whi"h he is obliged by the law o nat&re! and
to render an a""o&nt thereo to God! the A&thor o that law! and to none b&t Him$ 5&t by saety here is not meant a
bare 'reservation! b&t also all other "ontentments o lie! whi"h every man by law&l ind&stry! witho&t danger or h&rt
to the ,ommonwealth! shall a"2&ire to himsel$ And this is intended sho&ld be done! not by "are a''lied to
individ&als! &rther than their 'rote"tion rom in*&ries when they shall "om'lain) b&t by a general 'roviden"e!
"ontained in '&bli" instr&"tion! both o do"trine and e+am'le) and in the ma#ing and e+e"&ting o good laws to
whi"h individ&al 'ersons may a''ly their own "ases$
And be"a&se! i the essential rights o sovereignty (s'e"iied beore in the eighteenth ,ha'ter) be ta#en away! the
,ommonwealth is thereby dissolved! and every man ret&rneth into the "ondition and "alamity o a war with every
other man! whi"h is the greatest evil that "an ha''en in this lie) it is the oi"e o the sovereign to maintain those
rights entire! and "onse2&ently against his d&ty! irst! to transer to another or to lay rom himsel any o them$ %or he
that deserteth the means deserteth the ends) and he deserteth the means that! being the sovereign! a"#nowledgeth
himsel s&b*e"t to the "ivil laws! and reno&n"eth the 'ower o s&'reme *&di"at&re) or o ma#ing war or 'ea"e by his
own a&thority) or o *&dging o the ne"essities o the ,ommonwealth) or o levying money and soldiers when and as
m&"h as in his own "ons"ien"e he shall *&dge ne"essary) or o ma#ing oi"ers and ministers both o war and 'ea"e)
or o a''ointing tea"hers! and e+amining what do"trines are "onormable or "ontrary to the deen"e! 'ea"e! and good
o the 'eo'le$ 0e"ondly! it is against his d&ty to let the 'eo'le be ignorant or misinormed o the gro&nds and reasons
o those his essential rights! be"a&se thereby men are easy to be sed&"ed and drawn to resist him when the
,ommonwealth shall re2&ire their &se and e+er"ise$
And the gro&nds o these rights have the rather need drater need to be diligently and tr&ly ta&ght! be"a&se they
"annot be maintained by any "ivil law or terror o legal '&nishment$ %or a "ivil law that shall orbid rebellion (and
s&"h is all resistan"e to the essential rights o sovereignty) is not! as a "ivil law! any obligation b&t by virt&e only o
the law o nat&re that orbiddeth the violation o aith) whi"h nat&ral obligation! i men #now not! they "annot #now
the right o any law the sovereign ma#eth$ And or the '&nishment! they ta#e it b&t or an a"t o hostility) whi"h
when they thin# they have strength eno&gh! they will endeavo&r! by a"ts o hostility! to avoid$
As I have heard some say that *&sti"e is b&t a word! witho&t s&bstan"e) and that whatsoever a man "an by or"e or art
a"2&ire to himsel! not only in the "ondition o war! b&t also in a ,ommonwealth! is his own! whi"h I have already
shown to be alse6 so there be also that maintain that there are no gro&nds! nor 'rin"i'les o reason! to s&stain those
essential rights whi"h ma#e sovereignty absol&te$ %or i there were! they wo&ld have been o&nd o&t in some 'la"e
or other) whereas we see there has not hitherto been any ,ommonwealth where those rights have been
a"#nowledged! or "hallenged$ /herein they arg&e as ill! as i the savage 'eo'le o Ameri"a sho&ld deny there were
any gro&nds or 'rin"i'les o reason so to b&ild a ho&se as to last as long as the materials! be"a&se they never yet saw
any so well b&ilt$ Time and ind&stry 'rod&"e every day new #nowledge$ And as the art o well b&ilding is derived
rom 'rin"i'les o reason! observed by ind&strio&s men that had long st&died the nat&re o materials! and the diverse
ee"ts o ig&re and 'ro'ortion! long ater man#ind began! tho&gh 'oorly! to b&ild6 so! long time ater men have
beg&n to "onstit&te ,ommonwealths! im'ere"t and a't to rela'se into disorder! there may 'rin"i'les o reason be
o&nd o&t! by ind&strio&s meditation! to ma#e their "onstit&tion! e+"e'ting by e+ternal violen"e! everlasting$ And
s&"h are those whi"h I have in this dis"o&rse set orth6 whi"h! whether they "ome not into the sight o those that have
'ower to ma#e &se o them! or be negle"ted by them or not! "on"erneth my 'arti"&lar interest! at this day! very little$
5&t s&''osing that these o mine are not s&"h 'rin"i'les o reason) yet I am s&re they are 'rin"i'les rom a&thority o
0"ri't&re! as I shall ma#e it a''ear when I shall "ome to s'ea# o the #ingdom o God! administered by .oses! over
the :ews! His 'e"&liar 'eo'le by "ovenant$
5&t they say again that tho&gh the 'rin"i'les be right! yet "ommon 'eo'le are not o "a'a"ity eno&gh to be made to
&nderstand them$ I sho&ld be glad that the ri"h and 'otent s&b*e"ts o a #ingdom! or those that are a""o&nted the
most learned! were no less in"a'able than they$ 5&t all men #now that the obstr&"tions to this #ind o do"trine
'ro"eed not so m&"h rom the dii"&lty o the matter! as rom the interest o them that are to learn$ 8otent men digest
hardly anything that setteth &' a 'ower to bridle their ae"tions) and learned men! anything that dis"overeth their
errors! and thereby their a&thority6 whereas the "ommon 'eo'le1s minds! &nless they be tainted with de'enden"e on
the 'otent! or s"ribbled over with the o'inions o their do"tors! are li#e "lean 'a'er! it to re"eive whatsoever by
'&bli" a&thority shall be im'rinted in them$ 0hall whole nations be bro&ght to a"2&ies"e in the great mysteries o
,hristian religion! whi"h are above reason) and millions o men be made believe that the same body may be in
inn&merable 'la"es at one and the same time! whi"h is against reason) and shall not men be able! by their tea"hing
and 'rea"hing! 'rote"ted by the law! to ma#e that re"eived whi"h is so "onsonant to reason that any &n're*&di"ated
man needs no more to learn it than to hear it( I "on"l&de thereore that in the instr&"tion o the 'eo'le in the essential
rights whi"h are the nat&ral and &ndamental laws o sovereignty! there is no dii"&lty! whilst a sovereign has his
'ower entire! b&t what 'ro"eeds rom his own a&lt! or the a&lt o those whom he tr&steth in the administration o
the ,ommonwealth) and "onse2&ently! it is his d&ty to "a&se them so to be instr&"ted) and not only his d&ty! b&t his
beneit also! and se"&rity against the danger that may arrive to himsel in his nat&ral 'erson rom rebellion$
And! to des"end to 'arti"&lars! the 'eo'le are to be ta&ght! irst! that they o&ght not to be in love with any orm o
government they see in their neighbo&r nations! more than with their own! nor! whatsoever 'resent 'ros'erity they
behold in nations that are otherwise governed than they! to desire "hange$ %or the 'ros'erity o a 'eo'le r&led by an
aristo"rati"al or demo"rati"al assembly "ometh not rom aristo"ra"y! nor rom demo"ra"y! b&t rom the obedien"e
and "on"ord o the s&b*e"ts6 nor do the 'eo'le lo&rish in a monar"hy be"a&se one man has the right to r&le them! b&t
be"a&se they obey him$ Ta#e away in any #ind o state the obedien"e! and "onse2&ently the "on"ord o the 'eo'le!
and they shall not only not lo&rish! b&t in short time be dissolved$ And they that go abo&t by disobedien"e to do no
more than reorm the ,ommonwealth shall ind they do thereby destroy it) li#e the oolish da&ghters o 8ele&s! in the
able! whi"h desiring to renew the yo&th o their de"re'it ather! did by the "o&nsel o .edea "&t him in 'ie"es and
boil him! together with strange herbs! b&t made not o him a new man$ This desire o "hange is li#e the brea"h o the
irst o God1s ,ommandments6 or there God says! Non habebis 4eos alienos6 FTho& shalt not have the Gods o other
nationsF) and in another 'la"e "on"erning #ings! that they are gods$
0e"ondly! they are to be ta&ght that they o&ght not to be led with admiration o the virt&e o any o their ellow
s&b*e"ts! how high soever he stand! nor how "ons'i"&o&sly soever he shine in the ,ommonwealth) nor o any
assembly! e+"e't the sovereign assembly! so as to deer to them any obedien"e or hono&r a''ro'riate to the
sovereign only! whom! in their 'arti"&lar stations! they re'resent) nor to re"eive any inl&en"e rom them! b&t s&"h as
is "onveyed by them rom the sovereign a&thority$ %or that sovereign "annot be imagined to love his 'eo'le as he
o&ght that is not *ealo&s o them! b&t s&ers them by the lattery o 'o'&lar men to be sed&"ed rom their loyalty! as
they have oten been! not only se"retly! b&t o'enly! so as to 'ro"laim marriage with them in a"ie e""lesiae by
'rea"hers! and by '&blishing the same in the o'en streets6 whi"h may itly be "om'ared to the violation o the se"ond
o the Ten ,ommandments$
Thirdly! in "onse2&en"e to this! they o&ght to be inormed how great a a&lt it is to s'ea# evil o the sovereign
re'resentative! whether one man or an assembly o men) or to arg&e and dis'&te his 'ower! or any way to &se his
name irreverently! whereby he may be bro&ght into "ontem't with his 'eo'le! and their obedien"e! in whi"h the
saety o the ,ommonwealth "onsisteth! sla"#ened$ /hi"h do"trine the third ,ommandment by resemblan"e
'ointeth to$
%o&rthly! seeing 'eo'le "annot be ta&ght this! nor! when it is ta&ght! remember it! nor ater one generation 'ast so
m&"h as #now in whom the sovereign 'ower is 'la"ed! witho&t setting a'art rom their ordinary labo&r some "ertain
times in whi"h they may attend those that are a''ointed to instr&"t them) it is ne"essary that some s&"h times be
determined wherein they may assemble together! and! ater 'rayers and 'raises given to God! the 0overeign o
sovereigns! hear those their d&ties told them! and the 'ositive laws! s&"h as generally "on"ern them all! read and
e+'o&nded! and be '&t in mind o the a&thority that ma#eth them laws$ To this end had the :ews every seventh day a
0abbath! in whi"h the law was read and e+'o&nded) and in the solemnity whereo they were '&t in mind that their
#ing was God) that having "reated the world in si+ days! He rested on the seventh day) and by their resting on it rom
their labo&r! that that God was their #ing! whi"h redeemed them rom their servile and 'ain&l labo&r in Egy't! and
gave them a time! ater they had re*oi"ed in God! to ta#e *oy also in themselves! by law&l re"reation$ 0o that the irst
table o the ,ommandments is s'ent all in setting down the s&m o God1s absol&te 'ower) not only as God! b&t as
3ing by 'a"t! in 'e"&liar! o the :ews) and may thereore give light to those that have sovereign 'ower "onerred on
them by the "onsent o men! to see what do"trine they o&ght to tea"h their s&b*e"ts$
And be"a&se the irst instr&"tion o "hildren de'endeth on the "are o their 'arents! it is ne"essary that they sho&ld be
obedient to them whilst they are &nder their t&ition) and not only so! b&t that also aterwards! as gratit&de re2&ireth!
they a"#nowledge the beneit o their ed&"ation by e+ternal signs o hono&r$ To whi"h end they are to be ta&ght that
originally the ather o every man was also his sovereign lord! with 'ower over him o lie and death) and that the
athers o amilies! when by instit&ting a ,ommonwealth they resigned that absol&te 'ower! yet it was never
intended they sho&ld lose the hono&r d&e &nto them or their ed&"ation$ %or to relin2&ish s&"h right was not
ne"essary to the instit&tion o sovereign 'ower) nor wo&ld there be any reason why any man sho&ld desire to have
"hildren! or ta#e the "are to no&rish and instr&"t them! i they were aterwards to have no other beneit rom them
than rom other men$ And this a""ordeth with the ith ,ommandment$
Again! every sovereign o&ght to "a&se *&sti"e to be ta&ght! whi"h! "onsisting in ta#ing rom no man what is his! is as
m&"h as to say! to "a&se men to be ta&ght not to de'rive their neighbo&rs! by violen"e or ra&d! o anything whi"h by
the sovereign a&thority is theirs$ - things held in 'ro'riety! those that are dearest to a man are his own lie and
limbs) and in the ne+t degree! in most men! those that "on"ern "on*&gal ae"tion) and ater them ri"hes and means o
living$ Thereore the 'eo'le are to be ta&ght to abstain rom violen"e to one another1s 'erson by 'rivate revenges!
rom violation o "on*&gal hono&r! and rom or"ible ra'ine and ra&d&lent s&rre'tion o one another1s goods$ %or
whi"h '&r'ose also it is ne"essary they be shown the evil "onse2&en"es o alse *&dgment! by "orr&'tion either o
*&dges or witnesses! whereby the distin"tion o 'ro'riety is ta#en away! and *&sti"e be"omes o no ee"t6 all whi"h
things are intimated in the si+th! seventh! eighth! and ninth ,ommandments$ Lastly! they are to be ta&ght that not
only the &n*&st a"ts! b&t the designs and intentions to do them! tho&gh by a""ident hindered! are in*&sti"e) whi"h
"onsisteth in the 'ravity o the will! as well as in the irreg&larity o the a"t$ And this is the intention o the tenth
,ommandment! and the s&m o the se"ond table) whi"h is red&"ed all to this one "ommandment o m&t&al "harity!
FTho& shalt love thy neighbo&r as thy selF) as the s&m o the irst table is red&"ed to Fthe love o GodF) whom they
had then newly re"eived as their #ing$
As or the means and "ond&its by whi"h the 'eo'le may re"eive this instr&"tion! we are to sear"h by what means so
many o'inions "ontrary to the 'ea"e o man#ind! &'on wea# and alse 'rin"i'les! have nevertheless been so dee'ly
rooted in them$ I mean those whi"h I have in the 're"edent the 're"edent "ha'ter s'e"iied6 as that men shall *&dge o
what is law&l and &nlaw&l! not by the law itsel! b&t by their own "ons"ien"es) that is to say! by their own 'rivate
*&dgements6 that s&b*e"ts sin in obeying the "ommands o the ,ommonwealth! &nless they themselves have irst
*&dged them to be law&l6 that their 'ro'riety in their ri"hes is s&"h as to e+"l&de the dominion whi"h the
,ommonwealth hath the same6 that it is law&l or s&b*e"ts to #ill s&"h as they "all tyrants6 that the sovereign 'ower
may be divided! and the li#e) whi"h "ome to be instilled into the 'eo'le by this means$ They whom ne"essity or
"oveto&sness #ee'eth attent on their trades and labo&r) and they! on the other side! whom s&'erl&ity or sloth "arrieth
ater their sens&al 'leas&res (whi"h two sorts o men ta#e &' the greatest 'art o man#ind)! being diverted rom the
dee' meditation whi"h the o tr&th! not only in the matter o nat&ral *&sti"e! b&t also o all other s"ien"es ne"essarily
re2&ireth! re"eive the notions o their d&ty "hiely rom divines in the '&l'it! and 'artly rom s&"h o their
neighbo&rs or amiliar a"2&aintan"e as having the a"&lty o dis"o&rsing readily and 'la&sibly seem wiser and better
learned in "ases o law and "ons"ien"e than themselves$ And the divines! and s&"h others as ma#e show o learning!
derive their #nowledge rom the &niversities! and rom the s"hools o law! or rom the boo#s whi"h by men eminent
in those s"hools and &niversities have been '&blished$ It is thereore maniest that the instr&"tion o the 'eo'le
de'endeth wholly on the right tea"hing o yo&th in the &niversities$ 5&t are not! may some man say! the &niversities
o England learned eno&gh already to do that( -r is it! yo& will &nderta#e to tea"h the &niversities( Hard 2&estions$
;et to the irst! I do&bt not to answer6 that till towards the latter end o Henry the Eighth! the 'ower o the 8o'e was
always &'held against the 'ower o the ,ommonwealth! 'rin"i'ally by the &niversities) and that the do"trines by so
many 'rea"hers against the sovereign 'ower o the #ing! and by so many lawyers and others that had their ed&"ation
there! is a s&i"ient arg&ment that! tho&gh the &niversities were not a&thors o those alse do"trines! yet they #new
not how to 'lant the tr&e$ %or in s&"h a "ontradi"tion o o'inions! it is most "ertain that they have not been
s&i"iently instr&"ted) and it is no wonder! i they yet retain a relish o that s&btle li2&or wherewith they were irst
seasoned against the "ivil a&thority$ 5&t to the latter 2&estion! it is not it nor need&l or me to say either aye or no6
or any man that sees what I am doing may easily 'er"eive what I thin#$
The saety o the 'eo'le re2&ireth &rther! rom him or them that have the sovereign 'ower! that *&sti"e be e2&ally
administered to all degrees o 'eo'le) that is! that as well the ri"h and mighty! as 'oor and obs"&re 'ersons! may be
righted o the in*&ries done them) so as the great may have no greater ho'e o im'&nity! when they do violen"e!
dishono&r! or any in*&ry to the meaner sort! than when one o these does the li#e to one o them6 or in this "onsisteth
e2&ity) to whi"h! as being a 're"e't o the law o nat&re! a sovereign is as m&"h s&b*e"t as any o the meanest o his
'eo'le$ All brea"hes o the law are oen"es against the ,ommonwealth6 b&t there be some that are also against
'rivate 'ersons$ Those that "on"ern the ,ommonwealth only may witho&t brea"h o e2&ity be 'ardoned) or every
man may 'ardon what is done against himsel! a""ording to his own dis"retion$ 5&t an oen"e against a 'rivate man
"annot in e2&ity be 'ardoned witho&t the "onsent o him that is in*&red) or reasonable satisa"tion$
The ine2&ality o s&b*e"ts 'ro"eedeth rom the a"ts o sovereign 'ower! and thereore has no more 'la"e in the
'resen"e o the sovereign) that is to say! in a "o&rt o *&sti"e! than the ine2&ality between #ings and their s&b*e"ts in
the 'resen"e o the 3ing o #ings$ The hono&r o great 'ersons is to be val&ed or their benei"en"e! and the aids they
give to men o inerior ran#! or not at all$ And the violen"es! o''ressions! and in*&ries they do are not e+ten&ated! b&t
aggravated! by the greatness o their 'ersons! be"a&se they have least need to "ommit them$ The "onse2&en"es o this
'artiality towards the great 'ro"eed in this manner$ Im'&nity ma#eth insolen"e) insolen"e! hatred) and hatred! an
endeavo&r to '&ll down all o''ressing and "ont&melio&s greatness! tho&gh with the r&in o the ,ommonwealth$
To e2&al *&sti"e a''ertaineth also the e2&al im'osition o ta+es) the e2&ality whereo de'endeth not on the e2&ality
o ri"hes! b&t on the e2&ality o the debt that every man oweth to the ,ommonwealth or his deen"e$ It is not eno&gh
or a man to labo&r or the maintenan"e o his lie) b&t also to ight! i need be! or the se"&ring o his labo&r$ They
m&st either do as the :ews did ater their ret&rn rom "a'tivity! in re7ediying the Tem'le! b&ild with one hand and
hold the sword in the other! or else they m&st hire others to ight or them$ %or the im'ositions that are laid on the
'eo'le by the sovereign 'ower are nothing else b&t the wages d&e to them that hold the '&bli" sword to deend
'rivate men in the e+er"ise o several trades and "allings$ 0eeing then the beneit that every one re"eiveth thereby is
the en*oyment o lie! whi"h is e2&ally dear to 'oor and ri"h! the debt whi"h a 'oor man oweth them that deend his
lie is the same whi"h a ri"h man oweth or the deen"e o his) saving that the ri"h! who have the servi"e o the 'oor!
may be debtors not only or their own 'ersons! b&t or many more$ /hi"h "onsidered! the e2&ality o im'osition
"onsisteth rather in the e2&ality o that whi"h is "ons&med! than o the ri"hes o the 'ersons that "ons&me the same$
%or what reason is there that he whi"h labo&reth m&"h and! s'aring the r&its o his labo&r! "ons&meth little sho&ld
be more "harged than he that! living idly! getteth little and s'endeth all he gets) seeing the one hath no more
'rote"tion rom the ,ommonwealth than the other( 5&t when the im'ositions are laid &'on those things whi"h men
"ons&me! every man 'ayeth e2&ally or what he &seth) nor is the ,ommonwealth dera&ded by the l&+&rio&s waste
o 'rivate men$
And whereas many men! by a""ident inevitable! be"ome &nable to maintain themselves by their labo&r! they o&ght
not to be let to the "harity o 'rivate 'ersons! b&t to be 'rovided or! as ar orth as the ne"essities o nat&re re2&ire!
by the laws o the ,ommonwealth$ %or as it is &n"haritableness in any man to negle"t the im'otent) so it is in the
sovereign o a ,ommonwealth! to e+'ose them to the ha9ard o s&"h &n"ertain "harity$
5&t or s&"h as have strong bodies the "ase is otherwise) they are to be or"ed to wor#) and to avoid the e+"&se o not
inding em'loyment! there o&ght to be s&"h laws as may en"o&rage all manner o arts) as navigation! agri"&lt&re!
ishing! and all manner o man&a"t&re that re2&ires labo&r$ The m&ltit&de o 'oor and yet strong 'eo'le still
in"reasing! they are to be trans'lanted into "o&ntries not s&i"iently inhabited) where nevertheless they are not to
e+terminate those they ind there) b&t "onstrain them to inhabit "loser together! and not range a great deal o gro&nd
to snat"h what they ind! b&t to "o&rt ea"h little 'lot with art and labo&r! to give them their s&stenan"e in d&e season$
And when all the world is over"harged with inhabitants! then the last remedy o all is war! whi"h 'rovideth or every
man! by vi"tory or death$
To the "are o the sovereign belongeth the ma#ing o good laws$ 5&t what is a good law( 5y a good law! I mean not
a *&st law6 or no law "an be &n*&st$ The law is made by the sovereign 'ower! and all that is done by s&"h 'ower is
warranted and owned by every one o the 'eo'le) and that whi"h every man will have so! no man "an say is &n*&st$ It
is in the laws o a ,ommonwealth! as in the laws o gaming6 whatsoever the gamesters all agree on is in*&sti"e to
none o them$ A good law is that whi"h is need&l! or the good o the 'eo'le! and withal 'ers'i"&o&s$
%or the &se o laws (whi"h are b&t r&les a&thori9ed) is not to bind the 'eo'le rom all vol&ntary a"tions! b&t to dire"t
and #ee' them in s&"h a motion as not to h&rt themselves by their own im'et&o&s desires! rashness! or indis"retion)
as hedges are set! not to sto' travellers! b&t to #ee' them in the way$ And thereore a law that is not need&l! having
not the tr&e end o a law! is not good$ A law may be "on"eived to be good when it is or the beneit o the sovereign!
tho&gh it be not ne"essary or the 'eo'le! b&t it is not so$ %or the good o the sovereign and 'eo'le "annot be
se'arated$ It is a wea# sovereign that has wea# s&b*e"ts) and a wea# 'eo'le whose sovereign wanteth 'ower to r&le
them at his will$ Unne"essary laws are not good laws! b&t tra's or money whi"h! where the right o sovereign 'ower
is a"#nowledged! are s&'erl&o&s) and where it is not a"#nowledged! ins&i"ient to deend the 'eo'le$
The 'ers'i"&ity "onsisteth not so m&"h in the words o the law itsel! as in a de"laration o the "a&ses and motives
or whi"h it was made$ That is it that shows &s the meaning o the legislator) and the meaning o the legislator
#nown! the law is more easily &nderstood by ew than many words$ %or all words are s&b*e"t to ambig&ity) and
thereore m&lti'li"ation o words in the body o the law is m&lti'li"ation o ambig&ity6 besides it seems to im'ly! by
too m&"h diligen"e! that whosoever "an evade the words is witho&t the "om'ass o the law$ And this is a "a&se o
many &nne"essary 'ro"esses$ %or when I "onsider how short were the laws o an"ient times! and how they grew by
degrees still longer! methin#s I see a "ontention between the 'enners and 'leaders o the law) the ormer see#ing to
"ir"&ms"ribe the latter! and the latter to evade their "ir"&ms"ri'tions) and that the 'leaders have got the vi"tory$ It
belongeth thereore to the oi"e o a legislator (s&"h as is in all ,ommonwealths the s&'reme re'resentative! be it
one man or an assembly) to ma#e the reason 'ers'i"&o&s why the law was made! and the body o the law itsel as
short! b&t in as 'ro'er and signii"ant terms! as may be$
It belongeth also to the oi"e o the sovereign to ma#e a right a''li"ation o '&nishments and rewards$ And seeing
the end o '&nishing is not revenge and dis"harge o "holer! b&t "orre"tion either o the oender or o others by his
e+am'le! the severest '&nishments are to be inli"ted or those "rimes that are o most danger to the '&bli") s&"h as
are those whi"h 'ro"eed rom mali"e to the government established) those that s'ring rom "ontem't o *&sti"e) those
that 'rovo#e indignation in the m&ltit&de) and those whi"h! &n'&nished! seem a&thori9ed! as when they are
"ommitted by sons! servants! or avo&rites o men in a&thority6 or indignation "arrieth men! not only against the
a"tors and a&thors o in*&sti"e! b&t against all 'ower that is li#ely to 'rote"t them) as in the "ase o Tar2&in! when or
the insolent a"t o one o his sons he was driven o&t o Rome! and the monar"hy itsel dissolved$ 5&t "rimes o
inirmity) s&"h as are those whi"h 'ro"eed rom great 'rovo"ation! rom great ear! great need! or rom ignoran"e
whether the a"t be a great "rime or not! there is 'la"e many times or lenity! witho&t 're*&di"e to the
,ommonwealth) and lenity! when there is s&"h 'la"e or it! is re2&ired by the law o nat&re$ The '&nishment o the
leaders and tea"hers in a "ommotion) not the 'oor sed&"ed 'eo'le! when they are '&nished! "an 'roit the
,ommonwealth by their e+am'le$ To be severe to 'eo'le is to '&nish ignoran"e whi"h may in great 'art be im'&ted
to the sovereign! whose a&lt it was they were no better instr&"ted$
In li#e manner it belongeth to the oi"e and d&ty o the sovereign to a''ly his rewards always so as there may arise
rom them beneit to the ,ommonwealth6 wherein "onsisteth their &se and end) and is then done when they that have
well served the ,ommonwealth are! with as little e+'ense o the "ommon treas&ry as is 'ossible! so well
re"om'ensed as others thereby may be en"o&raged! both to serve the same as aith&lly as they "an! and to st&dy the
arts by whi"h they may be enabled to do it better$ To b&y with money or 'reerment! rom a 'o'&lar ambitio&s
s&b*e"t to be 2&iet and desist rom ma#ing ill im'ressions in the minds o the 'eo'le! has nothing o the nat&re o
reward (whi"h is ordained not or disservi"e! b&t or servi"e 'ast)) nor a sign o gratit&de! b&t o ear) nor does it tend
to the beneit! b&t to the damage o the '&bli"$ It is a "ontention with ambition! that o Her"&les with the monster
Hydra! whi"h! having many heads! or every one that was van2&ished there grew &' three$ %or in li#e manner! when
the st&bbornness o one 'o'&lar man is over"ome with reward! there arise many more by the e+am'le! that do the
same mis"hie in ho'e o li#e beneit6 and as all sorts o man&a"t&re! so also mali"e in"reaseth by being vendible$
And tho&gh sometimes a "ivil war may be deerred by s&"h ways as that! yet the danger grows still the greater! and
the '&bli" r&in more ass&red$ It is thereore against the d&ty o the sovereign! to whom the '&bli" saety is
"ommitted! to reward those that as'ire to greatness by dist&rbing the 'ea"e o their "o&ntry! and not rather to o''ose
the beginnings o s&"h men with a little danger! than ater a longer time with greater$
Another b&siness o the sovereign is to "hoose good "o&nsellors) I mean s&"h whose advi"e he is to ta#e in the
government o the ,ommonwealth$ %or this word "o&nsel ("onsili&m! "orr&'ted rom "onsidi&m) is o a large
signii"ation! and "om'rehendeth all assemblies o men that sit together! not only to deliberate what is to be done
hereater! b&t also to *&dge o a"ts 'ast! and o law or the 'resent$ I ta#e it here in the irst sense only6 and in this
sense! there is no "hoi"e o "o&nsel! neither in a demo"ra"y nor aristo"ra"y) be"a&se the 'ersons "o&nselling are
members o the 'erson "o&nselled$ The "hoi"e o "o&nsellors thereore is 'ro'er to monar"hy! in whi"h the sovereign
that endeavo&reth not to ma#e "hoi"e o those that in every #ind are the most able! dis"hargeth not his oi"e as he
o&ght to do$ The most able "o&nsellors are they that have least ho'e o beneit by giving evil "o&nsel! and most
#nowledge o those things that "ond&"e to the 'ea"e and deen"e o the ,ommonwealth$ It is a hard matter to #now
who e+'e"teth beneit rom '&bli" tro&bles) b&t the signs that g&ide to a *&st s&s'i"ion is the soothing o the 'eo'le
in their &nreasonable or irremediable grievan"es by men whose estates are not s&i"ient to dis"harge their
a""&stomed e+'enses! and may easily be observed by any one whom it "on"erns to #now it$ 5&t to #now who has
most #nowledge o the '&bli" aairs is yet harder) and they that #now them need them a great deal the less$ %or to
#now who #nows the r&les almost o any art is a great degree o the #nowledge o the same art! be"a&se no man "an
be ass&red o the tr&th o another1s r&les b&t he that is irst ta&ght to &nderstand them$ 5&t the best signs o
#nowledge o any art are m&"h "onversing in it and "onstant good ee"ts o it$ Good "o&nsel "omes not by lot! nor
by inheritan"e) and thereore there is no more reason to e+'e"t good advi"e rom the ri"h or noble in matter o state!
than in delineating the dimensions o a ortress) &nless we shall thin# there needs no method in the st&dy o the
'oliti"s! as there does in the st&dy o geometry! b&t only to be loo#ers on) whi"h is not so$ %or the 'oliti"s is the
harder st&dy o the two$ /hereas in these 'arts o E&ro'e it hath been ta#en or a right o "ertain 'ersons to have
'la"e in the highest "o&n"il o state by inheritan"e! it derived rom the "on2&ests o the an"ient Germans) wherein
many absol&te lords! *oining together to "on2&er other nations! wo&ld not enter into the "onedera"y witho&t s&"h
'rivileges as might be mar#s o dieren"e! in time ollowing! between their 'osterity and the 'osterity o their
s&b*e"ts) whi"h 'rivileges being in"onsistent with the sovereign 'ower! by the avo&r o the sovereign they may
seem to #ee') b&t "ontending or them as their right! they m&st needs by degrees let them go! and have at last no
&rther hono&r than adhereth nat&rally to their abilities$
And how able soever be the "o&nsellors in any aair! the beneit o their "o&nsel is greater when they give every one
his advi"e! and the reasons o it a'art! than when they do it in an assembly by way o orations) and when they have
'remeditated! than when they s'ea# on the s&dden) both be"a&se they have more time to s&rvey the "onse2&en"es o
a"tion! and are less s&b*e"t to be "arried away to "ontradi"tion thro&gh envy! em&lation! or other 'assions arising
rom the dieren"e o o'inion$
The best "o&nsel! in those things that "on"ern not other nations! b&t only the ease and beneit the s&b*e"ts may en*oy!
by laws that loo# only inward! is to be ta#en rom the general inormations and "om'laints o the 'eo'le o ea"h
'rovin"e! who are best a"2&ainted with their own wants! and o&ght thereore! when they demand nothing in
derogation o the essential rights o sovereignty! to be diligently ta#en noti"e o$ %or witho&t those essential rights! as
I have oten beore said! the ,ommonwealth "annot at all s&bsist$ A "ommander o an army in "hie! i he be not
'o'&lar! shall not be beloved! nor eared as he o&ght to be by his army! and "onse2&ently "annot 'erorm that oi"e
with good s&""ess$ He m&st thereore be ind&strio&s! valiant! aable! liberal and ort&nate! that he may gain an
o'inion both o s&i"ien"y and o loving his soldiers$ This is 'o'&larity! and breeds in the soldiers both desire and
"o&rage to re"ommend themselves to his avo&r) and 'rote"ts the severity o the general! in '&nishing! when need is!
the m&tino&s or negligent soldiers$ 5&t this love o soldiers! i "a&tion be not given o the "ommander1s idelity! is a
dangero&s thing to sovereign 'ower) es'e"ially when it is in the hands o an assembly not 'o'&lar$ It belongeth
thereore to the saety o the 'eo'le! both that they be good "ond&"tors and aith&l s&b*e"ts! to whom the sovereign
"ommits his armies$
5&t when the sovereign himsel is 'o'&lar) that is! reveren"ed and beloved o his 'eo'le! there is no danger at all
rom the 'o'&larity o a s&b*e"t$ %or soldiers are never so generally &n*&st as to side with their "a'tain! tho&gh they
love him! against their sovereign! when they love not only his 'erson! b&t also his "a&se$ And thereore those who by
violen"e have at any time s&''ressed the 'ower o their law&l sovereign! beore they "o&ld settle themselves in his
'la"e! have been always '&t to the tro&ble o "ontriving their titles to save the 'eo'le rom the shame o re"eiving
them$ To have a #nown right to sovereign 'ower is so 'o'&lar a 2&ality as he that has it needs no more! or his own
'art! to t&rn the hearts o his s&b*e"ts to him! b&t that they see him able absol&tely to govern his own amily6 nor! on
the 'art o his enemies! b&t a disbanding o their armies$ %or the greatest and most a"tive 'art o man#ind has never
hitherto been well "ontented with the 'resent$
,on"erning the oi"es o one sovereign to another! whi"h are "om'rehended in that law whi"h is "ommonly "alled
the law o nations! I need not say anything in this 'la"e! be"a&se the law o nations and the law o nat&re is the same
thing$ And every sovereign hath the same right in 'ro"&ring the saety o his 'eo'le! that any 'arti"&lar man "an have
in 'ro"&ring the saety o his own body$ And the same law that di"tateth to men that have no "ivil government what
they o&ght to do! and what to avoid in regard o one another! di"tateth the same to ,ommonwealths) that is! to the
"ons"ien"es o sovereign 'rin"es and sovereign assemblies) there being no "o&rt o nat&ral *&sti"e! b&t in the
"ons"ien"e only! where not man! b&t God reigneth) whose laws! s&"h o them as oblige all man#ind! in res'e"t o
God! as he is the A&thor o nat&re! are nat&ral) and in res'e"t o the same God! as he is 3ing o #ings! are laws$ 5&t
o the #ingdom o God! as 3ing o #ings! and as 3ing also o a 'e"&liar 'eo'le! I shall s'ea# in the rest o this
dis"o&rse$
,HA8TER IIII OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD BY NATURE
THAT the "ondition o mere nat&re! that is to say! o absol&te liberty! s&"h as is theirs that neither are sovereigns nor
s&b*e"ts! is anar"hy and the "ondition o war6 that the 're"e'ts! by whi"h men are g&ided to avoid that "ondition! are
the laws o nat&re6 that a ,ommonwealth witho&t sovereign 'ower is b&t a word witho&t s&bstan"e and "annot stand6
that s&b*e"ts owe to sovereigns sim'le obedien"e in all things wherein their obedien"e is not re'&gnant to the laws o
God! I have s&i"iently 'roved in that whi"h I have already written$ There wants only! or the entire #nowledge o
"ivil d&ty! to #now what are those laws o God$ %or witho&t that! a man #nows not! when he is "ommanded anything
by the "ivil 'ower! whether it be "ontrary to the law o God or not6 and so! either by too m&"h "ivil obedien"e
oends the 4ivine .a*esty! or! thro&gh ear o oending God! transgresses the "ommandments o the
,ommonwealth$ To avoid both these ro"#s! it is ne"essary to #now what are the laws divine$ And seeing the
#nowledge o all law de'endeth on the #nowledge o the sovereign 'ower! I shall say something in that whi"h
olloweth o the 3ING4-. -% G-4$
FGod is 3ing! let the earth re*oi"e!FE saith the 'salmist$ And again! FGod is 3ing tho&gh the nations be angry) and he
that sitteth on the "her&bim! tho&gh the earth be moved$FE(@) /hether men will or not! they m&st be s&b*e"t always
to the divine 'ower$ 5y denying the e+isten"e or 'roviden"e o God! men may sha#e o their ease! b&t not their
yo#e$ 5&t to "all this 'ower o God! whi"h e+tendeth itsel not only to man! b&t also to beasts! and 'lants! and bodies
inanimate! by the name o #ingdom! is b&t a meta'hori"al &se o the word$ %or he only is 'ro'erly said to reign that
governs his s&b*e"ts by his word and by 'romise o rewards to those that obey it! by threatening them with
'&nishment that obey it not$ 0&b*e"ts thereore in the #ingdom o God are not bodies inanimate! nor "reat&res
irrational) be"a&se they &nderstand no 're"e'ts as his6 nor atheists! nor they that believe not that God has any "are o
the a"tions o man#ind) be"a&se they a"#nowledge no word or his! nor have ho'e o his rewards! or ear o his
threatenings$ They thereore that believe there is a God that governeth the world! and hath given 're"e'ts! and
'ro'o&nded rewards and '&nishments to man#ind! are God1s s&b*e"ts) all the rest are to be &nderstood as enemies$ E
8salms! HD$ ? E(@) Ibid$! HH$ ?
To r&le by words re2&ires that s&"h words be maniestly made #nown) or else they are no laws6 or to the nat&re o
laws belongeth a s&i"ient and "lear 'rom&lgation! s&"h as may ta#e away the e+"&se o ignoran"e) whi"h in the
laws o men is b&t o one only #ind! and that is! 'ro"lamation or 'rom&lgation by the voi"e o man$ 5&t God
de"lareth his laws three ways) by the di"tates o nat&ral reason! by revelation! and by the voi"e o some man to
whom! by the o'eration o mira"les! he 'ro"&reth "redit with the rest$ %rom hen"e there ariseth a tri'le word o God!
rational! sensible! and 'ro'heti") to whi"h "orres'ondeth a tri'le hearing6 right reason! sense s&'ernat&ral! and aith$
As or sense s&'ernat&ral! whi"h "onsisteth in revelation or ins'iration! there have not been any &niversal laws so
given! be"a&se God s'ea#eth not in that manner b&t to 'arti"&lar 'ersons! and to diverse men diverse things$
%rom the dieren"e between the other two #inds o God1s word! rational and 'ro'heti"! there may be attrib&ted to
God a twoold #ingdom! nat&ral and 'ro'heti"6 nat&ral! wherein He governeth as many o man#ind as a"#nowledge
His 'roviden"e! by the nat&ral di"tates o right reason) and 'ro'heti"! wherein having "hosen o&t one 'e"&liar nation!
the :ews! or His s&b*e"ts! He governed them! and none b&t them! not only by nat&ral reason! b&t by 'ositive laws!
whi"h He gave them by the mo&ths o His holy 'ro'hets$ - the nat&ral #ingdom o God I intend to s'ea# in this
"ha'ter$
The right o nat&re whereby God reigneth over men! and '&nisheth those that brea# his laws! is to be derived! not
rom His "reating them! as i He re2&ired obedien"e as o gratit&de or His beneits! b&t rom His irresistible 'ower$ I
have ormerly shown how the sovereign right ariseth rom 'a"t6 to show how the same right may arise rom nat&re
re2&ires no more b&t to show in what "ase it is never ta#en away$ 0eeing all men by nat&re had right to all things!
they had right every one to reign over all the rest$ 5&t be"a&se this right "o&ld not be obtained by or"e! it "on"erned
the saety o every one! laying by that right! to set &' men! with sovereign a&thority! by "ommon "onsent! to r&le and
deend them6 whereas i there had been any man o 'ower irresistible! there had been no reason why he sho&ld not
by that 'ower have r&led and deended both himsel and them! a""ording to his own dis"retion$ To those thereore
whose 'ower is irresistible! the dominion o all men adhereth nat&rally by their e+"ellen"e o 'ower) and
"onse2&ently it is rom that 'ower that the #ingdom over men! and the right o ali"ting men at his 'leas&re!
belongeth nat&rally to God Almighty) not as ,reator and gra"io&s! b&t as omni'otent$ And tho&gh '&nishment be d&e
or sin only! be"a&se by that word is &nderstood ali"tion or sin) yet the right o ali"ting is not always derived
rom men1s sin! b&t rom God1s 'ower$
This 2&estion6 why evil men oten 'ros'er) and good men s&er adversity! has been m&"h dis'&ted by the an"ient!
and is the same with this o o&rs6 by what right God dis'enseth the 'ros'erities and adversities o this lie) and is o
that dii"&lty! as it hath sha#en the aith! not only o the v&lgar! b&t o 'hiloso'hers and! whi"h is more! o the saints!
"on"erning the 4ivine 8roviden"e$ FHow good!F saith 4avid! Fis the God o Israel to those that are &'right in heart)
and yet my eet were almost gone! my treadings had well7nigh sli''ed) or I was grieved at the wi"#ed! when I saw
the &ngodly in s&"h 'ros'erity$FE And :ob! how earnestly does he e+'ost&late with God or the many ali"tions he
s&ered! notwithstanding his righteo&sness( This 2&estion in the "ase o :ob is de"ided by God Himsel! not by
arg&ments derived rom :ob1s sin! b&t His own 'ower$ %or whereas the riends o :ob drew their arg&ments rom his
ali"tion to his sin! and he deended himsel by the "ons"ien"e o his inno"en"e! God Himsel ta#eth &' the matter!
and having *&stiied the ali"tion by arg&ments drawn rom His 'ower! s&"h as this! F/here wast tho& when I laid
the o&ndations o the earth!FE(@) and the li#e! both a''roved :ob1s inno"en"e and re'roved the erroneo&s do"trine o
his riends$ ,onormable to this do"trine is the senten"e o o&r 0avio&r "on"erning the man that was born blind! in
these words! FNeither hath this man sinned! nor his athers) b&t that the wor#s o God might be made maniest in
him$F And tho&gh it be said! Fthat death entered into the world by sin!F (by whi"h is meant that i Adam had never
sinned! he had never died! that is! never s&ered any se'aration o his so&l rom his body)! it ollows not then"e that
God "o&ld not *&stly have ali"ted him! tho&gh he had not sinned! as well as He ali"teth other living "reat&res that
"annot sin$ E 8salms! D=$ ?7= E(@) :ob! =G$ A
Having s'o#en o the right o God1s sovereignty as gro&nded only on nat&re! we are to "onsider ne+t what are the
divine laws! or di"tates o nat&ral reason) whi"h laws "on"ern either the nat&ral d&ties o one man to another! or the
hono&r nat&rally d&e to o&r 4ivine 0overeign$ The irst are the same laws o nat&re! o whi"h I have s'o#en already
in the o&rteenth and iteenth ,ha'ters o this treatise) namely! e2&ity! *&sti"e! mer"y! h&mility! and the rest o the
moral virt&es$ It remaineth thereore that we "onsider what 're"e'ts are di"tated to men by their nat&ral reason only!
witho&t other word o God! to&"hing the hono&r and worshi' o the 4ivine .a*esty$
Hono&r "onsisteth in the inward tho&ght and o'inion o the 'ower and goodness o another6 and thereore to hono&r
God is to thin# as highly o His 'ower and goodness as is 'ossible$ And o that o'inion! the e+ternal signs a''earing
in the words and a"tions o men are "alled worshi') whi"h is one 'art o that whi"h the Latins &nderstand by the
word "&lt&s6 or "&lt&s signiieth 'ro'erly! and "onstantly! that labo&r whi"h a man bestows on anything with a
'&r'ose to ma#e beneit by it$ Now those things whereo we ma#e beneit are either s&b*e"t to &s! and the 'roit they
yield olloweth the labo&r we bestow &'on them as a nat&ral ee"t) or they are not s&b*e"t to &s! b&t answer o&r
labo&r a""ording to their own wills$ In the irst sense the labo&r bestowed on the earth is "alled "&lt&re) and the
ed&"ation o "hildren! a "&lt&re o their minds$ In the se"ond sense! where men1s wills are to be wro&ght to o&r
'&r'ose! not by or"e! b&t by "om'laisan"e! it signiieth as m&"h as "o&rting! that is! winning o avo&r by good
oi"es) as by 'raises! by a"#nowledging their 'ower! and by whatsoever is 'leasing to them rom whom we loo# or
any beneit$ And this is 'ro'erly worshi'6 in whi"h sense '&bli"ola is &nderstood or a worshi''er o the 'eo'le) and
"&lt&s 4ei! or the worshi' o God$
%rom internal hono&r! "onsisting in the o'inion o 'ower and goodness! arise three 'assions) love! whi"h hath
reeren"e to goodness) and ho'e! and ear! that relate to 'ower6 and three 'arts o e+ternal worshi') 'raise!
magniying! and blessing6 the s&b*e"t o 'raise being goodness) the s&b*e"t o magniying and blessing being 'ower!
and the ee"t thereo eli"ity$ 8raise and magniying are signiied both by words and a"tions6 by words! when we say
a man is good or great) by a"tions! when we than# him or his bo&nty! and obey his 'ower$ The o'inion o the
ha''iness o another "an only be e+'ressed by words$
There be some signs o hono&r! both in attrib&tes and a"tions! that be nat&rally so) as amongst attrib&tes! good! *&st!
liberal! and the li#e) and amongst a"tions! 'rayers! than#s! and obedien"e$ -thers are so by instit&tion! or "&stom o
men) and in some times and 'la"es are hono&rable) in others! dishono&rable) in others! indierent6 s&"h as are the
gest&res in sal&tation! 'rayer! and than#sgiving! in dierent times and 'la"es! dierently &sed$ The ormer is nat&ral)
the latter arbitrary worshi'$
And o arbitrary worshi'! there be two dieren"es6 or sometimes it is "ommanded! sometimes vol&ntary worshi'6
"ommanded! when it is s&"h as he re2&ireth who is worshi''ed6 ree! when it is s&"h as the worshi''er thin#s it$
/hen it is "ommanded! not the words or gest&re! b&t the obedien"e is the worshi'$ 5&t when ree! the worshi'
"onsists in the o'inion o the beholders6 or i to them the words or a"tions by whi"h we intend hono&r seem
ridi"&lo&s! and tending to "ont&mely) they are no worshi'! be"a&se no signs o hono&r) and no signs o hono&r!
be"a&se a sign is not a sign to him that giveth it! b&t to him to whom it is made! that is! to the s'e"tator$
Again there is a '&bli" an 'rivate worshi'$ 8&bli" is the worshi' that a ,ommonwealth 'erormeth! as one 'erson$
8rivate is that whi"h a 'rivate 'erson e+hibiteth$ 8&bli"! in res'e"t o the whole ,ommonwealth! is ree) b&t in
res'e"t o 'arti"&lar men it is not so$ 8rivate is in se"ret ree) b&t in the sight o the m&ltit&de it is never witho&t
some restraint! either rom the laws or rom the o'inion o men) whi"h is "ontrary to the nat&re o liberty$
The end o worshi' amongst men is 'ower$ %or where a man seeth another worshi''ed! he s&''oseth him 'ower&l!
and is the readier to obey him) whi"h ma#es his 'ower greater$ 5&t God has no ends6 the worshi' we do him
'ro"eeds rom o&r d&ty and is dire"ted a""ording to o&r "a'a"ity by those r&les o hono&r that reason di"tateth to be
done by the wea# to the more 'otent men! in ho'e o beneit! or ear o damage! or in than#&lness or good already
re"eived rom them$
That we may #now what worshi' o God is ta&ght &s by the light o nat&re! I will begin with His attrib&tes$ /here!
irst! it is maniest! we o&ght to attrib&te to Him e+isten"e6 or no man "an have the will to hono&r that whi"h he
thin#s not to have any being$
0e"ondly! that those 'hiloso'hers who said the world! or the so&l o the world! was God s'a#e &nworthily o Him!
and denied His e+isten"e6 or by God is &nderstood the "a&se o the world) and to say the world is God is to say there
is no "a&se o it! that is! no God$
Thirdly! to say the world was not "reated! b&t eternal! seeing that whi"h is eternal has no "a&se! is to deny there is a
God$
%o&rthly! that they who! attrib&ting! as they thin#! ease to God! ta#e rom Him the "are o man#ind! ta#e rom Him
his hono&r6 or it ta#es away men1s love and ear o Him! whi"h is the root o hono&r$
%ithly! in those things that signiy greatness and 'ower! to say He is inite is not to hono&r Him6 or it is not a sign o
the will to hono&r God to attrib&te to Him less than we "an) and inite is less than we "an! be"a&se to inite it is easy
to add more$
Thereore to attrib&te ig&re to Him is not hono&r) or all ig&re is inite6
Nor to say we "on"eive! and imagine! or have an idea o Him in o&r mind) or whatsoever we "on"eive is inite6
Nor to attrib&te to Him 'arts or totality) whi"h are the attrib&tes only o things inite6
Nor to say He is in this or that 'la"e) or whatsoever is in 'la"e is bo&nded and inite6
Nor that He is moved or resteth) or both these attrib&tes as"ribe to Him 'la"e6
Nor that there be more gods than one! be"a&se it im'lies them all inite) or there "annot be more than one ininite6
Nor to as"ribe to Him (&nless meta'hori"ally! meaning not the 'assion! b&t the ee"t) 'assions that 'arta#e o grie)
as re'entan"e! anger! mer"y6 or o want) as a''etite! ho'e! desire) or o any 'assive a"&lty6 or 'assion is 'ower
limited by somewhat else$
And thereore when we as"ribe to God a will! it is not to be &nderstood! as that o man! or a rational a''etite) b&t as
the 'ower by whi"h He ee"teth everything$
Li#ewise when we attrib&te to Him sight! and other a"ts o sense) as also #nowledge and &nderstanding) whi"h in &s
is nothing else b&t a t&m&lt o the mind! raised by e+ternal things that 'ress the organi"al 'arts o man1s body6 or
there is no s&"h thing in God! and! being things that de'end on nat&ral "a&ses! "annot be attrib&ted to Him$
He that will attrib&te to God nothing b&t what is warranted by nat&ral reason m&st either &se s&"h negative attrib&tes
as ininite! eternal! in"om'rehensible) or s&'erlatives! as most high! most great! and the li#e) or indeinite! as good!
*&st! holy! "reator) and in s&"h sense as i He meant not to de"lare what He is (or that were to "ir"&ms"ribe Him
within the limits o o&r an"y)! b&t how m&"h we admire Him! and how ready we wo&ld be to obey Him) whi"h is a
sign o h&mility! and o a will to hono&r Him as m&"h as we "an6 or there is b&t one name to signiy o&r "on"e'tion
o His nat&re! and that is I A.) and b&t one name o His relation to &s! and that is God! in whi"h is "ontained ather!
#ing! and lord$
,on"erning the a"tions o divine worshi'! it is a most general 're"e't o reason that they be signs o the intention to
hono&r God) s&"h as are! irst! 'rayers6 or not the "arvers! when they made images! were tho&ght to ma#e them
gods! b&t the 'eo'le that 'rayed to them$
0e"ondly! than#sgiving) whi"h diereth rom 'rayer in divine worshi' no otherwise than that 'rayers 're"ede! and
than#s s&""eed! the beneit! the end both o the one and the other being to a"#nowledge God or a&thor o all beneits
as well 'ast as &t&re$
Thirdly! gits) that is to say! sa"rii"es and oblations! i they be o the best! are signs o hono&r! or they are
than#sgivings$
%o&rthly! not to swear by any b&t God is nat&rally a sign o hono&r! or it is a "onession that God only #noweth the
heart and that no man1s wit or strength "an 'rote"t a man against God1s vengean"e on the 'er*&red$
%ithly! it is a 'art o rational worshi' to s'ea# "onsiderately o God! or it arg&es a ear o Him! and ear is a
"onession o His 'ower$ Hen"e olloweth! that the name o God is not to be &sed rashly and to no '&r'ose) or that
is as m&"h as in vain6 and it is to no '&r'ose &nless it be by way o oath! and by order o the ,ommonwealth! to
ma#e *&dgements "ertain) or between ,ommonwealths! to avoid war$ And that dis'&ting o God1s nat&re is "ontrary
to His hono&r! or it is s&''osed that in this nat&ral #ingdom o God! there is no other way to #now anything b&t by
nat&ral reason) that is! rom the 'rin"i'les o nat&ral s"ien"e) whi"h are so ar rom tea"hing &s anything o God1s
nat&re! as they "annot tea"h &s o&r own nat&re! nor the nat&re o the smallest "reat&re living$ And thereore! when
men o&t o the 'rin"i'les o nat&ral reason dis'&te o the attrib&tes o God! they b&t dishono&r Him6 or in the
attrib&tes whi"h we give to God! we are not to "onsider the signii"ation o 'hiloso'hi"al tr&th! b&t the signii"ation
o 'io&s intention to do Him the greatest hono&r we are able$ %rom the want o whi"h "onsideration have 'ro"eeded
the vol&mes o dis'&tation abo&t the nat&re o God that tend not to His hono&r! b&t to the hono&r o o&r own wits and
learning) and are nothing else b&t in"onsiderate and vain ab&ses o His sa"red name$
0i+thly! in 'rayers! than#sgiving! oerings and sa"rii"es! it is a di"tate o nat&ral reason that they be every one in his
#ind the best and most signii"ant o hono&r$ As! or e+am'le! that 'rayers and than#sgiving be made in words and
'hrases not s&dden! nor light! nor 'lebeian! b&t bea&ti&l and well "om'osed) or else we do not God as m&"h hono&r
as we "an$ And thereore the heathens did abs&rdly to worshi' images or gods! b&t their doing it in verse! and with
m&si"! both o voi"e and instr&ments! was reasonable$ Also that the beasts they oered in sa"rii"e! and the gits they
oered! and their a"tions in worshi''ing! were &ll o s&bmission! and "ommemorative o beneits re"eived! was
a""ording to reason! as 'ro"eeding rom an intention to hono&r him$
0eventhly! reason dire"teth not only to worshi' God in se"ret! b&t also! and es'e"ially! in '&bli"! and in the sight o
men6 or witho&t that! that whi"h in hono&r is most a""e'table! the 'ro"&ring others to hono&r Him is lost$
Lastly! obedien"e to His laws (that is! in this "ase to the laws o nat&re) is the greatest worshi' o all$ %or as
obedien"e is more a""e'table to God than sa"rii"e) so also to set light by His "ommandments is the greatest o all
"ont&melies$ And these are the laws o that divine worshi' whi"h nat&ral reason di"tateth to 'rivate men$
5&t seeing a ,ommonwealth is b&t one 'erson! it o&ght also to e+hibit to God b&t one worshi') whi"h then it doth
when it "ommandeth it to be e+hibited by 'rivate men! '&bli"ly$ And this is '&bli" worshi'! the 'ro'erty whereo is
to be &niorm6 or those a"tions that are done dierently by dierent men "annot said to be a '&bli" worshi'$ And
thereore! where many sorts o worshi' be allowed! 'ro"eeding rom the dierent religions o 'rivate men! it "annot
be said there is any '&bli" worshi'! nor that the ,ommonwealth is o any religion at all$
And be"a&se words (and "onse2&ently the attrib&tes o God) have their signii"ation by agreement and "onstit&tion
o men! those attrib&tes are to be held signii"ative o hono&r that men intend shall so be) and whatsoever may be
done by the wills o 'arti"&lar men! where there is no law b&t reason! may be done by the will o the ,ommonwealth
by laws "ivil$ And be"a&se a ,ommonwealth hath no will! nor ma#es no laws b&t those that are made by the will o
him or them that have the sovereign 'ower! it olloweth that those attrib&tes whi"h the sovereign ordaineth in the
worshi' o God or signs o hono&r o&ght to be ta#en and &sed or s&"h by 'rivate men in their '&bli" worshi'$
5&t be"a&se not all a"tions are signs by "onstit&tion! b&t some are nat&rally signs o hono&r! others o "ont&mely!
these latter! whi"h are those that men are ashamed to do in the sight o them they reveren"e! "annot be made by
h&man 'ower a 'art o divine worshi') nor the ormer! s&"h as are de"ent! modest! h&mble behavio&r! ever be
se'arated rom it$ 5&t whereas there be an ininite n&mber o a"tions and gest&res o an indierent nat&re! s&"h o
them as the ,ommonwealth shall ordain to be '&bli"ly and &niversally in &se! as signs o hono&r and 'art o God1s
worshi'! are to be ta#en and &sed or s&"h by the s&b*e"ts$ And that whi"h is said in the 0"ri't&re! FIt is better to
obey God than man!F hath 'la"e in the #ingdom o God by 'a"t! and not by nat&re$
Having th&s briely s'o#en o the nat&ral #ingdom o God! and His nat&ral laws! I will add only to this "ha'ter a
short de"laration o His nat&ral '&nishments$ There is no a"tion o man in this lie that is not the beginning o so long
a "hain o "onse2&en"es as no h&man 'roviden"e is high eno&gh to give a man a 'ros'e"t to the end$ And in this
"hain there are lin#ed together both 'leasing and &n'leasing events) in s&"h manner as he that will do anything or
his 'leas&re! m&st engage himsel to s&er all the 'ains anne+ed to it) and these 'ains are the nat&ral '&nishments o
those a"tions whi"h are the beginning o more harm than good$ And hereby it "omes to 'ass that intem'eran"e is
nat&rally '&nished with diseases) rashness! with mis"han"es) in*&sti"e! with the violen"e o enemies) 'ride! with r&in)
"owardi"e! with o''ression) negligent government o 'rin"es! with rebellion) and rebellion! with sla&ghter$ %or
seeing '&nishments are "onse2&ent to the brea"h o laws! nat&ral '&nishments m&st be nat&rally "onse2&ent to the
brea"h o the laws o nat&re! and thereore ollow them as their nat&ral! not arbitrary! ee"ts$
And th&s ar "on"erning the "onstit&tion! nat&re! and right o sovereigns! and "on"erning the d&ty o s&b*e"ts!
derived rom the 'rin"i'les o nat&ral reason$ And now! "onsidering how dierent this do"trine is rom the 'ra"ti"e
o the greatest 'art o the world! es'e"ially o these western 'arts that have re"eived their moral learning rom Rome
and Athens! and how m&"h de'th o moral 'hiloso'hy is re2&ired in them that have the administration o the
sovereign 'ower! I am at the 'oint o believing this my labo&r as &seless as the ,ommonwealth o 8lato6 or he also
is o o'inion that it is im'ossible or the disorders o state! and "hange o governments by "ivil war! ever to be ta#en
away till sovereigns be 'hiloso'hers$ 5&t when I "onsider again that the s"ien"e o nat&ral *&sti"e is the only s"ien"e
ne"essary or sovereigns and their 'rin"i'al ministers! and that they need not be "harged with the s"ien"es
mathemati"al! as by 8lato they are! &rther than by good laws to en"o&rage men to the st&dy o them) and that neither
8lato nor any other 'hiloso'her hitherto hath '&t into order! and s&i"iently or 'robably 'roved all the theorems o
moral do"trine! that men may learn thereby both how to govern and how to obey! I re"over some ho'e that one time
or other this writing o mine may all into the hands o a sovereign who will "onsider it himsel (or it is short! and I
thin# "lear) witho&t the hel' o any interested or envio&s inter'reter) and by the e+er"ise o entire sovereignty! in
'rote"ting the '&bli" tea"hing o it! "onvert this tr&th o s'e"&lation into the &tility o 'ra"ti"e$