1 General Tips

1.1 Formulas
We have had the privilege of receiving formula sheets in highschool. However, the professors in university may
or may not allow you to use a formula sheet for the exams. Usually, there arent many formulas that you need
to memorize in a university math course. But If there are, and you are not given a formula sheet, it is very
important you know where the formulas came from. Many students went through highschool math/physics
mindlessly plugging in numbers in to the given formulas to get the number they want, but had no idea what
they were actually doing. These are the people who complain that the test is harder than what we do in
class and forget what they have learned a month after.
Although this technique has worked well as a lot of low-level math/physics is pretty mindless, it will not
work in university. The professors are experts in their eld and will come up with questions that truly test
your understanding. If you memorize the formulas and take them as-is, then your application of them will
be severely limited. As soon as the question does not serve you all the numbers nicely placed on a silver
platter, then you are lost because that single formula was all you had. On the other hand, if you knew how
the formula came to be, you can manipulate it at your will to t a variety of situations. Maybe on the way
to deriving the formula you need to stop at an earlier step. Maybe you need to come up with a completely
new formula based on the old one. These are things that can not be done without understanding. The eort
you put in trying to memorize formulas and what to do in dierent situations could be used to understand
the scenarios instead. Once understanding is achieved, not only is memorization not required, you will also
have a much greater appreciation for the problem.
1.2 Problem Solving
Whether you are good at problem solving or not, you can always be better. There is always room for
improvement. If you live with that philosophy, you will wake up one day and realize just how good you have
become, overcoming what ever intellectual barrier you thought you could never surpass. Richard Feynman,
one of the most brilliant physicists who has ever lived, outlined his way of solving problems:
1. Write down the problem.
2. Think really hard.
3. Write down the solution.
Doesnt seem very helpful. What he is saying is that there is no magical list of steps that will get you to
the answer every time. Each problem is unique and requires its own unique solution. The only way to get
better at problem solving is to solve more problems. With lots of exposure to the dierent techniques, you
will be able to solve them faster and more eciently. Do not be discouraged because others are better. The
only person you have to be better than in this world is the person you were yesterday.
1.3 Mistakes
Making absolutely no mistakes is impossible. What is possible, however, is decreasing the frequency in which
they happen. Practice really does make perfect. As Otto von Bismarck once said, A fool learns from his
mistakes, but a truly wise man learns from the mistakes of others.
1.4 Usefulness
1.4.1 The Professor
It is not uncommon that the students complain the professor is useless. Sometimes, the professor will do
nothing but proof formulas during lecture sessions. Although this is not a terrible idea as I have established
above, knowing just the proofs is not enough to pass the exam. At the end of the day, the proofs need to
be applied and problems have to be solved. If you happen to get such a professor, just read your textbook
instead. The proofs are often in the text anyway and the explanations are generally very clear. The only down
side is that you have to actually read through it as opposed to the professor summarizing the information
for you. A professor who mixes proofs with clear explanation backed up by examples would be ideal.
1
1.4.2 The Subject
Almost everyone learning math have asked themselves the question When am I going to use this in my life?
at some point in their academic career. Its extremely frustrating to be forced to learn something that is
seemingly useless, and thus a waste of time. I dont blame them for it. After all, they are right. Depending
on the eld, you are probably never going to use integration or LHopitals Rule again. However, that is not
the point. The material it self may or may not be useful in the future, but the skills you acquired certainly
will be. The act of learning it has established a wiring in your brain that was not there before. It is a matter
of learning how to think. From that arises your problem solving skills and your ability to navigate around
challenges you have never encountered before. Those will be useful no matter what eld you go in to.
1.5 Boredom
Often, studying math can be rather dry and boring. This is not the students nor the subjects problem, but
rather a fault on the teachers part for not making it interesting. The way math is taught in the education
system today generally involves lots of busy-work: tedious worksheets full of problems over and over again.
A lesson is given, the students go home and work through the problems, then get tested a few days later.
Repeat this for every unit and you have your typical math course. The students rarely get to see the big
picture, and end up thinking math is all about what they do in the classroom.
Imagine in an art class, the only thing you are taught is how to paint an apple. You are required to paint
the apple over and over again, but you are never shown the great masterpieces such as the Mona Lisa nor
are you told about the great artists such as Leonardo da Vinci. Later you tell your friends that you hate art
because it is boring. You dont really hate art. What you hate is that class you attended. One should not
blame the subject simply because someone did a bad job of teaching it. Throughout your years of taking
math classes, how many of the great theorems were you told about? How many famous mathematicians do
you know? No wonder many are not inspired.
Of course, there are exceptions where teachers make their students leave the class in awe, including the
ones that hated the subject to begin with. They have the ability to instill something in their students that
no other teacher can. It is unfortunate that these kind of teachers are so rare. However, not all hope is lost.
If you are aware of this, you will be less susceptible to be misguided. You can explore the subject on your
own and nd its beauties. You can guide yourself.
1.6 The Math
Now all the pedagogical issues are covered, lets get in to the math.
1.6.1 Derivatives
The rules on how to take a derivative can be easily found online or in any textbook, so Im not going to put
them here. I will just note some tips regarding taking derivatives.
1. Multiple Chain Rule
You are probably used to taking the derivative of two functions multiplied together. For example, the
derivative of f(x)g(x) is f

(x)g(x) +f(x)g

(x) by the chain rule. But what if there are three functions
multiplied together? What about four? The pattern is the same. If there are n functions multiplied
together, the answer will have n terms in total. In each term, take the derivative of one of the func-
tions, and not the rest. Make sure you dont repeat, so that every function has had its derivative taken
only once. For example, the derivative of f(x)g(x)h(x) is f

(x)g(x)h(x)+f(x)g

(x)h(x)+f(x)g(x)h

(x).
As for the proof of this, dene a function G(x) so that G(x) = f
1
(x)f
2
(x)f
3
(x) f
n
(x). Take the
natural log of both sides, expand the right hand side, take the derivative of both sides, then isolate
G

(x). You will see this works for any number of functions. I will leave the exercise up to you.
2. When to Ln Both Sides
When nding the derivative, you may need to apply the natural logarithm to both sides rst. Do this
if the variable you are taking the derivative with respect to is found in the exponent. The derivative
of a function such as f(x) = x
x
can not be done with the usual rules. You have to nd a way to bring
down the x from the exponent somehow so you can apply the chain rule. The mathematical function
that can do this is the logarithm, as a exponent in a logarithm can be brought down directly. The
reason we take the natural log (base e) and not some other base is because the derivative of it is easy
2
to calculate. We could log both sides base 10 but we would have to convert it to base e to take the
derivative, an unnecessary hassle.
3. Variable the Derivative is Taken With Respect to
Often an expression can have multiple symbols in them, in which some are variables and some are not.
You have to keep track of which one is which, and take the derivative with respect to the right variable.
For example, you may arrive at an equation that looks like x = h
4
sin . Notice that x could depend on
or h. As a result, you could do
dx
d
or
dx
dh
, which would give you dierent answers. It could be the case
that one of or h is a constant, in which case x would only depend on one variable. You may also need
to take the derivative with respect to dierent variables depending on what relationship you need. If
you need the relationship between x and h, then take it with respect to h. If you need the relationship
between x and , then take it with respect to . Its mostly situational, and you must keep track of it.
1.6.2 Integration
The integrals listed below are some special cases. All other integrals in rst year calculus should be easy to
evaluate.
1. Integrals

sec xdx and

csc xdx

sec xdx = ln(sec x + tan x) +C

csc xdx = ln(csc x cot x) +C

As for the proof, multiply the top and bottom of sec x by sec x+tan x and see what you can do. Similar
thing for csc x.
2. Integrals in the form of

x
n
e
x
dx
Using integration by parts and set x
n
as u. You would typically want to pick a u such that it simplies
after taking the derivative, and a dv such that it simplies after integrating. In this case, if u = x
n
,
taking the derivative will decrease its power. We do not have to worry about e
x
as it will not change
after integrating. Repeat this process until the power on the x reduces to 0, then evaluate the integral.
3. Integrals in the form of

sec
a
xtan
b
xdx
We will consider several cases:
(Note: 0 is considered to be even.)
When a is even and b is even
Pull out a sec
2
x then use the identity tan
2
x +1 = sec
2
x and convert all the remaining secs into
tan. Expand everything except sec
2
x, then make the substitution u = tan x and evaluate.
When a is even and b is odd
Pull out a sec xtan x then use the identity tan
2
x +1 = sec
2
x and convert all the remaining tans
into sec. Expand everything except the sec xtan x, then make the substitution u = sec x and
evaluate.
When a is odd and b is even
This is a tough case. It probably wont be covered in rst year. If you want to know, here is the
method:
Use the identity tan
2
x + 1 = sec
2
x and convert ALL tans in to sec, then expand everything
and break up the integral. Now there should be a bunch of integrals in the form of a

sec
n
xdx.
Take each integral and evaluate it separately. In each case, set dv = sec
2
x and u as what ever is
left. Do integration by parts, and repeat if necessary. I recommend starting at the integrals with
the lower powers rst, as the higher powers will often require you to integrate the lower powers
somewhere in the process. So if you know the answers already, you can just sub them in. Dont
need to reinvent the wheel each time.
When a is odd and b is odd
Pull out a sec xtan x then use the identity tan
2
x +1 = sec
2
x and convert all the remaining tans
into sec. Expand everything except the sec xtan x, then make the substitution u = sec x and
evaluate.
3
Note: Integrals in the form of

csc
a
xcot
b
xdx can be evaluated using the same strategy.
4. Integrals in the form of

sin
a
xcos
b
xdx
When one of a or b is odd, or when they are both odd
Suppose sin is odd and cos is even. Pull out a single power of sin, then use the identity sin
2
x +
cos
2
x = 1 and covert all the rest of it to cos. Expand all except for the sin you pulled out, then
set u as cos and evaluate.
When both a and b are even
This is a tough case. Use the identities sin
2
x =
1
2
(1 cos 2x), cos
2
x =
1
2
(1 + cos 2x), and
sin xcos x =
1
2
sin 2x to reduce it to the case above.
5. Cycling Functions:

e
x
sin xdx
When encountered with an integral that must be evaluated using integration by parts, look for functions
that return to themselves after several derivatives or integrations. For example, in the integral above,
sin x returns to itself after two integrations or derivatives. The result may be o by a sign, but thats
alright. You want to set these cycling functions as u or dv, which ever one works, such that after several
integration by parts you can regenerate the original integral. At that point, you can move it over to
the other side and divide by the coecient in front. In the example above, if u = sin x and dv = e
x
,
then the integral becomes

e
x
sin xdx = e
x
sin x

e
x
cos xdx
Now let u = cos x and dv = e
x
, the integral becomes

e
x
sin xdx = e
x
sin x e
x
cos x

e
x
sin xdx
Be sure to watch the signs. Notice the original integral has been regenerated, so we can move it to the
other side:
2

e
x
sin xdx = e
x
sin x e
x
cos x
Then divide the 2 over and we have the solution

e
x
sin xdx =
1
2
e
x
(sin x cos x) +C
2 Useful Theorems
2.1 Conservative Fields
Theorem: If the vector eld

f can be written as the gradient of some scalar function F, then

f is conservative
and the path integral depends only on the starting and ending points.
Proof:
Let

f = F(x, y, z), then

b
a

f
(
dx
dt

i +
dy
dt

j +
dz
dt

k
)
dt =

b
a
(
F
x

i +
F
y

j +
F
z

k
)

(
dx
dt

i +
dy
dt

j +
dz
dt

k
)
dt
=

b
a
(
F
x
dx
dt
+
F
y
dy
dt
+
F
z
dz
dt
)
dt
Since
dF
dt
=
F
x
dx
dt
+
F
y
dy
dt
+
F
z
dz
dt
Then

b
a
(
F
x
dx
dt
+
F
y
dy
dt
+
F
z
dz
dt
)
dt =

b
a
dF
dt
dt = F(b) F(a)
This shows that the work done is independent of the path taken, and the proof is complete.
For example, the gravitational eld is conservative because

F =
GMm
r
2
r =
Where =
GMm
r
, the gravitational potential.
4
2.2 Surface Area and Volume of a Torus
2.2.1 Surface Area
Theorem: The Surface area of a torus of minor radius r and major radius R is 4
2
rR.
Proof:
The parametrization of a torus with minor radius r and major radius R is
r (, ) = (R +r cos ) cos

i + (R +r cos ) sin

j +r sin

k 0 , 2
Where is the angle r makes with the xy plane and is the angle R makes with the zx plane.
The surface integral of a parametrized function is dened as
A =

dd
Subbing in r in to the integral, we have
A =

(
r cos cos

i r sin sin

j +r cos

k
)

(
sin (R +r cos )

i + cos (R +r cos )

j + 0

k
)

dd
Setting up the matrix to evaluate the cross product:

i

j

k
r cos cos r sin sin r cos
sin (R +r cos ) cos (R +r cos ) 0

=(r cos cos (R +r cos ))

i (r cos sin (R +r cos ))

j
+
(
r cos cos
2
(R +r cos ) r sin sin
2
(R +r cos )
)

k
The magnitude of this vector is then

r
2
cos
2
cos
2
(R +r cos )
2
+r
2
cos
2
sin
2
(R +r cos )
2
+r
2
sin
2
(R +r cos )
2
= r cos (R +r cos )

1 + tan
2

= r cos (R +r cos ) (sec )

= rR +r
2
cos
Now evaluating the integral:
A =

2
0

2
0
rR +r
2
cos dd =

2
0
2rRd = 4
2
rR
This completes the proof.
2.2.2 Volume
Theorem: The volume of an torus of minor radius r and major radius R is 2
2
r
2
R.
Proof:
A torus can be generated by revolving a circle with the equation (x R)
2
+y
2
= r
2
around the y axis. The
volume of the resulting solid can be computed using the cylindrical shell method:
V = 4

R+r
Rr
x

r
2
(x R)
2
dx
To evaluate this integral, we note that if u = r
2
(x R)
2
, then
du
dx
= 2R 2x. We then make a clever
manipulation:
V = 4R

R+r
Rr

r
2
(x R)
2
dx 2

R+r
Rr
(2R 2x)

r
2
(x R)
2
dx
5
Expanding the above integral will yield the original integral. The rst integral is easy to evaluate as it can be
interpreted as the area of the circle with radius r. It therefore yields 2
2
r
2
R. Substituting u = r
2
(xR)
2
in to the second integral, we get
2

R+r
Rr
(2R 2x)

r
2
(x R)
2
dx = 2

0
0

udu = 0
The volume of the torus is therefore V = 2
2
r
2
R. This completes the proof.
2.3 Ellipses
2.3.1 Area of an Ellipse
Theorem: The area of an ellipse with axis a and b is ab.
Proof:
Rearranging the equation of an ellipse, we obtain:
y =
b
a

a
2
x
2
The area is obtained by integrating this from a to a:
A =
b
a

a
a

a
2
x
2
dx
Since

a
a

a
2
x
2
dx is the area of a circle with radius a, this integral can be evaluated:
A =
b
a
a
2
= ab
This completes the proof.
2.3.2 Volume of an Ellipsoid
Theorem: The volume of an Ellipsoid with axis a, b, and c is
4
3
abc.
Proof:
The equation of an ellipsoid is
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
+
z
2
c
2
= 1. Note that a horizontal cross-section of an ellipsoid is in the
shape of an ellipse. If we can nd the area of this ellipse given the cross-section is taken at z = h, then we
can integrate up and down the z coordinate to nd the volume of the ellipsoid.
If we x the z coordinate at some number h, then the equation of the ellipsoid becomes
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
+
h
2
c
2
= 1
Rearranging this equation:
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1
h
2
c
2
x
2
(
a

1
h
2
c
2
)
2
+
y
2
(
b

1
h
2
c
2
)
2
= 1
We now dene A = a

1
h
2
c
2
and B = b

1
h
2
c
2
so that the equation becomes
x
2
A
2
+
y
2
B
2
= 1
This is the equation of an ellipse, as expected. The area of this ellipse is AB or ab
(
1
h
2
c
2
)
. Therefore,
the volume of the ellipsoid is given by
V = ab

c
c
1
h
2
c
2
dh
Evaluating this integral, we obtain
ab
(
2c
2c
3
)
=
4
3
abc
This completes the proof.
6
2.4 Eulers Identity
Theorem:
e
ix
= cos x +i sin x
Proof:
To begin, we observe the Taylor Expansion of the function sinx and cos x:
sin x = x
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!

x
7
7!
+
x
9
9!

cos x = 1
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!

x
6
6!
+
x
8
8!

Now we observe the Taylor Expansion of the function e
x
about the point x = 0:
e
x
= 1 +x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!

Since e
x
is continuous for all x, this expansion is true for all x. This can be applied to complex exponents as
well:
e
ix
= 1 +ix
x
2
2!
i
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!
+i
x
5
5!

x
6
6!
i
x
7
7!

Rewriting this expression, we obtain:
e
ix
=
(
1
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!

x
6
6!

)
+i
(
x
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!

x
7
7!

)
This is clearly e
ix
= cos x +i sin x. Note that when x = , we have the famous Eulers Identity:
e
i
+ 1 = 0
This completes the proof.
2.5 Simple Harmonic Motion
2.5.1 Spring-Mass System
Theorem:The motion of a mass m attached to an ideal spring with spring constant k is described by
x(t) = Acos t + Bsin t, where =

k
m
and A and B are the initial displacement and velocity of the
mass respectfully.
Proof:
From Newtons second law, we have the equation

F = ma
The force acting on the mass given some displacement x of the spring from its rest position is given by kx,
so the equation becomes
kx = m
d
2
x
dt
2
This is a second order linear dierential equation where the solution will be in the form of e
rt
. Making the
substitution =

k
m
and rearranging the equation, we have
d
2
x
dt
2
+
2
x = 0
Here it is clear that r = i, and the partial solutions are
x(t) = C
1
e
it
x(t) = C
2
e
it
The general solution is then given by
x(t) = C
1
e
it
+C
2
e
it
7
Using Eulers Identity e
ix
= cos x +i sin x, we can expand this solution
x(t) = C
1
cos t +iC
1
sin t +C
2
cos t iC
2
sin t
= (C
1
+C
2
) cos t + (iC
1
iC
2
) sin t
Let A = C
1
+C
2
and B = iC
1
iC
2
, we have
x(t) = Acos t +Bsin t
Since x(0) = A, A is the initial displacement of the mass. Now taking the derivative:
x

(t) = v(t) = A sin t +B cos t

We see that v(0) = B, which means B is the initial velocity of the mass. This completes the proof.
2.5.2 Motion of a Pendulum
Theorem:The period of a pendulum is T = 2

l
g
if the initial displacement angle is small and there is no
initial velocity.
Proof:
Using Newtons second law, we can set up the equation for a pendulum with mass m at the end of a massless
rigid rod of length l:
mgl sin = I
d
2

dt
2
Where I is the moment of inertia of the mass about the pivot point and is the initial displacement angle.
Notice that for small , sin . If = mgl, then the equation takes on the form of
= I
d
2

dt
2
We have already seen the solution for this equation. It is
(t) = Acos t +Bsin t
Where =

I
. If there is no initial velocity, that is

(0) = 0, then B = 0, and the equation simplies to

(t) = Acos t
The period of this function is
2

or 2

. Since I = ml
2
, we have
T = 2

ml
2
mgl
= 2

l
g
This completes the proof.
2.6 Parallel Axis Theorem
Theorem:The moment of inertia of a rigid body of mass M about an axis that is d units away and parallel
to an axis through the center of mass is I = I
cm
+ Md
2
where I
cm
is the moment of inertia about the axis
through the center of mass.
Proof:
Consider the following diagram:
8
The diagram shows a rigid body with the center of mass lablled as cm, a point P located |

d| units away from

the center of mass, and a small mass m
i
, located in the position shown by the vectors. We will compute the
moment of inertia about point P given |

d|.
The moment of inertia about point P is given by
I
p
=

i
m
i
v
2
i
Since v
i
=

d +r
i
, v
2
i
= v
i
v
i
= (

d +r
i
) (

d +r
i
) = d
2
+r
2
i
+ 2

dr
i
. Subbing this into the summation:
I
p
=

i
m
i
d
2
+

i
m
i
r
2
i
+ 2

i
m
i
r
i
We see that the rst term is Md
2
and the second term is the moment of inertia about the center of mass,
I
cm
. The third term, when multiplied by
M
M
, turns into
2

i
m
i
r
i
M
M

i
m
i
r
i
M
is the center of mass of the object. However, this is located in a coordinate system where the center
of mass is at the origin because all r
i
is measured from the center of mass. As a result, the term evaluates
to 0. So then we have
I
p
= I
cm
+Md
2
This completes the proof.
2.7 Optimization Problems
Theorem:The triangle of the greatest area formed by connecting two given line segments length a and b at
some angle then joining the remaining two ends is a right angle triangle with a and b as the height and base.
Proof:
Consider the diagram:
The area of this triangle is given by
A =
1
2
ab(sin C)
This expression is maximized when sin C = 1, or when C =

2
. Therefore C must be a right angle, and
triangle ABC must be a right triangle. This completes the proof.
Theorem:To construct a rectangular pen of the largest area consisting of v vertical walls and h horizontal
walls (v, h 1) using some given amount of material P, divide P in to two equal amounts A and B, then
distribute A evenly across the vertical walls, and distribute B evenly across the horizontal walls.
Proof:
If the pen has v vertical walls and h horizontal walls and has width w and length l, then
P = vw +hl
9
w =
P hl
v
The area is given by A = lw.Substituting for w =
Phl
v
and taking the derivative:
A = l
(
P hl
v
)
A

=
P hl
v

h
v
l
Set the derivative to 0 and solve for l:
P hl
v

h
v
l = 0
P hl = hl
l =
P
2
(
1
h
)
Solving for w using l:
w =
P h
(
P
2h
)
v
w =
P
1
2
P
v
=
P
2
(
1
v
)
This completes the proof.
Theorem:The length of the shortest ladder that will reach over a wall h units high to a building d units
away from the wall is given by
(
h
2
3
+d
2
3
)3
2
.
Proof:
Consider the diagram:
L must be represented in terms of , h, and d rst. Then the derivative can be taken to nd the absolute
minimum.
cos =
a +d
L
L =
a +d
cos
Since tan =
h
a
, we can substitude for a:
L =
h
tan +d
cos
=
h +d tan
tan cos
=
h +d tan
sin
Now we take the derivative with respect to :
L

=
d sec
2
sin cos (h +d tan )
sin
2

Set the derivative to 0, and solve for :

d sec
2
sin cos (h +d tan )
sin
2

= 0
d sec
2
sin cos (h +d tan ) = 0
10
d sec
2
sin hcos d cos tan = 0
d sec
2
sin hcos d sin = 0
d sin (sec
2
1) = hcos
d sin tan
2
= hcos
tan
3
=
h
d
tan =
3

h
3

d
Graphically, this means the following:
From this diagram, we can see that sin =
h
1
3
(
h
2
3 +d
2
3
)1
2
. Returning to the original equation:
L =
h +d tan
sin
We can now sub in the known values:
L =
h +d
h
1
3
d
1
3
h
1
3
(
h
2
3
+d
2
3
)1
2
L =
h
1
3
(
h
2
3
+d
2
3
)
h
1
3
(
h
2
3
+d
2
3
)1
2
L =
(
h
2
3
+d
2
3
)3
2
This completes the proof.
Theorem:The length longest ladder that will go all the way around the intersection of two hallways of width
a and b at a right angle is given by
(
a
2
3
+b
2
3
)3
2
.
Proof:
Consider the diagram:
11
The length of the ladder is given by
L =
a
cos
+
b
sin
Taking the derivative with respect to and setting it to 0:
L

= a sec tan b csc cot = 0

Solving for :
a sec tan = b csc cot
a
sin
cos
2

= b
cos
sin
2

b
a
=
sin
3

cos
3

tan
3
=
b
a
tan =
3

b
3

a
From the problem above, we know that sin =
b
1
3
(
a
2
3 +b
2
3
)1
2
and cos =
a
1
3
(
a
2
3 +b
2
3
)1
2
. Subbing back in to the
original equation we nd
L =
a
a
1
3
(
a
2
3 +b
2
3
)1
2
+
b
b
1
3
(
a
2
3 +b
2
3
)1
2
= a
2
3
(
a
2
3
+b
2
3
)1
2
+b
2
3
(
a
2
3
+b
2
3
)1
2
=
(
a
2
3
+b
2
3
)(
a
2
3
+b
2
3
)1
2
=
(
a
2
3
+b
2
3
)3
2
One interesting thing to note is that this problem has the exact same result as the problem above. However,
the problem above was looking for a minimum, while this one is looking for a maximum. There is only one
solution to the equation, so how can it be both a max and a min?
The key is to realize that in this problem, the maximum is actually a minimum. As the line L in the dia-
gram goes around the corner, its length changes. It will start out long, become shorter, reach some minimum
length, then lengthen again. In order for the ladder to make it completely around the corner, it must not
be longer than the minimum length L reaches, or else it will not make it past that point. So the maximum
length a ladder can take on in order to make it around the corner is equal to the minimum length of the line L.
The proof is complete.
Theorem:The amount that needs to be cut out in the corners of a rectangular piece of material with dimen-
sions a and b such that the remaining material will create a box of the maximum volume is
a+b

a
2
+b
2
2ab
6
.
Proof:
Consider the diagram:
The volume of the box when a square of side length x is cut out of the corner is
V = x(a 2x)(b 2x)
12
Take the derivative, set it to 0, and solve for x.
V

= (a 2x)(b 2x) 2x(b 2x) 2x(a 2x) = 0

ab 2ax 2bx + 4x
2
2bx + 4x
2
2ax + 4x
2
= 0
ab (4a + 4b)x + 12x
2
= 0
Use the quadratic formula to solve for x:
x =
4a + 4b

(4a + 4b)
2
48ab
24
x =
4a + 4b

16a
2
+ 32ab + 16b
2
48ab
24
x =
4a + 4b

16a
2
16ab + 16b
2
24
x =
4a + 4b 4

a
2
ab +b
2
24
x =
a +b

a
2
ab +b
2
6
Note: the symbol is there as there can be two possible answers. Try each and see which one makes sense.
Usually, one of the answers will result in negative side lengths. In that case, reject it and take the other
answer.
This completes the proof.
Theorem:The area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in an ellipse in the form of
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1 is
2ab.
Proof:
Consider the diagram:
Since the diagram is symmetrical, the area of the rectangle is given by
A = 4xy
Solving for y in the ellipse equation, we have
y =
a
b

a
2
x
2
Subbing in for y and taking the derivative:
A =
4a
b
x

a
2
x
2
A

=
4a
b
x

a
2
x
2

4ax
2
b

a
2
x
2
Set the derivative equal to 0 and solve for x:
4a
b
x

a
2
x
2

4ax
2
b

a
2
x
2
= 0
13

a
2
x
2
=
x
2

a
2
x
2
a
2
x
2
= x
2
x
2
=
a
2
2
x =
a

2
Using x to solve for y:
y =
a
b

a
2

a
2
2
y =
b
a
(
a

2
)
y =
b

2
So the area is
A = 4xy = 4
a

2
b

2
= 2ab
This completes the proof.
Theorem:Out of all isosceles triangles of a given perimeter, the one with the greatest area is equilateral.
Proof:
Consider the diagram:
The perimeter of the triangle is given by
P = 2l +b
Since b = 2l cos , we can substitute in for b:
P = 2l + 2l cos = 2l(cos + 1)
Solving for l gives
l =
P
2(cos + 1)
The area of the triangle is given by
A =
1
2
bh =
1
2
(2l cos )(l sin ) =
1
2
l
2
sin 2
Subbing in for l:
A =
P
2
sin 2
8(cos + 1)
2
Valid for 0

2
.
Now take the derivative, set it to 0, and solve for :
A

=
16P
2
cos 2(cos + 1)
2
+ 16P
2
(cos + 1) sin sin 2
64(cos + 1)
4
= 0
14
16P
2
cos 2(cos + 1)
2
+ 16P
2
(cos + 1) sin sin 2 = 0
cos 2(cos + 1) + sin sin 2 = 0
cos 2 cos + cos 2 + 2 sin
2
cos = 0
cos (cos 2 + 2 sin
2
) + cos 2 = 0
cos (1 2 sin
2
+ 2 sin
2
) + cos 2 = 0
cos + cos 2 = 0
2 cos
2
+ cos 1 = 0
Solving the quadratic:
cos =
1
2
, 1
=

3
,
Since = , =

3
, and the triangle must be equilateral. This completes the proof.
Theorem:The rectangle of the greatest area that can be inscribed in an equilateral triangle of side length l
is

3
8
l
2
.
Proof:
Consider the diagram:
The area of the inscribed rectangle is given by:
A = y(l 2x)
However, since y = xtan = x

3, we can sub in for y:

A = x

3(l 2x)
Taking the derivative, set it to 0, and solve for x:
A

3(l 2x) 2

3x

3l 2

3x = 2

3x
x =
1
4
l
Subbing x back in the original equation:
A =

3
4
l
(
l
1
2
l
)
=

3
8
l
2
This completes the proof.
15
Theorem:A Norman window constructed out of a certain amount of framing material P will have the
greatest area when the diameter of the top semicircle equals the height of the bottom rectangle.
Proof:
Consider the diagram:
If the total framing material is P, then
P = 4r + 2h +r
Solving for h we have
h =
P 4r r
2
the area of the window is given by
A =
1
2
r
2
+ 2rh
Subbing in for h:
A =
1
2
r
2
+rP 4r
2
r
2
Taking the derivative, and solving for r:
A

= r +P 8r 2r = 0
r =
P
+ 8
Now solving for h using r:
P
4P
+8

P
+8
2
=
P + 8P 4P P
2( + 8)
=
2P
+ 8
So h = 2r = d, and the proof is complete.
Note: There are variations to this question where there is no line across the window, or the perimeter is
given instead of the framing material. In those cases, then answer will be dierent.
3 Challenging Problems
3.1 Evaluate

1
x
6
+1
dx
Solution:
Begin by factoring the bottom as a sum of cubes:

1
x
6
+ 1
dx =

1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
4
x
2
+ 1)
dx
Note that (x
2
+ 1)
2
= x
4
+ 2x
2
+ 1, so that x
4
x
2
+ 1 = (x
2
+ 1)
2
3x
2
. Replacing this into the integral:

1
(x
2
+ 1)((x
2
+ 1)
2
3x
2
)
dx
16
Now factor the second bracket in the denominator as a dierence of squares:

1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2

3x + 1)(x
2
+

3x + 1)
dx
Now we use partial fraction decomposition:
1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2

3x + 1)(x
2
+

3x + 1)
=
Ax +B
x
2
+ 1
+
Cx +D
x
2

3x + 1
+
Ex +F
x
2
+

3x + 1
Getting rid of all denominators:
1 = (Ax+B)(x
2

3x+1)(x
2
+

3x+1)+(Cx+D)(x
2
+1)(x
2
+

3x+1)+(Ex+F)(x
2
+1)(x
2

3x+1)
Note that the LHS contains only one constant, while the RHS is a polynomial with degree 5. If these two
must be equal, we can equivocate the coecients in front of each x. Instead of expanding the RHS, we can
use inspection to determine the coecients:
A+C +E = 0 x
5
coecients (1)
B +

3C +D

3E +F = 0 x
4
coecients (2)
A+ 2C +

3D + 2E

3F = 0 x
3
coecients (3)
B +

3C + 2D

3E + 2F = 0 x
2
coecients (4)
A+C +

3D +E

3F = 0 x coecients (5)
B +D +F = 1 constants (6)
This is a system of six equations. Solving:
Using (1) and (5), we nd that D = F. (a)
Using (2) and (6), we nd that

3C

3E = 1. (b)
Using (b) and (4), we nd that B + 2D + 2F 1 = 0, or 2B + 2D + 2F = 1 + 3B. (c)
Using (c) and (6), we nd that B =
1
3
. (d)
Using (d) and (6), we nd that D +F =
2
3
. (e)
Using (a) and (e), we nd that D =
1
3
and F =
1
3
. (f)
Using (a) and (3), we nd that A+ 2C + 2E = 0, or 2A+ 2C + 2E = 3A. (g)
Using (g) and (1), we nd that A = 0. (h)
Using (h) and (1), we nd that C = E. (i)
Using (i), (2), and (6), we nd that C =

3
6
(j)
Using (i) and (j), we nd that E =

3
6
(k)
Now subbing in all constants:
1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2

3x + 1)(x
2
+

3x + 1)
=
1
3(x
2
+ 1)
+

3
6
x +
1
3
x
2

3x + 1
+

3
6
x +
1
3
x
2
+

3x + 1
Rearranging the RHS:
1
3(x
2
+ 1)

3
6
(
x
2

3
3
x
2

3x + 1
)
+

3
6
(
x +
2

3
3
x
2
+

3x + 1
)
The rst term is easy to integrate. In the second term, notice that if u = x
2

3x +1, then
du
dx
= 2x

3.
Similarly, if u = x
2
+

3x + 1 for the third term, then

du
dx
= 2x +

3. We manipulate the numerators to

achieve this:
1
3(x
2
+ 1)

3
6
(
2x
4

3
3
+

3
3

3
3
2(x
2

3x + 1)
)
+

3
6
(
2x +
4

3
3

3
3
+

3
3
2(x
2
+

3x + 1)
)
Taking necessary terms out of the brackets:
1
3(x
2
+ 1)

3
12
(
2x

3
x
2

3x + 1
)
+

3
12
(
2x +

3
x
2
+

3x + 1
)
+
1
12(x
2

3x + 1)

1
12(x
2
+

3x + 1)
17
Now complete the squares for the denominators in the last two terms:
1
3(x
2
+ 1)

3
12
(
2x

3
x
2

3x + 1
)
+

3
12
(
2x +

3
x
2
+

3x + 1
)
+
1
12
[
(x

3
2
)
2
+
1
4
]
1
12
[
(x +

3
2
)
2
+
1
4
]
Now we may integrate this term by term.
First term:

1
3(x
2
+ 1)
dx =
1
3
tan
1
x +C
Second term:

3
12
(
2x

3
x
2

3x + 1
)
dx =

3
12
ln(x
2

3x + 1) +C
Third term:

3
12
(
2x +

3
x
2
+

3x + 1
)
dx =

3
12
ln(x
2
+

3x + 1) +C
Fourth term:
Let x =
1
2
tan +

3
2
, so that dx =
1
2
sec
2
d. Subbing this in to the term:

1
12
[
(x

3
2
)
2
+
1
4
] dx =
1
12

1
2
sec
2

1
4
sec
2

d =
1
6
+C
Since x =
1
2
tan +

3
2
, = tan
1
(2x

3), so

1
12
[
(x

3
2
)
2
+
1
4
] dx =
1
6
tan
1
(2x

3) +C
Fifth term:
Similar to fourth term,

1
12
[
(x +

3
2
)
2
+
1
4
] dx =
1
6
tan
1
(2x +

3) +C
Now combining everything, we have the solution:

1
x
6
+ 1
dx =
1
3
tan
1
x

3
12
ln(x
2

3x + 1) +

3
12
ln(x
2
+

3x + 1)
+
1
6
tan
1
(2x

3) +
1
6
tan
1
(2x +

3) +C
3.2 Evaluate

x
2

x
2
+ 1 dx
Solution:
Let x = tan , so that dx = sec
2
d. Subbing this into the integral:

x
2

x
2
+ 1 dx =

tan
2
sec
3
d
Using the identity tan
2
= sec
2
1, we rewrite the integral

tan
2
sec
3
d =

sec
5
d

sec
3
d
We will evaluate

sec
3
d rst. Using integration by parts, let u = sec , du = sec tan d, dv = sec
2
d,
v = tan , we have

sec
3
d = tan sec

tan
2
sec d
Using the identity tan
2
= sec
2
1, we break up the second integral:

sec
3
d = tan sec

sec
3
d +

sec d
18
Note that if u = sec +tan , then
du
d
= sec
2
+sec tan = sec (sec +tan ). So we can evaluate

sec d
if we multiply the top and bottom by sec + tan .
2

sec
3
d = tan sec +

sec (sec + tan )

sec + tan
d
Evaluating the integral:

sec
3
d =
1
2
(tan sec + ln (sec + tan )) +C
Now we will evaluate

sec
5
d using integration by parts. Let u = sec
3
, du = 3 sec
3
tan d, dv =
sec
2
d, v = tan , the integral becomes

sec
5
d = sec
3
tan 3

sec
3
tan
2
d
Notice that the original integral

sec
3
tan
2
d has been regenerated, so it could be moved to the other
side. Putting everything together and dividing over any constants:

tan
2
sec
3
d =
1
4
[
sec
3
tan
1
2
(tan sec + ln (sec + tan ))
]
+C
Since we made the substitution x = tan , it follows that sec =

x
2
+ 1. Subbing this in to the equation
above, we have our solution:

x
2

x
2
+ 1 dx =
1
4
[
x(x
2
+ 1)

x
2
+ 1
1
2
(x

x
2
+ 1 + ln (x +

x
2
+ 1))
]
+C
3.3 Given that

g(x)g

(x)
2
(
d
dx
(
1
g

(x)
)
2
)
dx =
1
2
d
dx
(
1
g

(x)
)
2

g(x)
g

(x)
,
(
1
g

(0)
)
2
= 1,
g

(0) = 0, and g(0) = 0, then what is the value of

g(sin x)
x
2
at x =
1
2
?
Solution:
We begin by evaluating the derivative inside the integral, then simplifying:

g(x) g

(x)
2
(
d
dx
(
1
g

(x)
)
2
)
dx =

g(x) g

(x)
2
(
2g

(x)
[g

(x)]
3
)
dx =

g(x) g

(x)
[g

(x)]
2
dx
Using integration by parts, let u = g(x), so that du = g

(x)dx, and dv =
g

(x)
[g

(x)]
2
, so that v =
1
g

(x)
. The
integral becomes

g(x) g

(x)
[g

(x)]
2
dx =
g(x)
g

(x)
+

dx =
g(x)
g

(x)
+x +C
Now making this equal to the other side:

g(x)
g

(x)
+x +C =
g

(x)
[g

(x)]
3

g(x)
g

(x)
We can immediately cancel a term:
x +C =
g

(x)
[g

(x)]
3
Since g

(0) = 0, and
1
[g

(x)]
3
= 0, we nd that C = 0. Now, integrate both sides:
1
2
x
2
+D =
1
2
1
[g

(x)]
2
Since
(
1
g

(0)
)
2
= 1, we nd that D =
1
2
. Multiply all terms by 2 and rearranging:
[g

(x)]
2
=
1
1 x
2
g

(x) =
1

1 x
2
19
Integrating both sides again:
g(x) = arcsin(x) +E
Since g(0) = 0, we nd that E = 0, so
g(x) = arcsin(x)
Now we have our solution:
g(sin x)
x
2

1
2
=
arcsin (sin
1
2
)

(
1
2
)
2
=
1
2
1
4
= 2
3.4 Suppose a boat is in the shape of an semi-ellipsoid with dimensions a, b,
and c with mass M. If this boat is oating in a uid with density , what
will be the distance from the surface of the water to the lowest point of the
boat?
Solution:
From Archimedes Principle, we know that in order for an object to oat, the mass of uid it displaces
must be equal to the mass of the object. The mass of the uid displaced can be found using the density
of the uid and the volume of the boat that is submerged. Since the distance in request is measured from
the bottom of the boat, hence the ellipsoid, we dene a new variable h to be this distance, such that the
relationship between the z coordinate and h is z = (c h). This is assuming that the ellipsoid is centered
on (0, 0, 0) and h does not exceed c. We take a similar approach as 2.3.2 to express the volume submerged
in terms of h:
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1
(h c)
2
c
2
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
=
c
2
(h c)
2
c
2
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
=
2hc h
2
c
2
x
2
(
a

2hch
2
c
2
)
2
+
y
2
(
b

2hch
2
c
2
)
2
= 1
If the distance between the surface of the water and the bottom of the boat is h
0
, then the volume submerged
is given by
V = ab

h
0
0
2hc h
2
c
2
dh
Evaluating this yields V = ab
(
h
2
0
c

h
3
0
3c
2
)
. We can then set up the equivalency using Archimedes Principle:
ab
(
h
2
0
c

h
3
0
3c
2
)
= M
Rearranging yields
h
3
0
3c
2

h
2
0
c
+
M
ab
= 0
This cubic can be solved using a graphing device. Since we assumed that 0 h c, only one answer will be
valid.
3.5 Suppose an object of mass m is attached to a spring with spring constant
k. The system is initially in equilibrium, and is in a 0g environment. You
then place your hand at the other end of the spring and push forward with
velocity v for a distance d. After some moments, the spring-mass system
will be moving forwards with some nal velocity and the other end of the
spring will no longer be touching your hand. Find this nal velocity in
terms of k, m, v, and d. Assume d is less than the length of the spring.
If we take on the reference frame of the person pushing on the system, that is, the reference frame in which
the hand is moving forward at velocity v, then this problem becomes fairly complex. Since both ends of the
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spring would be moving, a dierential equation would be hard to solve. Instead, we can use relativity to
simplify this problem. Lets see what we can do if we take on the reference frame of the hand.
In the reference frame of the hand, the hand is stationary, and the mass moves towards the hand,
compressing the spring. We can use the spring equation to describe the motion of the mass during the
interval when the spring is still in contact with the hand. The equation is
s(t) = Acos t +Bsin t
Where =

k
m
. The initial conditions are s(0) = 0 and s

(0) = v. Using these values we nd that A = 0

and B =
v

. The equation then becomes

s(t) =
v

sin t
The corresponding velocity equation is then
s

(t) = v cos t
Note that these equations only apply for t

, half a period of the function. After half a period, the loose

end of the spring is not anchored, so spring leaves the hand. Since no more force acts on the mass, the
equation no longer applies.
We will now consider the scenario where the motion of the hand terminates before the spring leaves the
hand, so that t

. Since d and v are given, we can nd the amount of time, t, before the spring equation
goes haywire. Up until that point, we can use the equation to nd the objects nal speed and position. At
the instant t, where t =
d
v
, the objects velocity (relative to the hand) is given by
s

(t) = v cos
(

d
v
)
The amount in which the spring has compressed by is given by
v

sin
(

d
v
)
When the hand stops at time t, the object gains a velocity v in the positive direction in the reference frame
of the hand, such that its velocity is now
s

(t) = v cos
(

d
v
)
+v
At this point, the potential energy stored in the spring is
PE =
1
2
k
[
v

sin
(

d
v
)]
2
The spring will decompress, and the potential energy will convert to kinetic energy. Adding on the initial
velocity, we nd that the nal velocity of the object is
v
f
=

k
[
v

sin
(

d
v
)]
2
m
v cos
(

d
v
)
+v = v
[
sin
(

d
v
)
cos
(

d
v
)
+ 1
]
Now we consider the scenario where t >

. In this situation, the motion of the hand terminates after

the spring leaves the hand, and the object undergoes a full, uninterrupted energy transfer from kinetic, to
potential, then back to kinetic. Since the object travels at a velocity v relative to the hand, the object
will travel with velocity v after the spring decompresses. Because the hand is still moving forwards at v, the
objects nal velocity in the observers reference frame is then
v
f
= 2v
There is one more special scenario in which the hand moves so fast that at some point the entire spring gets
compressed. However, since d is less than the length of the spring, this can never happen. So we have our
solution:
v
f
= v
[
sin
(
d
v

k
m
)
cos
(
d
v

k
m
)
+ 1
]
For
d
v

k
m

v
f
= 2v For
d
v

k
m
>
21