Light is radiant energy, usually referring to electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye, and

is responsible for the sense of sight.

[1]
Visible light is usually defined as having a wavelength in the range
of 400 nanometres (nm), or 40010
9
m, to 700 nanometres between the infrared, with longer
wavelengths and the ultraviolet, with shorter wavelengths.
[2][3]
These numbers do not represent the
absolute limits of human vision, but the approximate range within which most people can see reasonably
well under most circumstances. Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420 to 680
[4][5]
to as
broadly as 380 to 800 nm.
[6][7]
Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least
1050 nm,
[8]
children and young adults ultraviolet down to about 310 to 313 nm.
[9][10][11]

Primary properties of visible light are intensity, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength spectrum,
and polarisation, while itsspeed in a vacuum, 299,792,458 meters per second, is one of the
fundamental constants of nature. Visible light, as with all types of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), is
experimentally found to always move at this speed in vacuum.
[citation needed]

In common with all types of EMR, visible light is emitted and absorbed in tiny "packets" called photons,
and exhibits properties of bothwaves and particles. This property is referred to as the waveparticle
duality. The study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics.
In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible
or not.
[12][13]
This article focuses on visible light. See theelectromagnetic radiation article for the general
term.
SPEED OF LIGHT
The speed of light in a vacuum is defined to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s (approximately 186,282 miles
per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now
defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation move at exactly this same
speed in vacuum.
Different physicists have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history. Galileo attempted to
measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light
was conducted by Ole Rmer, a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope, Rmer observed the
motions of Jupiterand one of its moons, Io. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he
calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit.
[14]
However, its size
was not known at that time. If Rmer had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have
calculated a speed of 227,000,000 m/s.
Another, more accurate, measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte
Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog
wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then
returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap
in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the
number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as
313,000,000 m/s.
Lon Foucault used an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298,000,000 m/s in
1862.Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931.
He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to
make a round trip from Mt. Wilson to Mt. San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a
speed of 299,796,000 m/s.
[15]

The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing ordinary matter, is less than in
vacuum. For example the speed of light in water is about 3/4 of that in vacuum.
As an extreme example of the nature of light-slowing in matter, two independent teams of physicists were
able to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a Bose-Einstein Condensate of the
element rubidium, one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge,
Mass., and the other at theHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge.
[16]
However,
the popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the
excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse.
During the time it had "stopped" it had ceased to be light.















Anterior chamber-just behind the cornea, full of aqueous humor;
Aqueous humor-clear, watery fluid, made by ciliary body; keeps cornea bulged out in front as well as maintenance
of intra ocular pressure; made and contiually absorbed;
Choroid layer-second part of the eye wall; brown or black pigmented to prevent reflection by absorbing stray light
rays;
Ciliary body-second ring of tissue from pupil , accommodation and forms aqueous humor, smooth muscle;
Conjunctiva-thin transparent mucous membrane; folded back upon itself; covers only the white of the eye; keeps
eye from dryng out
Cornea-transparent bulge in the front of the eye, curved, begins refraction;
Fibrous tunic-cornea and the sclera make up which tunic?
Fovea centralis-part of the retina; found in the center of the macula lutea; a place for daytime, color and distinct
vision; contains only cones;
Iris-colored portion of the eye; smooth muscle; causes dialation and constriction of the pupil; by doing so it
regulates the amount of light entering the pupil, first ring of tissue from pupil;
Lens-transparent and elastic, continues refraction and focusing onto the retina; held in place by the suspensory
ligaments which are operated by the ciliary body; has a convex shape;
Macula lutea-part of the retina; yellow disk which is lateral to the blind spot;
Optic disk-blind spot; area where the retina leaves the eye and becomes the optic nerve; no rods or cones here,
thus the blind spot;
Optic nerve-cranial nerve II (2); carries the nerve impulse to the thalamus and then to the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum, where vision is located;
Posterior chamber-full of vitreous humor
Pupil-space or black hole through which the light passes; can be eliptical in nature;
Retina-third part of the eye wall; contains rods and cones; photoreceptor cells; light rays are focused on it;
Sclera-the outside part of the eye wall; very tough, white, extrinsic eye muscles attach to it;
Sensory tunic (retina)-fovea centralis, optic disk, macula lutea
Suspensory ligaments-attached to the lens; it, along with the ciliary body will cause accomodation (adjustments
the eye makes for near and far vision)
Vascular tunic-pupil, iris, choroid and ciliary body make up which tunic?
Vitreous humor-jelly-like; made only once; maintenance of intraocular pressure which will keep the eyeball from
collapsing;



Type Distinctive
shape
(US ANSI 91-
1984)
Rectangular
shape
(IEC 60617-12 :
1997)
Boolean algebra
between A & B
Truth table
AND

or &
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A AND B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR


INPUT OUTPUT
A B A OR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOT

or ~
INPUT OUTPUT
A NOT A
0 1
1 0

In electronics a NOT gate is more commonly called an inverter. The circle on the symbol is called
a bubble, and is used in logic diagrams to indicate a logic negation between the external logic state
and the internal logic state (1 to 0 or vice versa). On a circuit diagram it must be accompanied by a
statement asserting that the positive logic convention ornegative logic convention is being used (high
voltage level = 1 or high voltage level = 0, respectively). The wedge is used in circuit diagrams to
directly indicate an active-low (high voltage level = 0) input or output without requiring a uniform
convention throughout the circuit diagram. This is called Direct Polarity Indication. See IEEE Std
91/91A and IEC 60617-12. Both the bubble and the wedge can be used on distinctive-shape
and rectangular-shape symbols on circuit diagrams, depending on the logic convention used. On
pure logic diagrams, only the bubble is meaningful.
NAND

or
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A NAND B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR

or
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A NOR B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

XOR


INPUT OUTPUT
A B A XOR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XNOR

or
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A XNOR B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Two more gates are the exclusive-OR or XOR function and its inverse, exclusive-NOR or XNOR.
The two input Exclusive-OR is true only when the two input values are different, false if they are
equal, regardless of the value. If there are more than two inputs, the gate generates a true at its
output if the number of trues at its input is odd ([1]). In practice, these gates are built from
combinations of simpler logic gates.