The Three Elements of Persuasion: Ethos, Logos, Pathos

One of the three questions on the English Language and Composition Examination will
often be a defend, challenge, or qualify question. The first step in learning how to do well on this
essay is to be able to identify the three elements of argument and persuasion: ethos, logos, pathos.


ETHOS: Ask these questions to evaluate the authors attempt to establish his credentials.

1. Does the author use a reasonable tone, treating the opponent with respect by avoiding
such things as illogical statements or inflammatory language?

2. Does the author have some relevant experience with the issue?

3. Does the author seem to have any prejudicial attitudes, sentiments, or stereotypes?

4. Does the author make an attempt to embody some evidence of personal knowledge of
the subject, good will toward the reader, good sense, perspective, taste in judgment, or
disinterest in personal benefit?

5. What is the author's style? Are his sentences (syntax) or vocabulary (diction) effective,
too simple, or too difficult? Where is the writing clear? Where is the writing difficult to
follow? Where is the language appropriate or inappropriate for the intended audience?


LOGOS: Ask the following questions to evaluate logical appeals.

1. What arguments (logical reasoning) are made?

2. Are the examples unified, specific, adequate, accurate, relative, and representative?)

3. Does the author represent the important opposing arguments fairly? This is usually
mentioned early, then refuted throughout the remainder of the essay by confirmation and
amplification.

4. Does the author use specific examples, detailed description, quotations from
authorities, facts, statistics, etc.?

5. Does the author use amplification (the widening of perspectives through analogies,
comparisons or other aspects of experience)?

6. Are there any omissions?

7. Does the author misuse the evidence or sabotage or distort the argument by relying
on any of the following logical fallacies:

Hasty Generalization: Also called "the Bare Assertion." Be suspicious of any
unsubstantiated conclusions. Don't be swayed by a speaker who refuses to back up a
disputed claim by simply saying or implying "That's just the way it is." Any sound
generalization must be based on a great deal of evidence (many examples of personal
experience, observations, or reading).

Stereotype: Do not allow a writer to convince you that all members of a certain group
share certain characteristics just because they are members of that group. People should
be judged on their individual merits (many examples of personal experience, observations,
or reading), not on their group identities.

Cause-and-Effect Fallacy: Avoid the mistake of assuming that just because one event
preceded another, the first event caused the second event. Any sound generalization
about effect must be based on a great deal of evidence (many cause/effect observations
from personal experience, observations, or reading).

Only-Cause Fallacy: Most situations are complex enough to have several causes. Be
open-minded enough to be able to see that more than one cause is possible, and that,
similarly, more than one solution exists. Almost no dispute among intelligent people can
be boiled down to "It's as simple as that."

False Analogy: Analogies are used to clarify a point. Because false analogies are weak or
far-fetched examples, they usually confuse the message. All analogies selected must
clearly clarify the point.

Non sequitur: The statement means "It does not follow." Make sure the conclusion
logically follows from the premise.

Circular Reasoning: This common mistake occurs when no specific reasons are given to
back up an opinion. Instead, the writer simply restates the point and rephrases the same
position. Assertions must be developed with a series of different examples from personal
experience, observation, or reading.

Begging the question: This occurs when the writer expects the reader to accept a position
just because everyone else accepts it. Assertions must be developed through a balance of
good logic and plausible appeals to emotions.


PATHOS: Ask the following questions to evaluate emotional appeals.

1. Does the author arouse desires useful to the persuader's purpose and demonstrate how
these desires can be satisfied by acceptance of the persuaders assertion (proposition or
proposal or claim)?

2. Does the author's summary include the arousal of indignation for the opponents view
and an arousal of sympathy for the authors view?
3. Does the author misuse the language by trying to persuade you emotionally through any
of the following dishonest propaganda techniques:

Loaded Words: Be aware of the strong negative or positive connotations that certain
words carry with them. This technique is also known as using "slanted words" because
the author will choose words because of their persuasive emotional charge. Bertrand
Russell once illustrated how words have emotional bias when he chose three synonyms to
define different emotional aspects of the word stubborn: "I am firm. You are obstinate.
He is pigheaded."

Glittering Generalities: This is a specific type of loaded word fallacy. Do not be swayed
by words that are so overly positive that you feel good just hearing them. Do not reach a
decision based solely on diction.

Band Wagon: Do not come to a decision just because you do not want to be left out.
These are also called "appeals to popular sentiment" because they are used to seduce the
reader or listener into a smiling, mindless agreement.

Plain-Folks Appeal: When the author tries to acknowledge the opposition by pretending
to be just like all common people, he is using this appeal.

Snob Appeal: When the author tries to associate himself with beautiful, wealthy, or
special people, he is using this appeal.

Testimonial: When a author uses an association with a famous person to sell an idea or
product, he is using this propaganda technique.



















Copyright January 2002, School House Books, Inc.
Rhetorical Strategies


1. RHETORICAL SITUATION
persona (rhetorwriter or speaker)
audience (reader or listener)
content (subject)
purpose (aim or intention of the created document)
to inquire
to assert
to dominate
to negotiate (differences) and reconcile
context (time, place, and community or forum)
genre (type of composition, structure, organization)

2. RHETORICAL APPEALS
ethos
authors credentials
includes attitude, tone, style
logos
logical appeals
includes arguments, examples, amplification
pathos
emotional appeals
includes arousing sympathy and indignation, and using propaganda
3. TONE
DI CTI ON
rhetor (writer, speaker, or narrator); voice and persona
audience (reader or listener)
subject (content, including supporting evidence); appeals

4. INVENTION
systematic act scene agent agency purpose
what when, where who how why

enthymeme (syllogism, syllogistic reasoning)
major premise minor premise conclusion
generalization particular statement logical statement that follows

basic topics:
possible and impossible
past fact
future fact
greater or less
common topics:
definition
division and classification
comparison or contrast
cause and effect (relationships)
circumstances, testimony, or other topics
intuitive (from conversation, free-writing, journal writing)
5. ARRANGEMENT
genre (prose, drama, poetry)
format
oration: beginning middle end
exordium confirmation peroration
narration refutation
partition


essay: beginning middle end
context argument summary
thesis conclusion


6. STYLE
sentences (grammatical type, placement of details, variety)
parallelism
syntax
diction (level of formality, difficulty, technicality)
denotation versus connotation
common language versus jargon
formal versus informal
Latinate versus Anglo-Saxon
figurative language
trope: artful variation from typical way a word or idea is expressed
irony, oxymoron, paradox, hyperbole, litotes, rhetorical question, etc.
metaphor, implied metaphor, simile, personification, etc.
metonymy, synecdoche, anthimeria, etc.
symbol, archetype, etc.
scheme: artful variation from typical arrangement of words in a sentence
parallelism, antithesis, interruption (parenthesis), omission (ellipsis)
repetition, alliteration, assonance, anaphora, epistrophe, anadiplosis,
climax
allusion (historical, literary, religious)

7. MEMORY

8. DELIVERY