METHODS AND APPROACHES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

IN BRIEF
Gltekin Boran (Ph. D) Gazi University, Ankara
gboran@gazi.edu.tr
Abbreviations
! Teacher
"ts Students
#$ First Language, Mother Tongue
#% Second Language, The language the students aim to learn
!&' G(A))A( !(A*"#A!+,* )'!&,D (G!))
$. #earning !heory Deductive learning is essential. First, the teacher gives rules explicitly then
the rules are reinforced with examples and exercises.
%. #anguage !heory Language is for understanding the literature. Translation is the way to learn
the language. Oral communication is not primarily important. ritten language is superior to
spo!en language. Students also learn the structure of their own native language. Those who
study a foreign language "ecome more cultured and intellectual.
-. .ulture #ulture is limited to literature and fine arts.
/. !ea0hers1 (ole Teacher is the strict authority. #lasses are teacher centred.
2. "tudents1 (ole Students are the passive receivers of the new information. The teacher starts
the activities and directs them. Students are supposed to memorise the rules and the new
voca"ulary with their meanings in their native language.
3. +ntera0tions $ery often %Teacher Student& interactions occur. 'arely %Student Student&
interactions also occur.
4. 5o0abulary !ea0hing The most common voca"ulary teaching techni(ue is %the memorisation
of long lists of voca"ulary with their e(uivalents in the students) native language. Other
techni(ues are
*Teaching %cognates& +i.e., %cinema ,sinema&, %theatre , tiyatro& ..., etc-.
* .sing synonyms and antonyms
6. Gra77ar !ea0hing The teaching of grammar is deductive. The teacher introduces the rules
explicitly and wants the students to apply these rules to new examples in exercises. Students
are supposed to memorise the rules. /n order to explain the rules, the teacher uses comparison
and contract "etween the students) native language grammar and target language grammar.
Translation is a common way to clarify the meanings of the new grammar patterns in the target
language.
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.li0k here to go ba0k to the &o7e Page
8. )aterials Texts from the target language literature are used. The teacher may either write the
text or use an authentic literary text.
$9. "yllabus Structural sylla"us +i.e., list of structures to "e taught during the course- is used.
The order of structures starts from the easiest
$$. (ole o: #$ L0 +i.e., students) native language- has an important function in teaching
voca"ulary and grammar. Since oral communication in the target language is not important,
classroom instructions are given in L0.
$%. 'valuation Translation is an important techni(ue to test students) progress in the target
language. /n addition, %fill*in*the*"lan!& type test items are also used. Synonyms, antonyms, and
cognates can "e as!ed to test voca"ulary in formal tests. 'eading passages and
comprehension (uestions a"out the passages can also ta!e place in tests as the reading
section.
$-. Goals and ,b;e0tives 1mong the goals are to teach translation, to read and understand
literary texts in the target language, to ma!e students aware of their native language structure
and voca"ulary, and to improve students) mental capacities with grammar exercises.
$/. 'rror .orre0tion The teacher corrects the errors strictly. 2rrors are not tolerated. 1ccuracy
is emphasised strictly. 1ccuracy means grammatical correctness.
$2. "tudent1s <eelings There is no information a"out how 3TM deals with students) feelings.
$ Therefore, we cannot consider this method as a humanistic approach.
$3. !e0hni=ues
0. Translation of a Literary 4assage5 Students translate a passage from the target language into
their native language. The passage provides the focus for several classes5 voca"ulary and
grammatical structures in the passage are studied in the following lessons.
6. 'eading #omprehension 7uestions5 Students answer (uestions in the target language "ased
on their understanding of the reading passage. First, they answer information (uestions whose
answers they can find in the passage. Second, they answer inference (uestions "ased on their
comprehension of the passage although the answer cannot "e found in the passage directly in the
passage. Third, they answer (uestions that re(uire students to relate the passage to their own
experience.
8. 1ntonyms 9 Synonyms5 Students are given one set of words and are as!ed to find antonyms in
the reading passage. 1 similar exercise could "e done "y as!ing students to find synonyms for a
particular set of words.
6
:. #ognates5 Students are taught to recognise cognates "y learning the spelling or sound patterns
that correspond "etween the languages. Students should "e aware of %true cognates& +i.e.,
theatre*tiyatro- and %false cognates& +i.e., apartment*apartman-.
;. Deductive 1pplication of 'ule5 3rammar rules are presented with examples. 2xceptions to each
rule are also noted. Once students understand a rule, they are as!ed to apply it to some different
examples.
<. Fill*in*the "lan!s5 Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the
"lan!s with new voca"ulary items or necessary items of grammatical features.
=. Memorisation5 Students are given lists of target language voca"ulary words and their native
language e(uivalents and are as!ed to memorise them. Students are also re(uired to memorise
grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms such as ver" con>ugations.
?. .se words in Sentences5 /n order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a
new voca"ulary item, they ma!e up sentences in which they use the new words.
@. #omposition5 The teacher gives the students a topic to write a"out in the target language. The
topic is "ased upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Sometimes, instead of
creating a composition, students are as!ed to prepare a prAcis +pronounced as 9preBsB9-.
$4. "kills The primary s!ills to "e improved are %reading& and %writing&. Little attention is given to
spea!ing and listening, and almost no attention to pronunciation.
!&' D+('.! )'!&,D (D))
DM was "orn as a reaction to 3TM "ecause 3TM cannot prepare learners for real life language situations
in which oral communication is the media.
$. #earning !heory /nductive learning is essential. There is a direct relation "etween form and
meaning. L6 learning is similar to L0 ac(uisition. There is a direct exposure to the target
language. 2xposure of Long chun!s in the target language. Learning occurs naturally.
%. #anguage !heory Language is for oral use. 2ach language is uni(ue. There is a direct
relation "etween form and meaning. Co other language should interfere when learning a
language.
-. .ulture Cot only art or literature, "ut also other aspects of culture +namely, life style, customs,
traditions, institutions, food, daily ha"its, history, geography, etc.- Should "e ta!en into
consideration. Daily speech is important.
/. !ea0her1s (ole The teacher usually directs the interactions "ut he9she is not as dominant as in
3TM. Sometimes acts li!e a partner of the students.
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2. "tudents1 (ole Sts are active participants. Sometimes pair wor!s ta!e place. 2ven the teacher
ta!es roles in activities.
3. +ntera0tions T* st and St * st interactions often occur.
4. 5o0abulary !ea0hing 4ictures, realia, examples, sample sentences are used to teach
voca"ulary. .se of L0 is not allowed. There is a direct relation "etween form and meaning.
6. Gra77ar !ea0hing 3rammar is taught inductively. 2xamples and drills are given and students
are expected to discover and ac(uire the rules. Drills li!e chain drill, yes (uestion, no (uestion,
or (uestion are used to help students induce the rule.
8. )aterials 'eading passages +for topics-, Dialogues +for situation-, plays +for situations- are
used.
$9. "yllabus Situational and topical sylla"uses are used.
$$. (ole o: #$ L0 is not permitted.
$%. 'valuation StsD a"ility to use the language is tested. Cot a"out language, the language itself.
$-. Goals and ,b;e0tives Teaching Sts how to communicate in the target language. Teaching of
thin!ing in the target language.
$/. 'rror .orre0tion StsD self correction.
$2. "ts1 <eelings There is no information dealing with this issue.
$3. !e0hni=ues 'eading aloud, 7uestion and answer exercise, self correction, conversation
practice, fill*in*the*"lan! exercise, dictation, drawing +for listening comprehension-, and
paragraph writing.
$4. "kills Spea!ing, listening, reading and writing are important s!ills. 2specially spea!ing and
listening are emphasised. $oca"ulary is over grammar.

!&' AUD+,>#+*GUA# )'!&,D (A#))
$. #earning !heory Learning is "ased on the principles of Eehaviourism. +Mim*mem approach-.
Fa"it Formation is essential.
Habit Formation

'einforcement +Eehaviour is li!ely to occur again-
Stimulus****organism
Co reinforcement or negative reinforcement +Eehaviour is not li!ely to occur again-

'ules are induced from examples. 2xplicit grammar rules are not given. Learning is inductive.
Fa"it formation is actualised "y means of repetitions and other mechanical drills.
%. #anguage !heory Language is "ased on descriptive linguistics. 2very language is seen as its
own uni(ue system. The system is comprised of several different levels. +i.e. phonological,
morphological, and syntactic-. There is a natural order of s!ills. 0. Listening, 6. Spea!ing, 8.
'eading, :. riting. 2veryday speech and oral s!ills are important. 4erfect pronunciation is
re(uired. Language is primarily for Oral Communication.
:
-. .ulture #ulture consists of everyday "ehaviour, and lifestyle of the target language community.
#ulture is presented in dialogues.
/. !ea0her?s (ole T is li!e an orchestra leader. S9he directs and controls the language "ehaviour
of the students. T is a good model of the target language, especially for pronunciation and other
oral s!ills. The differences "etween Sts) L0 and L6 should "e !nown "y the teacher.
2. "tudents? (ole Sts are imitators of the teacher as perfect model of the target language or the
native spea!ers in the audio recordings.
3. +ntera0tions T*St, ST* ST. /nteractions are mostly initiated "y the teacher.
4. 5o0abulary !ea0hing Meaning is taught directly. L0 is prohi"ited "ecause it may cause "ad
ha"it formations. $oca"ulary is introduced through dialogues.
6. Gra77ar !ea0hing 2xplicit rules are not provided. Students induce the rules through
examples and drills. Students ac(uire grammar "y "eing exposed to patterns through
mechanical drills.
8. )aterials Dialogues
$9. "yllabus 3rammar points and sentence patterns in structural sylla"us.
$$. (ole o: #$ L0 is not allowed in the classroom. /t may cause interference and "ad ha"it
formation in L6.
$%. 'valuation Discrete*point tests are used. 2ach item +(uestion- should focus on only one point
of the language at a time. 2.g. distinguishing "etween words in a minimal pair. 1ppropriate
ver" form in a sentence.
$-. Goals and ,b;e0tives to ena"le students to spea! and write in the target language. To ma!e
students a"le to use the target language automatically without stopping to thin!. To form new
ha"its in the target language.
$/. 'rror .orre0tion 2rrors are corrected "y the teacher since errors may cause "ad ha"it
formation.
$2. "ts? <eelings There are no principles related to Sts) feelings.
$3. !e0hni=ues
$. Dialogue )e7orisation
%. )ini7al @airs +for teaching pronunciation-
-. .o7@lete the dialogue
/. Gra77ar Ga7es
2. )e0hani0al Drills
a) (e@etition drill
b) .hain Drill
0) "ingle> slot "ubstitution Drill +T gives one cue to "e su"stituted-
d) )ulti@le>slot "ubstitution Drill +T gives more than one cue to "e su"stituted-
$4. "kills Listening and spea!ing are emphasised. There is a natural order of s!ills.
;
0. Listening 6. Spea!ing 8. 'eading :. riting

!&' "+#'*! AAB ("A) (.aleb Gattegno)
$. #earning !heory #ognitive 4sychology is the "asis. Language learning is not ha"it formation.
/t is rule formation. Language learning has a se(uence from the !nown to the un!nown.
Students induce the rules from examples and the languages they are exposed to, therefore
learning is inductive
%. #anguage !heory Languages of the world share a num"er of features +e.g. every language
uses su">ect, o">ectG every language has ad>ective, adver", ver" ...etc.- Fowever each
language is uni(ue. Language is for self expression +to express thoughts, perceptions, ideas
and feelings-. H#ognitive #odingH helps learners learn the language. H#olour rodsH and HFidel
#hartH are used for cognitive coding.
-. .ulture #ulture is an insepara"le part of language. Language reflects culture. 2veryday life,
art, literature. etc. should "e learnt.
/. !ea0hers1 (ole The teacher is a technician or an engineer who facilitates learning. Only the
learner can do learning. The teacher is aware of what the students already !now and he9she
can decide the next step. The teacher is silent. Silence is a tool "ecause teacher's silence gives
the responsi"ility to the student. Eesides teacher's silence helps students monitor themselves
and improve their own inner criteria.
2. "tudents1 (ole Students should ma!e use of what they already !now. They are responsi"le for
their own learning. They actively ta!e part in exploring the language. The teacher wor!s with the
students and the students wor! on the language. St*st interaction is important. Sts can learn
from each other.
3. +ntera0tions The teacher is silent in H!>st& interactions. "t>st interactions are also possi"le
"ecause students can learn from each other.
4. 5o0abulary !ea0hing $oca"ulary is taught "y means of visual aids and word*charts.
$oca"ulary is always recycled "y means of word*charts. $oca"ulary is restricted at the
"eginning.
6. Gra77ar !ea0hing There is a focus on the structures of the language although explicit
grammar rules are never given.
8. )aterials Sound #olour #harts +For teaching pronunciationG one colour represents one
sound-, #olour 'ods +for cognitive coding of grammatical patterns-, ? Fidel #harts +used for
sound spelling association.
<
$9. "yllabus There is no linear structural sylla"us. The teacher starts with what students already
!now, and "uilds from one structure to the next. The sylla"us develops according to the
studentsD learning needs.
$$. (ole o: #$ L0 can "e used to give instructions when necessary. Meaning is made clear "y
focusing the studentDs perceptions, not "y translation. During feed"ac! sessions L0 "e used at
"eginning levels. L0 can "e exploited. For example, similar sounds in L0 and L6 can "e used
to ma!e students aware of phonological similarities.
$%. 'valuation The teacher may never give a formal test. Fe9she assesses studentsD learning all
the time. #ontinuous monitoring "y the teacher is essential.
$-. Goals and ,b;e0tives Students should "e a"le to use the target language for self expression
+to express their thoughts, feelings, ideas-. To help students improve their inner criteria for
correctness. Students should rely on themselves to "e a"le to use the target language.
$/. 'rror .orre0tion 2rrors are natural and inevita"le. The teacher uses studentsD errors to
decide where further wor! is necessary. Self correction is necessary for the students to
compare their own production with their developing inner criteria. /f students cannot self*
correct, the teacher supplies the correct language "ut only as a last resort. 4eer correction is
also very common, "ut it should "e in a co*operative manner.
$2. "tudent1s <eelings StudentsD negative feelings are treated "y the teacher. During feed"ac!
sessions, students can express their feelings li!e their fears, what they thin! a"out classes,
and learning a foreign language, their needs and wants. Students are encouraged to co*
operate with one another in order to create a relaxed and en>oya"le classroom atmosphere.
$3. !e0hni=ues
0. Teaching pronunciation with Hsound colour chartsH
6. #ognitive coding with colour rods.
8. 4eer correction to improve co*operative manner.
:. Self correction gestures
;. TeacherDs Silence
<. Structured feed"ac!5 Students are invited to tal! a"out the dayDs instruction +what they have
learnt that day during classes-. Students learn to ta!e responsi"ility for their own learning
"y "ecoming aware of themselves, and "y controlling and applying their own learning
strategies.
=. Fidel #harts5 .sed to teach sound spelling association.
?. ord #harts5 .sed to teach and recycle voca"ulary. The words are written in different
colours so that students can learn "asic pronunciation patterns.
=
$4. "kills 4ronunciation is emphasised at the very "eginning. /t is important that students
ac(uire the melody of the language. 1ll four s!ills +reading, writing, spea!ing, and listening-
are wor!ed on from the "eginning.

"UGG'"!,P'D+A (Georgi #azanov)
$. #earning !heory5 4eople use ;*0IJ of their mental capacity. /n order to ma!e "etter use of
our mental reserves, limitations need to "e desuggested. Students should eliminate the
feelings that they cannot "e successful and thus, to help them overcome the "arriers to
learning. 4sychological "arriers should "e removed.
There are six principle theoretical components through which desuggestion and suggestion
operate and that set up access to reserves.
0. 1uthority5 4eople remem"er "est when the new information comes from a relia"le
authoritative source.
6. /nfantiliKation5 1uthority is also used to suggest a teacher*student relation li!e that of
Hparent*childH relationship. /n the childDs role the learner ta!es part in role playing, games,
songs and gymnastic exercises that help the older student regain the self confidence,
spontaneity and receptivity of the child.
8. Dou"le*planedness5 The learner learns not only from the instructions "ut also from the
environment. 4hysical features of the classroom are important.
:. /ntonation5 $arying intonation of the presented material helps to avoid "oredom. T should
present the material with different intonation patterns. #orrect intonation patterns should
"e emphasised.
;. 'hythm5 Materials presented with varying rhythm and tones are more interesting.
<. #oncert pseudo*passiveness5 Materials presented with varying rhythm, intonation, and
tone should "e accompanied "y music. Music should have sixty "eats in a minute.
Earo(ue concertos wor! very well for this purpose.
%. #anguage !heory LaKanov does not articulate a theory of language. Fowever according to
this method communication is a two*plane process. Language is the first of the two planes. /n
the second plane, there are factors, which influence the linguistic message +e.g. the way one
dresses, non*ver"al "ehaviours that affect the linguistic message-.
-. .ulture The culture, which students learn, concerns the everyday life of people who spea! the
target language. The use of fine arts is also common.
?
/. !ea0hers1 (ole Teacher is the authority. Learners learn "etter if they get the information from a
relia"le authority. Students must trust and respect that authority.
2. "tudents1 (ole Students play a childDs role +infantiliKation-. They adopt a new identity +new
name, >o", family...etc.- 1s they feel more secure, they can "e less inhi"ited.
3. +ntera0tions CSt*st& and %T*st& interactions occur. Students often do Hpair wor!H and Hgroup
wor!H.
4. 5o0abulary !ea0hing $oca"ulary is emphasised. #laims a"out the success of the method
often focus on the large num"er of words that can "e ac(uired. #omments and explanations
a"out the meanings can "e provided in studentDs L0.
6. Gra77ar !ea0hing 3rammar is taught explicitly "ut minimally. 2xplicit grammar rules are
provided in L0.
8. )aterials Dialogues are used with their translations in L0 on the opposite side. Texts with
literary value are used. The text"oo! posters are used for peripheral learning.
$9. "yllabus 1 course lasts 8I days and ten units of study. 2ach unit has a long dialogue
consisting of 06II words. There is grammar review and commentary section with a list of
voca"ulary. The dialogues are graded "y lexis and grammar.
$$. (ole o: #$ L0 is used to ma!e the meaning of dialogues clear. The teacher can use L0 when
necessary "ut he uses L0 less and less as the course proceeds.
$%. 'valuation 2valuation is conducted on studentsD Hin*class*performancesH and not through
formal tests, which would threaten the relaxed atmosphere, which is considered essential for
accelerated learning.
$-. Goals and ,b;e0tives Teachers hope to accelerate the process "y which students learn to
use a foreign language for everyday communication. For this, more of the studentsD mental
power must "e tapped. This can "e achieved "y removing psychological "arriers.
$/. 'rror .orre0tion 1t the "eginning levels, errors are not corrected immediately "ecause the
emphasis is on communication. hen errors of form occur, teachers uses the correct form
later on during class, "ecause immediate interference "y the teacher may destroy the relaxed
atmosphere in classes.
$2. "tudent1s <eelings 1 great deal of attention is given to studentsD feelings. Students should
feel relaxed and secure. TeacherDs existence and classmatesD existence should not threaten
the individual. /ndividualDs self*confidence is important. #hoice of new identity ma!es students
feel more comforta"le and secure. The classroom conditions +temperature, lighting, armchairs-
should supply students with the feeling of relaxation and comfort.
$3. !e0hni=ues
@
#lassroom set up5 dim lights, soft music, cushioned armchairs, and posters on the walls.
4ositive Suggestion5
Direct Suggestion5 The teacher tells students they are going to "e successful to
create self*confidence.
/ndirect Suggestion5 This is provided "y music and comforta"le physical conditions of
the classroom.
4eripheral Learning5 4osters, lists, charts, texts, paintings, and graphs are hung on the
walls of the classroom. Students learn from these although their attentions are not directly
on these materials.
$isualisation5 Students are as!ed to close their eyes and concentrate on their "reathing.
Then the teacher descri"es a scene or an event in detail so that students thin! they are
really there. hen the scene is complete, the teacher as!s students to slowly open their
eyes and return to the present. This can "e done >ust "efore students write a composition in
order to activate their creativity.
#hoose a Cew /dentity5 Students can "e as!ed to write a"out their fictional new identity,
new home town, family, etc.
First #oncert5 Music is played. The teacher "egins a slow, dramatic reading, synchronised
in intonation with the music. The music is classical. TeacherDs voice is usually hushed, "ut
rises and falls with the music.
Second #oncert5 Students put their scripts aside. Students close their eyes and listen as
the teacher reads with musical accompaniment. This time the content that is read "y the
teacher is emphasised "y the way the teacher reads the text. Music is secondarily
important. 1t the end of the concert, the class ends for the day.
4rimary 1ctivation5 4rimary activation and secondary activation are the components of the
active phase of the lesson. Students read the dialogue in the target language aloud as
individuals or groups. They read it sadly, angrily, and amorously.
Secondary 1ctivation5 Students engage in various activities such as singing, dancing,
dramatising, and playing games. Linguistic forms are not important. #ommunication is
important. /n order to ma!e students focus on communication, activities are varied.
$4. "kills Oral communication is emphasised. Spea!ing and listening are important. riting and
reading are also important. Students write imaginative compositions to improve their writing,
and read dialogues or texts to practise reading.
0I

.,))U*+!B #A*GUAG' #'A(*+*G (.##)
$. #earning !heory #LL advocates a holistic approach to language learning. "True human
learning" is "oth cognitive and affective. This is termed "whole person learning". 1 group of
ideas concerning the psychological re(uirements for successful and Hnon-defensive learning
are collected under the acronym +"A(D).
" A ( D

"ecurity Attention L Aggression (etention L (eflection Discrimination
"e0urity Students should feel secure to enter into a successful learning experience.
#lassroom atmosphere, studentsD relations with each other, teacherDs attitude to students all
affect studentsD feelings of security.
Attention 1ttention is the learnerDs involvement in learning.
Aggression is to show what has "een learnt for Hself*assertion& li!e a child who tries to
show what he9she has learnt. The child tries to prove the things he9she has learnt.
(etention /f the Hwhole personH is involved in the learning process, what is retained is
internalised and "ecomes a part of the learnerDs Hnew personaH in the foreign language. The
material should neither "e too old nor "e too new or conversely too familiar. 'etention will
"est ta!e place somewhere in "etween novelty and familiarity.
(e:le0tion Students need (uiet reflection time in order to learn. The teacher reads the text
for three times and the students relax and listen for reflection. Students also listen to their
own voice from the tape for reflection.
Dis0ri7ination Students should discriminate the similarities and the differences among
target language forms "y listening to themselves and the teacher carefully. They should also
listen to discriminate if what they say is similar or different from what the teacher says.
2.g. Similarity5
4resent #ontinuous5 She is studying rench
4ast #ontinuous5 Tom was coo!ing. +/n Eoth tenses H*ingH is used-
Difference5
Mohn visited his uncle +regular ver"-
Mohn "ought a new car +irregular ver"-
00
%. #anguage !heory Language is for communication. Language is for developing creative
thin!ing. #ulture is integrated with language. The focus shifts from grammar and sentence
formation to a Hsharing and "elonging "etween personsH. Language is what you learn and share
with others. Students should trust the learning process, the teacher and the others.
-. .ulture Nnowing the target culture is important to "e successful in communication. #ulture is
integrated with language. Social life style, art, literature, customs, ha"its should "e learnt.
/. !ea0her1s (ole TDs initial role is that of a counsellor. The teacher tries to remove the
threatening factors in the classroom. 2ven the teacher stands "ehind the students to reduce
"ecause the teacherDs superior !nowledge and his existence are also threatening factors.
2. "tudents1 (ole /nitially the learner is dependent on the teacher. 1s s9he goes on studying the
language he "ecomes more and more independent.
3. +ntera0tions st*st, T*st interactions occur in the classroom. /n addition, group wor!, and pair
wor! tas!s are carried out "y students. .sually the teacher physically removes himself9herself
from the circle in order to increase st>st interactions.
4. 5o0abulary !ea0hing Literal native language e(uivalents are given to the target language
in order to teach their meanings. This ma!es meaning clear.
6. Gra77ar !ea0hing Large chun!s are analysed "y means of e(uivalents in L0. /t can "e
explicit when necessary.
8. )aterials 1 text"oo! is not considered necessary. Materials may "e developed "y the teacher
as the course develops. Materials depend on studentsD needs. #onversations are generated "y
the students depending on what they want to say in the target language.
$9. "yllabus #LL does not use a conversational language sylla"us, which sets out in advance
the grammar, voca"ulary, and other language items to "e taught and the order in which they will
"e covered. Sylla"us is developed in terms of studentsD communication needs.
$$. (ole o: #$ StudentsD security is initially enhanced "y using their native language. here
possi"le, literal native language e(uivalents are given to the target language words that have
"een transcri"ed. This ma!es their meaning clear and allows students to com"ine the target
language words in different ways to create new sentences. Directions in class, studentsD
expressions of feelings are in L0. /n later steps, more and more L6 is used.
$%. 'valuation 1 teacher*made classroom test would "e an integrative test rather than a discrete*
point test. Students are as!ed to write a paragraph or they can "e given an oral interview.
$-. Goals and ,b;e0tives Students should learn how to use the target language
communicatively. Students should learn a"out their own learning to ta!e an increasing
06
responsi"ility a"out it. Con*defensive learning is the result when the teacher and the students
treat each other as a whole person.
$/. 'rror .orre0tion The error is treated in a non*threatening way. The teacher repeats the
correct form without calling further attention to the error and the owner of the error.
$2. "ts1 <eelings StudentsD feelings are considered extremely important. One regular activity is
getting feed"ac! from studentsD a"out their feelingsG how they feeling a"out learning a foreign
language. Cegative feelings may "loc! studentsD learning. Security is "asic. #lear instructions,
enough time, should "e given to the individual for the respond.
$3. !e0hni=ues
A) !rans0ri@tion The teacher writes the L0 e(uivalent of the text in the target language on
the "oard or a poster*siKed paper in order to "e a"le to refer later. Students copy them in
their note"oo!s.
B) (e:le0tion on 'D@erien0e Students tell a"out their feelings a"out language learning
experience.
.) (e:le0tive #istening Students relax and listen to their own voices spea!ing the target
language on the tape. The teacher may also read the transcript while students are
listening.
D) &u7an .o7@uter The teacher repeats the correct form as many times as the students
need. The teacher never corrects the studentDs error. Only repeats the correct form.
') "7all Grou@ !asks Students learn from each other. 1lso small groups can let students
!now each other well.
$4. "kills /n the early stages, students design the sylla"us. They decide what they want to say in
L6. The most important s!ills are listening comprehension and spea!ing. 'eading and writing
are also wor!ed on.

!&' !,!A# P&B"+.A# ('"P,*"' )'!&,D (!P()
$. #earning !heory There are three hypothesis5
A) +nnate Bio>@rogra7 There exists a specific, innate "io*program for language learning,
which defines an optimal path for first and second language development. #hildren develop
listening competence "efore they develop the a"ility to spea!. They ma!e %a "lue*print& of
the language first. They develop Ha cognitive mapH of the language during listening process.
08
B) Brain #ateralisation The "rain has two main parts5 left hemisphere, and right hemisphere
, which have different learning functions. /f "oth hemispheres are activated, learning is more
effective.
.) "tress (an a::e0tive :ilter) Stress intervenes "etween the act of learning and what is to "e
learned. The lower the stress is, the greater the learning "ecomes.
%. #anguage !heory Language is primarily oral. /t is >ust li!e the ac(uisition of native language.
Learners first listen +silent period-, then oral production starts. Oral communication is crucial.
S!ilful use of imperatives "y the instructor can "e helpful for the ac(uisition of many voca"ulary
items and grammatical structures. 1sher views the ver" and particularly the ver" in the
imperative as the central linguistic motif around which language use and learning are
organised.
-. .ulture #ulture is the lifestyle of people who spea! the language natively. Daily ha"its, social
life traditions should "e learned.
/. !ea0hers1 (ole /nitially the teacher is the director of all student "ehaviour. /n the later stages,
the teacher is "eing directed.
2. "tudents1 (ole /nitially students are the followers of the teacher. .sually after ten to twenty
hours, of instruction some students will "e ready to spea! the language. 1t this point they start
to direct the teacher.
3. +ntera0tions T with whole group, T* respond "y students non*ver"allyG Sts * StsG St * st
4. 5o0abulary !ea0hing $oca"ulary is introduced through imperatives. $er" is the !ernel. Other
categories li!e ad>ective, adver", and noun can "e introduced around ver". O">ects, especially
the o">ects in the immediate environment are introduced.
6. Gra77ar !ea0hing /mperatives play an important role. Multi*word chun!s, single*word chun!s
are used with imperatives. The teacher uses his9her creativity to introduce various grammatical
patterns with the accompaniment of imperatives.
2.g. For the introduction of %/f H clause type 0
HStand up if you are from 1n!araH
HSmile if you are wearing a "lue T*shirtH
8. )aterials O">ects around in the classroom, visuals, written texts, tas!s for !inaesthetic
learning can "e used.
$9. "yllabus Sentence "ased sylla"us with grammatical and lexical criteria is used. T4'
re(uires initial attention to meaning rather than to the forms of items.
0:
$$. (ole o: #$ The method is introduced in the studentsD L0. 1fter the introduction, rarely
would
the mother tongue "e used. Meaning is made through "ody movements.
$%. 'valuation Teachers will !now immediately whether or not students understand "y o"serving
heir studentsD actions. Formal evaluations can "e conducted simply "y commanding individual
students to perform a series of actions. 1s students "ecome more advanced, their
4erformance in the s!its they have created can "ecome the "asis for evaluation.
$-. Goals and ,b;e0tives To ma!e students en>oy learning the target language and
communicate with it. Stress should "e reduced.
$/. 'rror .orre0tion 2rrors are inevita"le. The teacher should "e tolerant of studentsD errorsG
only ma>or errors should "e corrected. The teacher should "e gentle when correcting studentsD
errors. 1s students get more advanced, teachers can correct more minor errors.
$2. "tudent1s <eelings The teacher should not force the students to spea!. Silent period must "e
ta!en into consideration. hen they "egin to spea!, perfection is not necessary. Stress should
"e reduced. The teacher should use HKany commandsH and humorous s!its of actions to ma!e
classes more en>oya"le.
$3. !e0hni=ues
A) .o77ands .se of commands is the ma>or techni(ue. #ommands are given to students to
perform an actionG actions ma!e meaning clear.
B) (ole reversal Students command their teacher and classmates to perform actions.
Students spea! after the silent period. Students should not "e forced "efore they feel ready.
.) A0tion se=uen0e The teacher may give three connected commands +e.g. H4oint to the door,
wal! to the door, and touch the doorH-
$4. "kills Catural order of s!ills5
$. Listening +$ery important during the silent period-
%. Spea!ing +teacher should not force sts to produce the language especially during the silent
period sts are expected to produce the target language voluntarily-
-. 'eading
/. riting

!&' .,))U*+.A!+5' APP(,A.& (.A)
$. #earning !heory Little is !nown a"out the learning theory of %The #ommunicative 1pproachH.
1ctivities that involve real communication promote learning. Language that is meaningful to the
learner supports the learning process.
0;
%. #anguage !heory Language is for communication. The goal of language teaching is to
develop Hcommunicative competenceH. .sing the language appropriately in social contexts is
important and communicative competence should "e ac(uired.
Ahat is language a00ording to the .o77uni0ative A@@roa0hE
A) Language is a system for expression of meaning.
B) The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
.) The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
D) The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, "ut
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
-. .ulture #ulture is the everyday life of people. There are some important aspects of language
which are important to communicationG for instance, the use of non*ver"al "ehaviour. Eody
language, which may differ from culture to culture.
/. !ea0her1s (ole The teacher is a facilitator of his9her studentsD learning. Fe9she is a manager
of classroom activities. Fe9she acts as an advisor and monitors studentsD performance.
2. "tudents1 (ole Students are communicators. They are engaged in negotiating meaning
actively. Students are responsi"le are responsi"le managers of their own learning.
3. +ntera0tions St*st interactions ta!e place very often. Students "enefit from group wor!, pair
wor!, group discussions, pro>ects...etc.
4. 5o0abulary !ea0hing Meaning is paramount. Meaning should "e conveyed through visual
aids, real o">ects, models, and context. $oca"ulary should "e taught within the context.
6. Gra77ar !ea0hing 2ach linguistic form has a function. One function may "e expressed with
different forms.
e.g. +1s!ing for permission HMay / go outOH Or %ould you let me go outO& etc.-
/n addition, different forms may have one function.
2.g. +The modal HcanH has various functions-
H/ can lift this chairH P a"ility
H/t can rain todayH P strong possi"ility
H#an / use your telephoneOH P as!ing for permission
Functions are taught explicitly. 3rammatical explanations can "e given explicitly if it is
"elieved to "e useful for the ac(uisition of the form and function.
8. )aterials 1uthentic materials. 1rticles from magaKines or newspapers, songs, short stories,
advertisements...etc., which are used "y native spea!ers in real life are used as class materials.
#ommunicative activities +information gap, opinion gap activities- are used to promote studentsD
communication in classes. 4ictures, and other visual aids and realia are very important to
support meaning. Tas! "ased activities are also used to promote studentsD involvement in
classes.
$9. "yllabus .sually +"ut not always- functional*notional sylla"us is used +e.g. fre(uency, motion,
location-.
0<
$$. (ole o: #$ StudentsD L0 has no particular role in the #ommunicative 1pproach. L6 should "e
used during not only activities, "ut also when the teacher is giving explanations, instructions,
and homewor!. Students should see L6 as a tool for communication, not a su">ect to study.
$%. 'valuation The teacher evaluates studentsD accuracy and fluency. The teacher may give
communicative tests, which are integrative tests and which have real communicative function.
The teacher may tell students to write a letter to a friend to test their writing s!ill. /mprovisation
of a situation orally can also "e a means of evaluation of the studentsD oral performance.
$-. Goals and ,b;e0tives To ma!e students communicatively competent +i.e., "eing a"le to use
the target language appropriately in a given context-. For this reason, students need
!nowledge of linguistic forms, meanings, and functions. Students must !now that many
different forms can "e used to perform a function, and one single form can serve a variety of
functions. Students should "e a"le to choose the most appropriate form for a specific function.
$/. 'rror .orre0tion 2rrors of form can "e tolerated since they are natural outcome of the
development of communication s!ills. Students can have limited linguistic !nowledge and still
"e successful communicators.
$2. "ts1 <eelings StudentsD motivation is important. Students should feel that they are learning
something useful for their lives. StudentsD security is enhanced "y many opportunities for co*
operative interactions with their fellow students and the teacher. The teacher gives students an
opportunity to express ideas and opinions on a regular "asis so that students integrate the
target language with their own personality. Thus, they feel more secure a"out using the target
language. 3ames, dramas and other en>oya"le activities are used to ma!e classroom
atmosphere "etter, more friendly and relaxing.
$3. !e0hni=ues
a) Authenti0 )aterials 3enuine materials from newspapers, magaKines, videos from
real 2nglish T$ channels, menus, time ta"les, etc is used.
b) "0ra7bled "enten0es for cohesion and coherence.
0) #anguage Ga7es /n order to provide valua"le communicative practice of the target
language.
d) Pi0ture "tri@ "tory This activity provides opinion gaps. Students discuss which
activity should come first.
e) (ole Play this techni(ue provides the opportunity to practise the target language in
various social contexts. /f the role plays is unprepared improvisation it also provides
genuine communication +i.e., information gap * natural unpredicta"ility of what each
participant will say to each other-.
$4. "kills and #anguage Areas Language functions are emphasised over forms. The target
language is taught at supra sentential or discourse level, too. Students learn cohesion and
coherence. #onversation structure in the target language is also reviewed. The four language
0=
s!ills are learnt from the very "eginning. HS!imming, and HScanningH in reading and listening
are improved.

Bibliogra@hy
#elce*Murcia, M. +0@@0-. Language Teaching 1pproaches. /n M. #elce*Murcia +2d.-, Teaching
2nglish as a Second or Foreign Language. +pp.8*0I-. Eoston, Massachusetts5 Feinle L Feinle.
Erown, D. F. +0@?=-. 4rinciples of Language Learning and Teaching. Cew Mersey5 4rintice Fall
'egents.
Larsen*Freeman, D. +0@@8-. Techni(ues and 4rinciples in Language Teaching. Fong Nong5
Oxford .niversity 4ress.
'ichards, M. #. L 'odgers, T. S. +0@@I-. 1pproaches and Methods in Language Teaching5 1
description and analysis. Cew Qor!5 #am"ridge .niversity 4ress.

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