A Review of Membrane Processes and Renewable Energies For Desalination

Desalination 245 (2009) 214231
A review of membrane processes and renewable energies

for desalination
Catherine Charcosset
Laboratoire dAutomatique et de Gnie des Procds, UMR CNRS 5007, UCB Lyon 1, ESCPE Lyon,
43 Bd du 11 Novembre 1918, 69 622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
Tel. +33 (4) 72 43 18 67; Fax : +33 (4) 72 43 16 99; email: charcosset@lagep.univ-lyon1.fr
Received 31 March 2008; Accepted 29 June 2008
Abstract
The growing scarcity of freshwater is driving the implementation of desalination on an increasingly large scale.
However, the energy required to run desalination plants remains a drawback. The idea of using renewable energy
sources is fundamentally attractive and many studies have been done in this area. Membrane processes are also
gaining much interest for their scaled-up ability and their economic feasibility. This article provides a state-of-the-
art review on membrane processes associated with renewable energies for seawater and brackish water desalination.
The membrane processes include reverse osmosis, membrane distillation and electrodialysis. They are coupled with
renewable energies such as solar, wind, wave, and hydrostatic pressure. This article presents the main results in this
field including principles, plant design and implementation, mathematical models and economic feasibility.
Keywords: Desalination; Membrane process; Renewable energy; Solar energy; Wind energy; Membrane
distillation; Reverse osmosis
1. Introduction
Today, about three billion people around the
world have no access to clean drinking water [1].
According to the World Water Council, by 2020,
the world will be about 17% short of the fresh
water needed to sustain the world population.
Moreover, about 1.76 billion people live in areas
already facing a high degree of lacking water.
The need for fresh water is at the top of the
international agenda of critical problems, at least
as firmly as climate change. As a consequence of
the growing scarcity of freshwater, the implemen-
tation of desalination plants is increasing on a
large scale.
Generally, desalination processes can be cate-
gorized into two major types: (1) phase-change/
thermal and (2) membrane process separation.
Some of the phase-change processes include
doi:10.1016/j.desal.200 .0 0 8 6. 20
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C. Charcosset / Desalination 245 (2009) 214231 215
multi-stage flash, multiple effect boiling, vapour
compression, freezing, humidification/dehumidi-
fication and solar stills. Membrane based pro-
cesses include reverse osmosis (RO), membrane
distillation (MD) and electrodialysis (ED) [2]. RO
requires electricity or shaft power to drive the
pump that increase the pressure of the saline
solution to that required. The required pressure
depends on the salt concentration of the resource
of saline solution; it is normally around 70 bar for
seawater desalination. MD and ED also require
electricity. The energy required to run desali-
nation plants remains a drawback. Therefore, the
idea of using renewable energy sources is funda-
mentally attractive.
Renewable energy systems offer alternative
solutions to decrease the dependence on fossil
fuels. Renewable energy resources (e.g. solar,
hydroelectric, biomass, wind, ocean and geo-
thermal energy) are inexhaustible and offer many
environmental benefits compared to conventional
energy sources [36]. Each type of renewable
energy has its own advantages that make it suited
to certain applications. Almost none of them
releases gaseous or liquid pollutants during ope-
ration. In their technological development, the
renewable energies range from technologies that
are well established and mature to those that need
further research and development.
Among the several possible combinations of
desalination and renewable energy technologies,
some are more promising in terms of economic
and technological feasibility than others [79].
Their applicability strongly depends on the local
availability of renewable energy resources and
the quality of water to be desalinated. Moreover,
some combinations are better suited for large size
plants, whereas some others are better suited for
small-scale applications. The selection of the
appropriate renewable technology depends on a
number of factors. These include plant size, feed
water salinity, remoteness, availability of grid
electricity, technical infrastructure, and the type
and potential of the local renewable energy
resource [7,10]. A number of parameters has to be
investigated before selecting an appropriate
renewable energy source desalination system
(i.e., [1114]). The first is the evaluation of the
water resources. This should be done both in
terms of quality and quantity (for brackish water
resource). If brackish water is available, then this
may be more attractive as the salinity is normally
much lower (<10,000 ppm). In inland sites,
brackish water may be the only option. On a
coastal site seawater is normally available. The
identification and evaluation of the renewable
energy resources in the area complete the basic
steps to be performed towards the design of a
renewable energy source desalination system.
The purpose of this article is to provide a
state-of-the-art review on membrane processes
associated with renewable energies for seawater
and brackish water desalination. The membrane
processes include RO, MD and ED. They are
coupled with renewable energies such as solar,
wind, wave, and hydrostatic pressure. This article
presents the main results in this field including
principles, plant design and implementation,
mathematical models and economic feasibility.
2. Membrane distillation
2.1. Principles
Membrane distillation (MD) is a thermally
driven membrane process in which a hydrophobic
microporous membrane separates a hot and cold
stream of water (e.g., [15,16]). The hydrophobic
nature of the membrane prevents the passage of
liquid water through the pores while allowing the
passage of water vapour (Fig. 1). The temperature
difference produces a vapour pressure gradient
which causes water vapour to pass through the
membrane and condense on the colder surface.
The result is a distillate of very high purity which,
unlike in conventional distillation, does not suffer
from the entrainment of species which are non-
volatile. For desalination processes, the seawater
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. (a) Principle of the membrane distillation process.
(b) Schematic diagram of an example of a MD system
[9,25].
passes on the one side of the membrane at an
elevated temperature, for example 80C. At the
other side of the membrane, a lower temperature
for example obtained by cooling the condenser
foil to 75C, creates a water vapour partial pres-
sure difference between the two sides of the
membrane and allows the evaporation through the
membrane. The water vapour condenses on the
low-temperature side and distillate is formed. MD
may be carried out in various modes differing in
a way of permeate collection, the mass transfer
mechanism through the membrane, and the
reason for driving force formation [17]. Various
types of MD have been known for several years:
direct contact, air gap, sweeping gas and vacuum.
2.2. MD and solar energy
Few demonstration projects using solar ther-
mal MD have been built. First, Hogan et al. [15]
describes a 0.05 m
3
/d system using 3 m
2
of solar
collectors. Their system, which was tested in
Sydney, consisted of a hollow-fiber membrane
module for MD and a heat recovery exchanger
for reducing capital costs. This solar-powered
MD unit was found to be technically feasible,
being compatible with the transient nature of the
energy source.
The cost of solar thermal MD was evaluated
by several authors. Martnez and Flordo-Diaz
[18] proposed a model of solar thermal MD based
on a dusty-gas model of gas transport through
porous media. Later, Ding et al. [19] proposed a
mathematical model that can describe the com-
ponents of a solar-powered MD pilot plant. Their
results showed that the proposed solar-powered
MD pilot plant has some unique features, which
differ from a similar MD process operated at
steady-state conditions in a laboratory. The
analysis of the system revealed that heat recovery
via an external heat exchanger is effective, and an
economical way to intensify the process.
At the same time, two solar thermal MD units
were developed and installed in Jordan through a
EC-funded project. A compact unit was installed
in the northern part of Jordan (Irbid) and was
operated with brackish water since September
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the solar-driven membrane distillation plant in Aqaba, Jordan. Reprinted from Banat et al.
[21], copyright 2008, with permission from Elsevier.
2005 [20], while the second one was installed in
the south of Jordan (Aqaba port) and has been
operated with untreated seawater since February
2006 [21]. Each unit consists of flat plate col-
lectors, PV panels, spiral air gap membrane distil-
lation module(s), and a data acquisition system
(Fig. 2). The effect of process parameters such as
brine temperature and salt concentration were
investigated [22]. Recently, the same authors
provided an economic analysis of these solar
thermal MD units [23]. Based on their calcula-
tions, the estimated cost of potable water pro-
duced by the compact unit is 15 $/m
3
and 18 $/m
3
for water produced by the large unit. The authors
pointed out that membrane lifetime and plant
lifetime are key factors in determining the water
production cost. The cost decreases with increas-
ing the membrane and/or plant lifetime. Koschi-
kowski et al. [24] discuss the design and develop-
ment of a stand-alone MD system powered by
5.9 m
2
of corrosion-tie, seawater-resistant,
thermal collectors. The maximum of distillate
gain during the test period of summer 2002 was
about 130 l/d under the meteorological conditions
of Freiburg (Germany).
An interesting alternative (Memstill
process)
was developed recently by TNO (Netherlands)
for desalination of seawater by air gap MD
carried out in a counter current flow configura-
tion [25]. Cold seawater flows through a
condenser with non-permeable well wettable
evaporator in counter current mode. The wall of
the evaporator consists of a microporous hydro-
phobic membrane through which vapour can
diffuse and by which liquid water (with dissolved
salts) is retained. The condenser and the mem-
brane can either be tubular or flat sheets with
spacers between the sheets. Meindersma et al.
[26] compared the energy and investment costs of
the Memstill
process and RO for seawater

desalination capacity of 105,000 m
3
/d for dif-
ferent conditions. The heat supply to the MD
process was generated by cogeneration of heat
and electricity, fuel fired or by a waste heat
source. The total fixed costs for MD were shown
to be between 0.160.17 $/m
3
, compared to 0.25
0.35 $/m
3
for RO.
In traditional MD, hydrophobic porous mem-
branes are used. This requires extensive pre-
treatment in order to minimize fouling. Akzo
(today Membrana) invested significantly in this
technology, however abandoned the process due
to intrinsic fouling problems [27]. The apolar or
surface-active molecules in the feed adsorb onto
the hydrophobic membrane materials reducing
flux and increasing the chance of wetting the
membrane pores. This drastically reduces the
selectivity of the process due to leakage of the
membrane. Recently, Zwijnenberg et al. [27]
proposed a new type of membrane material and
configuration tested using solar thermal energy,
similar to air-gap MD. Contrary to normal MD,
the described process uses dense pervaporation
type membranes; the process is called solar-
driven pervaporation. A tunnel of a transparent
foil is constructed in which the black membrane
tubes collect the solar radiation (solar dew
process). The feed water flowing in the inside of
the tubes heats up to about 70C and evaporates
at the outside of the membrane after which it
condenses at the cooler tunnel floor. In order to
test the performance, the retention of 30 elements
was tested as a function of time and concentration
of the sea. Retentions over 99.99% were mea-
sured under steady-state conditions. The flux of
the system was about 5 l/(m
2
d) when normalized
to collector surface and using a day of 9 h. The
authors sated that this new process allows the use
of feed waters like seawater and brackish water
without pre-treatment giving constant fluxes in
time and producing high quality water in a single
step.
MD was not associated with renewable
sources other than solar energy, to our knowl-
edge. A reason is that MD is a thermally driven
process; therefore solar energy can be directly
applied. Another reason may be due to the
limitation of the ME process itself, requiring
extensive pre-treatment in order to minimize
fouling. According to the place where the plant
has to be implemented and its renewable energies
resources, other configurations could be
evaluated, associating ME to wind energy, hybrid
solar PV-wind, or wave energy. In this point of
view, studies already performed on RO and wind,
hybrid solar PV-wind, or wave energy could be
useful.
3. Reverse osmosis
3.1. Principles
Among the various desalination technologies,
reverse osmosis (RO) is one of the most efficient
requiring about 310 kWh of electric energy per
m
3
of fresh water produced from seawater [28].
RO is a pressure-driven process that separates
two solutions with different concentrations across
a semi-permeable membrane [29]. The rate at
which fresh water crosses the membrane is pro-
portional to the pressure differential that exceeds
the natural osmotic pressure differential. The
membrane itself represents a major pressure
differential to the flow of fresh water. The major
energy requirement is for the initial pressurization
of the feed water. For brackish water desalination
the operating pressures range from 15 to 30 bar,
and for seawater desalination from 55 to 70 bar
[30]. As fresh water permeates across the mem-
brane, the feed water becomes more and more
concentrated. There is a limit to the amount of
fresh water that can be recovered from the feed
without causing fouling. Seawater RO plants have
recoveries from 25 to 45%, while brackish water
RO plants have recovery rates as high as 90%.
RO system major components include mem-
brane modules, high-pressure pumps, power
plant, and energy recovery devices as needed.
Two major factors controlling the energy require-
ments of an RO system are membrane properties
and salinity of the feed water. Higher water
salinity requires more energy to overcome the
osmotic pressure, where the RO system needs
only mechanical power to raise the pressure of
feed water.
Pre-treatment of seawater feeding RO mem-
branes is recognised as a key in designing RO
desalination plants [31]. Depending on several
parameters which influence the choice of the pre-
treatment like dissolved organic carbon, SDI,
turbidity, algae content and their evolution during
the seasons, and temperature, the pre-treatment
can comprise different technologies, such as con-
ventional pre-treatment (i.e. ballasted sedimen-
tation, air flotation, dual-media filtration, mono-
media filtration, double stage filtration) or
advanced technologies including membranes
coupled with a conventional process [32,33]. The
use of an adapted pre-treatment minimizes the
fouling problems and can provide good protection
of the membranes and a longer lifetime.
3.2. RO and solar energy
The potential use of solar energy for water
desalination has been studied extensively [34].
Solar energy desalination is generally the col-
lecting of solar thermal energy that is used for
desalination directly in solar stills, or that is
converted to electricity first and then used in
either thermal or membrane processes for desali-
nation. Photovoltaic (PV) powered RO systems
have been implemented e.g. in remote areas of the
Egyptian desert [35], rural areas of Jordan [36],
and remote communities in Australia (e.g., [37]).
The implementation of PV-powered RO systems
was also evaluated in Agrigento in Sicily [38] and
in the small village of Ginostra in Sicily [39].
A preliminary design of a solar thermal-driven
RO system was presented by Bowman et al. [40]
for the production of 7.6 to 26.5 m
3
of desalinated
water from brackish water with a salinity of
5400 ppm in Saudi Arabia. The RO system is
made of two hollow-fiber modules in parallel
with a total capacity of 79.5 m
3
at 2757 kPa with
5400 ppm TDS feedwater and a 75% conversion
rate. Using both modules in parallel allows for
single- or dual-module operation, depending on
the available energy. Simulation results for an
average March day show that the system would
operate in solar-only mode for 8.5 h, producing a
total of 28.2 m
3
of desalinated water.
Kalogirou [41], Tzen et al. [42] and Bou-
guecha et al. [43] analysed the cost of PVRO
desalination systems, and Al Suleimani and Nair
[44] present a detailed cost analysis of a system
installed at Heelat ar Rakah camp of Ministry of
Water Resources, Oman. If PV connected to a RO
system is commercial nowadays, the main
problem of this technology is reported to be the
high cost of the PV cells. The distance at which
the PV energy is competitive with conventional
energy depends on the plant capacity, on the
distance to the electric grid and on the salt
concentration of the feed [2].
Thomson and Infield [4547] simulated and
implemented a PV-driven RO with variable flow
that was able to operate without batteries,
designed for Eritrea. They performed laboratory
tests to validate the model and control of the
system: 3 m
3
/d with a PV array of 2.4 kWp. In
Saudi Arabia, a PVRO brackish water desali-
nation plant was installed. It was connected to a
solar still with 5 m
3
/d production. The feed water
of the water still was the blowdown of the RO
unit (10 m
3
/d) [48]. A detailed cost analysis was
also reported. Joyce et al. [49] proposed a small
RO system running on photovoltaic units, for
small rural sites or during catastrophes where
drinkable water is not available. This autonomous
system can be made using commercially available
small RO compact units with typical daily pro-
duction on the order of 100500 l and functioning
with pressures as low as 5 bar. Herold et al. [50]
reported the installation of a small RO plant
supplied by a PV power supply, which was
installed at the island of Gran Canaria. A brief
economic analysis shows that the water produc-
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the PV-powered UF/NF hybrid membrane desalination system. Reprinted from Richards and
Schafer [52]. Copyright 2008, with permission from Elsevier.
tion costs are still high (about 16 $/m
3
). However,
the authors stated that it could be lowered in
future.
A solar-powered direct osmosis process was
proposed by Khaydarov and Khaydarov [51]. The
separation is driven by natural osmosis, which
does not require external pumping energy as in
the RO process. The authors sated that the
specific power consumption of the desalination
process is then reduced from approximatively
5 kWh/m
3
for seawater RO to a value of less than
1 kWh/m
3
. A pilot device including solar batteries
with capacity of 500 W for pumping and solar
thermal exchangers for recovery of working
solution was installed in a village in the Aral Sea
region (Uzbekistan).
A particularly interesting prototype using
ultrafiltration and RO/nanofiltration combined
with solar energy was developed in Australia for
remote communities which have access to either
contaminated surface or brackish water [37,52
55] (Fig. 3). Membranes were tested with regards
to flux, recovery, retention, power and specific
energy consumption. The systems provide about
1000 l of drinking water per (solar) day, the
specific energy consumption (SEC) was below 5
W.h/l when operated above 7 bar. The system is
autonomous as it requires no other infrastructure
other than a water source. In contrast to other
systems, no batteries are used and consequently,
power fluctuates. The system performance was
evaluated against attributes of social sustain-
ability such as the units capacity to meet com-
munity water needs (both quality and quantity),
the human resources available to operate and
maintain the unit and the community response to
the unit [56].
Other systems for brackish water and seawater
desalination use an organic Rankine cycle (e.g.,
[5759]). Water circulating inside these tubes is
heated to a temperature of 77C and then sent to
a heat exchanger where it generates superheated
1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) vapour
[57]. The superheated vapour is used in expand-
ing devices which generate the mechanical
energy necessary for the pumps in the RO system,
the water circulation loop and the HFC-134a
loop. There is no conversion to electrical energy;
therefore, the mechanical energy goes directly to
the expanding devices. The system uses the RO
feedwater as the cooling fluid to condensate the
HFC-134a vapour. The prototype of this system
has a surface area of 240 m
2
of evacuated tube
collectors. For a RO unit conversion factor of
30% and a 3 kWh/m
3
consumption, the estimate
average annual production is estimated by the
authors to be 1450 m
3
of desalined water.
Husseiny and Hametser [60] proposed the
design of a hybrid ROED desalination system.
The RO system uses the electricity generated by
a solar concentration system and a Rankine cycle,
while the ED system uses electricity generated by
photovoltaic panels. The specific aspects of each
of the subsystems make the overall system
flexible.
A very large range of plants has been pro-
posed all over the world. A comparison between
the different technologies in terms of costs
(implementation, use, maintenance), and produc-
tion (recovery rate, flux) is, however, difficult.
The prices and the material performances depend
greatly on the place of the implementation, as
well as the year when the project was performed.
More work will have to be done for a thorough
evaluation of these various technologies.
3.3. RO and wind energy
Since RO is reported to be one of the
desalination processes with the lowest energy
requirements and coastal areas present a high
availability of wind power resources, wind-
powered desalination represents a promising
alternative of renewable energy desalination (e.g.,
[6163]). For example, wind-powered RO plants
have been implemented on the islands of the
County of Split and Dalmatia (Croatia) [64], on
the island Utsira in Norway (ENERCON project)
[65,66], and in remote communities in Australia
[67].
Feron [68] was among the first to evaluate the
economic feasibility of a wind-powered RO plant
by mathematical modelling analysis under the
following assumptions: intermittent, depending
on wind availability and variable feed water pres-
sure, depending on the prevailing wind speed.
The author concludes that the economic use of a
wind-powered RO plant may be restricted to
areas with high wind speeds and high fuel prices.
He also pointed out that wind-powered RO
desalination could become more economic
because of current developments: decreasing RO
plant costs because of the continuing develop-
ment of membrane science, decreasing wind
turbine costs, and steady or increasing fuel costs.
Cost analysis of a wind-assisted RO system
for desalinating brackish groundwater in Jordan
was later conducted by Habali and Saleh [69].
The high-pressure pump of the system was
powered by either a diesel engine or a wind-
energy converter. The analysis was based on
measured wind speed distribution and power
curves of the wind-energy converter in Jordan.
The authors stated that it would cost less to
desalinate brackish water with a wind-assisted
RO system than with a conventional diesel-
powered system.
An analytical study of utilizing wind-powered
unit for RO desalination was conducted by
Kiranoudis et al. [70]. Generalized design curves
for process structural and operation variables
were derived. The study indicated that the unit
cost of freshwater production by a conventional
RO plant can be reduced up to 20% for regions
with an average wind speed of 5 m/s or higher.
Later, Garca-Rodriguez et al. [61] analysed the
influence of the main parameters on the cost of
fresh water: climatic conditions, nominal power
of the wind turbine, salt concentration of seawater
or brackish water, design arrangement, operating
conditions, plant capacity, cost of RO modules
and cost of wind turbines.
Recently, Forstmeier et al. [63] demonstrated
that the costs of a wind-powered RO desalination
system are in line with what is expected for a
conventional desalination system, proving to be
particularly cost-competitive in areas with good
wind resources that have high costs of energy. In
all these studies, results obtained were theoretical
and not verified by experimental data.
At the same time, the implementation of
several wind-powered RO desalination system
prototypes has been reported. A small-scale wind-
powered RO system was tested by Robinson et al.
[67]. Fresh water production by their system was
0.5 to 1 m
3
/d, which is the estimated volume
needed by a typical remote community in
Australia. A pressure vessel to store the feedwater
under pressure was included. There was no feed-
back control mechanism for the system operation,
and when the available wind power was low, a
small diesel or portable gasoline pump was used.
A prototype wind-powered RO desalination
system was later constructed and tested on
Coconut Island off the northern coast of Oahu,
Hawaii, for brackish water desalination [71]. The
system has four major subsystems: a multivaned
windmill/pump, a flow/pressure stabilizer, a RO
module, and a control mechanism. These authors
showed that at an average wind speed of 5 m/s,
brackish feedwater at a total dissolved solids
concentration of 3000 mg/l and at a flow rate of
13 l/min could be processed. The average rejec-
tion rate and recovery ratio were 97% and 20%,
respectively. Energy efficiency equal to 35% was
shown to be comparable to the typical energy
efficiency of well-operated multi-vaned wind-
mills.
Miranda and Infield [72] developed a system
with a 2.2 kW wind turbine generator powering a
variable-flow RO desalination unit. Operation at
a variable flow allows the uncertainty and varia-
bility of the wind to be accommodated without
need of energy storage. Batteries, which are
common in stand-alone systems, are avoided and
water production is dependent on the instan-
taneous wind speed.
A prototype of a fully autonomous wind-
powered desalination system has been installed
on the island of Gran Canaria in the Canarian
Archipelago [73]. The system consists of a wind
farm, made up of two wind turbines and a fly-
wheel, which supplies the energy needs of a
group of eight RO modules throughout the com-
plete desalination process (from the pumping of
seawater to the storage of the product water), as
well as the energy requirements of the control
subsystems. The authors concluded that this
system can be applied to seawater desalination,
both on a small and large scale, in coastal regions
with a scarcity of water for domestic and/or
agricultural use but and wind energy resources.
As for RO associated to solar energy, a very
large range of plants has been proposed all over
the world. A comparison of the different tech-
nologies in terms of costs (implementation, use,
maintenance) and production (recovery rate, flux)
is again difficult, and further studies are needed
for a thorough evaluation.
3.4. RO and hybrid solar PV-wind power
The complementary features of wind and solar
resources make the use of hybrid windsolar
systems to drive a desalination unit a possible
alternative. RO and hybrid solar PV-wind power
systems have been designed and implemented,
e.g. in the rural areas of the Sultanate of Oman
[74], in Israel [75], in the northern part of
Mexico, in a small island on the German coast of
the North Sea [76], and at the site of BorjCedria
on the southern suburbs of Tunis city [77]. The
implementation of a plant was evaluated in
Agrigento (Sicily) [38].
Two RO desalination plants using a GKSS
(Germany) plate module system supplied by a
6 kW wind energy converter and a 2.5 kW solar
generator have been designed for remote areas
[78]. Two of these prototypes were installed in
the northern part of Mexico and in a small island
on the German coast of the North Sea [76].
A hybrid wind/photovoltaic power unit con-
nected to a RO desalination plan was imple-
mented on Libyas coast of the Mediterranean
Sea [79,80]. The nominal production of the plant
was intended to be 300 m
3
/d for the supply of a
village with potable water. The facility design
was flexible for the integration of a diesel gene-
rator and electrochemical storage.
Mohamed et al. [81,82] presented the design
of a stand-alone hybrid wind-PV system to power
a seawater RO desalination unit, with energy
recovery using a simplified spreadsheet model. A
daily and monthly simulation and economic
analysis were also performed. The calculated
fresh water production cost was 5.2 /m
3
, and the
realized energy saving was close to 50% when a
pressure-exchanger-type energy recovery unit
was considered.
Gilau and Small [1] analysed the cost-
effectiveness of sweater RO system using wind
and solar radiation as renewable energy sources.
Using the wind and solar conditions of Eritrea,
East Africa, the hourly water production was
computed with a capacity of 35 m
3
/d, a specific
energy consumption of about 2.33 kW h/m
3
,
which is a lower value than that achieved in most
of the previous designs.
Recently, a floating island was proposed
(DESIRES: DESalting Island on Renewable
multi-Energy Supply) [83]. The plant included:
(a) an artificial, floating island 10100 km from
the shore, 0.060.65 km
2
in size with hexagonal
shape, 0.11 km in diameter and 20 m deep; (b) a
combination of renewable energy sources (eolian,
solar, tidal, wave and hydrothermal gradient);
(c) the use of a storage reservoir aboard for
stabilisation and coping with fluctuations in
energy supply and water demand; (d) the use of
peak energy supply (during storm events) to
pump stored fresh water to land and to pressurize
this water to generate hydro-power on land;
(e) RO; and (f) technological solutions to reduce
energy consumption and maintenance. The plant
was estimated to produce 5500 Mm
3
/year of
high-quality fresh water from seawater at a cost
of 0.881.32 $/m
3
. Although very complete and
original, no plant was, to our knowledge,
implemented.
3.5. RO and wave energy
Most of the works on wave energy conversion
have focused on electricity production [84]. Any
such converter could, in principle, be coupled to
electrically-driven desalination plant, either with
or without connection to the local electricity grid.
Various concepts have associated wave energy
converter and RO.
The first reported technology (Delbuoy) used
oscillating buoys to drive pistons pumps anchored
to the seabed [85]. These pumps fed seawater to
submerged RO modules. Mathematical model-
ling, wave tanking testing and sea trials in Puerto
Rico were conducted [84]. The authors stated that
the Delbuoy system was especially useful in areas
that are remote, have insufficient or unreliable
power supplies or have high power costs. The
reason the project did not continue may be due to
the relatively inefficient means of wave energy
conversion. However, it could benefit from sim-
plicity and scalability and work as a broadband
absorber that does not need to be tuned to
particular oceanic conditions [84].
A second technology consisting of a three-
section hinged barge was developed in the Shan-
non Estuary (Ireland) [86]. The two oscillating
arms of the floating barge are attached symme-
trically to a central section, which is inhibited
from pitching by an underslung inertial damping
plate. Large forces are therefore developed
between the arms and the centre section. These
forces are harnessed by means of pistons,
pumping either hydraulic oil, for conversion into
electrical power, or seawater for feeding RO
units. The author concluded that this system may
be primarily developed to produce potable water
for remote locations.
Another technology, the oscillating water
column device, was installed at Vizhinjam, India
in 1990 [87]. The device was constructed on a
concrete caisson connected by a pier to the shore.
It works on the principle of a column of air being
compressed and decompressed with the rise and
fall of the waves. A turbine extracts energy from
the air column. The desalination plant can be run
using either the supply from wave power or,
during low wave conditions, by electricity board
supply or a diesel generator to ensure a con-
tinuous supply of fresh water. The plant delivers
between 4 and 10 m
3
/d of freshwater, depending
on the period of operation. The Vizhinjam system
may be envisaged as a solution for small coastal
communities.
Sawyer and Maratos [88] propose another
concept that uses the water hammer effect to
generate large intermittent pressures, by means of
a valve that opens and shuts at the end of the
pipe. The pressure developed depends on the
compressibility of the water and the elasticity of
the pipe wall. The authors show that it is theo-
retically feasible to use the water hammer effect
to develop pressures sufficient to drive RO. The
technology is very similar to the hydro-ram
widely used to lift irrigation water from rivers,
although hydro-rams usually generate lower
pressures than those required for RO. An eco-
nomical feasibility study of the concept was
presented and costs were shown to be potentially
favourable compared to conventional RO plant.
Very recently, Folley et al. [89] proposed a
desalination plant consisting of RO membranes
together with a pressure exchanger-intensifier for
energy recovery. A numerical model of the com-
bined wave-power and desalination plant shows
that it is possible to supply the desalination plant
with sea-water directly pressurised by the wave
energy converter, eliminating the cost and energy
losses associated with converting the energy into
electricity and back to pressurised water.
Other projects on water desalination associ-
ating RO and wave energy should probably be
available in the next future, as wave energy is
gaining in popularity. A main challenge will be
again the economics of the plants.
3.6. RO and hydrostatic pressure
The potential exploitation of the hydrostatic
pressure of seawater at a sufficient operative
depth was considered by several investigators
from the 1960s in view of increasing the energy
efficiency of the then developing RO industrial
desalination technology (i.e., [90,91]). More
recently, several configurations were proposed
for fresh water production from seawater using
RO and hydrostatic pressure: submarine, under-
ground and ground-based [92,28].
In conventional surface-based industrial
desalination plants applying RO technology, the
freshwater flow at the membrane outlet is
approximatively 2025% of the inlet seawater
flow, depending on membrane type and charac-
teristics. The resulting brine is disposed off the
sea. While RO installations generate the required
pressure with high-pressure pumps, the sub-
marine approach uses seawater hydrostatic
pressure. The desalinated water, produced at
about atmospheric pressure and collected in a
submarine tank at the same working depth, is
pumped to the sea surface. It was shown that this
approach saves about 50% of the electricity con-
sumption with respect to an efficient conventional
RO plant (about 22.5 kWh/m
3
) since only the
outlet desalinated water is pumped instead of the
inlet seawater, thus reducing the pumping flow
rate by 5580% [93]. The advantage of this
configuration is also to avoid the pre-treatment of
the inlet seawater, therefore saving costs for
chemicals and equipment.
Al-Kharabsheh [94] also proposed a RO
desalination system utilizing hydrostatic pressure.
The system consisted of a storage tank, connect-
ing pipes, RO module with a moving hollow
piston, filter boxes, seawater storage tank, pump,
and valves. The storage tank is to be to be placed
at the top of a mountain and connected to the RO
module that is placed slightly above the sea level.
An energy efficiency analysis shows that the
system energy requirement is 0.85 kWh/m
3
of
fresh water produced from seawater, which is
much less than that required by conventional RO
plants, usually 310 kWh/m
3
of fresh water
produced from seawater.
Despite several patents on this technology
(e.g., [9597]), no installation combining RO and
hydrostatic pressure has been implemented to our
knowledge. More efforts on these technologies,
especially on their economic and practical
aspects, should appear in the future.
4. Electrodialysis
4.1. Principles
Electrodialysis (ED) has been in commercial
use for desalination of brackish water for the past
three decades, particularly for small- and
medium-scale processes [98]. The process utilizes
an electric field to remove the salt ions in the
brackish water which passes between pairs of
cation-exchange and anion-exchange membranes
(Fig. 4). The cations migrate from the brackish
water towards the negative electrode through the
cation-exchange membranes which allow only
cations to pass. On the other hand, the anions
migrate towards the anode through the anion-
exchange membranes. In a conventional process,
a large number of alternating cation-exchange
and anion-exchange membranes are stacked
together, separated by flow spacers which are
plastic sheets that allow the passage of water. The
streams in alternating flow spacers are a sequence
of diluted and concentrated water which flow in
parallel to each other. To prevent scaling, the
process utilizes inverters which reverse the
polarity of the electric field about every 20 min.
This process is called electrodialysis reversal
(EDR).
4.2. ED and solar energy
The use of PV cells with ED is attractive for
areas in which solar energy is available through-
out the year and has been reported by several
authors. Lundstorm [99] was the first to present a
small-scale process for water desalination using
solar-powered ED. Later, Ishimaru [100] studied
the reliability of an ED system operated by
photovoltaic cells in a remote area of Japan to
desalinate feed water with a TDS value of
1500 ppm. The 200 m
3
/d unit was reported to
produce drinking water satisfactory quality
during the 2-year period of study.
Veza et al. [101,102] tested an ED desali-
nation plant to treat brackish water while driven
from an off-grid wind energy system, located in
Gran Canaria Island (Spain). The unit included
power converters for the membrane stacks and
variable frequency drivers for the feed pumps. A
number of tests were carried out showing good
flexibility in the same way as a plant connected to
the grid would do.
AlMadani [98] developed an experimental
device of ED associated with photovoltaic cells.
The stack consisted of 24 cell pairs, arranged in
four hydraulic stages and two electrical stages.
The influence of process parameters (flowrates,
temperature) was studied with aqueous NaCl
solutions, as well as natural groundwater of
medium salinity. Salt removal of 95% for ground-
water and 99% for NaCl solutions was obtained
at low product flowrates of 550 dm
3
/d.
Ortiz et al. [103] developed a mathematical
model that allows predicting the functioning of an
ED system powered by photovoltaic energy. The
application of the model allows the design of the
system: electrodialyser size, number and con-
figuration of the PV modules for the desalination
of brackish water, as well as the study of its
behaviour in different geographical locations. The
model has been compared successfully to the
desalination of NaCl solutions [104]. The authors
drew conclusions on the interest of desalination
of brackish water by means of ED powered by
PV energy in remote areas where the volume of
daily treated water required is small (about 1 to
10 m
3
/d).
ED, as MD, was only associated to solar
energy. This may be due to the limitation of the
ED process itself, with implies higher energy
consumption and more complicated operations
than RO. According to the location of the plant
and its renewable energies resources, other con-
figurations could be evaluated, associating ED to
wind energy, hybrid solar PV-wind, or wave
Fig. 4. Principle of the electrodialysis process [29].
energy. Studies already performed on RO and
wind, hybrid solar PV-wind, or wave energy
could be useful.
5. Conclusions
Many original solutions for desalination using
membrane processes and renewable energies have
been proposed. RO is most often chosen as it is
one of the most efficient in terms of energy con-
sumption. Some RO plants are particularly suited
for small communities in remote locations,
although others may find large-scale applications.
Although a very large amount of work has been
conducted in this field (including plant design
and implementation, mathematical models, and
economic feasibility), only a few are currently
being used.
Most of the desalination plants are proposed
for the purpose of providing drinking water to
small communities, especially remote ones. Many
places all over the world are concerned, including
e.g., the Egyptian desert [35], rural areas of
Jordan [36], remote communities in Australia
(e.g., [37]), Sicily [38], Ireland [86], and India
[87]. This undoubtedly confirms interest devoted
to water desalination associated to renewable
energy sources in these parts of the world where
sun and/or wind are particularly abundant. For
these communities, the economics of the plants
(installation, operation) play a major role.
Although many works have considered the
economics of these plants, further evaluations
should include the recent cost evolution (mem-
brane devices, wind turbines and flywheels,
photovoltaic arrays, etc.), and an appropriate
selection of materials for the places under con-
sideration. From this point of view, multidisci-
plinary studies including chemical engineering,
material engineering and geographic sciences
could provide a more complete picture.
Another crucial aspect is the social integration
of the desalination plants. The plants have to be
properly designed to be used in the community
under consideration. From this point of view, the
study of Werner and Schfer [55] is a very com-
plete one. A prototype using ultrafiltration and
RO/nanofiltration combined with solar energy
was developed in Australia for remote com-
munities which have access to either contami-
nated surface or brackish water (e.g., [37,51,54]).
The system performance was evaluated against
attributes of social sustainability such as the
units capacity to meet community water needs
(both quality and quantity), the human resources
available to operate and maintain the unit and the
community response to the unit [55]. Other works
on social aspects of the plants implementation
should be performed in other places all over the
world.
Membrane desalination associated with re-
newable energies is undoubtedly valuable in these
times where fresh water and fuel resources are
decreasing. The potential applications of mem-
brane desalination associated with renewable
energies for both industrial and developing
countries may be a good example of strategies for
engineering development: advancing technology,
prioritising people [105]. Following Ricoeur
[106], Bowen [105] recently recalls a simple
expression of the attitude that the engineer could
adopt in applying his or her skills: Here I am,
how can I help you?, which could be applied
here.
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A review of membrane processes and renewable energies

process and RO for seawater

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