1

CONTENTS


1. FUNDAMENTAL OF OPTICAL FIBER ...1-19

1.1 Introduction ....2
1.2 Definition of optical fiber ....3
1.3 Principle of operation an optical fiber .4
1.4 Basic fiber optic cable theory and technology ...................4
1.5 Laser light sources ..............................................................4
1.6 Wavelengths ....5
1.7 Frequency and wavelength ....5
1.8 Optical Power ....6
1.9 Refraction and Reflection ....6
1.10 Optical fiber construction ....8
1.11 Bends ....8
1.12 Modes and modal dispersion ....9
1.13 Types of optical fiber ..10
1.14 Types of cable ..19
1.15 Losses of optical fiber ....17
1.16 Amplifiers signal conditioning elements in an optical network ...19
1.17 Dense wavelength division multiplexing ..19

2. TRANSMISSION OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION ..20-23

2.1 Introduction of optical fiber communication ..21
2.2 Definition of transmission ..21
2.3 Types telecommunications transmission ..22
2.4 Definition of optical fiber communication ..22
2.5 Block diagram of optical fiber communication ......23

3. PLANNING OF OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION 24-27

3.1 Planning ......25
3.2 Route survey ..25
3.3 Work flow chart ..26
3.4 Route survey summary report from ......27





4. DUCT HANDLING STORAGE AND DUCT LAYING 28- 51

4.1 Definition of duct ..29
2
4.2 Advantages of using high density polyethylene (HDP) ducts 29
4.3 Duct transportation ..30
4.4 Method of Loading & unloading for HDP ducts ..31
4.5 Duct storage ..34
4.6 Trenching ..35
4.7 Duct mounting steel reels ..35
4.8 Duct laying ..37
4.9 Duct Integrity test procedure ..41
4.10 Types of duct Integrity test ..46
4.11. Safety for duct Integrity test ..51
4.12 Milestone and fractional milestone number ..51

5 CABLE PULLING AND JETTING ...52- 60

5.1 Definition cable pulling ..53
5.2 Definition cable jetting ..53
5.3 Advantages of Cable jetting . 53
5.4 Block diagram of cable jetting system .....54
5.5 Determine the cable size due to duct size ..54
5.6 Compressor ..55
5.7 Types of cable Jetting machine ..55
5.8 Advantages of cable jet machine compared with super jet .....56
5.9 The performance of the cable jet system ...57
5.10 Jetting efficiency ..57
5.11 Prerequisites for cable blowing ..58
5.12 Pre-blowing Activities ..58
5.13 Distribution of Jobs ..58
5.14 Salient points during cable blowing ..60

6. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ....61-70

6.1 List of used tools ..62
6.2 Junction in fiber optic cable ..65
6.3 Termination of optical fiber cable ..70
6.4 Optical distribution frame ..70

7. DISCURSION AND CONCLUSION ..71


8. REFFRENCE ..72




3








FUNDAMENTAL OF OPTICAL FIBER


























1.1 Introduction

The transmission of light via a dielectric waveguide structure was first
proposed and investigated at the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1910
4
Hondros End Debye conducted a theoretical study, and experimental work
was reported by Scbrjever in 1920. However, a transparent dielectric rod,
typically of silica glass with a refractive index of around 1.5, surrounded by
air, proved to be an impractical waveguide due to its unsupporte4.Structure
(especially when very, thin waveguides were considered in order to limit the
number of optical modes propagated) add the excessive losses at any
discontinuities of he glass air interface. Nevertheless, interest in the
application of dielectric optical waveguides in such areas as optical imaging
and medical diagnosis (e.g endoscopes) led to proposals for a clad dielectric
rod in the mid-1950s in order to overcome these problems.








Figure Optical fiber waveguide showing the core of refractive index n
1
,
surrounded by the cladding of slightly lower refractive index n
2
.

Transparent core with a refractive index in surrounded by a transparent
cladding of
Slightly lower refractive index n
2
. The cladding supports the waveguide
structure whilst also, when sufficiently thick, substantial reducing the
radiation loss into
the surrounding air. In essence, the light energy travels in both the core and
the cladding allowing the associated fields to decay to a negligible value at
the cladding air interface.

The invention of the clad waveguide structure led to the first serious
proposals by Kao and Hockham and \Vats [Ref. 61, in 1966, to utilize optical
fibers as a communications medium, even though they had losses in excess
of 1000 dB km
-1
. These proposals stimulated tremendous efforts to reduce
the attenuation by purification of the materials. This has resulted in improved
conventional glass refining techniques giving fiber with losses of around 4.2
dB km
-1
. Also, progress in glass refining processes such as depositing
vapor-phase reagents to form silica has allowed fibers with losses below 1
dB km
-1
to be fabricated.
Most of this work was focused on the 08 to 0.9 m wavelength band
because the first generation optical sources fabricated from gallium
aluminum arsenide alloys operated in this region. However, as silica fibers
were studied in further detail it became apparent that transmission at longer
wavelengths (1.1 to 1.6 m) would reu1t in lower losses and reduced signal
dispersion. This produced a shift in d optical fiber source and detector
n
1

n
2

Claddin
Core
Fig. : Optical fiber
5
technology in order to provide operation at these longer Wavelengths,
Hence at longer wavelengths, especially around 1.55 m, fibers with losses
as low as 0.2 dB km
-1
have been reported.

Such losses, however, are very close to the theoretical lower limit for silicate
glass fiber and, more recently, interest has grown in glass forming systems
which can provide low loss transmission in the mid. infrared (2 to 5 m) and
also the far- infrared (8 to 12 m) optical wavelength regions. At present the
best developed of
these systems which offers the potential for ultra-low-loss transmission of
around 0.01 dB km
-1
at a wavelength of 2.55 m is based on fluoride glass.

In order to appreciate the transmission mechanism of optical fibers with
dimensions approximating to those of a human hair, it is necessary to
consider the optical wave guiding of a cylindrical glass fiber. Such a fiber
acts as an open optical waveguide, which may be analyzed utilizing simple
ray theory However, the concepts geometric optics are not sufficient when
considering all types of optical fiber, and electromagnetic mode theory must
be used to give a template picture.

1.2 Definition of Optical fiber

Optical fiber (or "fiber optic") refers to the medium and the technology
associated with the transmission of information as light pulses along a glass
or plastic strand or fiber. Optical fiber carries much more information than
conventional copper wire and is in general not subject to electromagnetic
interference and the need to retransmit signals. Most telephone company
long-distance lines are now made of optical fiber. Transmission over an
optical fiber cable requires repeaters at distance intervals. The glass fiber
requires more protection within an outer cable than copper. For these
reasons and because the installation of any new cabling is labor-intensive,
few communities have installed optical fiber cables from the phone
company's branch office to local customers (known as local loops). A type of
fiber known as single mode fiber is used for longer distances; multimode
fiber is used for shorter distances.


1.3 Principle of operation an optical fiber
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmits light along
its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core
surrounded by a cladding layer. To confine the optical signal in the core, the
refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The
6
boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index
fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.
1.4 Basic Fiber Optic Cable Theory and Technology

Many of todays communication networks use fiber optic links to carry voice,
video and data information at the speed of light. Fiber optic links incorporate
multiple transparent glass or plastic fiber cables that guide modulated light
waves through the network. In digital systems, message data is converted
into a series of binary digits that are used to switch the light source on and
off, creating a sequence of coded light pulses.

A receiver at the other end of the cable decodes the light pulses back into
digital ones and zeroes to reconstruct the original message data. This
section describes some of the basic characteristics of fiber optic cable and
its use in communications networks.















1.5 Laser Light Sources

Most fiber optic communication networks use lasers as light sources. A laser
is a device that creates a narrow, intense beam of coherent light - at a single
or just a few frequencies going in one precise direction. The word laser is an
acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Lasers
are described by their wavelength in nanometers (nm) and by their output
power levels.
1.6 Wavelengths

Three laser wavelengths are currently in use for fiber optic systems: 850 nm,
1310 nm and 1550 mm all three wavelengths are in the infrared spectrum
and are invisible to the human eye (see Figure).

7



















The distances between network nodes and the number of connections
determine the best selection of fiber type and laser wavelength. As a rule of
thumb:

Lasers with longer wavelengths can transmit over greater distances.
Lasers with longer wavelengths cost more than lasers with shorter
wavelengths.
Long distance systems using higher bandwidth single mode fiber require
more expensive connectors.

1.7 Frequency and Wavelength

Electromagnetic waves can be described m terms of their wavelength or
frequency, which are mathematically related. Wavelength, also referred to
as lambda, or A., is the distance of one complete cycle of a periodic
signal frequency. Frequency is the number of complete cycles that occur per
unit of time. Wavelength is measured in meters, frequency in cycles per
second (called Hertz).

We traditionally describe radio signals by their frequency (from about 1
kilohertz to 1 megahertz) and visible light waves by their wavelength (400
nanometers to 700 nanometers). A nanometer is equal to 10-9 (1 billionth)
of a meter. Fiber optic systems use light sources with wavelengths in the
infra-red part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

1.8 Optical Power
8

The power (or brightness) of a laser determines how far a signal can be sent
down a fiber and how much risk for eye damage it represents. Lasers arc
divided into three power classes:
Class I lasers are inherently safe and will not cause damage to the human
eye.
Class II lasers have higher power output that can cause eye damage with
exposure of more than three seconds.
Class III lasers have the highest power output. They are inherently
dangerous and require eye protection and other safeguards.
Most telecommunications systems use Class I lasers; Visual Fault Finders
and some optical amplifiers use Class II. Most test equipment, including
OTDRs, use Class I.

It is advised: Never look directly into any operating laser or lit fiber. Laser
light can cause eye damage or blindness.

1.9 Refraction and Reflection

The speed of light is determined by the medium in which it is traveling. The
index of refraction (ir) for a material is expressed as the ratio of the speed of
light in a vacuum (c)
to the speed of light in the material (v), where ir = c/v. Values of ir are
approximately
1.333 for water, 1.473 for glycerin and 2.417 for diamond. In fiber optic
glass, the index of refraction ranges from 1.46 to 1.6. Light waves bend
(refract) or bounce (reflect) when they meet the boundary between two
materials with different indices of refraction.








The angle at which the light strikes the boundary affects the amount and
direction of light that is refracted and/or reflected. Figure illustrates a familiar
example of light at the boundary of air and water.






9













Angles of refraction and reflection vary according to the wavelength of the
light source. We see the results of this property in a prism as it separates
sunlight into its component colors and in a rainbow where light is refracted,
by raindrops into an orderly sequence of colors from violet to red each at
a different angle.

Light reflected from a glass-air boundary is called a fresnel (pronounced
fresnel), reflection. The detection of fresnel reflections can be very useful
when testing fibers because they reveal the glass-air boundaries at the ends
of fibers and at junctions such as connectors and mechanical splices.













1.10 Optical Fiber Construction

An optical fiber consists of a thin strand of glass or plastic (core)
surrounded by glass or plastic cladding material that contains and reflects
light down the center of its core with minimum attenuation. The index of
refraction of the cladding is different from that of the core in order to contain
the light waves within the fiber - an effect known as total internal reflection.
Most fibers are covered with buffer coatings and/or jackets to protect them
from moisture and damage.
10
















Figure 4 shows the construction of a typical telecommunications single
mode optical fiber. The fiber consists of:
Core: The light-carrying core of an optical fiber is made of glass with a
typical index of
refraction of 1.47.
Cladding: The cladding is also made of glass and surrounds the core.
Buffer: The buffer is a shock-absorbing protective covering, made of a
polymer such as
Kevlar, to protect the core and cladding from damage.

1.11 Bends

Optical fiber has great lateral strength and it can be stretched significantly
without problems. Unfortunately, it is susceptible to failure when it is bent,
leading to unpredictable system outages. Bends or kinks in the fiber create
cross-sectional stress points that can separate into breaks over time or
create excessive loss with drops in temperature, especially at longer
wavelengths.
Bends can be created during installation, caused by unintended twists in the
cable or by external objects (like rocks) impacting the cable when it is
buried. They can also occur at termination or splice points where fiber may
be spooled with too small a radius or bent around objects after leaving the
cable sheath. The risk of negative effects from bends increases with colder
temperatures and when the external line is physically stressed.





11














When light strikes the boundary between the core and the cladding, it either
reflects and travels down the core or refracts and escapes from the core. As
long as it is used within its specifications, fiber can be bent and flexed
without losing much light, as illustrated in Figure .
The small size and round shape core causes most of the light to strike the
boundary at a small angle and reflect down the core with very little of the
light escaping. The fiber transmits light as long as the tubular shape of the
fiber is not distorted; however, light will escape if the fiber is cracked, kinked
or bent below its specified minimum radius.

1.12 Modes and Modal Dispersion

Light traveling down the core of the fiber can follow one or more paths or
modes depending on the diameter of the fiber. There are two categories of
fiber used in communications systems single mode and multimode. Glass
cores are used in both types; although some new plastic-core multimode
cables promise performance for very short runs similar to glass and at a
lower cost




1.13 Types of Optical fiber

1.13.1 Depend on mode

1.13.1.1 Step index fiber (single-mode)




12












In step index fibers, the core and the cladding have a different index of
refraction. Single- mode fibers have a very small core diameter (< 9 m).
This allows only one single mode (wave propagation) to pass through the
fiber. Such fibers have very small attenuation and
large bandwidth (> 10 GHz.km), no pulse broadening, no transit time
differences. Typically used: 9/125 m fibers at 1300 nm for long distances.

1.13.1.2 Step index fiber (multimode)









Multimode fibers have a fairly large diameter (> 100 m). This allows
multiple modes to pass. Such fibers have higher attenuation and small
bandwidth (< 100 MHz.km) strong pulse broadening and transit time
differences. Typically used for LAN applications (< 300 m).



1.13.1.3 Graded index fiber (multimode)








13


In a graded index fiber, the index of refraction gradually changes from core
to cladding. Such fibers have small transit time differences and small pulse
broadening, small attenuation, and bandwidth < 1 GHzkm. Typically used:
50/125 m or 62.5/125 pm fibers for short distances (<500 m).


1.13.1.4 Single mode fiber

Single mode fiber is a single strand of glass fiber with a relatively narrow
diameter (nominally 9 microns), through which only one mode will
propagate. The small core and single light wave virtually eliminate- any
distortion that could result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least
signal attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any type of fiber
cable.












Single mode fiber carries higher bandwidth and lower spectral dispersion
than multimode and requires a light source with a narrow spectral width. It
supports a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than
multimode. However, single mode connectors
and splices have very little tolerance for core misalignment, making them
significantly more expensive to manufacture and install. Single mode fibers
operate at wavelengths from 1300 to 1550 nanometers and are used
primarily for telecommunications and CATV applications.
1.13.1.5 Multimode fiber

Multimode fiber provides high bandwidth at high speeds over short
distances. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100
micrometers and operate with light source wavelengths from 850 to 1300
nanometers. Although multiple paths can become an undesired effect, the
larger core permits the use of less expensive connectors and allows less
critical tolerances for manufacturing and installing the connectors.

14









Multimode cable is usually preferred in systems such as Local Area
Networks (LANs) that incorporate many connectors with short fiber runs. In
cable runs greater than 3000 feet (914 meters), the multiple paths of light
can cause signal distortion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and
incomplete data transmission.
Modal dispersion is the result of a light pulse being spread out over time
because it has traveled multiple paths simultaneously, as in a multimode
fiber. Multiple path dispersion own cause events to blend into one another or
eliminate some events altogether. An important consideration for multimode
cable is its bandwidth versus length specification. For example, a cable
specified at 100 MB/s for a 1 kilometer link would carry 200 MB/s over a 0.5
km link, or 50 MB/s in a 2 km link. Therefore, multimode links are bandwidth
limited to prevent data points from getting too close together and being lost.
This bandwidth limitation is acceptable for many LAN applications but not for
high-speed links between major systems.


1.13.2 Types of Optical fiber depend on ITU

This section discusses various MMF and SMF types currently used for
premise, metro, aerial, submarine, and long-haul applications. The
International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T), which is a global
standardization body for telecommunication systems and vendors, has
standardized various fiber types. These include the. 50/125-pm graded
index fiber (0.65 1), Nondispersion-shifted fiber (0.652), dispersion-shifted
fiber (0.653), 1550-nm loss-minimized fiber (0.654), and NZDSF (0.655).
15

1.13.2.1 Multimode Fiber with a 50-Micron Core (ITU-T G.651)

The ITU-T 0.651 is a MMF with a 50-pm nominal core diameter and a 125-
pm nominal cladding diameter with a graded refractive index. The
attenuation parameter for 0.651 fiber is typically 0.8 dB/km at 1310 nm. The
main application for ITU-T 0.651 fiber is for short-reach optical transmission
systems. This fiber is optimized for use in the 1300- mm band. It can also
operate in the 850-nm band.

1.13.2.2 Nondispersion-Shifted Fiber (ITU-T G.652)

The ITU-T G.652 fiber is also known as standard SMF and is the most
commonly deployed fiber. This fiber has a simple step-index structure and is
optimized for operation in the 131 0-nm band. It has a zero-dispersion
wavelength at 13 10 mm and can also operate in the 1550-nm band, but it is
not optimized for this region. The typical chromatic dispersion at 1550 nm is
high at 17 ps/nm-km. Dispersion compensation must be employed for high-
bit-rate applications. The attenuation parameter for 0.652 fiber is typically
0.2 d13/km at 1550 nm, and the PMD parameter is less than 0.1 ps/ km. An
example of this type of fiber is Coming SMF-28.

1.13.2.3 Low Water Peak Nondispersion-Shifted Fiber (ITU-T G.652.C)

The legacy ITU-T 0.652 standard SMFs are not optimized for WDM
applications due to the high attenuation around the water peak region. ITU
0.652.C-eompliant fibers offer extremely low attenuation around the OH
peaks. The 0.652.C fiber is optimized for networks where transmission -
occurs across a broad range of wavelengths from 1285 nm to 1625 nm.
Although G.652.C-eompliant fibers offer excellent capabilities for shorter,
unamplified metro and access networks, they do not fully address the,
needs for 1550-nm transmission. The attenuation parameter for 0.652 fiber
is typically 0.2 dB/km at 1550 nm, and the PMD parameter is less than 0.1
ps/km. An example of this type of fiber is Coming SMF-28e.


1.13.2.4 Dispersion-Shifted Fiber (ITU-T G.653)

Conventional SMF has a zero-dispersion wavelength that falls near the
1310-nm window band. SMI shows high dispersion values over the range
between 1500 nm and 1600 nm (third window band). The trend of shifting
the operating transmission wavelength from 1310 nm to 1550 nm initiated
the development of a fiber type called dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF). DSF
exhibits a zero-dispersion value around the 1550-nm wavelength where
16
the attenuation is minimum. The DSFs are optimized for operating in the
region between 1500 to 1600 nm. With the introduction of WDM systems,
however, channels allocated near 1550 rim in DSF are seriously affected by
noise induced as a result of nonlinear effects caused by FWM. This initiated
the development of NZDSF. 0.653 fiber is rarely deployed any more and has
been superseded by 0.655.

1.13.2.5 1550-nm Loss-Minimized Fiber (JTU-T G.654)

The ITU-T 0.654 fiber is optimized for operation in the 1500-nm to 1600-nm
region. This fiber has a low loss in the 1 550-nm band. Low loss is achieved
by using a pure silica core. ITU-T 0.654 fibers can handle higher power
levels and have a larger core area. These fibers have a high chromatic
dispersion at 1550 nm. The ITU 0.654 fiber has been designed for extended
long-haul undersea applications.

1.13.2.6 Nonzero Dispersion Shifted Fiber (JTUT G.655)

Using nonzero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZDSF) can mitigate nonlinear
characteristics. NZDSF fiber overcomes these effects by moving the zero-
dispersion wavelength outside the 1550-nm operating window. The practical
effect of this is to have a small but finite amount of chromatic dispersion at
1550 rim, which minimizes nonlinear effects, such as FWM, SPM, and XPM,
which are seen in the dense wavelength-division multiplexed (DWDM)
systems without the need for costly dispersion compensation. There are two
fiber families called nonzero dispersion (NZD+ and. NZD), in which the
zero-dispersion value falls before and after the 1550-nm wavelength,
respectively. The typical chromatic dispersion for 0.655 fiber at 1550 nm is
4.5 ps/mm-km. The attenuation parameter for 0.655 fiber is typically 0.2
dB/km at 1550 nm, and the PMD parameter is less than 0.1 ps/ km. The
Corning LEAF fiber is an example of an enhanced 0.655 fiber with a 32
percent larger effective area.





1.14 Types of cable

1.14.1 Simplex and Zip Cord:

Simplex cables are one fiber, tight-buffered (coated with a 900 micron
buffer over the primary buffer coating) with Kevlar (aramid fiber) strength
members and jacketed for indoor use. The jacket is usually 3mm (1/8 in.)
diameter. Zipcord is simply two of these joined with a thin web. Its used
17
mostly for patch cord and backplane applications, but zipcord can also be
used for desktop connections.

1.14.2 Distribution Cables:

They contain several tight-buffered fibers bundled under the same jacket
with Kevlar strength members and sometimes fiberglass rod reinforcement
to stiffen the cable and prevent kinking. These cables are small in size, and
used for short, dry conduit runs, riser and plenum applications. The fibers
are double buffered and can be directly terminated, but because their fibers
are not individually reinforced, these cables need to be broken out with a
breakout box or terminated inside a patch panel or junction box.

1.14.3 Breakout Cables:

They are made of several simplex cables bundled together. This is a strong,
rugged design, but is larger and more expensive than the distribution cables.
It is suitable for conduit runs, riser and plenum applications. Because each
fiber is individually reinforced, this design allows for quick termination to
connectors and does not require, patch panels or boxes. Breakout cable can
be more economic where fiber count isnt too large and distances too long,
because is requires so much less labor to terminate.

1.14.4 Loose Tube Cables:

These cables arc composed of several fibers together inside a small plastic
tube, which are in turn wound around a central strength member and
jacketed, providing a small, high fiber count cable. This type of cable is ideal
for outside plant trucking applications, as it can be made with the loose
tubes filled with gel or water absorbent powder to prevent harm to the fibers
from water. It can be used in conduits, strung overhead or buried directly
into the ground. Since the fibers have only a thin buffer coating, they must
be carefully handled and protected to prevent damage.




1.14.5 Ribbon Cable:

This cable offers the highest packing density, since all the fibers are laid out
in rows, typically of 12 fibers, and laid on top of each other. This way 144
fibers only has a cross section of about 1/4 inch or 6 mm! Some cable
designs use a slotted core with up to 6 of these 144 fiber ribbon
assemblies for 864 fibers in one cable! Since its outside plant cable, its gel-
filled for water blocking.
18

1.14.6 Armored Cable:

Cable installed by direct burial in areas where rodents are a problem usually
have metal armoring between two jackets to prevent rodent penetration.
This means the cable is conductive, so it must be grounded properly.
Aerial Cable: Aerial cables are for outside installation on poles. They can be
lashed to a messenger or another cable (common in CATV) or have metal
or aramid strength members to make them self supporting.




























1.15 Losses of optical fiber

1.15.1 Junction Losses

The amount of light lost in a junction is affected by:
The alignment of the fibers in the splice
The sizes of the two fiber cores
The alignment or shapes of fiber coresmost are circular, some are oval
19
The properties of the fibersscattering coefficients can vary from fiber to
fiber

Proper core alignment is strongly influenced by consistent and tightly
controlled fiber geometry. When splicing two fibers together, more exact
core alignment yields a better, lower-loss splice. Core/clad concentricity is a
measure of how well the core is centered in a cable; tighter tolerances mean
that the fiber core is more precisely centered in the cladding glass.
Tight concentricity tolerance is especially important when using splicing
technologies and equipment that do not actively align the fiber cores before
splicing, as with mechanical splices and v-groove alignment fusion splices
(single or mass). For example, as many as 12 fiber splices are made
simultaneously in a mass splice, with no opportunity to individually align
each fiber core.
In single-fusion splicing techniques, tighter core/clad concentricity means
splices are done right the first time, every time. Geometrically optimized fiber
provides superior and more consistent splices, thereby reducing or even
eliminating the need for splice loss verification.

1.15.2 Backscatter and Optical Power Loss

Even coherent laser light is subject to power loss as it propagates through a
fiber. The glass in fiber optic cable is produced from silicon and other
elements to make it thin and flexible. Optical fiber, although much higher in
quality than window glass, is not pure - it contains imperfections, impurities,
and variations in its index of refraction. These flaws can cause some of the
light traveling down the fiber to be scattered in all directions, resulting in the
loss of power.
Scatter that is directed back toward the laser source is called backscatter,
a property that is very useful for fiber cable measurements. Light traveling
through a uniform section of fiber produces backscatter that decreases
uniformly over the fiber length due to attenuation of the return signal. Splices
or connectors create distinctive deviations in the
-backscatter caused by attenuation of the return signals from the far side of
the junctions. These deviations are detected as events whose
characteristics can be used to identify their properties and locations.
Glass is transparent to some wavelengths of light and absorbs others.
Scattering varies with the color of the light. As the wavelength gets longer
(toward the red end of the spectrum) the scattering diminishes doubling
the wavelength reduces scattering by a factor of sixteen. The 1310 nm and
1550 nm wavelengths used in fiber optics communications systems were
selected for their ability to pass through the glass in optical fiber with the
least amount of loss. The 850 nm wavelength is used because the light
sources are relatively inexpensive.
20
Figure 11 shows how impurities in a fiber attenuate the power of the light
passing through it.
















Power in fiber is measured in decibels (dB) - logarithmic units of powers of
10. The equation for power gain or loss is:

Loss = 10 log10 (Output Power/Input Power)

Figure 12 shows an example of a loss of one half of the power in a 9 km
fiber link a power loss of 3 dB [10 logl0 (1/2) 10 logl0 (0.5) 3.]












1.16 Amplifiers Signal Conditioning Elements in an Optical Network

Amplifiers and multiplexers are used to improve the quality and capacity of
optical communication networks. Amplifiers strengthen optical signals to
restore power that has dissipated over long distances. Multiplexers allow
multiple signals to be carried simultaneously through a single fiber.
Amplifiers are used to strengthen the communication signal as they
pass through the fiber without breaking the signal path. Most amplifiers
21
employ special erbium-doped fiber elements that combine energy from an
external light source with the signal to increase its energy. Newer Raman
amplifiers use backscattering properties within normal fibers to amplify the
signal.

1.17 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength Division Multiplexers (WDM) provide a method of sending more
than one light signal down a fiber at the same time each at a different
wavelengths. WDMs are passive optical component modules that use
specially treated and notched sections of fiber called diffraction gratings.
They are bi-directional - the same device combines wavelengths in one
direction for transmission arid separates them for reception in the other (see
Figures 13 and 14). The light waves can also be shifted to other
wavelengths and added to other fibers to suit various applications.
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) enables service providers
to increase bandwidth without the cost installing additional fiber. DWDM
communication systems use multiple WDMs to transmit multiple laser lines
(channels) through fiber optic cables, allowing the fiber to carry more
information. Current DWDM systems are capable of combining multiple
channels into a single fiber.
























22



TRANSMISSION OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
23
2.1 Introduction of optical fiber Communication

Optical fiber communication systems have moved rapidly from the research
labs into commercial application. When the attenuation inherent in the
optical fiber was reduced to levels that made fiber economically attractive for
long haul communications, sources and detectors were ready and available
for commercial applications. Current research includes new fluoride fiber
materials, with attenuation orders of magnitude smaller than is possible with
silica fibers, and optoelectronic devices for use at the still longer
wavelengths that will be attractive with the new fiber materials
2.2 Definition of Transmission
Transmission is the sending or passing of something, such as a message or
disease from one place or person to anotherTransmission is the act of
passing something on.
Specifically, it may refer to:
Transmission (mechanics), a gear system transmitting mechanical power,
as in a car
Transmission (telecommunications), the act of transmitting messages over
distances
Transmission (medicine), the passing of a disease
Transmission (magazine), a literary magazine based in the UK
Transmission coefficient, in physics, chemistry, and optics.
Transmission (TV series), a British music television programmed shown in
the UK.
Electric power transmission, one process in the delivery of electricity to
consumers
Data transmission, the conveyance of information from one space to
another
Dharma transmission, the formal confirmation of a student's awakening in
Zen Buddhism
Transmission (spiritual), the act of passing on wisdom or enlightenment
from a spiritual master to a disciple
Transmission (genetics), is the passing on of genetic information.




24
2.3 Types Telecommunications Transmission
Telecommunications Transmission is three types
1. Micro Wave Transmission communications
2. Optical Fiber Transmission communications
3. Satellite Transmission communications
2.4 Definition of optical fiber Communication
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one
place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light
forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information
The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic
steps: Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying
the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too
distorted or weak, receiving the optical signal, and converting it into an
electrical signal
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and
networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is
especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light
propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical
cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.
Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber can be
modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second,
[12]
although 10 or
40 Gb/s is typical in deployed systems. Each fiber can carry many
independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light
(wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate
without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by
the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to
eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008).






25
2.6 Block diagram of optical fiber communication










































Information
source
Electrical
Transmit
Optical
Source
Destination
Optical Fiber Cable
Optical
Detector
Electrical
Receiver
26










PLANNING OF OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION
27
3.1 Planning

For uninterrupted telecommunication communication system need to good
transmission system. In modern telecommunication communication system
use Optical fiber for good transmission Path. When need to carry much
more data to long distance must be needed optical fiber as a transmission
Path.

For plan to route an optical fiber cable line to households is in progress. In
this planning, generally, the object households to which the optical fiber
cable line is connected are divided into several blocks. The trunk line is then
constructed in a tree-like fashion in each block utilizing electric power
company or communication firm poles. A closure (splice closure) is installed
on a specific pole of the trunk line, and branch lines extend from the closure
to respective households

3.2 Rout survey

The model method for conducting duct integration test (DIT) and Cable
Blowing is based on a Route Survey to be first carried out by the DIT/cable
blowing sub-contractors regional manager. This route survey is conducted
in conjunction with the customers site manager in-charge.
Purpose of the route survey is to:
Meet the customers site manager in-charge.
Obtain from him a line diagram of the stretch with all incomplete sections
(ducts not laid) with their lengths and expected dates of completion marked
on it.
Physically go over the route, including incomplete sections, and coupler
points (to check and see if coupler points marked on the line diagram are
also marked on the route).
Observe and note the condition of the route, including bridges, railway/road
crossings, horizontal directional drilling (HDD) points, city/built-up areas.
Obtain other information like status and availability of cable drums.
It has been observed that the productivity of blowing operations is adversely
affected due to ignorance about certain vital information before deployment
of blowing team. The most important being the status of duct laying in terms
of nos., lengths and locations of disconnects and their expected date of
completion.
It is, therefore, recommended that before deploying a blowing or DIT team
on a stretch, a route survey should be carried out by the Regional Manager.
The route survey should include following activities:
Acquiring line diagram of the stretch with all disconnects along with their
lengths marked on it and their expected dates of completion.
Physical verification of the route, all disconnects coupler points (if couplers
points are marked on the line diagram are marked on the route as well)
28
Noting the condition of the route
Other information like cable drum status, no. of drum available
The above information should be transferred onto the Route Survey format
for every 10 km length
A summary of this information along with certain basic information like
names, designations & addresses, phone! fax no. of main contact person
and site engineers, numbers of ducts laid, duct IDOD, REG point locations,
cable drum and cable specification related information, and any special
requirement depending on the site conditions, etc. should be put into in the
form of Route Survey Summary Report format and handed over to the DIT
team before its mobilization to the site.

3.3 Work flow chart:

Block diagram for work flow chart:






























Route Survey
Line diagram + Coupler to
Coupler duct length
DIT
Rectification
DIT Reports
Cable Blowing
Blowing Report
29
3.4 Route survey summary report from

Date of Survey: / /200 Route from: To:
Main Contact person at site:

Name, designation & Address:

Phone:
Fax :
Customer/Contractor Site
Engineer
Name:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Survey Findings / Observations:
Total Km surveyed: Km Nos. of duet s laid: 2/3 /4/ Duct ID/OD:
Duct Color(s) Primary Duct color:

Total Km duct laid: 1cm Total Km duct not laid
Total Km laying in progress: Km Total Km ready for DIT: Km
Total Km blown: Km Total Km ready for blowing: Km
Road Under: NH- Km, SH: Km, DR: Km, R&H: Km
Road condition: Good I Bad
Decoiler: Used / Not Used Coupler marked: all most all / few / none
Line diagram with coupler points and distance: Available / Not Available
REG points: (a) (b) (c) (d)
Disconnect Information : Total Nos. of disconnect(s) in the route: Nos.
S.No MS Disconnect
Length (Km)
Expected Date
of completion
Reason for
disconnect From To
1 / /200
2 / /200
3 / /200
4 / /200
5 / /200
6 / /200
7 / /200
Cable Drum Information:
Nos. of drum available: Nos. of drum OTDR test carried out:
Drum size: 3km/4km/Skm/ Cable Make :
Cable diameter (mm): Type of cable:
Wt. Of Cable: gm/m Type of reinforcement: 2GJ I FRP /
Distance between site & store: Km Drum planning: carried out / not carried out
Special Requirements:
Hose length: M Compressor:
Petrol Pump Available / Not Available Food : Available / Not Available
Drinking water: Available / Not
Available
Staying: Available / Not Available
Additional Information for BIT I blowing team:


30










DUCT HANDLING STORAGE AND DUCT LAYING
31
4.1 Definition of Duct

The dictionary meaning of the word duct is a channel or tube for conveying
fluid, cable, etc. The word duct is derived from the Latin word ducts which
means leading. Possibly the earliest use of duct in history is for channeling
water, hence the word aqueduct. The word aquaeduct in Latin means
water.
Ducts for conveyance of cables have evolved with the development of
cables. Copper cables have traditionally been simply buried in the ground.
The need to protect the cable was felt and so cables were put inside
Galvanized iron (GI) pipes-and concrete pipes. The widespread use and
lower price of plastics brought about the use of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
pipes as ducts for conveyance of cables.

The determinant of pipe length was identified as ease of transportation. The
6-meter pipe length was the limiting factor for truck transport and with
coupler joints the 200- meter duct had long been the standard. The PVC
pipe is a rigid pipe, but High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is a superior
plastic material suited for duets and has the additional advantage that it can
be coiled. (Flexible PVC pipes are available but only
for above ground applications. They cannot be used underground because
the flexible PVC pipes lack impact and crush resistance). The 6-meter
length limit no longer exists and with HDPB duct lengths of 1 km without any
joints are today the norm. Use of ducts should permit duct lengths of 2 km.
HDPE duets are now in common use. These ducts are pre-coated with a
layer of permanent lubricant. The inside permanent layer of lubricant coating
and the HDPE duct are both co-extruded at the same time. The lubricant
has a very low coefficient of friction to ease the movement of the cable
through jetting technology inside the duct.
Jetting technology works on the principle of the fiber optic cable floating on a
stream of compressed air. The duct is pressurized during the jetting
process. Since coupler joints are a weak link in the duct it is desirable to
have the absolute minimum number of couplers in its length.

4.2 Advantages of using High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Ducts

Mechanical and Chemical Protection of the Cable
HDPE materials used for production of ducts are selected for their long-term
performance and for their physical properties that relate to optimum
performance such as crush and impact resistance as well as stronger tensile
strength when a pulling force is applied.


32
HDPE duct protects the cable from destructive elements in the ground such
as: acids, chemicals, salts, alkalis and hydrocarbons. Duct will not become
oval, flatten out or elongate during its installation.
Ease of Installation
HDPE ducts are flexible but durable. It is possible to follow the route around
bends without any need for special elbows or heat treatment. HDPE ducts
can be pulled into concrete, PVC or steel main ducts. It is possible to install
ducts mechanically or manually. Ducts can be laid in temperatures below
freezing point (as low as -20 degrees C) when fiber optic cable cannot be
installed. This helps expedite the installation of the telecom network.
Future Access to the Duct
Excavation cost is one of the more expensive elements of the building of the
telecom network. Also it is becoming more and more difficult and expensive
to get permission to dig specially in urban areas. Ducts enable the
upgrading of telecom network without digging all over again. The old cable
can be removed and the new one installed with access from manholes.
Additionally, cables. can easily be installed in spare ducts provided at time
of original installation.
Replacement of Cable
The permanently pre-lubricated HDPE duct permits easy removal and
replacement of the fiber optic cable without any damage to the fibers of
either of the two cables or the duct.

4.3 Duct transportation

During transportation and storing at the site, it is necessary to seal the ends
of the duct with the proper End caps against water penetration or other
impurities. Sand, soil or water and other impurities significantly increase the
friction between the duct and the cable outer sheet.
Ensure that the Duct coil is strapped properly at four places.
While transporting the duct from factory, it is should be ensured that the
trucks are properly sealed. In ease of any discrepancy/damage to duct,
please report immediately with details of Truck No., damaged Coil No.,
extent of damage (if possible photographs), so that the matter can be taken
up with the transporters.
Similarly, it is advisable not to put any heavy objects like tools, G.I./RCC
Pipes etc., while transporting ducts from main store to actual laying location
at site.







33
4.4 Method of Loading & unloading for high density polyethylene ducts

Using wooden or metallic plank
Using Rope or Belt
Using Chain-Pulley block
Using Raised Ground
Using Boom truck
Using Crane

4.4.1 Using wooden or metallic plank

Open the tail board of the truck carrying the duct coil and put wooden or
metallic planks at appropriate places, (refer following figures) sloping from
the floor of the truck to ground. Roll down over these planks to rest on the
ground.
Duet Coil can also be dropped from the floor of truck on sand or soft soil bed
of about 12 height or more.
Never ever drop the Duct Coil from the floor of the truck on hard ground/
road











34
4.4.2 Using rope or belt

Open the tail board of the truck carrying the duct coil and hang the coil by
rope or belt. if we want to unload the duct coil rope or belt loose slowly until
the coil touch ground.
















4.4.3 Using raised ground

When the duct storage location is higher then road position it is possible.
The truck plate form height is equal of the existing duct storage height. This
procedure is easy to handle load and unload the storage ducts.



















35
4.4.4 Using boom truck.

This procedure is fully mechanical .this types of system for loading and
unloading use a crane which is attested on the truck.

















4.4.5 Using crane

This is a system for loading and unloading by using an individual crane.





















36
4.5 Duct storage

Avoid exposure of HDPE Ducts to direct sunlight, which may adversely
affect the physical and mechanical characteristics of duct.
Keep DPE Duct covered during storage for a long period.
Keep the ends of HDPE Duct capped or plugged to avoid entry of dust, dirt,
water, etc.
Keep HDPE Duet away from Chemicals, inflammable material, etc.
Do not keep any heavy material on HDPE Duct during transportation and
storage.













37
4.6 Trenching
A long narrow ditch in the ground, such as one for laying a pipe in ditch.

4.6.1 Right of way permission
On behalf of the client, Aster Infratek obtains necessary statutory
permissions from regulatory bodies. Single Line Diagram (SLD) is made to
determine the jurisdictions and permissions obtained.
State Highways
Railway Department
Roads & Buildings Department
Municipal corporations
Panchayath Boards
Irrigation department
National Highway Authorities
Forest Department




38
4.6.2 Specifications for excavation of trenches
Standard depth will be measured from lower side of natural ground level to
the base of the trench.
Standard depth for normal soil and soft rock: At least 1500 mm (1.5 M).
Standard depth for hard rock: At least 900 mm (0.9 M) provided the rock
stars from earth crust.
Width of trench: 400mm at top and 300mm at the bottom.
Different clients have slightly marginal differences in trench depth and we
cater to the needs of the customers.
Outside the city limits trench will normally follow outer boundary of the
berm.
Where the berm has burrowed pits or forestation, or when cable is to be
laid along culverts/bridges or cross-streams, trench may be made closer to
road edge, or in some cases, over embankment or shoulder of the road.
Line up of trench would be such that HDPE duct(s) will be laid in straight
line, both laterally as well as vertically except at locations where it has to
necessarily take a bend because of change in alignment or gradient of
trench.
Minimum radius of two meters will be maintained, where bends are
necessitated.
4.6.3 Observations on trenching
1. Check for modulations & undulations of the trench
Get the bottom of the trench rectified before duct laying
2. Check for stones & debris at the trench base
Get the stones & debris cleared
3. Mechanized trenching leaves trench bottom with sharp
Projections causing duct deformation
Level the trench base before duct Laying.
4. Sudden depth changes because of Culvert I Bridge crossings
Need to maintain the minimum bending radius of trench or trench slope at
max. 3Q0 gradient
5. Sharp bends at HDD points damages ducts
Need proper bending radius to be maintained for entry into GI pipe at HDD
point
39
6. Watch out for 90 Vertical trench
Compact the soil under & behind the bend.
4.6.4 Back filling
Trench will be initially filled with sieved soil or sand in Rocky Terrain for
about 10 cm which will act as a cushion / padding and then duct is placed
gently over it.
After that another layer of 10 cm of fine sieved soil or sand is poured and
then entire trench is backfilled with excavated material.
Under normal soil conditions duct is directly laid in trench and backfilled.
Adequate dry compaction will be done before crowning.
4.6.5 Crowning
When backfilling has been done up to ground level a hump of soil is made
to cater for soil settlement.
Entire excavated soil will be used for back filling.
Crowning will be confined to width of trench only.

4.7 Duct Mounting Steel Reels
4.7.1 Using Vertical de-coiler
Used for laying of duct coils without formation of twists and
entanglements.
Helps in laying duct straight in the trench thus reducing the coil set.
Place flange I on ground Place the duct coil on flange





40

Place duct coil in such a way that all the holes of flange are accessible for
fixing traverse bars from inner space of duct.






Place flange on top of the coil and fix it with
traverse bars by with means of nuts and bolts.






Vertical De-coiler with the Coil mounted on Jack






41
4.7.2 Coil mounting horizontal de-coiler
Place the coil horizontally on top of the circular metal frame & insert the
vertical bars at the coil.





4.8 Duct laying
o Ducts will be laid in a flat bottom trench, free from stones, and sharp
edged debris.
o The duct would be placed in trench as straight as possible. However, at
bends horizontal and vertical minimum bending radius for duct of 1300 mm
would be maintained.
o Ducts will be laid preferably using specially designed dispensers.
o Ducts shall be free from twist and collapsed portions. Any such portion
will be rectified before backfilling by using couplers.
o Ends of ducts will always be closed with END PLUGS to avoid ingress of
mud, water or dust.
o Prior to aligning the ducts for jointing, each length of the HDPE duct will
be thoroughly cleaned to remove all sand, dust or any other debris that may
clog, disturb or damage the optical fiber cable when it is pulled or blown at a
later stage.
o The ducts will be joined with couplers using duct cutter & other tools and
will be tightened and secured properly.
o The duct joint will be practically airtight to ensure smooth cable blowing
using cable blowing machines.
42
o Gl and / or RCC pipes will be used as additional protection for the HDPE
ducts at rail / road crossings, built-up area/city limits, on culverts and
bridges, as required.
o Chambering or concreting around RCC/ Gl pipes as additional protection
on bridges, culverts and also on stretches wherever depth of excavation is
less than specified will be done.
o Reinstatement of excavated trench will be done with proper compaction.
4.8.1 Procedure for duct installation
Determine the direction of installation and set the reel. (Duct should always
come from the bottom)
Unroll the duct to the required length, spacing workers as shown below.


One supervisor should put his hand
around the duct and walk through
the entire length to inspect it for
physical damage and repair the duct
as required. Place the duct into the
trench.


Let two workers stand on the duct at point A. At point B let two workers put
tension on duct by pulling it and at point C put some backfill and compact.



43
Backfill the trench at approximate 2-Mtr. intervals or continuously as shown
in Figure below, keeping the duct under continuous tension, just to install it
straight.

4.8.2 The basics of ducts laying







4.9 Duct Integrity testing

4.9.1 Duct Integrity testing procedure

Purpose of Duct Integrity Test is to ascertain and ensure the suitability of the
duct for cable installation through jetting. It is first necessary to ensure that
the duct into which cable is to be installed is continuous over the length of
the duet. Some reasons for lack of continuity are:

Missing sections of duct
Couplers not connected
Overlapping of ducts

44
The Air Test establishes duct continuity. Air is introduced from one end of
the duct. If air comes out from the other end of the duct then it is established
that the duct is continuous. If no air emerges then the fault is tobe
identified and corrected before proceeding further. Duct overlap can lead to
potentially very dangerous situations and should be corrected promptly.
Second step in the DIT Test is to establish that there is a clear passage for
the cable to go through the duct. Possible reasons for lack of clear
passageway are:
Kink in the duct
Blockage in the duct

These deficiencies are to be corrected before proceeding further. Kink in the
duct may be caused at the duct laying stage when backfilling may have
been done without taking care to keep boulders out of the way and out of
the trench. A fallen boulder on top of a laid duct can cause the problem. The
kink may also have been caused at the de coiling stage if this is attempted
without use of a decoiler.
The kink in the buried duct is located through the Shuttle Test. A suitable
shuttle is first passed through the duct. The shuttle will get stuck at the point
where the duct is either kinked or blocked. Next a transmitter is passed
through the duct. It gets stuck behind the shuttle. The path of the duct is
then tracked with a receiver. As the receiver passes over the transmitter the
signal from the transmitter is heard loud and clear. In this way the
transmitter, and just ahead the shuttle, and just ahead the kink are located.
The spot is marked and the trench has to be dug up again. The boulder
responsible for the kink is removed. The portion of the damaged duct is cut
out and replaced with good duct of equal length. Joint with laid duct is made
with push fit coupler.
Cable installation through jetting can be carried out successfully only under
a pressure of 10 bar. Before cable installation is attempted it is necessary to
verify that the duct can bold this pressure. This is the major purpose of the
Pressure Test.
Possible reasons for failure of DIT pressure test are:
Leakage at couplers
Puncture in duct
Coupler leakage is caused by improper installation of coupler. A puncture in
the duct can result from improper handling of the duct. A sharp-edged
boulder if it should come to rest on top of the buried duct can also puncture
the duct. Air leakage from the leaking coupler or the punctured duct is the
tell tale sign of the problem which can then be rectified.
Thus in summary the DIT test is conducted prior to cable installation with a
view to check and if necessary rectify the duct so it is made suitable for
cable installation. The possible duct faults that may show up during the DIT
test process are:

45
Missing sections of duct
Couplers not connected
Overlapping of ducts
Kink in (ho duct
Blockage in the duct
Leakage at couplers
Puncture in duct
These faults are to be corrected before proceeding further.

4.9.2 Item to be ensured before DIT

The technicians selected for DIT should have at least 1-year experience of
blowing which will help them appreciate the importance and need of DIT
before blowing. They should also have good decision-making,
communication, and team working skills.
The DIT team should be mobilized after taking into consideration the
following:
Availability of a complete and clear stretch of 60 km between two
regeneration/repeater stations
Availability of Route Survey Reports and Route Survey Summary Report
Confirmation from Regional Manager of completion of previously
incomplete sections
Availability of line diagram of the route mentioning coupler points and
distance between couplers
Availability of compressor, engineer/supervisor, and six laborers from the
prime contractor for the route
Resources as per resource checklist (attached) for DIT team
Availability of three DIT engineers
Acquire line diagram measurement sheet from contractor mentioning all the
coupler points and distance between the couplers and also physically
inspect the couplers marked on road/tree/elsewhere. Try to acquire duct
lengths instead of odometer reading between coupler to coupler, which
would help in deciding in advance splicing pit digging while blowing. Never
conduct DIT on overlap ducts. Before DIT fix overlaps with coupler and
ensure after DIT the patch / stretch is ready for blowing.
Conduct a route survey with the customers and contractors site engineers
and prepare a line & patch diagram showing the following:
Coupler points, duct overlaps, and suspected coupler points with their
distances from milestones
Bridges, railway crossings, road crossings, HDD points
Any incomplete portions (duet not yet laid), their location, and length
Decide upon digging points i.e. 0,1,2,3,4 km points. At 2 km point pressure
testing equipment (PTE) and compressor should be installed, and for
deciding 1 or 3 km and 0 or 4 km points following guidelines may be used:

46
Points Distance from PTB (M)
Minimum Maximum
lor3kmPoint 800 1400
Oor4kmPoint 1800 2400

Following example illustrates how in a practical situation coupler points will
be earmarked as 0,1,2,3,4 km point for digging of pits. The 4 km patch
between MS 100 to MS 104 has been taken for DIT.

MS 100 is taken as 0 km point (DIT starting point).
MS 102 is taken as 2 km point, its distance from 0 km point is 1 900M.
Coupler point at a distance of 800M from MS 100 is taken as 1 km point.
Coupler point at a distance of 900M from MS 102 is taken as 3 km point.
Coupler point at a distance of 200M from MS 104 is taken as 4 km point.
The total patch length on which DIT would be performed is 4100M.
Before starting DIT dig all 0,1,2,3,4 km points for 12 km and engage 2
labors for advance pit digging for opening further points.
Visually check for any overlaps, if found, rectify them.



The figure shows:
A 4km path.
Pets & compressor should be fixed at 2 km point.
Couplers at all the points, i.e., 0,1,2,3,4 km points should be opened in
advance.
47
All the testing i.e., Air, Shuttle, Sponge and Pressure test should be
performed in 2-0 section (Up stream) first and then in 2-4 section (Down
stream).
It is assumed that DIT for two duets is to be performed: the primary duet (in
which immediately after DIT blowing to be done) and secondary or spare
duct (which is left for future use). At a time DIT for 2 km duet length for both
the ducts would be performed (i.e., if in one duet air & shuttle has passed,
but the other duet has failed in shuttle test, then do not carry out sponge and
pressure test for the first duet. Only after clearing air/shuttle in both primary
and secondary duets, pass sponge and carry out pressure test for bath the
chiefs simultaneously
To start with, 3 technicians are placed at 0 km. 1 km and 2 km point.
During pressure build up (pressure test) in 2-0 section (Upstream), 1 km
person moves to 4 km point and 0 km person moves to 3 km point, whereas,
in case of a fault, once the transmitter has been blown, 0 km person moves
to 4 km point and 1 km person pin points the transmitter signal, marks the
area for digging with lime powder and engages 2 labor for digging and then
moves to 3 km point.
If fault occurs on both the sides, i.e., 2-0 section (Up stream) and 2-4 section
(Down stream) then assess the pit opening condition at 2-0 section, if the pit
opening is likely to take more than 15 mm. then move to next 4 km patch
and start performing DIE If fault occurs on both the sides of the next 4 km
patch then come back to previous 4 km patch, if by this time the pit is ready
and problem has been rectified. Otherwise move to still next 4 km patch.




















SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM, NOMENCLATURE AND BASIC DIT
48
NOTE: The sequence of shuttle and sponge can be interchanged depending
upon the condition of the duct. If water/mud is coming out at 0 or 4 km
point then sponge cleaning can be carried out before shuttle test. Normally,
shuttle test should be carried out before sponge cleaning because if sponge
is stuck then de-blowing has to be done. Never blow sponge first when
back-pressure is observed (back pressure indicates there is blockage and
sponge may get stuck.


4.10 Types of duct Integrity test.

Types of Integrity test

1. Air blowing test
2. Shuttle blowing test
3. Transmitter blowing test
4. Sponge blowing test
5. Pressure Test



4.10.1 Air blowing test

Normally, the person at 2 1cm point would encounter any one of the
following three
Situations:
1. Normal: Allow full discharge with a 5 bar, 100 cm compressor and 1400-
1500 rpm.
2. Low pressure: If the observed pressure at 0 or 4 km point is less than the
normal
Pressure then there may be possibility of air leakage from a loose coupler in
between.
3. Back Pressure: If the observed pressure is more than the normal
pressure then there
may be possibility of a blockage giving rise to back pressure.
In case of low or back-pressure the action to be taken would also depend
upon the response from person at 0 km or 4 km point. The response of 0 km
or 4 km point person may be. any one of the following:
Normal air flow:
Action: Blow shuttle.
Low air pressure:
Problem: 1. Loose Coupler(s)
2. Duct Puncture
3. Partial Blockage
Action: Check coupler at I km point for any leakage.
49
If no leakage found at 1 km point, blow shuttle.
Back pressure observed at 2 km point
Problem: Blockage
Action: Open coupler at 1 or 3 km point and check whether back pressure is
observed. If no backpressure is observed, then blockage is in section 1-0 or
3-4 section. Blow shuttle,
No Air Flow
Problem:
1. Duct overlap
2. Duct missing
3. Dead blockage
Action: Open coupler at 1 or 3 km point and check whether air is coming or
not. Jf air is coming then there is duct overlap or duct missing in 1-0 or 3-4
section.
Couple I or 3 km point and send air, visually inspect 1-0 or 3-4 section for
overlap and air leakage.
If overlap or air leakage is not found blow transmitter and pinpoint with the
receiver.
Water / mud coming out at 0 or 4 km point
Problem: Presence of Water I mud in the duct:
Action: Continue blowing air for 5-10 mi until water / mud stops coming.
Blow sponge.
If water continues to come after 5-10 mm. it means there is loose coupler in
waterlogged area. Continue blowing air and check visually the trench for
waterlogged area for air bubbles coming out.

4.10.2 Shuttle blowing test

Normally, shuttle would come out at a distance of 2 km within 3 mm. and at
a distance of 1 km within 1 mm. (All the shuttles should be numbered and
while blowing shuttle, shuttle number should be noted.)
Shuttle Stuck
If the shuttle does not come out within 3 mm. continue blowing air for
another 2-3 mm. Jf still the shuttle does not come out, then:
Switch on the receiver and place the receiver on the duct at 1 or 3 km
point. Blow the transmitter and continue air for 3-5 mm. for the transmitter to
travel to the fault location, while the transmitter moves from 1 or 3 km point
the receiver makes sound as well as the transmitter make sound due to the
impact on the duct.
If at 1 or 3 km point the receiver makes sound then the shuttle and
transmitter is stuck in 1-0 or 3-4 section and if at 1 or 3 kin point the receiver
does not make sound then the shuttle and transmitter is stuck in 2-1 or 2-3
section. Accordingly, move with the receiver in 1-0 or 3-4 or 2-I or 2-3
section to pinpoint the transmitter.
50
Mark the pinpoint and 2 to 2.5 meters. on its either sides with lime powder
for pit digging.
Many a time the shuttle gets stuck due to minor kink and while transmitter
is blown the shuttle and transmitter conies out. Make sure while transmitter
is Mown the catcher is fixed at 0 or 4 km point else the transmitter may get
damaged.

4.10.3 Transmitter blowing test

Transmitter is to be blown in following two conditions:
1. Shuttle is stuck,
2. When air is not coming at 0 or 4 km point, then open coupler at I or 3 km
point and check whether air is coming or not. If air is coming then there is
duct overlap or duct missing in 1-0 or 3-4 section. Couple 1 or 3 km point
and send air, visually inspect 1-0 or 3-4 section for overlap and air leakage,
If overlap or air leakage is not found then only blow transmitter and pinpoint
with the receiver. Before howling transmitter ensures that there is no overlap
or else the transmitter would fly away.
All the transmitters should be numbered and while blowing transmitter,
transmitter number should be noted.
Always blow transmitter at 2 bar pressure or else transmitter would be
damaged. Before blowing transmitter reduce the pressure valve regulator to
zero from Pressure Testing Equipment (PTE) and then slowly increase the
pressure valve regulator to 2 bar.
Never blow transmitter in the same section in both the duct (e.g., for both
primary and secondary ducts) because it will be very difficult to identify &
which duct is the faulty one. Both the transmitters may get stuck at the same
place requiring the person to walk 1 full km to locate for any other
transmitter signal.
Pinpointing: After the transmitter is blown, move with the receiver over the
trench. When signal is received, slow down, keep the blade of the receiver
vertical and move slowly backwards and forwards over the suspected area,
reduce the sensitivity for a narrower response and pinpoint. Mark the
pinpoint and 2 to 2.5 mtrs. on its either sides with lime powder to be
excavated. Engage two labors and note the time when the excavation work
started.

51



















4.10.4 Sponge blowing test

Normally, sponge would come out at a distance of 2 km within 3 mm. and at
a distance of
1 km within I mm.
Sponge Stuck
If the sponge does not come out within 3 thin, continue blowing air for
another 2-3 mm. If still the sponge does not come out.
Switch on the receiver and place the receiver on the duet at I or 3 km point.
Blow the transmitter and a small piece of sponge after the transmitter and
continue air for 3-5 rain, for the transmitter to travel to the fault location,
while the transmitter moves from 1 or 3 km point the receiver makes sound
as well as the transmitter make sound due to the impact on the duct.
If at 1 or 3 km point the receiver makes sound then the shuttle and
transmitter is stuck in 1-0 or 3-4 section and if at 1 or 3 km point the receiver
does not make sound then
the shuttle and transmitter is stuck in 2-1 or 2-3 section. Accordingly, move
with the receiver in 1-0 or 3-4 or 2-1 or 2-3 section to pinpoint the
transmitter. Keep the duct pressurized and move with the receiver in 2-1 or
2-3 section to pinpoint the transmitter.
Mark the pinpoint and 2 to 2.5 meters. on its either sides with lime powder
for pit digging.




52
4.10.5 Pressure Test

While building up pressure increase the pressure to 5.5 bar and close the
inlet valve. Wait for sometime to stabilize the pressure, if the pressure does
not drop, release the pressure to bring it to 5 bar, if the pressure drops,
increase the pressure by opening the inlet valve to build up pressure of 5
bar.
Pressure test to conducted for both the ducts simultaneously for a 2 km duct
length. Pressure test to be conducted at 5-bar pressure for 30 mm. If the
pressure does not drop below 4.5 bar within 30 mm. the pressure test is
passed.
Pressure Test Failed
If the pressure drops below 4.5 bar within 30 mm. then the pressure test has
failed. This
indicates coupler leakage or a puncture in the duct.
In case the pressure test has failed the following action to be taken:
Check coupler point at 1, 2 or 4, 2 point as well as the end coupler at 0 or 4
km point. If there is no leakage in these points, conduct pressure test for 2-1
or 2-3 section in order to know the pressure drop section.
If there is pressure drop in 2-I or 2-3 section, it indicates that there is
leakage in this section. Dig all marked coupler point in this section and
check for leakage.
If there is no pressure drop in this section then it indicates that there is
leakage in 1-0 or 3-4 section. Dig all marked coupler point in this section and
check for leakage
After rectifying the coupler points conduct pressure test in order to ensure
the pressure test has passed. In ease the pressure test has failed make
sure there is no marked coupler point.

















53
4.11. Safety for duct Integrity test

Do not go inside the pit while DIT is being performed.
Do not stand in front of the duets when air/shuttle) sponge/ transmitter is
blown.
Do not open couplers or PTE before air is released completely.
Use warning tape for cordoning wherever pits are opened especially in city
and buildup areas.
Use waning cone and tape around the compressor for proper identification
for the incoming traffic from a distance.

4.12 Milestone and fractional milestone number

Milestone number: For all reference purposes milestone number should be
read from the side face of the milestone and not from the main faces. The
figure mentioned below shows the milestone number to be referred is 105.










Fractional milestone number: To indicate more accurate distances between
various coupler points fractional milestones should also be referred. The
figure mentioned below shows a fractional milestone number. (The distance
from MS 104 is 200M).











DHK
54










CABLE PULLING AND JETTING
55
5.1 Definition Cable pulling:

Traditionally fiber optic cables were pulled through cable ducts in the same
way as other cables, via a winch line. Every time a bend or undulation in the
duct is passed the pulling force is multiplied by a friction dependent factor
which can be reduced by using lubricant. This means that the higher the
local pulling force is, the higher the friction will be which the cable is
experiencing while being pulled against the internal duct wall. This "capstan
effect leads to an exponential force build-up with pull distance, producing
generally high pulling forces.

5.2 Definition Cable jetting:

Cable jetting is the process of blowing a cable through a duct while
simultaneously pushing the cable into the duct. Compressed air is injected
at the duct inlet and flows through the duct and along the cable at high
speed. (Preferably, no suction pig is used at the cable head.) The high
speed air propels the cable due to drag forces and pressure drop. The
friction of the cable against the duct is compensated locally by the
distributed airflow and large forces that would generate high friction are
avoided. Because of the expanding airflow, the air propelling forces are
relatively small at the cable inlet and large at the air exhaust end of the duct.
To compensate for this, an additional pushing force is applied to the cable
by the jetting equipment. The pushing force, acting mainly near the cable
inlet, adds synergistically with the airflow propelling forces, increasing the
maximum jetting distance considerably. Special lubricants have been
developed for cable jetting to further offset friction.
5.3 Advantages of jetting compared to pulling
1. Longer installation distances can be reached
2. Installation distance less dependent on bends and undulations in duct
3. Forces exerted on the cable are lower
4. Easier use jet in tandem operation
5. The step of installing a winch rope is avoided
6. Equipment is needed only at one end of the duct route








56
5.4 Block diagram of cable jetting system.

























5.5 Determine the cable size due to duct size

The inside diameter of the duct should ideally be two times the outside
diameter of the cable. The appropriate duct size for different sizes of cables
is given below:

Recommended Duct Size (OD/ID), Outside
Diameter (OD) of Cable, mm
32/36
9.0-12.5
40/33
13.0-16.0
50/42 16.5-
20.0





57
5.6 Compressor

The compressor should have the following characteristics to ensure effective
cable jetting:

Discharge Pressure 10 bar
Air Delivery 450CFM
After Cooler Built-in


6.7 Types of Cable jetting machine

1. Cable jet Machine (with pneumatic drive) is the suitable machine for
installation of cable up to 15 mm in diameter.

2. Super jet Machine (with hydraulic drive) is the right choice for cables with
diameter in the range from 14 to 32 mm.

5.7.1 Cable jet machine:

Cable jet the no-pull blowing-in system for fiber optic cables 6-18
mm. This category of sensitive cables demands the delicate feel of the
Cable jet. The cable is moved gently by air through the conduit. Suitable for
PEHD conduits up to 63 mm. A compressor with an operating pressure of
12 bar and a delivery of at least 10 m
3
/min. is required for successful air
injection in any position of a tube up to internal of 40 mm.
A detailed specification is available on request.


















58
5.7.2 Super jet machine

Super jet the no-pull cable blowing in system featuring high hydraulic
power for large and heavy cables (8) 14-36 mm.
Super jet operates on the basis of the same principle as the Cable jet.
Suitable for PEHD conduits up to 63 mm. A compressor with an operating
pressure of 12 bar and a delivery of at least 10 m
3
/min. is required for
successful air injection in any position into conduits with internal 40 mm.




















5.8 Advantages of cable jet machine compared with super jet

The cable jet can blow in 12 Km of cable in 1 day and is the safest method
available. With zero pull on the fiber optic cable, overloading of the cable is
not an issue. This eliminates the need for expensive bulky strength
members in the cable. Reducing the unit cost and weight of the cable. The
suitable COMPRESSOR required for the system must have the following
characteristics: 12 bar maximum pressure (minimum 8 bars) and 10 m3/min.
flow rate for placing cables in ducts having an internal diameter not
exceeding 42 mm and 15 m3/min. for ducts not exceeding 50 mm inner
diameter. To secure performance when the ambient temperature exceeds
30 C, the use of an after cooler is recommended. A special unit may be
supplied, should the compressor not be equipped with an after cooler




59
5.9 The performance of the cable jet system is defined as follows

-INSTALLED LENGHTS using one machine: 1000 - 3000 m and more,
depending on quality and characteristics of duct and cable and ambient
temperature.
- The LAYING SPEED varies between 40 and 100 m/min. and over,
depending on conditions.
-Required MANPOWER: for the first Cable jet 3 operators, for each
additional machine (cascade) 1 operator.
Cable jet is not just a method, but a range of world-wide patented
equipments.
With a weight not exceeding 20 kg, in operational mode, the Cable jet is a
very compact cable laying machine. Its air powered pushing mechanism
consists of 8 notched drive-wheels. The Cable jet is supplied with cable-
sealing inserts for diameters ranging from 9 - 18 mm, together with duct
inserts for most common dimensions, 32, 40 and 50 mm (other sizes
available on request). It is supplied with 2 metallic boxes, one for the
apparatus, the other for the accessories, spare parts, inserts and distance
counter.

5.10 Jetting Efficiency

Cable drums are generally equipped with 4 km of cable, and this establishes
a distance of 4 km between splicing pits. Typically drums are placed 4 km
apart on long-haul routes, midway between splicing pits. The most efficient
cable installation would be 2-km jetting shots towards splicing pits in either
direction from the midway point. After jetting 2 km in one direction, a figure
of eight would be created at the midway point to get to the end point of the
cable in the drum. This end would then be jetted in the other direction.
If the cable movement should slow down, then instead of taking the 2-km
shot the jetting shot could be limited to 1 km and cable jetting would
continue so that a 1-km figure of eight could be made at the 1-km mark. The
compressor would then be moved there to jet the remaining 1 km of cable to
the splicing pit. In the meantime the 2-km figure of eight would have been
made at the drum point, and the compressor would be brought back here to
attempt the 2-km shot in the other direction. Once again if the jetting speed
should slow down the shot could be limited to 1 km with a 1 km figure of
eight. The compressor would again be moved to jet the 1 km figure of eight.
It is clear that jetting efficiency is highest when 2-km shots are successful.
The 4-km cable drum is installed with one placement of the compressor and
a total of 4 km of cable jetting and 2 km of figure of eight. In contrast 1-km
jet shots require four placements of the compressor and a total of 6 km of
cable jetting and 4 km of figure of eight.


60
6.11 Prerequisites for Cable blowing

Prior to moving the blowing team route survey report, summary of route
survey report, DIT report and line and patch diagram should be available
with the blowing team. After reaching the blowing site, the blowing team
must collect the following information before commencing blowing
operations:

Line Diagram with coupler markings (if possible coupler to coupler duct
lengths) and physically verify the coupler markings on the road, tree, etc.
Blowing plan indicating:
Target date for completion of blowing
Loops to be left at State & National highway road crossings
Loops to be left at various bridges and culvert
Loops to be left at Splicing pits
Plans for handling disconnects
Availability of cable drums as well as cable lengths at stores, OTDR
testing carried out or not and cable transport modalities.

6.12 Pre-blowing Activities

Following activities are to he clone before blowing is commenced:
Digging of pits at all 1km points. (These are already available if cable
blowing is taken up immediately after DIT is completed within seven
days).
Determining splicing pit locations and digging thereof in advance by
matching coupler to coupler duct lengths and sizes of the available cable
drums.
Planning for placement of cable drums of respective sizes at every 4km.
(or as per the cable drum size).

6.13 Distribution of Jobs

In order to bring in synergetic effect and maximize the productivity of
blowing operation it is recommended that the major job responsibilities may
be distributed among the four key personnel as given below:
The Cable jet Operator to take charge of overall site management
including liaison with the customer! contractor, cable drum planning, cable
drum placement, splicing pit determination, loop lengths, shot lengths and
corresponding cable readings, arrangement of consumables and spares,
maintenance of equipment, checklists and reporting.
One trained operator! labor to be in charge of the blowing activity including
setting of blowing machine into the pit, and running blowing machine.
One trained operator! labor to look after of the cable drum mounting on the
jack and its subsequent rotation and adjustment (which is essential as the
61
drum slides or becomes unbalanced from time to time while the drum, is
rotating), fixing bullets on the cable, setting up of compressor and its
subsequent operation, Honda set operation, cleaning and handling of the
cable before being fed into the blowing machine
One trained operator! labor to look after activities at the far end including
putting duet cleaner at 1 km point, making of loop at the Splicing Pit (SP),
back filling of the SP, cordoning off the blowing area, compressor etc. for
ensuring the safety.
Though other labor required for the blowing operation is generally hired from
the adjacent locality and they are quite unfamiliar with the activities involved,
efforts should be made to specialize them within first two or three days by
using them repeatedly for the same job as far as possible. Following
distribution of job (during the initial days) should be made among these labor
for this purpose:
2 labor for loading, unloading and setting up of blowing machine, Honda
set, accessories box, cable cleaning while feeding it to the machine.
2 labor for cable drum mounting on the jack, loading and unloading of
jacks, ramps, drum rotation and adjustment, making figure of 8 from drum
for down stream blowing, feeding cable from figure 8
1 labor for making figure of eight from the cable coming out at the far end,
making loops from cable for splicing pit, backfilling go splicing pit
However, the above specialization is not meant for limiting the use of trained
operators or labor for any specific activity. All the persons may be used for
all activities if the situation so warrants.
Recommendations for Better Blowing
Before commencing the blowing, survey the route to determine the best
locations for access points for jetting machine and compressor. The Route
Survey Reports and the Route Survey Summary Report can also be helpful
for this purpose.
The Duct Integrity Test is a must before taking up the blowing activity. The
DIT Report and the Line and Patch Diagram should also be available to the
blowing team.
As a mile always blow downhill wherever possible. Make sure that the
average route will permit the cable to be installed on a descending and not
an ascending gradient.
When cable blowing is carried out at high temperatures, protect the cable
from direct sunlight wherever possible. High temperatures drastically reduce
the blow able length. Water may be sprayed over the cable drum to wet the
cable and keep it cool.
Duct cleaner (500 ml) and sponge should be used for duct cleaning both at
point of cable blowing as well as at 1-km point (500 ml) for successful 2-
kmjetting shots.
The Super jet Machine should be in good working order. The radial pressure
of the chain on the cable should be adjusted by adjusting the position of the
pressure cylinder to one of three positions based on cable diameter: High for
62
cable diameter less than 14mm, Medium for diameter between 14 and 25
mm, and Low for diameter exceeding 25 mm. The chain tension should also
be checked and adjusted.
The time gap between DIT and blowing should be minimal. Blowing should
commence within a maximum of seven days after DIT.
As far as possible the cable should not touch the ground. Figure of eight
should be laid
on a tarpaulin Care should be-taken-to-ensure-that-the cable as it is fed into
the machine does not touch the ground.
A wet cloth should be used for cleaning the cable followed by a dry cloth for
drying the cable as it is fed into the machine.

6.14 Salient points during cable blowing

1. Availability of Line Diagram with all Coupler Points/HDD Points, Road/Rail
2. Crossings, GI/RCC/PCC crossings clearly marked.
3. Site supervisor involved in Duct laying to be available on site.
4. Spare Couplers, End Plugs available at site for rectification jobs in case of
any more rectification/temporary blowing pit
5. Availability of ROW/Local/Municipal body permissions.
6. Drum planning chart specifying the allocation of drums to various
stretches.
7. Spare loop plan for obstacle crossing/splice pits4
8. Pr-positioning of Splice Chambers, based on Drum planning.
9. Availability of minimum 3 No. of Cable Drums, duly OTDR tested on a
daily basis at the stores.
10. Regular daily site meeting with the blowing team.


















63










OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
64


6.1 List of used tools

This section is a brief summary of some basic test tools that are used to
install and maintain fiber optic cable systems.

6.1.1 Fiber scopes

Fiber scopes are microscopes designed to let you visually inspect the ends
of fibers or connectors.







6.1.2 Visual fault finders

Simply shining visible light from the end of a fiber onto a surface such as a
wall or the palm of your hand can ensure that there are no breaks in the
fiber. A visual fault finder (or locator) transmits a visible laser light wave
through the fiber to permit an observer to see a break by the light leaking
through the shield. Visual fault finders (VFF) use Class II lasers and should
never be used for any other purpose. VFFs have a range of only about 1
km, so their use is limited to short links of fiber that can be seen; typically to
the troubleshooting of panels and jumper cables.
WARNING: Never look directly into any operating laser or lit fiber Laser light
can cause eye damage or blindness.















65
6.1.3 Fiber identifiers

Fiber identifiers are simple clip-on devices that recognize signals on a fiber.
They identify the presence of:
Data traffic
CW tone
Optical tone (2 .1 GHz signal)
Dark fiber (no signal at all)









6.1.4 Optical power meters

Power meters are used to measure the loss or attenuation of the entire fiber
system including all bends, splices, and connectors between two points.
Power is measured at each end of the link and compared. Excessive power
loss can indicate fiber-link problems such as bad splices, broken fiber and
poor connections, but the measurement can not reveal where the problems
are located.







6.1.5 Optical sources

Optical sources are stabile light sources that are used to perform system
loss measurements in conjunction with a power meter, qualify the
performance of a new system and troubleshoot existing systems. The power
output level of an optical source is much more stable than that of a
transmitter. Optical sources are available in all common wavelengths and
transmitter types in order to match the type of system being tested.





66
6.1.6 Loss test sets

Loss test sets combine an optical power meter and light source into a single
kit. A kit is
used at both ends of a fiber to perform 2-way power loss measurements.








6.1.7 Optical return loss (ORL) meters

Optical return loss (ORL) meters measure the total reflected power from a
fiber system. The ORL tests the fiber from one end without needing a source
or technician at the other end. Excessive return loss can indicate system
faults but not where they have occurred.









6.1.8 Automated fault finders

Automated fault finders are dedicated testers for detecting the locations of
major fiber losses. They use reflected light techniques to measure the
distance to the first major fault or the total length of a fiber. They are simple
handheld devices that are configured for a single wavelength and display
test results in symbolic or alpha-numeric readouts. Their overall range is
about 60km. Some fault finders detect only Fresnel reflections rather than
backscatter. They are able to measure cable lengths, but have difficulty
sensing and locating non-reflective faults.







67

6.2 Junction in optical fiber cable

The junctions formed by either splices or connectors have a significant effect
on the performance of a fiber optic cable. Three basic techniques are used
to join fibers: fusion splices, mechanical splices, and connectors.

6.2.1 Definition splicing or Joint
Fiber-optic cables might have to be spliced together for a number of
reasonsfor example, to realize a link of a particular length. Another reason
might involve backhoe fade, in which case a fiber-optic cable might have
been ripped apart due to trenching work. The network installer might have in
his inventory several fiber-optic cables, but none long enough to satisfy the
required link length. Situations such as this often arise because cable
manufacturers offer cables in limited lengthsusually 1 to 6 km. A link of 10
km can be installed by splicing several fiber-optic cables together. The
installer can then satisfy the distance requirement and avoid buying a new
fiber-optic cable. Splices might be required at building entrances, wiring
closets, couplers, and literally any intermediate point between a transmitter
and receiver.
6.2.2 Types of splicing

Mainly two types method splicing

1. Mechanical splicing method
2. Fusion splicing method
3. Connector method

6.2.2.1 Mechanical splices

Mechanical splices employ physical couplers to hold two fiber ends in
contact with each other. A special fluid called index matching gel (or oil) is
often added to the splice to fill the air gap between the fiber ends and
reduce Fresnel reflections. Rotary and Fiberlok are two examples of
mechanical splices. Mechanical splices are simple, install quickly, and have
relatively low loss. They are typically used to restore damaged cables and in
aerial applications where fusion techniques would be impractical.





68
6.2.2.2 Fusion Splicing Method

Fusion splices are formed by welding two cleaved fiber ends together in a
permanent union - they have the lowest loss of the three methods and
produce extremely low reflections (see Figure 9). Fusion splices are most
often used to construct and restore permanent cable runs.



















Fusion Splicing machine
Picture of Splicing going
69
6.2.2.1 The advantages of fusion splicing

There are other approaches for interconnecting fibers such as fiber optic
connectors and mechanical splicing. Compared to these two, fusion splicing
has many advantages as explained below.

1. Fusion splicing is very compact
2. Fusion splicing has the lowest insertion loss
3. Fusion splicing has the lowest back reflection (optical return loss ORL)
4. Fusion splicing has the highest mechanical strength
5. Fusion splicing is permanent
6. Fusion splicing can withstand extreme high temperature changes
7. Fusion splicing prevents dust and other contaminants from entering the
optical path

6.2.2.2 Types of fusion splicing

Fusion splicing environment and applications can be roughly divided into
three types:
1. Field splicing
2. Factory splicing and
3. Laboratory splicing.

An important example of field splicing is the assembly of undersea fiber
cables aboard fiber deployment ships. The example of factory splicing could
be the assembly of fiber optic passive devices such as a WDM. An example
of laboratory splicing is done by researchers fusion splicing the newest
developed fibers to test their compatibility with existing industry standard
fibers.
Fiber fusion splicing involves concepts from many subjects including optical
waveguide theory, heat transfer, material science, mechanical engineering,
fluid mechanics and more.

6.2.2.3 Introduction to the fusion splicing process

The major steps involved in optical fiber fusion splicing can be summarized
as the following.

1. Optical fiber stripping
the fiber cable jacket is removed and then the fiber polymer coating is
stripped with fiber optic strippers.

2. Fiber cleaving
The fiber is cleaved with specialized tool called fiber cleaver. Two types of
fiber cleaver exist: high precision fiber cleaver for single mode applications
70
and field cleaver for multimode applications. A mirror like almost perfect end
face is achieved by this cleaving process.

3. Fiber alignment
The fibers are laterally aligned to each other by step motor in a fusion splice.
This may involve rotating the fibers in polarization maintaining fiber splicing.

4. Fiber welding
The fibers are then heated with electric arc or other methods to the fiber
glass's softening point and then both fibers are pressed together to form a
solid joint.

5. Insertion loss estimation
the insertion loss is estimated based on the fusion quality and dimensions.

6. Pull tension strength testing
The fusion is pull proof tested when opening the fusion splice cover.

7. Splice protection with fusion splice sleeve
The fusion splice joint is then protected with a heat shrink tube with a steel
strength member inside to form a solid and reliable fiber joint.

6.2.3 Connector

Connectors provide fiber optic junctions that can be disconnected and
reconnected as necessary. They are adaptable, convenient and are typically
used at patch panels and for electronic systems and test equipment.
Installing a connector requires special tools and training.
The ferrule is the protruding connector part that houses the fiber and
normally includes a spring that provides axial pressure when two connectors
are mated. The end face of the fiber/ferrule is finished (polished) to minimize
reflections from the mating surfaces. Each surface of the plane polished
ferrule reflects about 4% of the light incident upon it. In coherent systems,
the total reflection can be as high as 15%, or it can be made extremely
low. I no amount or refraction clemencies on me gap between the ends to
the timbers, the cleave and the quality of the polish.
Physical contact (PC) connectors use a rounded polish to better ensure that
the ends of the fiber make contact without a gap. This reduces the reflection
from the connection and improves measurement repeatability. If the end of
the fiber is polished at an angle, the reflected light will be directed into
unguided modes (light paths that dont travel very far) and light will be lost
from the fiber. This results in very low reflectance for guided modes. Some
manufacturers improve on this design even more by polishing the ends of
the fibers into angled hemispheres.

71

Different types of connectors are use in optical fiber communication system.

Some types of connector name and picture are given bellows which are
broadly used








































72
6.3 Termination of optical fiber cable

An optical fiber termination in which a plastic clad optical fiber is pushed into
a heated ferrule containing a pierced watch bearing jewel so as to force the
bare fiber through the aperture in the jewel. The protruding fiber end is then
fused and polished flush with the jewel whereby the fiber end is centered
within the jewel aperture.

Terminate fiber optic cable two ways - with connectors that can mate two
fibers to create a temporary joint and/or connect the fiber to a piece of
network gear or with splices which create a permanent joint between the two
fibers. These terminations must be of the right style, installed in a manner
that makes them have little light loss and protected against dirt or damage in
use. No area of fiber optics has been given greater attention than
termination. Manufacturers have come up with over 80 styles of connectors
and and about a dozen ways to install them. There are two types of splices
and many ways of implementing the splice. only a few types are used most
applications. Different connectors and splice termination procedures are
used for single mode and multimode connectors, so make sure know what
the fiber will be before specify connectors or splices

6.4 Optical distribution frame (ODF)

For optical fiber cable termination need box for joint and cable distribution is
called optical distribution frame (ODF).This optical distribution frame contain
optical fiber connector.



















ODF
73
6.4 Patch Cord

Optical Patchord so called fiber cable assembly is connector terminated both ends and ready for
installation. Plank offer full-range of optic fiber Patchcords at FC, SC, ST* - PC, UPC or APC
connectivity. All our patch products come with Low insertion loss, Low return loss,
Environmentally stable and reliable, precise dimension and wide selection of ferrules.



FC - FC patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of duplex cable terminated at both ends with FC
connector. Used for interconnecting circuits on a patch board, in a wiring
closet, or at the work area. FC single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any
length available higher quality.


SC - SC patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of duplex cable terminated at both ends with SC
connector. Used for interconnecting circuits on a patch board, in a wiring
closet, or at the work area. FC single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any
length available higher quality.


LC - LC patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of duplex cable terminated at both ends with LC
connector. Used for interconnecting circuits on a patch board, in a wiring
closet, or at the work area. LC single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any
length available higher quality.


ST - ST patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of duplex cable terminated at both ends with ST
connector. Used for interconnecting circuits on a patch board, in a wiring
closet, or at the work area. ST single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any
length available higher quality.


E2000 - E2000 patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single
/ Multi Mode
A flexible piece of duplex cable terminated at both ends with E2000
connector. Used for interconnecting circuits on a patch board, in a wiring
closet, or at the work area. E2000 single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish,
any length available higher quality.

74

MTRJ - MTRJ patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single /
Multi Mode
A flexible piece of duplex cable terminated at both ends with MTRJ
connector. Used for interconnecting circuits on a patch board, in a wiring
closet, or at the work area. MTRJ single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish,
any length available higher quality.


LC - SC patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with SC connector at one side and
with with LC connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits on
a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. SC/LC single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


LC - FC patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with FC connector at one side and
with with LC connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits on
a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. SC/LC single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


SC - FC patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with FC connector at one side and
with with SC connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits on
a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. SC/FC single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


ST - FC patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with FC connector at one side and
with with ST connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits on
a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. ST/FC single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


FC-MTRJ patch cord, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with FC connector at one side and
with with MTRJ connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits
on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. FC/MTRJ single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.

75

E2000-MTRJ patch cord, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with E2000 connector at one
side and with with MTRJ connector another side. Used for
interconnecting circuits on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the
work area. E2000/MTRJ single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any
length available higher quality.


LC - ST patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with ST connector at one side and
with with LC connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits on
a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. ST/LC single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


LC - E2000 patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single /
Multi Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with E2000 connector at one
side and with with LC connector another side. Used for interconnecting
circuits on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. ST/LC
single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


SC - ST patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi
Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with ST connector at one side and
with with SC connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits on
a patchboard, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. SC/FC single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any lenght available higher quality.


SC - E2000 patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single /
Multi Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with E2000 connector at one
side and with with SC connector another side. Used for interconnecting
circuits on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work
area. SC/E2000 single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any lenght
available higher quality.


ST - E2000 patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single /
Multi Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with E2000 connector at one
side and with with ST connector another side. Used for interconnecting
circuits on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work
area. ST/E2000 single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any lenght
76
available higher quality.


FC - E2000 patch cord, Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single /
Multi Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with E2000 connector at one
side and with with FC connector another side. Used for interconnecting
circuits on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work
area. FC/E2000 single / multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any lenght
available higher quality.


SC-MTRJ patch cord, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with SC connector at one side and
with with MTRJ connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits
on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. SC/MTRJ single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


ST-MTRJ patch cord, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with ST connector at one side and
with with MTRJ connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits
on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. ST/MTRJ single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


LC-MTRJ patch cord, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi Mode
A flexible piece of cable terminated with LC connector at one side and
with with MTRJ connector another side. Used for interconnecting circuits
on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the work area. LC/MTRJ single
/ multi mode, UPC/APC polish, any length available higher quality.


Customized: YOU choose - YOU choose patch cords,
Duplex, PC/UPC/APC, Single / Multi Mode
A custom-made at your request piece of cable terminated with YOUR
SELECTED connector at one side and with
with YOUR SELECTED connector another side. Used for
interconnecting circuits on a patch board, in a wiring closet, or at the
work area. Customized for your case single / multi mode, UPC/APC
polish, any length available higher quality.






77

















Discussion



Optical fiber is hallow plastic or glass fiber which carries light wave.
In modern telecommunication system optical fiber has become a vital
transmission media. Optical fiber has enormous bandwidth (10
14
) which can
carry millions of data and signals at a time. When analyzing it was observed
that the system economic and technically feasible, In the optical fiber system
loss is very much (0.92 dB/Km) negligible when compared with other data
transmission system.
After completion of this thesis work it is felt that we have been able to
acquire more practical knowledge about optical fiber communication system,
like as how to do the trance laying duct, duct integration test cable jetting
cable splicing & termination the cable. This achievement of practical
knowledge will help us in future implement the system with less problems. It
is possible to implement this optical fiber communication system in field level
by acquired knowledge. We fill confident for knowing the system elaborately
be able to apply in modern telecommunication system.









78




















REFERENCE


1. Optical fiber communication principles and practice
John M. Senior

2. Training Manual
Duraline Plumettaz Academy

3. Wikipedia
From Internet