MATRICES

1.1 PRELIMENARIES
A matrix is a rectangular array of number or variables or other algebraic objects. An example of a matrix is
given in Figure 1.
1
1
1
1
]
1

t s r q p
o n m l k
j i h g f
e d c b a
1
1
1
1
]
1

mn m m
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a

2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
We call this matrix a 4 5 because it has four rows an five columns. !n general" an m n matrix has m
rows an n columns" as shown in Figure 2.
We typically enote a matrix by a bol capital roman letter li#e A or M. $he
elements of the matrix A are esignate by ij
a
" where i is the row in which the
element is locate an j is the column in which the element is locate. As an
illustration" consier matrix A on the right.
For this matrix"
4
2%
a
because the element of matrix A in the secon row an thir column is 4. &i#ewise"
'
%2
a
an
(
%4
a
. )otice that" in this particular matrix" there are elements ij
a
for which % 1 i
an for
4 1 j
.
Furthermore" a convenient shorthan notation for expressing the matrix A is to write A * + a
ij
," which
inicates that A is the matrix with its -i" j.th element e/ual to a
ij.
A matrix with the same rows an columns is calle a square matrix. $wo matrices are sai to be equal if
they have the same number of rows an the same number of columns an the corresponing entries in every
position are e/ual.
1.2 MATRIX ARITHMETIC
Definition (Matrix Addition)
&et A * + a
ij
, an B * + b
ij
, be m n matrices. $he sum of A an B" enote by A 0 B" is
the m n matrix that has a
ij
0 b
ij
as its -i" j.th element" i. e."
A 0 B *
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

mn m m
n
n
mn m m
n
n
b b b
b b b
b b b
a a a
a a a
a a a

2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +

mn mn m m m m
n n
n n
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
b a b a b a

2 2 1 1
2 2 21 22 21 21
1 1 12 12 11 11
1
1
1
]
1

( 14 ' 1
1 4 5 2
2 4 1 %
A
3emar#s4 5atrices of ifferent si6es cannot be ae because the sum of two matrices is efine only
when both matrices have the same number of rows an the same number of columns.
Illustration4
1.

1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
]
1

2 2 1
1 % 1
1 4 %
1 4 %
% 2 2
1 1 1
2.

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1 2 2 2
2 4 1 1
2 % % 2
4 1 1 2
% 4 5 1
1 2 1 %
Definition (Sa!ar M"!ti#!iation)
&et A * + a
ij
, be an m n matrix an any number k. $he scalar multiple kA is the matrix
obtaine from A by multiplying each entry of A by k" i. e." kA * k + a
ij
, * + k a
ij
,.
Examples4 7iven A *
1
1
1
]
1

2 4
1 1
2 %
an B *
1
1
1
]
1

2 1
% 2
1 1
" fin the following4
1. 2A *
2. 5B 8 %A *
THEOREM 1.1.
&et A" B" C be matrices of the same si6e" an let r an s be scalars.
1. A 0 B * B 0 A 5. 1A * A" 1A * 1" -81.A * 8A
2. -A 0 B. 0 C * A 0 -B 0 C. 2. r -A 0 B. * r A 0 r B
%. A 0 1 * A 9. -r 0 s. A * r A 0 s A
4. A 0 -8A. * 1 (. r -s A. * -r s. A
Definition (Matrix M"!ti#!iation)
&et A * + a
ik
, be an m k matrix an B * + b
kj
, be a k n matrix -that is" the number
of columns of A e/uals the number of rows of B.. $he product of A an B" enote AB" is
the m n matrix with its -i"j.th entry e/ual to the sum of the proucts of the corresponing
elements from the ith row of A an the jth column of B. !n other wors" if AB * + c
ij
, then
kj ik j i j i ij
b a b a b a c + + +
2 2 1 1 .
Examples4
1.

1
]
1

1
]
1

( 9
2 5
4 %
2 1
2.

1
]
1

1
]
1

4 %
2 1
( 9
2 5
%.

1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

4 1 2
2 5 %
5 1
2 1
% 4
4.

1
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

( 5 1 1
4 % 2 1
1 2 1 2
4 1 1
2 1 %
5. A *
1
1
1
1
]
1

5 1
2 1
1 %
% 4
" B *
1
]
1

% 4 1 1
2 2 % 1
" fin AB.
Definition (Po$er% of a Matrix)
!f A is an n n matrix an if k is a nonnegative integer k" we write A
k
for the prouct of k
copies:factors of A.
Example4
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

11( (1
54 %9
4 %
2 1
22 15
11 9
4 %
2 1
4 %
2 1
4 %
2 1
4 %
2 1
%
3emar#s4 $here is another important problem involving the complexity of the multiplication of
matrices" the matrix chain multiplication. ;nerlying theme for this concept usually
answers the /uestion4 <=ow shoul the matrix>chain A
1
A
2
. . . A
n
be compute using the
fewest multiplication of integers" where A
1
" A
2
" . . . " A
n
are m
1
m
2
" m
2
m
%
" . . . "
m
n
m
n 0 1
" respectively" an each has integers as entries.?
Example4 !n which orer shoul the matrices A
1
" A
2
an A
%
8 where A is %1 21" A
2
is 21 41" an
A
%
is 41 11" all with integer entries 8 be multiplie to use the least number of
multiplication of integers@
1.& S'ME SPECIAL MATRICES AND THE B''LEAN PR'D(CT
Definition (Trian)"!ar Matrie%)
5atrices in which the elements either or above the main iagonal or below it are all e/ual to
6ero are calle a triangular matrices.
A matrix whose elements below the main iagonal are 6ero is calle an upper triangular
matrix.
A lower triangular matrix is a matrix whose elements above the main iagonal are 6ero.
Examples4 * *
1
1
1
]
1

5 1 1
2 % 1
2 4 1
" + *
1
1
1
1
]
1

j i h g
f e d
c b
a
1
1 1
1 1 1
Definition (Identit, Matrix)
$he identity matrix of order n is the n n matrix I
n
* +
ij
," where
ij
* 1 if i * j an

ij
1 if i j. =ence"
I
n
*
1
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

.
3emar#s4 5ultiplying a matrix by an appropriately si6e ientity matrix oes not change this matrix.
!n other wor" when A is an m n" we have AI
n
* I
m
A * A.
THEOREM 1..
&et A" be an m n matrix" an let B an C have si6es for which inicate sums an proucts are
efine. Also" let r be scalar. $hen"
1. A-BC. * -AB.C %. -B 0 C.A * BA 0 CA
2. A-B 0 C. * AB 0 AC 4. r -AB. * -rA.B - A-rB.
Definition (Tran%#o%e of a Matrix)
&et A * + a
ij
, be an m n matrix. $he transpose of A" enote by A
$
" is the n m matrix
obtaine by interchanging the rows an columns of A. =ence
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

mn n n
m
m
T
mn m m
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a

2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
.
Examples4
1.
1
]
1

T
4 %
2 1
%.
1
]
1

T
2 4 1 %
( 9 2 1
2.
1
1
1
]
1

T
4 1
% 1
2 5
THEOREM 1.!.
&et A an B enote matrices whose si6es are appropriate for the following sums an proucts. $hen"
1. -A
$
.
$
* A %. For any scalar r" -rA.
$
* rA
$
2. -A 0 B.
$
* A
$
0 B
$
4. -AB.
$
* B
$
A
$

Definition (S,..etr, of a Matrix)
A s/uare matrix A is calle symmetric if A * A
$
. $hus" if A * + a
ij
, is symmetric if a
ij
* a
ji
for all i an j with 1 i n an 1 j n.
Examples4
1.
1
]
1

1
]
1

4 2
2 1
4 2
2 1
T
2.
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
T
Definition (/ero Matrix)
A matrix with all of its entries are 1 is calle a "ero matrix.
Examples4 A *
1
]
1

1 1 1
1 1 1
" B *
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
" C *
1
]
1

1 1
1 1
Definition (/ero 0 'ne Matrix)
A matrix with entries that are either 1 or 1 is calle a "ero#one matrix.
Examples4 A *
1
1
1
]
1

1 1
1 1
1 1
" B * [ ] 1 1 1 1 1 " C *
1
]
1

1 1
1 1
1.& DETERMINANT AND IN1ERSE '2 A MATRIX
Definition (Matrix In3er%e)
!f A is a s/uare matrix" a matrix B is calle an in$erse of A if an only if
AB * I
n
an BA * I
n
.
A matrix A that has an inverse is calle an in$erti%le matrix. -$his also means that no non 8
s/uare matrix is invertible.
Examples4
1. Ahow that B *
1
]
1

1 1
1 1
is an inverse of A *
1
]
1

1 1
1 1
.
2. !f X *
1
]
1

9 %
5 2
an 4 *
1
]
1

2 %
5 9
" show that 4 is an inverse of X.
3emar#s4 !f A is an invertible matrix" the -uni/ue. inverse of A is enote by A
81
. =ence" A
81
-when it
exists. is a s/uare matrix of the same si6e as A with the property that
AA
81
* I
n
an A
81
A * I
n
.
THEOREM 1.&.
&et A *
1
]
1

d c
b a
. !f ad bc 1 " then A is invertible an A
81
*
1
]
1

a c
b d
bc ad
1
.
!f ad bc * 1" then A is not invertible.
3emar#s4 $he /uantity ad bc is calle the determinant of A" an we write et-A. * ad 8 bc. $hus"
fining for the inverse of a 2 2 s/uare matrix A is A
81
*
1
]
1

a c
b d
A. et-
1
.
Examples4 Fin the inverses of the following matrices. A *
1
]
1

2 5
4 %
B B *
1
]
1

2 %
1 %
3emar#s4 'inding for the determinants of an order ! matrix. We use Sarrus ule in fining for the
eterminant of a s/uare matrix of orer %.
1. Write out the matrix" an then write its first two columns again after the thir"
giving you a total of five columns.
2. A the proucts of the iagonals going from top to bottom an subtract the
iagonals going from bottom to top.
Examples4 Fin the eterminant of the following matrices. P *
1
1
1
]
1

2 2 %
1 1 1
5 1 1
B 5 *
1
1
1
]
1

( 1 1
2 1 1
1 % 1
.
Definition (Matrix In3er%ion A!)orit6.)
!f A is an invertible matrix" there exists a se/uence or row operations that carry A to the
ientity matrix I
n
of the same si6e" written as A I
n
.
$his series of row operations carries I
n
to A
81
" that is" I
n
A
81
. $he algorithm can be
summari6e as follows4
+ A I
n
, + I
n
A
81
,
where the row operations on A an I
n
are carrie out simultaneously.
3emar#s4 !n fining the inverse of an n n s/uare matrix A" we construct an augmente matrix
-entries of matrix A on the left an the ientity matrix I
n
on the right.. We then use the
elementary row operations on this new matrix. A brief iscussion on elementary row
operation an row echelon form is given below.
E!e.entar, Ro$ '#eration%
1. A a multiple of one row to another.
2. 5ultiply a row by a non6ero constant.
%. !nterchange two rows.
Ro$ 0 E6e!on 2or. (RE2) and Red"ed Ro$ 0 E6e!on 2or. (RRE2)
A matrix is in row ( echelon form if it satisfies the following conitions.
1. $he first non6ero number in each row -reaing from left to right. is 1. $his is calle
the !eadin) entr,.
2. $he leaing entry in each row is to the right of the leaing entry in the row
immeiately above it.
%. All rows consisting entirely of 6eros are at the bottom of the matrix.
A matrix is in reduced row ( echelon form if it is in row 8 echelon form an also satisfies
the following conition4
4. Cvery number above an below each leaing entry is 1.
Examples4 Fin the inverse of the following matrices.
1.
1
1
1
]
1

15 2 %
2 % 2
4 2 1
2.
1
1
1
]
1

1 4 1
1 1 1
1 4 2
%.
1
1
1
]
1

5 9 2
% 1 %
4 9 5
THEOREM 1.).
a. !f A is an invertible matrix" then A
81
is invertible" an
-A
81
.
81
* A .
b. !f A an B are n n invertible matrices" then so is AB" an the inverse of the prouct of
AB is the prouct of inverses of A an B in the reverse orer" that is"
-AB.
81
* B
81
A
81
.
c. !f A is an invertible matrix" then so is A
$
" an the inverse of A
$
is the transpose of A
81
"
that is"
-A
$
.
81
* -A
81
.
$
.
1.7 S'L1IN8 S4STEMS '2 E5(ATI'NS (SIN8 MATRICES
*. +y Matrix ,n$ersion Method.
3emar#s4 !nvertible matrices are inispensable in linear algebra 8 mainly for algebraic calculations
an formula erivations" as in the next theorem. Apecifically" matrix inverses can be use to
solve certain linear e/uations.
A system of linear e/uations can be written as a single matrix e/uation
AX * B
where A an B are #nown matrices an X is to be etermine. !f A is invertible" we
multiply each sie of the e/uation on the left by A
81
to get
A
81
AX * A
81
B
IX * A
81
B
X * A
81
B
$his gives the solution to the system of e/uations. Furthermore" the argument that if X is
any solution" then necessarily X * A
81
B" so the solution is uni/ue. Df course" this techni/ue
wor#s only when the coefficients of matrix A has an inverse.
THEOREM 1.-.
Auppose a system of n e/uations in n variables is written in matrix form as
AX * B.
!f the n n coefficient matrix A is invertible" the system has the uni/ue solution
X * A
81
B.
Examples4 Aolve the following systems of e/uations using matrices.
1.

'

+

% %
% ( %
! x
! x
. %.

'

+
+ +
+
2
1 2
% 2 2
% 1
% 2 1
% 2 1
x x
x x x
x x x
.
2.

'

+
+
1 2
1 %
! x
! x
.