Potato Research 35 (1992) 83 - 91

The textural analysis of cooked potato. 1. Physical

principles of the separate measurement of softness and
dryness
M.C. JARVIS and H.J. DUNCAN
Agricultural, Environmental and Food Chemistry, The University of Glasgow, Glasgow
G 12 8QQ, Scotland
Accepted for publication: 5 January I992
Addi t i onal keywords: penetration, cell separation
Summary
The texture of cooked potatoes was described by two physical parameters: softness, resulting
from both cell cleavage and cell separation, and dryness, depending on the ratio of cell
separation to cell cleavage. The softness of potato tissue was measured by determining its
resistance to cutting with a thin stainless steel wire. Softness increased rapidly with cooking
time, particularly when the cultivar was predicted to be soft in texture by published taste panel
trials. Raw potato tissue released intercellular fluid from fractured surfaces due to cell cleav-
age. After cooking less fluid was released, i.e. the texture became drier, as cell separation
increased. The erosion of ceils from cooked potato tissue by a high-pressure jet of water was
used to measure dryness quantitatively. Erosion increased during cooking. Carrot tissue,
whose cells do not separate on cooking, did not erode, but anomalous results with apple tissue
suggested that measurement of dryness in this way might not be fully independent of softness.
Introduction
Despite much research over a long period, the physical chemistry underlying the
texture of cooked potatoes is not well understood, and physical methods for texture
testing are not in routine use by potato breeders. The first aim of this series of papers
is to establish a conceptual framework that will bridge the gap between the taste
panel methods currently used to assess textural properties, and the growing knowl-
edge of the chemistry of the starch (Whistler et al., 1984) and cell wall polysac-
charides (Jarvis et al., 1981a, b; Selvendran, 1985; Ryden & Selvendran, 1990) that
control textural change during cooking. The second aim is to introduce procedures
for physical texture testing that are objective, informative and reliable enough to be
used in potato breeding and varietal assessment.
In recent taste panel studies (e.g. SSPDC, 1990) it has been found convenient to
distinguish two components of potato texture: softness and dryness. The terms
' fl oury' and ' meal y' are often used to describe dry textures. For textures that are not
dry the terms used are either ' moist' if the texture is also soft or ' waxy' if it is firm.
It may be useful to summarise the types of texture desired for different purposes.
Boiled potatoes are traditionally preferred to be dry in some countries (e.g. Scotland)
and waxy in others (e.g. the Netherlands). They should not disintegrate even if
slightly overcooked, and this property is hard to combine with a dry texture. In many
Pot at o Research 35 (1992) 83
M,C. JARVIS AND H. J. DUNCAN
t ropi cal count ri es, adequat e softness must be r eached in t he mi ni mum cooki ng t i me
to save scarce fuel . Wher e t radi t i onal recipes requi re t hat pot at oes are mashed, as
in Per u, a soft dr y t ext ur e is desi red. For baked (jacket) pot at oes a dr y t ext ur e is
t r adi t i onal l y pr ef er r ed, but rapi d soft eni ng is now mor e i mpor t ant to allow a reason-
abl y short cooki ng t i me. For dehydr at i on, a very dr y t ext ur e and compl et e disinte-
gr at i on are r equi r ed, as remai ni ng cl umps of cells fail to r ehydr at e well and feel
gri t t y. For canni ng, the r equi r ement is for a waxy t ext ur e with good resistance to
di si nt egrat i on, which is a severe probl em at t he high t emper at ur es used.
The Scot t i sh t ast e panel st udy of 80 Eur opean cultivars ( SSPDC, 1990), sum-
mar i sed in Tabl e 1, shows some cor r el at i on bet ween soft ness and dryness, whi ch
woul d be expect ed if the mechani sm leading to dryness is also one of t he two
mechani sms cont r i but i ng t o soft ness, as hypot hesi sed bel ow. The same survey illus-
t rat es ot her correl at i ons well known from previ ous work ( Li nehan & Hughes, 1969;
War r en & Woodman, 1974; MacAr t hur & Killick, 1976; Gr ay & Hughes, 1978).
Dryness correl at es with high st arch cont ent (high dr y mat t er ) ; soft ness is general l y
l acki ng in earl y cultivars; and di si nt egrat i on on boiling is so t i ght l y cor r el at ed with
dryness t hat t hey seem like t wo stages of the same process.
Many physical met hods have been proposed for assessing t ext ur e mor e obj ect i vel y
(e.g. Hughes et al. , 1975; Nonaka, 1980; Davis et al., 1983; Ha r a da et al., 1985;
McComber et al., 1987). In al most all it is consi der ed as a single vari abl e, i.e.
soft ness and dryness are combi ned. I f these t wo charact eri st i cs are onl y part i al l y
rel at ed, as suggested bel ow, it is not di ffi cul t t o under st and why t he physical ap-
pr oach to t ext ur e testing has not been very successful. Anot her r eason is the lack of
under st andi ng of t he cellular and mol ecul ar mechani sm of t ext ur al change on cook-
ing. Ther e is no lack of publ i shed mechani st i c dat a, reviewed r at her inconclusively
some t i me ago by Li nehan & Hughes (1969) and War r en & Woodman (1974). The
evi dence can be st r uct ur ed more clearly ar ound t wo hypot heses t hat will be t est ed in
this and t he fol l owi ng paper.
First, we suggest t hat softness results f r om the sum of t wo processes: (1) cell
separ at i on, per mi t t ed by br eakdown of t he mi ddl e lamella, and (2) soft eni ng of t he
cell walls so t hat it is easier to cut across the cells. We suggest t hat dryness, on t he
ot her hand, depends on t he relative cont r i but i ons of (1) and (2), with cell separ at i on
l eadi ng t o dr y t ext ures. Thi s hypot hesi s is exami ned in the present paper .
Our second hypot hesi s, t est ed in the second paper in this series (Jarvis et al., 1992),
Table 1. Correlation coefficients of characters associated with texture in 80 potato cultivars
(22 cultivars only for disintegration on boiling). Data were derived from SSPDC (1990).
Descriptions for softness, dryness and disintegration were transformed into numerical scores
on a 1 - 9 scale before analysis.
Maturity Dry matter Softness Dryness
Dry matter 0.311"
Softness 0.383** 0.201ns
Dryness 0.274* 0.509*** 0.311"*
Disintegration 0.3780ns 0.448* 0.458* 0.645***
*P<0. 05, **P<0. 01, ***P<0. 001
84 Pot at o Research 35 (1992)
C O O K E D P O T A T O T E X T U R E l
is t hat al t hough cell separ at i on is dependent on the br eakdown of the mi ddl e l amel l a,
the dri vi ng force for it is the swelling pressure of gel at i ni sed st arch wi t hi n the cells.
Materials and met hods
Pot at oes were obt ai ned locally f r om a numbe r of Scot t i sh growers. Since the growi ng
condi t i ons and mat ur i t y of the cul t i vars used were di fferent , compar i s ons bet ween
cul t i vars were not i nt ended and shoul d not be i nf er r ed f r om the results. I nst ead the
i nt ent i on was to have cont r ast i ng t ext ur al t ypes wi t hi n each exper i ment .
Fluid release and uptake. For these exper i ment s whol e unpeel ed t uber s were boi l ed
for 20 mi n in distilled wat er , under whi ch condi t i ons wat er upt ake was mi ni mal
( mean 0.5 ~ by weight). To measur e the rel ease of i nt r acel l ul ar fluid, t r ansver se
cyl i nders of cooked or uncooked t uber tissue 15 mm in di amet er were r emoved with
a corer and br oken in hal f t hr ough the medul l ar y regi on, avoi di ng the cent ral pi t h.
The br oken ends were i mmedi at el y pushed lightly t oget her , wi t h a sheet of Wha t ma n
no. 540 har dened filter paper sandwi ched bet ween t hem to abs or b fluid rel eased
f r om wi t hi n br oken cells. Thi s st ep was r epeat ed if the paper was sat ur at ed, and the
fl ui d meas ur ed by wei ghi ng t he paper to 0.1 mg. To measur e wat er upt ake by cooked
tissue, t r ansver se cyl i nders 10 mm in di amet er and 15 mm l ong were r emoved f r om
api cal , mi ddl e and basal regi ons of each t uber , avoi di ng the cort ex and cent ral
medul l ar y regi ons. Ni ne repl i cat e cyl i nders per t r eat ment were al l owed to equi l i br at e
at r oom t emper at ur e on si nt ered glass discs, no. 3 por osi t y, s at ur at ed with wat er.
The por e size was c ompa r a bl e to t hat of the pot at o tissue so t hat capi l l ar y forces were
appr oxi mat el y bal anced bet ween t he disc and the tissue. Wat er upt ake was meas ur ed
by wei ghi ng.
Measurement o f softness. Ti ssue cyl i nders pr epar ed as above were cooked in wat er
at 100~ for var yi ng l engt hs of t i me. Cul t i var and cooki ng t i me were the var i abl es
in an a x b fact ori al exper i ment wi t h ni ne repl i cat es. An incision 1 mm deep was
made wi t h a r azor across t he end of each cyl i nder, and the cyl i nder, suppor t ed on
a t op- pan bal ance, was cut to hal f - way down its l engt h wi t h a t hi n stainless steel wire
t i ght l y t ensi oned in a hacksaw f r ame. The ma x i mu m force r ecor ded on the bal ance
dur i ng t he cut t i ng per i od was r ecor ded. To avoi d ar t i f act s it was necessary t o cl ean
the wire wi t h a d a mp tissue af t er each sampl e. In pr el i mi nar y exper i ment s brass or
copper wires were used. These t ended to st ret ch and had to be regul arl y r e- t ensi oned
or t he def l ect i on of t he wi re concent r at ed the stress on the edges of t he pot at o
cyl i nder.
Measurement o f cell separation. Cell separ at i on was meas ur ed by erodi ng t he pot at o
cyl i nders wi t h a j et of wat er . The exper i ment al desi gn was the same as in the
meas ur ement of soft ness. Wei ghed cyl i nders were s uppor t ed fi rml y in a wooden
f r ame, each 20 mm under t he nozzl e of a s t andar d 20 ml pl ast i c syri nge, with no
needl e fi t t ed. Fr om each syri nge 15 ml of wat er was r api dl y ej ect ed by pl aci ng a l arge
wei ght on a lever rest i ng on t he four syri nge pl unger s, so t hat the force was 38 N per
syri nge. The a mount of t i ssue er oded f r om each cyl i nder was det er mi ned by re-
wei ghi ng.
Potato Research 35 (1992) 85
M.C. JARV1S AND H.J. DUNCAN
Re s ul t s and d i s c u s s i o n
Origins of soft and dry textures. Cyl i nder s of raw and cooked pot at o tissue were
br oken in hal f and the fluid rel eased f r om wi t hi n r upt ur ed cells at the br oken faces
was meas ur ed af t er abs or pt i on by filter paper . Two cul t i vars were used, cv. Gol den
Wonder whi ch is known to have a soft , very dr y t ext ur e and cv. D6sir6e whi ch has
a f i r m t ext ur e of i nt er medi at e dryness ( SSPDC, 1990). The results are shown in
Fig. 1. The fluid rel eased f r om uncooked tissue cor r esponded appr oxi mat el y to t he
quant i t y expect ed wi t hi n one l ayer of cells at each sur f ace of t he f r act ur e, showi ng
t hat pr i or to cooki ng the tissue br oke pr edomi nant l y across t he cells r at her t han by
cell separ at i on. Af t er cooki ng the amount of fluid rel eased was gr eat l y r educed in
bot h cul t i vars. Thi s i ndi cat ed t hat cell separ at i on became mor e i mpor t ant dur i ng
cooki ng. In cv. Gol den Wonder t here was al most no fluid rel eased, i l l ust rat i ng its
very dr y t ext ure. Thi s cul t i var appear s to f r act ur e al most ent i rel y by cell s epar at i on
when cooked. These resul t s show t hat pot at o t i ssue can f r act ur e bot h by cell cl eavage
and by cell separ at i on, i.e. t hat bot h of t hese processes cont r i but e to sof t ness, in
var yi ng pr opor t i ons dependi ng on cooki ng and cul t i var. They al so demons t r at e t he
connect i on bet ween cell separ at i on and dr y t ext ur e. The consi der abl e i mpor t ance of
cell s epar at i on af t er cooki ng expl ai ns why t ast e panel st udi es have of t en t ended to
show a moder at e degree of cor r el at i on bet ween soft ness and dryness.
It coul d be suggest ed t hat the sensat i on of dr yness accompanyi ng cell s epar at i on
was due t o a t endency of the ceils to abs or b wat er f r om r ound about t hem, due t o
the swelling pot ent i al (si mi l ar to an osmot i c pot ent i al ) of the gel at i ni sed st ar ch
Fl ui d rel eased,
p l / c m z
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
7-3
r a w boi l ed r a w boi l ed
Golden Wonder D~si r~e
Fig. I. Release of intracellular fluid from broken surfaces of tuber tissue, cvs Golden Wonder
and D6sir~e, before and after boiling for 20 min. Effects of cooking and, after cooking, of
cultivar were significant ( P< 0.05).
86 Potato Research 35 (1992)
C O O K E D P OTATO T E X T U R E l
inside. To test this possi bi l i t y, whol e unpeel ed t ubers of five cul t i vars, Car a, Ho me
Gua r d, Pr ovan, Record and St ami na, were boi l ed in wat er for 15 rain. Cyl i nders cut
f r om each cooked t uber abs or bed a not i ceabl e amount of wat er f r om a wat er-
s at ur at ed si nt ered glass disc, mean 1.8 +_ 0 . 6 %. However this amount is pr obabl y t oo
smal l to expl ai n the sensat i on of dryness, at least under the condi t i ons used ( r oom
t e mpe r a t ur e and wi t h capi l l ar y forces bal anced by the si nt ered glass). Vari at i on in
the a mount of fluid rel eased f r om wi t hi n the cells by slicing t hr ough the cell walls is
a mor e likely expl anat i on of moi st and dr y t ext ures.
The subsequent exper i ment s were desi gned to expl ore ways of measur i ng the
par amet er s of soft ness and cell separ at i on (dryness) i ndependent l y.
Measurement o f sof t ness. A wi de var i et y of penet r omet er and ot her physi cal
met hods are avai l abl e for measur i ng resi st ance to cut t i ng, crushi ng or some combi -
nat i on of t he t wo. The ai m here was an appr oxi mat i on to the cut t i ng act i on of t eet h
or a kni fe, since t hat woul d be most appr opr i at e to the cons umer ' s per cept i on of soft
t ext ur e or t hat of a t ast e panel . Di rect meas ur ement of resi st ance to a kni fe was
rej ect ed because t here woul d be i nt er f er ence f r om fri ct i on on the sides of the bl ade,
and because the shar pness of the cut t i ng edge woul d be di ffi cul t to measur e or
st andar di se. These Pr obl ems did not arise when a t hi n round wire, like a cheese wire,
was used.
When a wire, a kni fe or a shar p poi nt is pressed i nt o a fl at surface, the force
requi red i ncreases progressi vel y as the sur f ace di st ort s. Event ual l y the sur f ace is
penet r at ed and t he force requi red for f ur t her cut t i ng is of t en less, since the pr obe
splits the t i ssue like a wedge. The r esol ut i on of the r at her compl ex stresses bef or e and
af t er penet r at i on of the sur f ace will be di scussed el sewhere (Jarvi s et al . , unpub-
lished). In each case the force requi red depends on t he tensile st rengt h to f r act ur e the
tissue and, i nversel y, on its st i ffness (elastic modul us) , but we have shown (Jarvi s et
al . , unpubl i shed) t hat the effect of st i ffness is mor e pr onounced bef or e t han af t er
penet r at i on. Thus, ' r ubbe r y' tissue of high tensile st rengt h but low st i ffness requi res
l arge forces for penet r at i on but smal l er forces for subsequent cut t i ng. Thi s was the
case ( dat a not shown) for pot at o tissue boi l ed for short peri ods up to 3 mi n when the
t ur gor pr essur e st i ffeni ng the tissue had been lost but t here was little degr adat i on of
pect i n. It was f ound t hat , in general , mor e r epr oduci bl e dat a coul d be obt ai ned if the
initial penet r at i on st ep was el i mi nat ed by ' ni cki ng' the sur f ace with a r azor and
i nsert i ng t he cut t i ng wi re i nt o the nick. Thi s pr ocedur e was pr obabl y cl oser t o the
act i on of bi t i ng or cut t i ng pot at o tissue in pract i ce, where t here is no flat sur f ace and
t he cut t i ng edge i nsert s i t sel f i nt o any avai l abl e crevi ce to st art the cut .
The i ncrease in soft ness of cvs Gol den Wonder and Pent l and Javel i n dur i ng
boi l i ng is shown in Fig. 2. Cul t i var Gol den Wonder sof t ened f ast er t han cv. Pent l and
Javel i n. The t i ssue of cv. Gol den Wonder was appr oachi ng di si nt egrat i on by the end
of the exper i ment and requi red careful handl i ng. These results were as ant i ci pat ed
f r om t he known t ext ur al charact eri st i cs of the t wo cul t i vars: the hi gh- dr y- mat t er late
mai ncr op cv. Gol den Wonder has a soft and very dr y t ext ure while the earl y cv.
Pent l and Javel i n is waxy, i.e. f i r m and moi st ( SSPDC, 1990). The least si gni fi cant
di f f er ence ( P < 0.05) af t er log l0 t r ans f or mat i on was 0. 18, suggest i ng t hat r easonabl e
di scr i mi nat i on bet ween cui t i vars coul d be obt ai ned with 5 - 10 cyl i nders per t reat -
ment . No si gni fi cant effect of t uber size or posi t i on wi t hi n the t uber was f ound in this
exper i ment .
Potato Research 35 (1992) 87
M.C. JARVIS AND H. J. DUNCAN
Cutting force, N
10.0
1.0
0.1
[]
l L s o
O~ ~ Penlland Javelin
Golden W o n ~
i i i i [ 3 a
5 10 15 20 25
Boiling time, min
Fig. 2. Effect of cooking on force required (log scale) to cut tissue of cvs Pentland Javelin and
Golden Wonder with a thin wire.
Measurement of dryness. The pri nci pl e of this exper i ment was t o use t he erosive
power of a wat er j et t o r emove single cells f r om cyl i nders of t uber tissue. The erosive
capaci t y of wat er i ncreases wi t h its suspended l oad ( Huds on, 1981), so t hat when
single cells became det ached t hey woul d t end to r emove f ur t her cells. The effect of
t he wat er j et on boi l ed tissue of cvs Gol den Wonder and Pent l and Javel i n is shown
in Fig. 3. For bot h cul t i vars mor e cells were r emoved wi t h i ncreasi ng cooki ng t i me,
but the effect was smal l wi t h t he waxy- t ext ur ed cv. Pent l and Javel i n. Wi t h cv.
Gol den Wonder at t he l onger cooki ng t i mes a few of t he cyl i nders di si nt egr at ed
compl et el y, but mor e of t en the j et punched a hol e t hr ough t hem and er oded t hem
f r om the base. These results conf i r med t hat cell separ at i on i ncreases wi t h cooki ng,
and does so most in dr y- t ext ur ed cul t i vars.
To test t he effect of this pr ocedur e on mor e ext r eme t ypes of t ext ur e, cooked
cyl i nders of appl e and car r ot tissue were exami ned. Car r ot cyl i nders were compl et el y
unaf f ect ed, as mi ght be expect ed since t hey cont ai n no st arch and sof t en wi t h little
t endency t o cell separ at i on. Appl e cyl i nders, on t he ot her hand, coul d be boi l ed for
no mor e t han 9 mi n wi t hout t ur ni ng to pur6e and at t hat poi nt were very sof t and
gel at i nous. The wat er j et l eft a neat hol e equal t o its own di amet er t hr ough t he cent re
of each cyl i nder, r emovi ng 10.8 _+ 3.0 ~ of t he tissue.
The wat er j et pr ocedur e was not consi der ed sui t abl e for t he exami nat i on of l arge
number s of sampl es because it was i nconveni ent in use, and because the results
obt ai ned - par t i cul ar l y t hose for appl e - l eft some quest i on about whet her t he
meas ur ement of dr yness was ful l y i ndependent of t he soft ness of t he tissue. In
general t hi s seems likely to be a pr obl em whenever the me a s ur e me nt is of t he force
associ at ed wi t h a given a mount of non-speci fi c t i ssue di sr upt i on (e. g. wei ght loss) or
vice versa. That is t he case wi t h all the physi cal t est i ng met hods publ i shed so far. A
88 Potato Research 35 (1992)
C O O K E D P OT AT O T E X T U R E I
Weight loss. %
/ l l
30 Golden Wonder E /
2o ~ / t ~ I
0 5 10 15 20
Boiling lime, rain
1
2 5
Fig. 3. Weight loss from cylinders of cvs Golden Wonder and Pentland Javelin after cooking
and erosion by a jet of water. Error bars show standard error on mean of nine replicates.
mor e pr of i t abl e appr oach mi ght be to i nduce a fixed degree of tissue di srupt i on,
wi t hout measur i ng t he force r equi r ed, and t hen det er mi ne how t he tissue has disinte-
grat ed; t hat is, how much the separ at i on of cells has cont r i but ed to its di si nt egrat i on.
A pr ocedur e of t hat t ype is descri bed in the t hi rd paper of this series ( Fr eeman et al.,
1992). The present results do, however, show t hat in pri nci pl e bot h soft ness and
dryness can be measur ed by physical met hods.
The results of these experi ment s can be used as a f r amewor k for much of the
publ i shed i nf or mat i on on t ext ur e, to pr oduce t he fol l owi ng descri pt i on of the mech-
ani sm of t ext ur e devel opment . Bot h cell separ at i on and cell wall soft eni ng cont r i but e
t o di mi ni shi ng t he resistance of cooked tissue to cut t i ng or biting. The relative
i mpor t ance of these t wo processes varies, t o give dr y or moi st t ext ures, and t hei r sum
det ermi nes how soft the t ext ur e will be. Fol l owi ng t he descri pt i on by Williams and
Knee (1980) of t ext ur al change in ri peni ng frui t , we can say t hat cell wall soft eni ng
is due to t he di si nt egrat i on of t he cal ci um-pect i c gel in the wall mat ri x, by t her mal
~-etiminative cleavage of t he pectic chains (Keijbets, 1974; Jarvis, 1984). It allows
t eet h or a kni fe to slice t hr ough t he cells, releasing t hei r cont ent s so t hat t he t ext ure
is moi st and the cut surface appears smoot h. Cell separat i on, on t he ot her hand, is
due to t he di ssol ut i on of t he cal ci um-pect i c gel of t he mi ddl e lamella, by t he same
mechani sm but also by chel at i on of cal ci um ions with ci t rat e released f r om within
t he cells (Sel vendran et al., 1990). Biting or cut t i ng t hen separat es the cells wi t hout
br eaki ng t hem open. Since t he cell cont ent s are not released the t ext ure feels dr y and
t he surface l ooks powder y. The t erms ' meal y' and ' f l our y' are used to describe these
charact eri st i cs. Mor e severe degr adat i on of the mi ddl e l amel l a allows the cells to
separ at e dur i ng cooki ng wi t hout t he appl i cat i on of any ext ernal stress, so t hat
over cooked tissue di si nt egrat es.
Potato Research 35 (1992) 89
M,C, JARVI S AND H. J. DUNCAN
Cell separation and cell wall softening thus depend on the susceptibility of the
pectic gels in the middle lamella and cell wall to disruption by/~-eliminative chain
scission and calcium chelation. Pectins from these two regions have recently been
prepared separately (Selvendran, 1985; Ryden & Selvendran, 1990) but the structures
of their gels in situ (Jarvis, 1984) cannot yet be distinguished, so the many earlier
attempts to elucidate textural properties by quantifying soluble pectic extracts (e.g.
Keijbets, 1974; Hughes et al., 1975; Mica, 1980; Moledina et al., 1981) are not as yet
easily interpretable. Another factor in cell separation is starch swelling pressure,
which is the subject of the next paper in the series (Jarvis et al., 1992).
Acknowledgements
We thank M. Freeman for carrying out the water absorption experiment, and mem-
bers of the International Potato Center, Lima, for useful discussions.
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