a/

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TWENTY FI VE YEARS OF PEACE RESEAR, CH
r Fon
nhr l ' l ahd6s,
and SOme 1. eSpOnSeS
by Johan Gal t ung
Ber ghof St i f t ung
Wi nkl er st r . 4A
l OOO Ber l i n 33
Ju1y, 1984
f nt r oduct i on
The f nt er nat i onal Peace Resear ch I nst i t ut e Osl o got i t s f l ed-
gl l ng st ar t i - n Januar y 1959 when t he pr esent aut hor was gi ven a gr ant
by t he I nst j - t ut e f or Soci aL Resear ch i n Osl o t - o dr af t . a r esear ch pr o-
gr am i n t he f i el - d of peace st udi es. The pr ogr am was accept ed, wi t h
t he US soci al psychol ogi st , Pr of . Ot t o Kl i neber g as a consuf t ant ,
and admi nj - st r at i vel y t he wor k st ar t ed on 1 June 1959, wi t h f i ve
r esear cher s and f i ve r esear ch pr ogr ams, and l ocat i on at t he home
of Fr i dt j of Nansen, dt Pol hogda out si de Osl - o, Nor way.
Hence, 1984 i s t he t went y- f i f t h anni ver sar y. Al t hough peace
r esear ch i s as ol d as humanki nd I t hi nk i t i s f ai r t o say t hat t hi s
was t he f i r st i nst i t ut e af t er t he Second Wor l d War openl y pr of essi ng
a dedi cat i on t o t he st udy of "peace" i n i t s ver y name. Even t hat
had been pr obl emat i c. Peace was i n t hose year s somet hi ng i dent i f i ed
i n t he West wi t h communi sm, a ver y r adi cal concer n,
j ust
as t en year s
l at er - at t he hei gl - r t of neo- mar xl sm i n West er n Eur ope- i t became t he
symbol of conser vat i sm. Fr om
"peace
i n t he wor l d" as a Moscow sl o-
gan t o
"peace
i n Vi et nam" as a Washi ngt on sl ogan, . meani ng r oughl y
speaki - ng t he t r i umph of communi sm i n t he f i r st case and t he vi ct or y
of t he Uni t ed St at es i - n t he second, t he t i me di st ance had been a shor t
one. The Nor wegi an est abl j - shment was al so scept i cal : a hi gh r anki ng
of f i ci al
of t he Mi ni st r y of Educat i on was sympat het i c i n gener al but
t ol d t he pr esent aut hor :
"peace
r esear ch", what a hor r i bl e name!
Te
"war
r esear ch"t her e coul d be no' obj ect i on.
I mysel f had a sl i ght l y di f f er ent wor r y: not t hat condi t i ons
of peace
wer e not mor e t han wor t hy of bei ng st udi ed, but t hat "con-
f l - i ct " as such af so was wor t hy of bei - ng st udi ed wi t hout r esear cher s
necessar i l y havi ng t o f ocus on conf l i ct r esol ut i on
j - n
a peacef ul
^' r ' t
&L^ *i me.
The name, ds devi sed by t he pr esent aut hor i n wq' y 4f r L- r r v L-
Januar y 1959, was a compr omi se:
"conf l i ct and
peace
r esear chr r .
I t has st uck, and can t oday be f ound i n a number of i nst i t ut es i n,
f or i nst ance, Sweden and t he Feder al Republ - i c of Ger many. Today I
mi ght haye
l r ef er r ed
t o say si mpl y
"peace
st udi es";
"peace"
because
t hi s
j - s
mor e t han br oad enough and does not onl y r el at e t o conf l - i ct
but equal l y much t o, f or i nst ance, devel opment i "st udi es" because
t ' r esear chl r
i s somewhat l i mi t i ng by - i n t he mi nds of many peopl e -
havi ng a connot at i on of empi r i cal r esear ch. As wi l l be ampl y shown
Lat er on t hi s i s t oo nar r ow.
Our s i s not t he onl y anni ver sar y t hese year s. I n 1964 t he
I nt er nat i onal - Peace Resear ch Associ at i on ( I PRA)
was f ounded at
meet J- ng i n London wi t h i mpor t ant suppor t f r om UNESCO, t hus havi ng
i t s t went i et h anni ver sar y 1984. And i n 1 983 I PRA had i t s t ent h
i nt er nat i onal conf er ence i n Gy6r i n West er n Hungar y, must er i ng about
3OO r esear cher s f r om aI I over t he wor l d, bear i - ng t est i mony t o peace
r esear ch act i vi t i es i n at l - east t hi r t y count r i es, and above al l
sel f conf i dence, a shar ed f eel i ng of not havi ng t obe def ensi ve al put
t he t er m "peace r esear ch". Peace r esear ch i s si mpl y somet hj - ng one
does; l i ke ever yt hl ng el se, i t can be wel l done and badl y done
and i n most cases done nei t her par t i cul ar l y wel l nor par t i cul ar l y
badl y, but somet hi ng i nbet ween.
So, as t hey say: peace r esear ch has come of dge, f r om t he
f i nr z
' l
i t - 1- ' l a }- z
er r r r
- egi nni ng
r ' O me of t he
chal l enges, what have been some of t he r esponses on t he way d. ur i ng
t hese 25 year s?
That st or y can def i ni t el y
be t ol d i n many dj - f f er ent
ways, and wi l 1 pr obabl y
be t ol d. :
one si gn of peace
r esear ch comi ng
of age i s t hat i t i s al r eady gener at l ng
i t s own hi st or i ans wi t h am-
bi t i ous paper s ( whet her
t hi s i s a good
si gn i s anot her
mat t er ! ) .
what r shal r t r y t o do i n t hi s paper i _s much mor e r i mi t ed.
r shal l onl y t r y t o i ndi cat e
some of t he maj or chal l enqes
as r have
seen t hem, and t he ki nd of r esponses
t hat r have devel oped
_
per -
haps convi nci ng
nobody el se t han mysel f , and har dl y even t hat . Some-
t i mes t he chal l enges
have come f r om t he out si de
i n t he f or m of
cr i t i cj - snr .
Mai nl y, however , t hey have come f r om t he
j _nsi de,
si mpl y
f r om ny own ef f or t s t o t r y t o devel op par adi gms,
f r amewor ks
f or i nt el -
l ect uar persui t s,
capabl e of acconmod. at i -ng,
handri ng,
expl ori ng
f ur t her even t o some ext ent sol vi ng. pr obl ems
t hat t o most or at l east
many peopl e
woul d be l ocat ed
under t he headi ng of
, , peace, , .
So t hi s
i s some ki nd of l nt el l ect ual
aut obi - ogr aphy
r
eE even t r aver ogue.
An appr opr i at e
wor d, si nce most of t he st i mul at i ons
t o my own i nt el _-
l ect ual odyssee has come f r om t he si mpl e cj - r cumst ance
t hat r have
t r avel l ed a l ot , done r esear ch wor k i n at l east f i f t y count r i es,
and al so t r avel l ed t hr ough t i me as a f ut ur i st and a macr o- hi st or i an
t hus havi ng a consi der abl e
amount of chal - l enges
whi ch r f el t r
ShOul d SOmehOVr
#r r z #n aannmp6dat e.
Thr ee smal 1 r ef l ect i - ons
on exact l y
t hi s bef or e r st ar t .
Fi r st , i n r et r ospect f see
t i mes has a choi ce bet ween l i vi ng
t o what ot her r esear cher s
say and
mor e cl ear l y
how
i -n t he worl d of books and r eact i nq
a r esear cher some-
wr i t e, and J_i vi ng i n t he wor l d of
I - egl i ! y. ,
t r yi ng t o r eact di r ect l y t o t hat wor l d i n as much as pos-
si bl e a way not medi at ed by ot her s. Unf or t unat el y, I of t en sense
t hat ot her r esear cher s st ar t i n t he r eal wor l d, t hen l eave t hat
wor 1d, ent er t he wor l o of books and r emai n i n t hat wor l d ever af t er .
I f anyt hi ng I have per haps done t hat
j our ney
i n t he opposi t e di r ec-
! i ^^
- !
r ^^^t
so f ar . Occasi onal - excur si ons back t o t he wor l - d L_L\ Jr 1
t
AL I gCr : )
of books, al so meani ng academi a i n t he t r adi t i onal sense/ as a r est i ng
pl ace f r om t he consi der abl y mor e di f f i cul t r eal wor l d have gr eat
charms, however, US uni v-ersi ti es are good at that, l ,-ei no so sel f-contai ned.
Second, i nt el l ect ual l . r or k has some si mi l ar i t i es wi t h
pol i t i cal , even mi l i t ar y wor k. I t i s a quest i on of mast er i ng i nt el -
l ect ual t er r i t or y, expl or i ng i t wi t h t he r i ght
j - nst r ument s.
And
t he i nst r ument s ar e never t ot al l y adequat e? i n addi t i on t he t er r i -
t or y changes t he mor e t he
j - nst r ument s
ar e appl i ed. Then, t hr er e r nay
be ot her s on t he same t er r i t or y, even many of t hem, some pr ospect i - ng
f or i nsi ght wi t h t he same concept , some usi ng t ot al l y
di f f er ent appr oaches. Thi s met aphor def j - nes conf l i ct among. i nt el l ec-
t ual s of t hr ee ki nds: di f f er ent r esul t s wi t h t he use of t he same
i nst r ument s; conf l i ct s over whi ch i nst r ument s t o use; and t he
most f undament al conf l i ct over whose i nt el l ect ual t er r i t or y t hi s
i s anyhow. Much of whaL i nt el - l ect ual s do i s a quest i on of t ayi ng
cl ai ms t o i nt el l ect ual t er r j - t or y by showi ng t hat t hei r concept s
can cover mor e ar ea, mor e deepl y, t han ot her s. Of t en t her e wi l l have
t o be a t r ade- of f her e. Ther e ar e t hose pr ef er r i ng mor e
". "t el g
av:
met hods cover i ng a l ar ge t er r i t or y and t hose pr ef er r i ng mor e i nt en-
si ve t echni ques, goi ng much i n dept h, dr i 11i _ng at pr ecl ze poi nr s.
Obvi ousl y t her e ar e many who do bot h. I nt el l ect ual s become l i ke
gl adi at or s t hr owi ng net s, Lr yLng t o cat ch as much as possi bl e. No
i nt el l ect ual enj oys bei ng caught i n t he net of anot her , seei ng hi s
own pr obl ems r educed t o sub- pr obl ems under t he much mor e gener al
opt i que devel oped by somebody el se. Yet t hi s i s t he nat ur e of i n-
t el l ect ual pur sui t s, wi t h t he wor k of mat hemat j - ci ans as a cl ear exam-
pl e, al ways st r uggl i ng f or ever hi gher l evel of gener al i t y;
al ways t r yi ng t o see somet hi ng as a
"speci al
case" of somet hi - ng
mor e
qener al .
Thi r d, t he i mpor t ance of di al ogue. The di al ogue, not onl y
wi t h ot her r esear cher s but wi t h peopl e i n gener al , i - s absoJ- ut el y
cr uci al i n i nt el l ect ual wor k. I t i s a way of t r yi ng out oner s own
st r at egi es and t act i cs i n i nt el l ect ual spaces, t est i ng t he val j - di t y
by wat chi ng car ef ul l y t he r eact i ons f r om di f f er ent cor ner s. Dl al ogue
i s onl y meanj - ngf ul i f i t can happen acr oss di sci pl i nar y, i deol ogi cal '
nat j - onal and ci vi l i zat i onal bor der s, I f none of t hese ar e br i dged
chances ar e t hat what passes f or a dj - al ogue i s mor e l i ke l ooki ng
i n t he mi r r or , as so of t en happens- par t i cuJ- ar l y i n t hi nk t anks and
pl aces of hi gher l ear ni ng of
"excel l ence" because t he
"cr i t er i a"
makes t he peopl e passi ng t hose f i l t er s homogenous Of cour ser t r o
i nt el l ect ual i s obl i ged t o r edj - r ect hi s pur sui t i n t he di r ect i on
suggest ed by a cr i t i c
t
er by a f r i end f or t hat mat t er . Rut he
j - s
ob-
Iiged to be sensitive, to pursue inquiries
stjmulated by dialog' ' e.
The capaci t y t o do so i s l i mi t ed by t he r i gi di t y
of t he par adi gm. Hence, abi l i t y t o open t he par adi Er ' n i n new di r ec-
t i ons becomes a maj or f act or . And at t hi s poi nt I
f eel ,
i n gener al ,
t hat t he f or mul a i s expansi on r at her t han r ej ect i on. I f an appr oach
i s f ound unsat i sf act or v when conf r ont ed wi t h new chal l enses t he
r esponse shoul d al most never be t o r ej ect t he appr oach compl et el y.
Rat her , t he r esponse shoul d be an ef f or t t o under st and under whi ch
condi t i ons t he f or mer appr oach was val i d. . not onl y t o i dent i f y t he
condj - t i ons under whi ch i t
j - s
not val i d. I nst ead of aski ng
"whi ch
one i s t r ue, l i ber al i sm or mar xi sf l ", t he quest i on woul d be " under
what condi t j - ons i s t he l i ber al per spect i ve f r ui t f ul , under what
^^*, i
i + i
^. ^ concl . r r l _ons
t he mar xi st , ' . To many t hi s ki nd of at t i t ude l eads t o
ver y ecl ect i c r esul t s, t o a number of bot h - and r at her t han ei t her
or . Thi s i s t r ue, and by t he pr esent aut hor seen as a gr eat advan-
t age r at her t han as an accusat i on. To cr i t i cs who mi ght hope t hat
posi t i ons woul d be
gi ven up r at her t han ser ve as a basi s f or f ur t her
expansi on i nt o i nt el l ect ua1 t er r j - t or i es t he concl usi on mi ght be mor e
negat i ve. And I woul d agree i f i t can be convi nci ngl y shown t hat
t hi s i nt el l ect ual st r at egy r nakes i nt ensi ve i nt el l ect ual act i vi t y,
i n r r anr h i mnl ssj - bl e
or at l east unl i kel y. The cont r ar l z i s nt or e t i kel y.
! r r Y\
And wi t h t hese t hr ee r emar ks per mi t me Lo st ar t wi t h t he ex-
pl or at i on of t en chal l enge- r esponse di mensj - onsr ds I have exper i enced
t hem.
On t he def i ni t i on of
peace
r esear ch.
Fr om t he ver y begJ- nni ng i t was cl ear t hat t hi s def j - ni t i on
had t o cont ai n t hr ee component s, at l - east :
"peace"
as t he expl i ci _t _
r z: l t r o nf cJ_ r r r ' l r r
vqruE v! DLuu)/ , approached i n an i l t er-di sci pl i nal y
and
l 1l gr; l g! : gl g}. '
manner . The l ast t wo condi t i ons, wer e, of cour se, di r ect ed agai nst
what was seen as t he t r adi t i onal - appr oach i n peace st udi es: ef f or t s
t o capt ur e a ver y compl i cat ed phenomenon
wi t hi n t he i nt el l ect ual
f r amewor ks of one di sci pl i ne on1y, and of t en ver y cl assi cal di sci -
^1. i - ^^ ^, , ^1- pr J- nes sucn as hi st or y and
j - nt er nat i onal
l aw; and ef f or t s t o st udy
phenomena t hat ar e i nt er nat i onal i n t hel r char act er f r om t he van-
t age poi nt of one nat i on onl y. Thusr "i nt er - d. i sci pl i nar y" meant
f r or n t he ver y begi nni ng ef f or t s t o br i dge t he gap bet weenr f t r adi t i onal
and
"moder n"
soci al scj - ences ( br i ngi ng i nt o t he pi ct ur e soci ol ogy
pol i t ol ogy and so on) ; and
"i nt er - nat i onal " al so meant "i nt er - j - deo-
l ogi cal "
,
"i nt er-bl -oc ", "i nt er-cl ass", "i nt er-gender". An i nt er-di sci pl i na-
r y Nor wegi an t eam i s i nt er est i ng but ver y f ar f r om suf f i ci ent ; ex-
pandi ng i t t o become a Nor di c t eam does not add much of i nt er est i n
our conf l i ct -rJ-dden, hi ghl y unpeacef ul wor1d. The vvl crl d i s t he l i mi t .
Al so, f r om t he ver y begi nni ng, i t was assumed t hat t he concept
"peace"
was and shoul d al ways cont i nue t o be consi d. er ed pr obl emat i c.
The next di mensi ons ar e i ndi cat l ve of what such expl or at i ons mi ght
l ead t o i f i t i s t aken as axi omat l c t hat "peace" has t o be expl or ed. .
An ocplicit value-orj-entation implies oplicit problon-ori-entation;
not keepinq
the values hidden under the mystifying slogan of "objectivity".
However , t he t wo ot her par t s
of t he wor ki ng def i ni t i on,
con-
' {- r ' i hr r i - i na' - i ni mum
t o t he d. escr i pt i on of . hcw t he r esear ch on t he
condi t i ons f or
i l eace
i s t c t e car r i ei ou- ! ,
' , , ; er e
al so pr obl emat j _c
and
under went changes. At t he ver y mi ni mum
"i nt er - di sci pl i nar y" coul d
be i nt er pr et ed as an i nst i t ut e wher e r esear cher s f r om var i ous di sci -
pl i nes woul d have some cont act or even a
' ' soci et y
f or peace r esear ch' l
t hat coul d f aci l i t at e al - l cont act s of t hd ki nd. And
"i nt er - nat i onal "
coul d poi nt i n t he di r ect i on of occasi onal meet j - ngs t o di scuss
vi ews on di f f i cul t mat t er s. Al t hough pr ef er abl e
t o si ngl e- di sci pl i -
nar y appr oaches by hi ghl y uni - nat i onal r esear cher s mor e of t en t han
not i n l i ne wi t h t he pol i cy of t hej - r est abl j - shment i n a r at her un-
quest i oni ng manner ( whet her t hi s i s due t o val ue commi t ment or mor e
t o mat er i al i nt er est s l i nked t o t hei r sal ar i es) - t hi - s ver v qui ckl y
pr oved t o be hi ghl y i nsuf f i ci ent . Ul t i mat el y i nt er - di sci - pl i nar i t y
woul d have t o l ead t o t r ans- di sci pl i nar i t y, t o t he i nt egr at i on of
t he per spect i ves and appr oaches of sever al di sci pl i nes i nsi de t he
mi nd of t he i ndi vi dual peace r esear cher . Ul t i mat el y t he i ndi vi dual
peace r esear cher i s t he uni t , hovr ever much he may benef i t f r om i nt er -
di sci pl i nar y net wor ks. I t i s i nsi de one r esear cher t hat new synt he-
ses ar e
' most
l i kel y t o emer ge, cer t ai nl y st j - mul at ed by di al ogue i n
t he net wor k. And t he same appl i es t o t he di mensi on of i nt er - nat i ona-
l i t y: ul t i mat el y i t has t o l ead t o some ki nd of r esear cher wi t h-
out a f at her l and, a per son t hat can nei t her be count ed upon t o mi r -
r or t he vj - ews of t he count r i es est abl i shment , nor t he opposi t e vi ews.
I-rom inter-disciplinary and iqter-national to
l5Clq-disciplinary
and trans-national.
f t may be obj ect ed t hat t hi s i s aski ng f or much. Essent i al l y
i t means t hat t he or i gi nal di sci pl i ne and nat i onal i t y of t he peace
r esear cher woul d t end t o wash out as t he r esear cher mat ur es. I t
means t hat when t he r esear cher speaks or wr i t es t he l i st ener s and
r eader s wi l l have and shoul d have gr eat
d. i f f i cul t i es i dent i f yi ng
whence he or she comes. "Aber
wer si nd Si e ei gent l i - ch" was a
quest i on I coul d r emember f r om a ger man
dl pl omat when I i nt r oduced
mysel f as peace r esear cheq and t he quest i on I ver y of t en hear d l at er
on when an audi ence uneasi l y t r i ed t o f i nd out wl t hi n whi ch est ab-
l i shed soci al scj - ence di sci pl i ne I was oper at i ng. And t he same goes
f or nat i onal i t y, al t hough i n t hi s case f am af r ai d f have mor e di - f f i -
cul t i es conceal i ng my or i gi n. They somehow show"
Of cour se, t he pr obl em shoul d di ct at e how t he pr obl em 1s ana-
I r r cad nnf t - l r o
di sCi pl i ne i n whi ch one happens t o be t r ai ned or t he
nat i onal l ocat i on i n gl obal t er r i t or y. But Lhi s makes t he peace
r esear cher l ess pr edi ct abl e, f r om a di sci pl i nar y or nat i onal angl e.
He may, however , st i l l be pr edi ct abl e f r om t he f i r st poi nt i n t he
def i ni t i on: how he concei ves of
"peace" whi ch necessar i l y wi l l be
cl ose t o an i deol ogi cal posi t i on. To t hi s we sha11 t ur n i mmedi at el y,
Her e some wor ds shoul d onl y be added on a
par a] l el
whi ch i s of t en
used, not t he l east by t he pr esent aut hor , t o medi cal scj - ence.
I t hi nk i t can be ar gued t hat medi cal sci ence i s based on t he
er ma t - r i - n: - r - i _t e
def i ni t i gn Or poi nt of depar t ur e. Ther e i s an un-
ashamedl y expl i ci t val ueJci as f r om t he ver y begi nni ng, i n f avour of
heal t h r at her t hen di sease. Medi cal sci ence, however , i s mor e t han
t he expl or at i on of t he condj - t i ons of heal t h; t he i dea i s al so t o
t each ( medi cal educat i on) and t o act ( medi cal pr act i se) . As we shal - 1
see peace r esear cher s have been movi ng i n exact l y t he same di r ect -
i ons, al t hough wi t h l ess success but t hen t he f i r st 25 year s of
medi cal sci ence wer e per haps not t hat successf ul ei t her . And medi -
cal peopl e have
al so' f ound
- i t
ext r emel y usef ul - t o expl or e f ur t her
t he concept of "heal t h"; t hey ar e st i l - l doi ngt so, i n f act .
10
Thenr t he r esear ch or gani sat i on par al l el s" I n t he i nt er di s-
ci pl i nar y pot def i ned as medi - ca1 sci ence t her e ar e many i ngr edi ent s,
physi cs, chemi st r y, anat omy, physi ol ogy, pat hol ogyr , as wel l as peda-
gogi cal and pr act i cal component s. A medi cal man i s wel l - r ounded,
he has a hol i st i c appr oach t o hi s f i el d as wel l as a speci al t y
or t wo, and he has t o a l arge ext ent t ranscended nat i onal - borders.
Si mi l ar l y peace r esear ch ai ms or shoul d ai m at becomj - ng ever
mor e hol i st i c, and ever mor e
. {. oEq, }- Thus
wi t h hi gher l evel s of mat u-
r i t y peace r esear cher s f r om ver y di f f er ent par t s of t he wor l d, and
par t s of soci et i es, . woul d have not onl y di al ogues but al so emer ge
wi t h qui t e compat i bl e concl usi ons as i s t he case t o a l ar ge ext ent ,
i n t he i nt er nat j - onaL medi cal communi t y as expr essed i n t he r esol u-
t i ons of t he Wor l d Heal t h Or gani zat i ons. Of cour se t hi s means
t hat mi st akes can be made- and t hat t hey can become magni - f i ed t hr ough
consensus when ever ybody makes t he same mi st akes. And her e t he
peace r esear cher f aces a gr eat di f f i cul t y: hi s advj - ce and hi s pr ac-
t i se may concern many more peopl e t han t hs
i ndi vi dual
surgeon who
af t er al l
j - s
oper at i ng on onl y one per son at a t i me. Thi s shoul d
ser ve as a war ni ng t o peace r esear cher s agai nst becomi ng t o sel f -
conf i dent , and agai nst devel opi ng an easy consensus. Of cour se, t hat
i s easi l y done as l ong as peace r esear cher s car r y l i t t l e r esponsi bi -
l i t y and ar e mai nl y academi csp and i n opposi t i on, engaged i n cr i t i ci sm.
f t hecomes mor e i mpor t ant , not i f , but when r esponsi bi l i t y comes.
My own exper i ence may ser ve as some t i ny conf i r mat i on. Ver y
much demanded i n a wor l d di vi ded i nt o nat i ons et c. and an i nt el -
I ect ual wor l d di vi ded i nt o di sci pl i nes ar e pr eci sel y mor e gl obal
and hol i st i c appr oaches. Thi s i s what peace r esear ch shoul d af so
ai m at ; i n addi t i on t o wel l i nf or med, mor e l _i mi t ed st udi _es
14
l l
2. On t he def i ni t i on of
peace
as absence of vi ol ence
That peace has somet hi ng t o do wi t h t he absence of vi ol ence
i s so wi despr ead as an i dea t hat any concept of peace r er ear ch woul d
have t o accommodat e t hi s not i on. However , f r om t he ver y begi nni gE
t hi s was seen as t co negat i ve. I n a sense t he i nspi r at i on was t aken
f r om medi cal scl ence wher e heal t h can be seen as t he absence of di s-
ease ( meani ng
absence of sympt oms of di sease)
r
but al so as somet hi ng
mor e posi t l ve: as t he bui l dl ng of a heal t hy body capabl e of r esi st i ng
di seases, r el yi ng on i t s own f or ces or heal t h sour ces. Cor r espondi ng-
l y a concept of
"posi t i ve
peace' r emer ged
bui l t ar ound such i deas as
"har mony", "cooper at i on" and
"i nt egr at i on",
peace
r esear ch was t o
consi der bot h t he negat i ve and posi t i ve aspect s of peace, bot h t he
condj - t i ons f or absence of vi ol - ence i n gener al and war i n par t i cul ar ,
and t he condi t i ons f or bot h peace bui r di ng per haps r ef er r i _ng t o
t he act i on needed f or negat i ve peace as peace- keepi ng and peace
-
maki ng coul d t hen be used t o cover bot h. Agai n, exact l y what i s
^r ' I
' : *! ^ ! L^
i wi n i deas of negat i ve and posi t i ve peace i s not so i m- [ / UL
f l r LU LI M
n^r +1h+
' c
r he
br oad agr eement t hat peace st udi es shoul d cover bot h,
f her o Avn, and i ncr ' l - ha f i ol d aF c{- r r r l ' Fv
ur r el v El yqr r ual r y Lr l s l r El g
- TOI TI
pf eVent i On and COnt f Ol
of war t o t he st udy of peacef ul r el at i ons i n gener al .
However ' t hi s i mpor t ant expansj - on of t he f i el d ver y qui ckl y
^
r n- ' ^J ;
-
^"

pr oveo r nsur f i ci ent . I r emember vi vi dl y my own exper l ence of what

at t hat t i me was ca1l ed Rhodesi a ( or
mor e pr eci sel y
Sout her n Rhooesi a)
shor t J- y af t er t he Uni l at er al Decl ar at i on of I nd. ependence November
1965. St udyi ng some st at i st i cs made avai l abl e t o me i n Har ar e
( t hen
I Z
Sal i sbur y) i t became cl ear t hat t her e had been ver y l i t t l e i nt er -
r acl al vi ol ence i n t he per i od bet ween domest i c and nat i - onal i ndepen-
dence, f r om 1923- 65. I n a cer t ai n sense t her e was har mony, cooper a-
t i on i nt egr at i on. But was t hi s peace? Wi t h t he bl at ant expl oi t a-
t l on, wi t h bl acks bei ng deni ed most oppor t uni t j - es f or devel opment
gi ven t o t he whi t e, wi t h f l agr ant i nequal i t y wher eby whi t es wer e ma-
ki ng about t went y t i mes as much f or exact l y t he same
j ob as bl acks
not t o ment i on, ; wi t h t he basi c f act t hat t hi - s was st i l l a whl t e col o-
ny, r egar dl ess of how i ndependent i n a t echni cal sense t hose whj - t es
were? The Gerrnan wcrd for ceneterlz is Friedhof
r
pdc yard
The concept of
I ' st r uct ur al
vi ol - ence" was bor n out of t hat
encount er , but deepl y i nspi r ed by Gandhi ' s appr oach t o t he same
subj ect al t houghhedi l not use t hat t er m. For a l ong t i me I had t r i ed
t o l i ber at e mysel f f r om t he bui l t - i n act or - or i ent ed per spect i ve
of so much West er n socj - al sci ence, basi ng anal yses ver y much on t he
capabi l i t i es of t he act or s, and al so on t hei r mot i vat i ons. That
t he mot i vat i on i s i mpor t ant i n
j udgi ng,
r el i gi ousl y or l egal 11'
et hi cal qual i t y of an i ndi vi dual act goes wi t hout sayi ng. But i n
so doi ng t he char act er i st i cs of t he st r uct ur es ar e of t en dl sr egar ded,
because t hese ar e set t i ngs wi t hi n whi ch i ndi vi dual s may do enor mous
amount s of har ms t o ot her human bei ngs wi t hout ever i nt endi ng t o do
sor
j ust per f or mi i i g t hei r r egul ar dut i es as a
j ob
def i ned by t he
structure.Social
political
consciousness is to understand from the structure
vorks.
St r uct ur al vi ol ence was t hen seen as uni nt ended har m done t o
human bei ngs. Usual l y t hi s t akes pl ace as a pr ocess, wor ki ng sl owl y
as t he way mi ser y i n gener al , and hunger i n par t i cul ar , er odes and
t <
f i nal l y ki l l s human bei ngs. I f i t wor ks qui ckl y i t i s mor e l i kel y
t o be not i ced and st r ong posi t i ons f or and agai nst wi l l bui l d up
so t hat mor al st ands emer ge. Di r ect vi ol ence i s i nt ended,
usual l y qui ck and f or t hat r eason easi l y di scover ed si nce t he per -
son who was ver y much al i ve a second ago i s now dead - hence, dl f
+^^"^
^F at t ent i on even i n ci vi l i zat i ons wi t h a l ow l evel of poJ- i -
ecr >y ! r J( i Ll -
( Jr
t i - caI consci ousness.
I n a sense I do not t hi nk t he i - ssue has t o be ar cr ued. Vi o-
l - ence i s vj - ol - ence, i n a sense t o be expl or ed i n t he next sect i on
r egar dl ess of how i t i s exer ci sed. But t he i mpl i cat i on of t hi s
ext ensi on of t he
per spect i ve
on vi ol ence i s a mai or one f r om t he
poi nt of vj - ew of peace r esear ch st r at egy. Wher eas t he f ocus on
di r ect vi ol ence woul d l ead t o anal l zsss of t he capabi l i t i es and
mot i vat i ons of i - nt er nat i onal and i nt r anat i onal act or s wi t h ef f or t s
t o cr eat e i nst i t ut i ons t hat can pr event t hem f r om exer ci sj - ng di r ect
vi ol - ence, 6or i nst ance by puni shi ng t hose who do, ) t he f ocus on st r uc-
t ur al vi ol ence wi l - l l ead t o a cr i t i cal anal ysi s of st r uct ur es and
possi bl y t o ef f or t s t o t r ansf or m vi ol - ence- pr egnant st r uct ur es i nt o
l ess vi ol ent once. A basi c t r ansf or mat i on of a st r uct ur e 1s usual l y
r ef er r ed t o as a
5_evof
ut i on, so t hi s per spect i ve i s mor e wef come among
r adi cal s j ust
as t he i nst i t ut i ona] per spect i ve i s mor e wef come amonq
l - i ber al s/ conser vat i ves. Agai n t he at t i t ude advocat ed her e i - s bot h-
and, not a quest i on of ei t her - or .
Vi ol ence as obst acl - es f or basi c needs sat i - sf act i on
I f peace i s def i ned
gat i ve peace, r egar dl ess of
as t he absence
t he sour ce of
^F
. , . i
^]
r !
UI Vf , 9I EJI UEt QL
r zi nl Fnr - p
-
1- hon
,
ur l vr
l east ne-
t he quest i on
14
ar i ses: what i s vj - ol ence? I n t he f i r st r un an
ant hr opocent r i c
appr oach must be per mi t t ed, f ocussi ng on vi ol ence agai - nst human
bei ngs. I n my exper i ence t he best appr oach her e i s t o t r y t o r oot
vi ol ence i n t he concept of basi c human needs, even gi ven t he shor t -
comi ngs of t hat concept . Such shor t comi ngs, however , ar e not neces-
sar i l y unwel come: i n a compl ex and cont r adi ct or y r eal i t y such as
t he subj ect mat t er of peace r esear ch d. ef i ni t i - ons can not , and con-
sequent l y shoul - d not , bet oo per f ect .
Four cl asses of needs wi t h t hei r neqat i ons ar e i ndi cat ed i n
Tabl e 1.
Tabl e 1. Four cl asses of needs/ f our cl asses of vi ol ence
Di r ect St r uct ur al
vi ol ence vi of ence
Act or - St r uct ur e-
gener at ed gener at ed
mor e somat i - c,
mat er i al -
SURVIVAL
vi ol ence
HOLOCAUST
WELFARE
mi ser y
SI Lt rNT HOLOCAUST
-
FREEDOM f DENTTTY
mor e spl r 1cuar ,
non- mar er r ar -
r epr essi - on al i enat i on
KZ, GULAG SPI RI TUAL DEATH
The t wo di chot omi es used t o const r uct t he t abl _e shou] d not be
t aken t oo absol ut el y; t hey ar e i ndi cat i ve of ways of cut t i ng i nt o
f ha f nt - a] i r r r
9f human needs. But t he cl ai m i s t hat t he f our cl asses ev vs! * e y
i ndi cat ed ar e unj - ver sal even i f t hei r speci f i c def i ni t i on, and how
t hey ar e sat i sf i ed, var y much i n hi st or i cal t i me and soci al space.
t f
I have added under t he negat i ons of t he cl asses of needs
t he ext r eme negat i ons; t he f our maj or evi l s, t o put i t t hat way.
Fi r st , t her e i s hol ocaust - ext er mi nat i on- whet her associ at ed wi t h
Wannsee Pr ot okol l e and" Auschwi t zt , or nucl ear ar ms depl oyment deci -
si ons and nucl ear war . Then t her e i s t he si l ent hol ocaust
( t aken
f r om t he t i t l - e of a f or t h comi ng book by Geor ge Kent on t he pol i t j cal
economy of hunger), more t han wel l enough known f rom t he si t uat i on i n
t he Thi r d wor l d t oday. Then, KZ and Gul ag, t he symbol s of Hi t l er i t e
and St al i ni st ext r emi st r epr essi on r espect i vel y" And f i nal l y t her e
i s t he f our t h evi l , so of t en f or got t en: t he spi r i t ual deat h comi ng
t o peopl e t o whom l i f e has no meani ng, ' t her e i s not hi ng wor t h i den-
t i f yi ng wi t h, t i me
j ust passes t hr ough t he per son r at her t han t he
per son evol vi - ng t hr ough t i me.
These ar e t he f our ext r eme t ypes of vi ol - encei t hey ar e
t he maj or f oci of wor k f or peae r esear chi but t he mi nor f or ms ar e
al so t o be covered by peace st udj -es. Thenrt he posi t i ve f orms, t he
needs t o be sat i sf i ed: t hey woul dbe t he f ocus of posi t i ve peace
r esear ch, whet her or not such f or mul - as as har mony, cooper at i on, and
i nt egr at i on poi nt t o f r ui t f ul ways of at t ai ni ng t hei r sat i sf act i on,
One ver y basi c poi nt i n t hi s connect i on: I bel ong t o t hose
who ver y st r ongl y oppose any at t empt t o i mpose pr i or i t i es on t hese
f our cl asses of needs. I n a t r i vi al sense, wi t h t he bi ol ogi cal
or gani sm cl ose t o deat h f r om dj - r ect or st r uct ur al vi ol ence i t i s
empi r i cal l y t r ue t hat human bei ngs f i ght f or sur vi val and wel f ar e
( f oodr cl ct hes,
shel t er and so on) mor e t han anyt hi ng el se.
t o
But I r ef use t o accept t hose ver y ext r eme condi t j - ons as t he basi s
f or a gener al t heor y of pr i or i - t i es. Rat her , i t i s al ways r ny exper i -
ence t hat when such t heor j - es ar e accept ed t hey t end t o l ead t o
bad
pol i t i cs. Thus, put sur vi val above f r eedom and t i r e r esuf t may be
capi t ul at i oni sm
( bet t er
bl ue- r ed t han dead) ; put f r eedom above sur -
vi val and t he r esul t may be an i nvi t at i on t o nucl ear sui ci de
( bet t er
dead t han bl ue- r ed) . Put wel f ar e above f r eedom, and t he r esul t i s
usual l y ef f or t s t o f eed et c. t he popul at i on ver y much t he same way
as i t i s done i n a zool ogi cal gar den, wi t h no f r eedom and i dent i t y,
but pl ent y of r epr essi on and al i enat i on. Or put i dent i t y above a1l
of t hem and t he r esul t mi ght be t he her mi t l i r zi ng i n a cave, cl ose
t o God but al so t o not hi ng e1se. Chances ar e he wi l l not even at t ai n
what he si ngl e mi ndedl y seeks.
Thi s i s not t o sav t hat i n concr et e si t uat i ons i n t i me and
space t her e may not be gl ar i ng def i ci t s t hat have t o be cor r ect ed
by pol i ci es t hat assume pr i or j - t i es. But t hi s i s not t he same as
a gener al t heor y about t he or der i n whi ch needs have t o be sat i s-
f i ed, f or i nst ance st ar t i ng wi t h sur vi vaf ( ot her r ^r i se
not hi ng el se
i s of any i nt er est - - - ) t hen goi ng on t o wel f ar e, and t hen t r yi ng
t o t ackl e t he pr obl em of f r eedom and i dent i t y. The exper i ence seems
t o i ndi cat e t hat i f one so does i t wi l l be at t he expense of sol i d
st r uct ur es i n or der t o assur e a si ngl e- . - mi nded concent r at j - on on one
cl ass of needs; st r uct ur es t hat may be ver y di f f i cul t t o undo af t er
t hey have been oper at i ng f or some t i me. Al so, t he posi t i on i ndi cat ed
by syst emat i cal l y assumi ng pr i or i t i es i s a ver y modest posi t i on,
t comodest i n 1a91. I t i s not t he t ask of peace r esear ch t o accept
pr i or i t i es t hat have emer ged over t i me as t he easy way out ; t he
17
t ask of peace r esear ch shoul d r at her be t o be i mmodest t o set
t he goal s hi qh, t o Lr y t o devi se t hose pol i ci es by means of whi ch
aLl f our cl asses of needs mi ght be f ul f i l l - ed and hence a1l f our
cl asses of vi ol -ence be avoi ded. To thi nk and act hol i sti cal l y,i n short
I t shoul d be not ed t hat t he f our t h evi l i s di f f er ent f r om
t he ot her t hr ee. To be ki l l ed and t o be r epr essed ar e bot h bad, not
onl y f r cr mt he poi nt of vi ew of t he vi ct i ms but al so f r om t he poi nt
of vi ew of t he r ul er s si nce t hey mi ght be af r ai d t hat t he vi ct i ms,
or t hei r sympat hi zer s, mi ght one day hi t back. As a mat t er of
f act , hJ- st or y shows t hat t hey of t en do. Spi r i t ual deat h, dr i 3xt r eme
f or m of mass apat hy, wor ks di f f er ent l y" Peopl e become exact l y t ha!
apat het i c; wi t hdr awi ng l i ke mi ce
j - nt o
t hei r hol es, and do not hi t
back. They j ust
r ecede
j - nt o
passi vi t y.
Somet hi ng of t he same act ual l y
appl i es t o t he si l ent hol ocaust : i t i s si - l ent , wor ki ng sl owl y
t hr ough expl oi t at i - ve, hunger - and i l l ness- pr oduci ng st r uct ur es, and
peopl e di e one by one,
usual l y si l ent l y.
As such i t i s a f or m of
vi ol ence pr ef er abl e f r om t he el j - t e poi nt of vi ew because t hey can
mor e easi l y get away wi t h i t , wr appi ng i t up i n st at i st i cs, Apat hy,
however , does not even show up i n st at i st i cs; t he i ndi cat or s bei ng vague/
weak
I t shoul d be not ed, i n passi ng, t hat what has been sai d i n
t hi s t hi r d sect i on coul d
j ust
as wel l be t aken as a poi nt of depar -
t ur e f or devel opment st udi es as f or peace st udi es. The t wo ar e
act ual l y ver y si mi l - ar , and shoul d be r egar ded as t wi ns, ast hc si des
of t he same coi n. I n peace st udi es t her e wi l l i n qener al be mor e
of a t endency t o f ocus on di r ect vi ol ence and par t i cul ar l y of t he
somat i c ki ndt i n devel opment st udi es mor e on st r uct ur al vi ol ence
and al so of t he somat i c ki nd. The ext ensi on f r om a somat i c t o a
l 6
mor e ment al / spi r i t ual
f ocus i s a ver y i mpor t ant
one and shoul d be
under t aken
by bot h f i el ds l est t hey devel op
t oo much of a mat er i a-
l i st j - c
bi as i n t hej - r appr oaches.
But i n addi t i on
t o t hat t hey shoul d
al - so be abr e t o see each ot her as compl ement ar yr
ds par t s
of a
mor e hol i st j - c
appr oach t hat mi ght be cal l - ed
npeace
and devel opment
st udi es) f or t hat mat t er - r nci dent al l l z,
f ut ur e
st udi es i s al so a f i el d
whi ch has t aken t he same basi c needs or i ent at i on
as f undament al ,
encompassi ng
t he concer ns bot h of peace
and devel opment
st udi es,
per haps
wi t h a mor e const r uct i vi st ,
f ut ur e- or i ent ed
or i ent at i on,
Today we ar e used t o such expr essi ons
as t he
r nt er nat i onal
Monet ar y
Fund bei ng t he f unct i onar
equi var ent
of nuct ear weapons
i n Nor t h- sout h
r el at i ons.
But we ar e not yet
t hi nki ng
symmet r i cal l - y
about t hi s mat t er ;
we usual l y do not t al k about t he t hr eat of a
war bei ngr t he f unct i onal -
equi val ent
of t he t hr eat
of st ar vat i - on
i n
t r ast - l vest
r el at i ons.
And yet we shoul _d do: t hr eat s
of t en make
peopl e
j - r r at i onar .
r t may f ocus t hei r at t ent i on,
but not necessar i l y
i n t he best di r ect i on-
concr usj - on:
t o at l t he pr obl ems
i n connect -
i on wi t h t he concept s of
"peace",
"vj _ol ence' , now come t he pr obl ems
of
"need"' A11 t hese pr obr ems
shoul d
be wer - comed:
exper i ence
seems
t o i ndi cat e t hat guest i - ons
asked on t he basi s of t hese concept s
can l ead t o ver y f r ui t f ul i nsi ght s
and
j _nqui r i es,
From t he human s ce t o soci al
I obal and nat ur e s ces
Admi t t edl y,
t he appr oach j ust
advocat ed
i s ver y ant hr opo-
cent r i c-
or r t he ot her hand, we ar e human
bei ngs;
t hat ar so appr i es
peace
r esear cher s_
hence a cer t ai n speci es
cent r i sm
1s at l east
under st andabl e.
t o
19
But t hen i t goes wi t hout sayi ng t hat t he i mpl i cat i ons of
any peace r esear ch posi t i on
wi l l have t o be expl or ed i n t he socj al
space of soci et al const r uct i ons and t he gl obal space of wor l d sys-
t emsr ds wel l as t he ecol ogi cal di mensi ons at t ached t o nat ur e as
such. That one can do vi ol ence t o nat ur e by dest r oyi ng ecol ogi cal
st abi l i t y
j - s
mor e t han cl ear t o peopl e l i vi ng
j - n
our decade, or at
l east shoul - d be so. But maybe one day we wi l l al so t al k about
vi ol ence done t o soci al and g1oba1 st r uct ur es? Maybe we woul d
be bet t er at under st andi ng t hei r condj - t i ons f or sel f - mai nt ai nance
and what happens i f they are not met? And,coul d they be i somorphi c?
However , t he maj or poj - nt about t he f ocus on t hese f our
spaces i s mor e cl assi cal : t o t r ace t he i nt er connect i _ons bet ween
t hem. They may ser ve as a conveni ent r ef er ence poi nt f or t he
cl assi f i cat i on of peace t heor i es: i s peace/ vi ol ence r oot ed
j - n
nat ur e, human space, soci al space or gl obal space? And, havi ng
sai d t hi s, t he f our spaces al so ser ve as a r emi nder as t o what i s
meant by "i nt er dj - sci pl i - nar i t y" or mor e ambi t i ousl y, a hol i st i c ap-
pr oach. I woul d say t hat some knowl edge of ecol ogy, psychol ogy,
soci - ol ogy
/
ant hr opol ogy/ pol i t ol ogy/ economi cs and i nt er nat i onal - r e-
l at i ons ar e i ndi spensabl e; i n addi t i on some i nsi ght i n how al l
of t hi s i s condi t j - oned i n space b1' cul t ur e and over t i me by hi st or y.
Some t i me i n t he f ut ur e we shal l pr obabl y have a mor e i nt egr at ed
peace sci ence
( al t hough f mysel f f eel r at her r epel l ed by t hat wor d
f or r easons st at ed above) . No doubt i t wi l l have t o r e-
f l ect t he d- i sci pl i nar y r i chness i ndi cat ed so f ar , cer t ai nl y al so
t he nat ur al sci ences si nce nat ur e i s a par t of t hi s t ot al i t y. and
t he humani t bssi nce cul t ur e/ hi st or y cer t ai nl y ent er .
2o
q
Concl usl on: peace r esear ch i s par t i cul ar l y at t r act i ve f or some-
body wi t h consi der abl e i nt el l ect ual appet i t es, l i ke medi ci - ne, and
coul d ser ve as an exampl e of t he wi sdom of t he ol d i dea of bei ng
a gener al i st and i n addi t i on a speci al i st i n one or t wo f i - el ds,
f or i nst ance ar ms r aces/ di sar mament , or t he r el at i on bet ween cul -
ture and violence. An arnbitious program, but not that extraordinar-12.
Peace r esear ch, peace. edugat i of r r . peace act i o_n
Agai n, f r om t he ver y begi - nni ng i t was r at her cl ear t hat a
commi t ment t o peace,
j ust
l i ke a commi t ment t o devel opment f or t hat
mat t er makes a l i mi t at i on t o r esear ch onl y i nsuf f i ci ent . Most
peopl e ar e t oday r at her happy t hat medi cal men and women do not r e-
gar d t he spoken or wr i t t en wor d i n l ect ur es, ar t i cl es and books
as t he f i nal out come of t hej - r act i vJ- t i es; t he f i nal out come by
whi ch t hey ar e
j udged
i s
"heal t h.
Cor r espondi ngl y f or devel opment ,
cor r espondi ngl y f or peace. By t hat st andar d we ar e al 1 f ai l ur es.
I n pr act i se t hi s means t hat t wo f i el ds wi l l have t o be ver y
cl osel y r el at ed t o peace r esear ch: conveyi ng t he f i ndi ngs t o ot her s,
i n ot her wor ds peace educat : ol ; wor ki ng f or t he r eal i zat i on of t he
pol i cy i mpl i cat i ons t hat can be sai d t o r ecei ve some backi ng t hr ough
t he f i ndi ngs; peace act i on. . I n a sense t he t ypi cal exampl e woul d
be t he uni ver si t y pr of essor i n med, i ci ne, engaged bot h
j - n
r esear ch,
educat i on of st udent s and l - ess advanced col l egues, and i n heal t h
act j - on, be t hat t hr ough pr event i ve or cur at i ve medi ci ne. That peace
r esear ch i s mor e cont r over si al t han heal t h r esear ch does not i nval i -
dat e t hi s compar i son i n any si gni f i cant way: heal t h r esear ch was
') 'l
cer t ai nl y ver y cont r over si al t \ ^r o cent ur i es or even one cent ur y ago/
and i s st i 1l cont r over si al t oday. And, t l i er e ar e consi der abl e amount s
of mat er i al 1n peace r esear ch t hat i s not ver y cont r over sj - al al t hough
t hj - s i s not what i s hi ghl i ght ed i n t he pr ess and i n publ i c debat e t hat
wi l l t end t o f ocus, f or good r easons, of l what i s cont r over si al .
I t i s i nt er est i ng t o not e t hat when r esear ch educat j - on and
act i on ar e somehow i nt egr at ed i n connect i on wi t h"peace"t he accusat i - on
i s t hat of r adi cal - i sm; when t hey ar e i nt egr at ed ar ound t he val ue
of
i ' heal t h' r t oday
t he accusat i on i s of t en t he opposi t e, conser vat i sr n,
t r adi t i onal i sm and one t al ks about t he
"heal t h
est abl i shment " i - n a
way one i s not yet t al ki ng about t he "peace et abl i shment " ( al t hough
one mi ght cer t ai nl y t al - k about t he" peace movement est abl i shmend. ' ) .
How t hi s i s goi ng t o devel op f ur t her i s di f f i cul t t o say t oday;
I woul d not be sur pr i sed i f t he i nt ense year ni ng f or peace
no r nat -
t er how t hat concept i s concei ved of , af t er t he i ni t i al r esi st ence
r el at l vel y soon mi ght l ead t o an over - "accept ance of peace r esear ch -
educat i on - act i on as i t i s t aki ng shape; t oday t o a l ar ge ext ent
car r i ed by t he peace movement wi t h t he peace r esear cher s f unct i oni ng
as t he i nt el l i gent si a of t he peace movement . And t hat over accept -
ance i n t ur n, mi ght easi l y l ead t o smugness i n
anY
new peace est ab-
l i shment as i t has i n t he o1d f or ei gn pol i cy/ mi l i t ar y est abl i shment s,
maybe par t i cul ar l y because t hey cut of f t he r el at i on t o r esear ch,
meani ng by t hat r e- sear ch, r eal r esear ch abl e t o quest i on al l assumpt -
i ons, even t he most basi c ones, even t hose hel d by onesel f .
I n ot her wor ds, t he danger i s not t hat r esear cher s af so ar e
i nt er est ed i n educat i on and act i cn. They
shoul d be and t her eby get
some i mport ant f eed-back f rom t he real - worl -d, f rom peopl e who chal -
22
6.
I enge t he "f i ndi - ngs" and f r om a compl i cat ed r eal i t y t hat
r ef uses t o
r espond t o act j - ons i n t he way suggest ed by t he r esear ch. Much
mor e danger ous t han t hi s woul d be t hose who engage i n educat i on and
act i on wi t hout any r esear ch basi s and f or t hat r eason have a t enden-
cy t o r epeat t hei r own cher i shed bel i ef , whet her t hose of t he es-
t abl i shment or t he ant j - est abl i shment , and t o t r y t o shape t he wor l d
accor di ng t o t hei r dogmas. Rel at i vel y i nnocuous i n t hi s connect i on
i s t he r esear cher who cut s t he r el at i on t o educat i on and act i on and
l i ves i n t he r el at i vel y cf osed wor l d of r esear cher s al one, and t he
wor l d of books.
The soci al r ol e of t he peace. r . esear gher
Peace r esear ch as an i nt el f ect ual act i vi t y
was a r el ect f on
of cf assi cal peace st udi es among ot her r easons because t hose who
t . ' ar 6 annr ^a' i
i n i t Wef e t he Sef Vant S Of
f hoi r r aqnon*i Ve
eSt abl i Sh-
qr r
er v! Lr ! s! ! ! gDl r gu
L
""^h+
*o
t he ext ent t hat t hel r concl usi ons coul d bet t er be
r r r ct t LJ; EVEl l Ll
pr edi ct ed f r om t hei r nat i onal i t y t han f r om t hei r i nt el l ect ual or i en-
t at j - ons. Does t hi s aut omat i cal l y i mpl y t hat peace r esear cher s wi l l
be t he ser vant s of t he ant i - est abl - i shment s? Excer r t f or some cases
I do not t hi nk i t does, and I wouf d ver y much l nsi st t hat i t shoul d
never do. The peace r esear cher shoul d never gi ve up hi s most pr e-
ci ous possessi on' i nt el l ect ual / pol i t i cal - f r eedom and f l exi bi l i t y;
t he moment he i s t i ed t o any soci af act or , gover nment al or non-
government al
t hese
possessi ons
wi l -l - be t aken away f rom hi m. "who
pays t he pi per cal - l - s t he t une" appl i es t o most peopl e. The r esear ch-
eL wor ki ng i n a gover nment al or i nt er gover nment al est abl l shment
wi l - l ver y soon f i nd t hat hi s t ask i s t o del i ver t he pr emi sses
f or
concl - usi ons al r eady dr awr L ar r ddr awn by somebody el se. A. nd t hi s al -
23
so appl i es t o ant i gover nment al act or s: t he t ask of t he r esear cher
i s, wi t h f oot not es and document at i on, t o l egi t i mi ze st ands al r eady
t aken, t o val i dat e dogmas never quest i oned.
Hence, t he posi t i - on of t he peace r esear cher must be f r ee f r on
any such ent angl ement , f r ee t o t hi nk, t o speak, t o move, t o act .
One i mmed. i at e conseguence of t hi s i s t hat sr eat car e has t o be exer -
ci sed wi t h sponsor shi p J- n gener al and f undi ng i n par t i cul ar . One
pol i cy woul d be t o r ecei ve f unds bot h f r om gover nment , non- gover n-
ment and ant i gover nment ( and
t hei r count er par t s at t he i nt er nat i onal
r evel s) and
j - n
such a way t hat no act or pays mor e t han 50 per cent
and can di r ect t he ent er pr i se" I n pr act i ce t hi s may be al most i m-
possi bl e, and hence an ot her cour se has t o be char t ed: a buf f er
bet ween t he f undi ng agency and t he r esear ch i nst i t ut e, a counci l
of some ki nd, abl e t o absor b t he pr esur es
f r om above
j - n
a cr eat i ve
manner. obviously the two approaches do not exclude each other.
But what happens when t he peace
r esear cher st ar t s act i nq?
At t hi s poi nt I can onl y of f er
t v. o
pi eces of advi se t hat have come
out of my own exper i ence:
- {i gs_t ,
no doubl e- t al k, i f you ar e pr esent i ng an anal ysi s of some-
t hi ng, al ways onl y one ver si on r egar dl ess of vr ho t he audi ence i s
wi t h t he obvi ous di - f f er ences t hat f ol l ow f r om t he l eve1 of educat i on
of t he audi ence, par t i - cul ar l y t hei r abi l i t y t o absor be a m. or e t ech-
nical presentation. fntenslty has its costs, but palzs off irr the lorq runl
Second, sci ence i s publ i c by l t s ver y nat ur e si nce t he cr i t er i on
of somet hi ng bei ng sci ent i f i c al so i s i t s i nt er subj ect i veaccept abi -
1i t y. Hence no secr et s can be per mi t t edr nei - t her
as dat a nor i n t he
24
pr esent at i ons. Secr ecy and sci ence ar e mut ual l y cont r adi ct or y;
what ever i s based on secr et s or
pr esent ed
as a secr et shoul d be
seen as t ool s of mani pul at i on, power exer ci ses but cer t ai nl y not
as scientific. Stay awav from the dnnken mil-itarv who wants to share secrets!
I n pr act i ce t hi s means t hat one met hod of exer ci si ng i nf l u-
ence as a peace r esear cher i s out :
9g*
f "t f "r =t "" gI
Ohr en zu f l i i st er n
( t o
whi sper somet hi ng i n t he ear of t he pr i nces ) .
I n no way does t hi s mean t hat t he peace r esear cher shoul d abst ai n
f r om associ at i ng wi t h pr i nces or t hei r mor e secul ar successor s
t hese days; i t onl y means t hat he shoul d never do so unl ess he can
abi de by t he t wo r ul es
j ust
ment i oned. I nt ensi ve di - al ogues at t he
t op,
j - n
t he mi ddf e, and at t he bot t om of t he l ocal , socj - al and gl oba1
spaces i n whi ch we l i ve ar e i ndi spensabl e aspect s of peace r esear ch,
educat i on and act i on. But t her e shoul d be no ext r a advi se f or t he
pr i nce no adi t i onal i nsi ght , hi gher l - eve1 ver si on or somet hi ng l i ke
t hat .
I n shor t , t he peace r esear cher shoul d be f 1exi bl e and capabl e
of movi ng i n and out of t hese vari ous ni ches of soci -et y t l owever, does
, , , ,
t hat not mean t hat he i dent i f i es wi t h not hi ng and i s act ual l y f r ee
i n t he wor st sense of t hat wor d, namel y essent i al l y bei ng a par asi t e?
I woul d say no I woul d say t hat t he peace r esear cher has a
pr obl em of i dent i f i cat i on but not an unsol vabl e one. To i ndi cat e
one si mpl e f or mul a: i n di r ect conf l i ct bet ween mor e or l ess
equal par t i es wher e one cannot say t hat one i s suppr essi ng t he ot her
but t hey ar e si mpl y st andi - ng i n each ot her ' s way I t hi nk t he r ol e
- 25
of t he peace r esear cher i s t o ser ve as an i nbet ween,
as a t hi r d
par t y, poj - nt i ng
out possi bi l i t i es
t hat t he par t i es
may not have been
abl e t o see f or t hemsel ves. And cor r espondi ngl y,
i n a st r uct ur ar
conf l i ct bet ween unequal par t i es
wi t h one par t y obvl ousl y
domi nat i ng
t he ot her - wi t h one bei ng
I =r . ,
t he ot her bei ng
5. ssL! - i t
i s t he t ask
of t he peace
r esear cher t o si de wi t h t he Knecht ,
wi t h t he par t y
t hat al r eady i nst i t ut i onal l y
j - s
t he l oser
and pr obabl y
has been so
f or a ver y l ong t i me. But t hen, he shoul d onl y si d. e wi t h t he Knecht
as l ong as t he Knecht i s a
Er r sgf t ! ;
f ol l owi ng
Al ber t camus when
t he Knecht becomes a new Her r
he shoul d
si de wi t h t he new Knecht .
_t "l i d: t i av
- i a
, i n ot her wor ds
sol i dar i t y
means t o suppor t t hem even when one i s not i n
1OO per cenr
agr eement
( i n
t hat case suppor t
i s easy because
i t i s essent i al r _y
suppor t f or
onesel f ) '
Cr eat i ve
hel pf ul ness, i magi nat i on
i n al _l r el at i ons"
And
under l yi ngr
al l t hi s: concr et e
r esear ch
t o f i nd out , empi r i cal l y
how soci al st r uct ur es
ar e, i - n f act oper at i ng,
so as t o know whi ch
st ands
t o t ake, what st r at egi es
t o wor k f or .
26
On t he t he st r at egi es of
peace
act i on.
f n t he t abl e next page t he r eader wi l l f i nd what may l ook
as a r at her compl i cat ed scheme, but i - s not hi ng but t he l ogi cal
consequence of what has been di scussed above, spel l ed out a l i t t l e
l^
.i
r-
The st ar t i ng poi nt ar e t he t wo t ypes of vi ol ence, di r ect and
st r uct ur al , and t he t wo ways of f i ght i ng f or peace, negat i vel y by
avoi di ng vi ol ence( "peace keepi ng") and posj - t i vel y by bui l di ng
bet t er r el at i ons
( "peace
bui l di ng") . As met hods r at her t han as
goal s t hese appr oaches have been gi ven names: t he di ssoci at i ve-
and assocj - at i ve- appr oachesr r espect i vel y. Put i n a si mpl e f or mul a
t hey consj - st i n t he f ol l owi ng: i n t he di ssoci at i ve appr oach t he
par t i es ar e kept apar t , r el at i ons ar e br oken; i n t he associ at i ve
appr oach t he par t i es ar e br ought t oget her , r el at i ons ar e bui l t "
The l at t er , however , pr esupposes an i mage of what "peacef ul "
r el at i ons woul d be l i ke. I n ot her wor ds, i t pr esupposes mor e pr e-
ci se i deas of what st r uct ur al l y vi ol ent r el at i ons woul d be l i ke.
f t hi nk i t i s i mpossi bl e t o appr oach t hat subj ect wi t hout some
comment s on t he t er m "expl oi t at i on" si nce t hat t o me was t he ma-
j or
st umbl i ng bl oc i n t he t heor et i cal f r amewor ks i ndi cat ed i n t hi - s
paper . Obvi ousl y expl oi t at i on has somet hi ng t o do wi t h soci al i n-
t er act i on i nvol vi ng at l east t wo par t i es, one get t i ng much mor e
and t he ot her get t i ng much l ess out of t he i nt er act i on r el at i ve
t o t he i nput . The quest i on i s how we can under st and t hi s
"get t i ng
much mor e' / "get t i ng much l ess". f t hi nkone shoul d see,
i n or der
t o under st and, t hi s t hat some of t he cost s and benef i t s i n soci al
7.
' ' i
. \ ! 1
) A mzo of oeace Et r at egi eE
Ft ghr i ng f or peace
=
Fi ghr i ng agai nst r i ol ence
Tuo t r pe. r O[ vi ol encc
t ) r Rl ( 1 {l car i n8. . pi er ci ng. cr ushr ng bur ni nS. expl odi ng. ct c. )
sr r l ( 1r R^r ( cr pl oi l ar i on
t kncr r at i on f r r gmcnt r t i on.
mer Br nal i zat i on)
Tsc
r ar J of f i ghi i ng: I ) r \ \ cxi 41 t \ F( l cePi ng
Par ' l i esaFan
dcmol i shi ngf al scst r ucl ur cs)
A\ \ ( t ( l Al l \ t ( br i ngi ng par ! t es l ot el her ' t r ui i di ng t r ue sl r ucl ur cs)
Fi ghl i ng agai nsl
DI RI CT \ ' I OLE\ CE
Fi ghf rgei nsl domi nrnce
A ctor-
ori en ted
t .
7
_?.
1.
D
I
5
c.
(
j
I
t
St r uc t ur e-
ori ent ed
Geogr aphi eal
Soci al
. . l r i i f i r r ol
J/ o x
Q' t t t
I .
I
t i se t rt t nt rd
Part res
I
I
----.-
! Sel f - r el i r ncr
L Recoupl i ng. on r he basi s of
equi t ;
2. Ent rop; ' ^
i nreract i on al al l l erel s,
i n al ! di rect i ons, not onl ) at t he
el i rr l er el
3.
1.
5.
5.
S; mbi mi s (mal -i ng t h part i es
i nt e r dependent )
Broed scope of interdependence
(manl spheres, Pi deni ng
agendas)
L*ge domei n (more t han t wo
parties. but not too man' ")
Superstructurc for planning, for
probl em and conf l i ct art i cul at i on
and resol ut i on
5
I
c
(
I
:
I
I
Fi ght i ng agai nsr
sTR. t cTUR {t \ , t ol E\ ct
Consciousners formrtion
Orgrnizrtion building
Conf ronl rt i on
Di stance Impedi ments
mi l i t ar S,
nonmr l i t ar
u\ e of t cchnol og\ .
pr ej udi ce.
st ere ot -\ ' Pes
mobi l i r l .
i nd i recr
de mocracr
Peopl e
s{op
One aCl l l l t \ / i
peopl e st ar t
anot hr
bani shment .
secl usi on.
ki l l i ng
n cnCc' oPr ai , On.
ci | i l di sobedi ence.
decou pl i ng
zo
i nt er act i - on appeabet ween t he par t i es as exchange; some of t he
cost s and benef i t s accumul at e i nsi de t he par t i es as "i =t - : ! 1r qg="
as a consequence of t he r ol e pl ayed, t he wor k done. Regar dl ess
of how well one is
paid for the oil gettino it out ard shipped ava.y
devel ops a count r y l ess t han put t i ng i t t o use
j - n
hundr eds and
t housands of di f f er ent ent er pr i ses; r egar dl ess of how wel l t he
t ypi st i s payed t he wor k i s l ess devel opi ng t han t o concei ve of ,
f or mul at e and di ct at e a manuscr i pt .
Expl oi t at i on, t hen, has t o do wi t h t he sum t ot al of cost s
and benef i t s of bot h si des and t hei r compar i son. And at t hi s
poi nt t her e ar e at l - east t wo concept s of expl oi t at i on: expl oi t at i on
as asymmet r y, meani ng t hat t hese t wo sums ar e hi ghl y unequal ; and
expl oi t at i on as o<t ract i on beyond t he l evel of r ecover y, meani ng
t hat t he sum i - s so l ow or so negat i ve f or one of t he par t i es t hat
t he r esul t i s i r r ever si bl e damage. That damage shows up somat i cal l y
as hunger and i l l ness; ment al l y/ spi r i t ual l y as al i enat i on and
repressi -on expressed i n t he persons hi t ; as apat hy i n t he l ast i nst ance.
Hence, a basi c poi nt i n bui l di ng peacef ul r el at j - ons woul d
be at l east t o avoi d t hi s second and i mmedi at el y vi ol ent f or m of
expl oi t at i on, not i n any sense i ndi cat i ng t hat al l hunger , i l l ness
and apat hy i n t he wor l d can be t r aced back t o expl oi t at i ve st r uc-
t ur es. That condi t i on of non- vi ol ent i nt er act i on i s r ef er r ed t o
as equi t y i n t he t abl e. And i f somebody f eel s t hat t hi s i s pol i -
t i cs, t hat i s cer t ai nl y
i - nt er est s of act or s and
l evel s; t - hese i nt er est s
t r ue. Pol i t i cs i s t hat whi ch af f ect s t he
gr oups of act or s at soci et al and gl obal
ar e r egul at ed t hr ough r ef at i ons of power ,
29
vi ol ence bot h i n i t s di - r ect and st r uct ur al f or ms i s an exer ci se
of power i peace i s t he r educt j - on of vi ol ence and consequent l y has
t o do wi t h t he r egul at i on of power . The st r uggl e f or peace i s
cer t ai nl y not a st r uggl e"t o abol i sh power "j ust as l i t t l e as i t i s
t ;
. I
an at t empt t o get r i d of conf l i ct s; i t i s an ef f or t t o st eer t he
exer cl se of power t owar ds non- vi ol ent di r ect j - ons and t o st eer con-
f l i ct s t owar ds non- vi ol ent and cr eat i ve ( posi t i ve peace! ) f or ms
of conf l i ct r esol ut i on. Hence ever yt hi ng t hat has t o do wi t h peace,
r esear ch educat i on and act i on i s pol i t i cs f r om begi - nni ng t o end,
i ncl udi ng t he aspect one r ef uses t o do r esear ch on, r ef uses t o i n-
cl ude i n a peace educat i on and r ef uses. , t o consi der f or peace act j - on.
Nonet hel ess havi ng sai d t hi s i t i s cl ear t hat t he upper cor ner
on t he l ef t hand i s what most peopl e associ at e wi t h peace act i on.
Her e ar e t he ef f or t s t o br i ng about absence of vi ol ence by keepi ng
par t i es, par t i cul ar l y count r j - es, apar t . Thi s was t he cl assl cal
cor ner . I vt r ch of t he di scont ent , t he chal l enge t o whi ch peace r e-
sear ch was i nt ended as a r esponse, has t o do wi t h t hi s cor ner .
That , however , does not mean t hat t he cor ner shoul d be gi ven up:
i t i s t er r i f yi ngl y i mpor t ant , t hi si swher e r esear ch on ar ms r aces,
di sar mament , ar ms cont r ol and al t er nat i ve secur i t y pol i ci es ar e
I ocat ed. And exact l y at t hi s poi nt a maj or di st i nct i - on coul d be
added t o t he t abl e: t he di st i nct i on bet ween det er r ence based on
r et al - i at i on whi ch wi l I have t o be wi t h of f ensi ve weapon syst ems
and det er r ence based on def ense of one' s own t er r i t or v.
Thi s i s not t he pl ace t o go i nt o any det ai l wi t h t he cl as-
si cal cor ner , nor wi t h t he ot her t hr ee. Suf f i ce i t onl y t o say
30
t hat i n t he bot t om l ef t hand cor ner ar e t he ef f or t s t o bui l d
peace and secur l - t y t hr ough cooper at i on r at her t han det er r ence,
l eadi ng t o t he r at her basi c pr obl em of what ki nd of cooper at i ve
r el at i - on i s
peace*bui l di nq
and what ki nd i s not . The hypo-
t heses i n t hat cor ner ar e of t bn seen as l ess "pol i t i cal " t han
t he ent i r e r i ght hand. col umn deal i ng wi t h st r uct ur al vi ol ence and
f on a ver y si mpl e r eason. The associ at i ve appr oach t o di r ect vi o-
f ence consi st s i n br i ngi ng par t i es t oget her , est abl i shi ng some
ki nd of new r el at i on, wher eas t he di ssoci at i ve appr oach t o st r uct u-
r al vi ol ence consi st s i n br eaki ng up ol d r el at j - ons because t hey
ar e t o expl oi t at i ve. I n t he f i r st case no par t y l oses, "bot h of
t hem may gai - n- and one of t hem mi ght even t hi nk t hat t hi s i s a gr ecr t
oppor t uni t y f or gai ni ng di spr opor t i onat el y much
( t hus
l eadi ng t o
t he t ype of pr obl ems t hat wi l l cal l - i nt o act i on di ssoci at i ve st r uc-
t ur al appr oaches l - at er on) . But i n t he di ssoci at i ve appr oach t o
st r uct ur al vi ol ence t her e i s no doubt t hat somebody wi l l be l osi ng,
at l east
j - n
t he shor t r uni consequent l y i t i s br anded as"pol i t j - -
caf i and cor r ect l y so.
But t he st or y does not end wi t h di ssoci at i on. The whol e i - dea
of concei vi ng of peace bot h negat i - ve1y and posi t j - vel y i s a way of
r ej ect i ng t he di ssoci at i ve appr oach as a goal ; i t
j - s
t oo negat i ve,
t oo uncooper at i ve- non- i nt egr at i ve even i f t her e may al so be har mony
i n di ssoci at i on. The goal l i es beyond negat i ve peace, hence t he
necessi t y of a posi t i ve peace concept i n addi t i on. And a cr i t i cal
f eat ur e of t hi s posi t i ve peace concept i s a r el at i on of equi t y, l i ke
when adol esCent s r el _i nk l e
] - hai r nl r an+c^f t er
a per i od of r Upt Ur e,
- 31
gai ni ng mat ur i t y t hr ough sel f - r el i ance and hopef ul l y havi ng pa-
r ent s who under st and how t o t r eat t hei r new bor n chi l dr en on a basi s
of equi t y, i n ot her wor ds as f el l ow adul t s.
Hi st or y i s t he endl ess movement of a syst em i n and out of
t hese f our cel l s. The st or y may st ar t anywher e and end anywher e,
By and l ar ge t he l ef t hand col umn i s mor e i nt er est i ng i n t he ana-
l ysi s of East - West r el at i ons and t he r i ght hand col umn i n t he
anal ysi s of Nor t h- Sout h r el at i ons - but havi ng sai d t hat a war ni ng
shoul d i mmedi at el y be i ssued: bot h of t hem appl y t o bot h. And t he
syst em i s capabl e of i nf i ni t e r ef i nement . Mor e par t i cul ar l y, ext r a-
pol at i ng f r om t hi s si mpl e l i t t f e t abl e, put t i ng mor e meat on t he
associ at l ve appr oaches, a model of a mor e peacef ul gl obaI and soci al -
syst em woul d emer ge based on eQui t y r el at i ons and yet wi t h suf f i ci ent
aut onomy t o r et ai n t hat gr eat gi f t r ef er r ed t o i n t he upper r i ght
hand cor ner as sel f - r el 1ance. But t hat st or y, i n a sense, bel ongs
mor e t o t he f i el d of devel opment r esear ch t han peace r esear ch how-
ever unseper abl e t he t wo may be.
B. The met hods of
peace
r esear ch.
On t he sur f ace peace r esear ch i s a soci al sci ence, or a con-
gl omer at e of soci al sci ences,
j ust
l - i ke t he ot her s. However , t her e
i s a pr obl em, and t hat pr obl em i s t o some ext ent i ndi cat ed i n
f i gur e 2z
Fi qur e 2. On sci ent i f i - c act i vi t v
Dat a
, / \
EMPI RI CTSM
x / \ 1. . cnr r I CI SM
/ \
TheAty
-
y3lus
+
CONSTRUCTI VI SM
32
Of cour se peace r esear ch depends on dat ar and of cour se t heor i es ar e
devel oped. Fur t her , t he t wo ar e compar ed and t heor i es t hat do not
f i t t he dat a ar e di scar der l Thi s appr oach, al so known as empi r i -
ci sm i s as i ndi spensabl e as i t i s i nsuf f i ci ent . I t s i nsuf f i ci encv
i s most cl ear l y seen f r om t he doubl e ci r cumst ance t hat
peace
r e-
sear ch i s cent er ed ar ound a compl ex, pr obl emat i c val ue, "peace",
and
t hat
t hi s val ue i s onl y ver y i mper f ect l y and i ncompl et el y r eal i zed
so t hat ver y l i t t l e i s avai l abl e
j - n
t er ms of dat a about
peace
on
whi ch t heor i es can be t est ed. Of cour se, t her e i s mor e
peace t han
war i n human hi st ory . But t he t heory of peace, and t he concept of
peace, ar e bot h r el at i vel y r i ch so t hat empi r l cal gl i mpses her e and
t her e wi l l t end t o gi ve di st or t ed pi ct ur es of mor e compl ex concept -
ual i zat i ons. One cannot bui l d a gener al t heor l z of peace f or t he
wor l d on r el at i ons bet ween l l or di c count r i es al one, or of di sar ma-
ment on t he basi s of Cost a Ri ca. Obvi ousl v t hese cases ar e speci al
l i ke al l cases ar e; t hey may be heur i st i cal l y usef ul but shoul - d
nn{- l - . a n6r ni +t ed
t O l _i mi t t he t hi nki ng about peace t o such concr et e
cases.
There are ljmits to enrpiricisn like to anvthinq else"
Hence t he need t o el abor at e t he val ue of peace as much as
t he dat a and t he t heor j - es. Thi s paper i s i t sel - f an exampl e of some
^c
! L^ l l i . ^- ^
t hat happen when a concept i s put under magni f yi ng \ . / I LI I C LI I _L1l Y D
gi l asses . But t hen, i , vf uy shoul d dat a onl y be compared t o t heori es?
Why coul d t hey not be compar ed t o val ues i n a cr i t i cal mannet r mean-
i ng t hat concr et e si t uat i ons ar e r el at ed t o t he val ue of peace or i t s
sat el l j - t e val ues, and t hen si mpl y eval uat ed l i ke when an ar t cr l t i c
does t he same f or a pi ece of ar ! or a
j ud. ge
uses t he l aws of t he
- 33
count r y t o eval uat e t he dat a about a def endent
j _n
cour t ?
And t hen, t o go one st ep f ur t her : why shoul d one not r el at e
val ues and t heori es di rect l y, i -n an ef f ort t o underst and
qorrst ruct i r. el y,
i f onl y on paper ,
t he condi t i ons under whi - ch val ues associ at ed
wi t h peace coul d be r eal i zed? Af t er al l _, t hi s i s what an ar chi t ect
does when he i s t r anscend. i ng dat a. I n al l t hese cases, empi r i ci sm,
cr j - t l ci sm and const r uct i vi sm, t he r esear cher i s act ual l v doi nq some-
thi ng whi ch from a formal poi nt
of vi ew has t he same st r uct ur e:
r eal i t y i s di vi ded i nt o t wo par t s such as "obser ved' l t r nobser ved" and
"desi r ed" / "r e) ect ed' ) and t hen a sear ch goes on wi t h speci al f ocus
on t he cases of devi ance, such as t he desi r ed t hat i s unobser ved,
not t o ment i on t he r ej ect ed t hat i s obser ved. Di f f er ent ways of
deal i ng wi t h t he wor l dj t he same way of compar i ng t he di f f er ent
ways and t he same at t ent i on on t he mechani sms by whi ch t wo or t hr ee
ways of d. i vi di ng t he wor l d may become al i qned.
what shoul d peace
r esear ch do? of cour se, al ] t hr ee. Ther e
i s empi r i cql
"peqcg_. r _eg_eg{9_h, by
def i ni t i on deal i ng wi t h t he pr obr ems
of t he past si nce
onl y
t he past
has gener at ed
dat a; t her e i s
cr i t i cal peace r esear ch deal i ng wi t h t he pr obl ems
of t h. . pr u". r I ,
eval uat i ng- concr et e pol i ci es f or i nst ance; and t her e i s const r uct *
i ve peace r esear cl r L deal i ng wi t h bl ue- pr i nt s f or qhe f - ! l g. i ndi cat i ng
possi bl e peace st r at egi es. A peace
r esear cher shoul d be i n command
of al l t hr ee, and i n or der t o do so he has t o get out of t he empi r i -
cj - st st r ai ght j acket but
r emai n sensi t i ve t o t he r ul es of empi r i cal
r esear ch, par t i cul ar l y
i n t he eval uat i on of new peace pol i ci es.
Act ual l y, a1l of t hi s i s t r i vi al , f r ,
connect j _on wi t h engi neer i _ng
scl ences, and t he appr oach of t he ar chi t ect al r eady al l uded t o, and
34
none of t hese pr of essi ons i s t oday par t i cul ar l y r adi cal or subver -
si ve of t he soci al or der . Mor eover , i n ot her f i el ds of soci al
act i vi t y t he empi r i ci sm- cr i t i ci sm- const r uct i vi sm
t r i pl e i s al r eady
mor e t han accept ed, f or i nst ance i n connect i on wi t h t hat vast con-
gl omer at e of soci ar sci ences r ef er r ed t o as "ed. ucat i on"
( whi ch
al so has some si mi l ar i t i es t o peace r esear ch, i nci dent at l y) . Hence,
t he r esi st ance/ when peace r esear ch get s out of t he nar r ow conf i nes
of emper i ci sm i nt o t he ot her t wo, cannot possi bl y be expl ai ned by
r ef er ence t o t he subj ect mat t er .
The roots of this resistance, still- for:nd
j-n
scrne conservative cjrclesrare
cer t ai nl y l ocat ed somewher e ef sei wel l ent r enched power est abl i sh-
ment s, used t o havi ng a monopol y on mat t er s of peace and war , of
expl oi t at i on and l i ber at i on, even pr ot ect ed by secr ecy/ f eel t hr eat en-
ed by such at t empt s. Thei r i mmedi at e r eact i ons wi l l necessar i l y
be of t wo ki nds: ei t her t o co- opt t he new r esear cher s or t o r epr ess
t hem - or possi bl y bot h. But such mat t er s bel ong t o t he t r i vi a
of cont empor ar y soci al r eal i t y, t her e i s not hi ng par t l cul ar l y new
nor par t i cul ar l y i nspi r i ng . Tt
j ust
si mpl y i _: l i ke t hat and has
al ways been l i ke t hat whenever a new br anch of r esear ch i s appear -
I I I V .
9. What ki - nd of i nt el l ect ual st vl e f or
peace
r esear ch?
One t hi ng J- s met hod, qui t e anot her t hi ng i s t he i nt el l ect ual
st yl e i n whi ch r esear ch i s car r i ed out and t he f i ndi ngs ar e pr esent ed
The r eader wi l l f i nd i n Tabl e 3. some ef f or t s t o char act er i ze f our
maj or i nt el l ect ual st yl es i n t he wor l d t oday, Saxoni c, Teut oni c,
Gal l i c, and Ni pponi c, wi t h obvi ous i ndi cat i ons as t o count r j - es
j - n
whi ch t hese st yl es woul d be par t i cul ar l y st r ong:
35
TABLE 3
A gui de t o i nt el l ect ual st yl es
Saxoni c Teut oni c Gal I i c Ni pponi c
Par adi gm
anal ysi s
Descr i pt i ons:
Pr oposi t i on-
pr oduct i on
Expl anat i ons:
Theor y-
f or mat i on
Comment ary
on ot her
i nt eTf ect ual s;
.-------=.--
-paracra9ms
- pr oposi t i ons
- t heor i es
weak
\ 74 r \ 7
st r ong
- - ^ -
t -
w e ct.t\
scrongi
sr r ong
weak
ver y
st r ong
st r ong
st r ong
weak
ver y
st r ong
sr r ong
weak
SEr Ongf
weak
\ 7Ar \ 7
st r ong
So, whi ch st yl e
j - s
t he best one f or peace r esear ch? I s i t
t he Saxoni c st r ong emphasi s on descr i pt i onr on empi r i cal accur acy,
and r at her negat i ve at t i t ude t o t heor y- f or mat i on, r ef er r i ng t o al most
any t heor y as "sweepi ng
gener al - i zat i on"? Or , i s i t t he Teut oni c
emphasi s on st r i ct d- educt i ons f r om f i r st pr i nci pl es, t heor y bui l di ng
i - n pyr ami dal f or m wi t h l ess emphasi s on cor r espondence wi t h dat a?
Or , i s i t t he Gal - l i c emphasi s i n t he same di r ect i on, but wi t h mor e
el egance, mor e f l exi bi l i t y, mor e aest het i ci sm and al so l ess pr et en-
si on
t hat t he t heor y mi r r or s soci al r eal i t y? Or , i s i t t he Ni pponi c
f ocus on t he wor l d of books r at her t han t he wor l d of r eal i t y, wi t h
r unni ng comment ar y on ot her i nt el l ect ual s, aq_eaEg peace r esear cher s?
36
Agai n, I f eel t hat t he answer has t o be al - 1 f our . Peace
r esear ch means bot h dat a- col l ect i on
as publ i shed
by t he f nt er nat i on- al
I nst i t ut e of St r at egi c St udi es and t he St ockhol - m I nt er nat i onal Peace
Resear ch f nst i t ut e and concept ual i zat i on and t heor y- f or mat j - on, bot h
of
t he st r l ct l y deduct i ve and of t he per haps mor e ar t i st i c qual i t y.
I n addi t i on, al t hough possi bl y of a mor e secondar y nat ur e; t hey need
t o t ake st ock of t hei r own house and see what t akes pl ace, . i n ot her
wor ds r unni ng comment ar y on t hei r own act i vi t y. Ther e i s r oom f or
al l of t hi s; onl y not f or t he per son who i nsi st s t hat onl y one of t hese
appr oaches i s t he cor r ect , even uni ver sal one, and t he ot her s ar e mi s-
under st andj - ngs. Agai n bot h- and, not - ei t her - or .
At t hat poi nt one l i t t l e comment as a per son f r om Nor t her n Eu-
r ope.
Per haps
one r eason why peace r esear ch i s r el at i vel y st r ong
i n Nor t her n Eur ope i s t hat our i - nt el l ect ual st vl e i s at l east a bl end
of t he Saxoni c and t he Teut oni c, of t he f ocus on dat a - col l ect i on
an9 on t heor y- - f or mat l on, l eadi ng t o hypot het i cal - deduct i ve met ho-
dol ogi es. Of ar t i st i c el egance t her e i s l ess, of r unni ng comment ar y
al so l ess t hat i s of t en l ef t t o peopl e f r om ot her count r i es.
Cer t ai nl y t hi s i s not t he onl y r eason why peace r esear ch has had
r el at i vel y good condi t i ons i n t hr ee of t he Nor di c count r i es
( Nor way,
Sweden, Fi nl and). Add to thi s the' ci rcur.r.stance
that the rel ati ons amono Nordi c
eor.rntries constitute no bad example of how associative peace can be brought
- 1- ^, , !
l a
^
1
cr r J\ JUL7 L( J a r af g ext ent l mpl ement i ng t he st r at egi es ment i oned
t wo sect i ons ago, I f some r eader f i nds t hese t wo comment s chauvi ni st i c
t hi s i s cer t aj - nl y cor r ect i t he onl y di f f er ence bet ween our chauvl -
ni sm and t hat of ot her peopl e bei ng t hat our s r ef l ect s r eal i t y. . .
But t hey go
f ar t owar ds expl ai ni ng t he empi r i cal / t heor et i cal
appr oach
combi ne wi t h a cer t ai n opt i mi sm char act ar i st i c
of Nor di _c peace
r esear ch.
- 3t -
1O. Peace and ci vi l i zat i on
For anyone who, l i ke t he pr esent aut hor , has been doi ng peace
r esear ch f or mor e t han t hi r t y year s t he moment comes when one can
- r "^+' : ' t r ' i
- 1- 1- ' ^sk: i n what di r ect j - on i s your r esear ch l eadi - ng?
JUJLr ! Lqpl y
qi
Shoul d I gi ve an answer i n one wor d r i ght now, i n 1984t t hi r t y year s
af t er I was co- aut hor i ng my f i r st publ i cat i on i n t he f i e1d, or
Gandhi ' s pol i t i cal et hj - cs, I woul d say: ci vi l i zat i on. And t hi s
f or t wo r easons.
Fi r st , t her e i s t oo much var i at i on i n t he pr act i se of vi ol ence
bot h i n t i me and i n space t o war r ant t he concl usi on t hat i s al l
a quest i on of bi ol ogy and i nst i nct s. The opposi t e concl usi on, t hat
t her e i s no pat t er n at al l - and i t i s onl y a guest i on of r eact i on
t o
a myr i ad of f act or s t hat come t oget her as event s, i s al so unsat i s-
f act or y. Ther e seem t o be pat t er ns: nomadi c soci et i es ar e by and
l ar ge l ess aggr essi ve t han i ndust r i al soci et i esi peopl e i n Buddhi st
soci et l es l ess aggr essi ve t han peopl e i n Chr i st i an soci et i es- so
i f we wer e al l Eski mo Buddhi st sour si t uat i on woul d have been easi er .
We ar e not - i n f act , f or aI I f know t her e may be no Eski mo Bud. dhi st s
ar ound at al l . Many of us ar e l i vi ng
j - n
a Chr i st i an, or t o use a
br oader t er m occi dent al
( i ncl udi ng
t he
j udai c
and t he i sl amj - c t r a-
di t i ons) ci vi l i zat i on and many of us l i ve i n i ndust r i al soci et i es.
The deeper
_code,
or p_r egr em of a ci vi l
j - zat i on
seems at l east t o be
one pr omi ssi ng f act or wor t h l ooki ng i nt o
i n
t he sear ch f or t he r oot s
of vi ol ence of bot h t ypes, and possi bl y al so f or t hei r r educt i on.
' r ' r ' r : {-
nr n^r t m
i s what f r ef er t o as
( soci al )
cosmol ogy, and i t seems
3B
at l east hi ghl y pl ausi bl e t hat t her e
j - s
an expansi oni sL occi dent al
ci vi l i zat l onal code r at wi l l car r y i n i t s wake, al most wi t h necessl -
t y, even enor mous quant i t i es of di r ect and st r uct ur al vi ol ence.
Second, t her e i s a mor e opt i mi st i c i nspi r at i on t o be gai ned
f r om a ci vi l i zat j - onal per spect i - ve. The wor d "peace" t r ansl at es
i nt o di f f er ent wor ds i nt o di f f er ent l anguages, al l of t hem havi ng
di f f er ent connot at i ons, showi ng di f f er ent f acet s of "peace". Thus
t he r oman pax t ypi cal l y r i r eans"absence of vi ol ence", under t he r ul e
of l aw
( pact a
sunt ser vanda) . Of cour se, t hi s i n no way excl udes
st r uct ur a1 vi ol ence: The Roman Empi r e was r epl et e wi t h st r uct ur al
vi ol ence, but at some t j mes a set t i ng wi t hi n whi ch di r ect vi ol ence was
r el at i vel y absent , t hus per mi t t i ng st r uct ur al - vi ol ence t o per meat e
unabat ed.
The Gr eek ei r ene, t he Hebr ai c shal - om and t he A. : abi c
sal a' a- r n
ar e mor e poi nt i ng t owar ds peace as
j ust i ce,
i n ot her wor ds
"absence
of st r uct ur al vl ol - ence". Si - nce t hese ar e occi dent al cul t ur es t hat
not i on i s cer t ai - nl y al so i n occi dent al - ci vi l i zat i on.
When we t hen move east war ds" t o t he Hi ndu ghel t i , peace becomes
mor e l j - ke"i - nner peace", a har moni ous st at e of mi nd not unknown i n
Chr i st i an t hi nki ng. Thi s di f f er s f r om t he Buddhi st / . Jai nj - st
14i msa,
hnh- r 7j n] anna
because i t adds t o t he
peacef ul -
j - nner
st at e of mi nd v av! ur r e e
t
t he not i on of non- vi ol ent behavj - our , al so st r uct ur al l y, i t seem. s.
Thi s was t he poi nt of depar t ur e f or Gandhi ' s sat yagr aha. put t i ng
ahi msa t o wor k as di r ect act i on, i n an aggr essi ve manner , agai nst
39
di r ect and st r uct ur al vi ol ence i n al l i t s f or ms and mani f est at i ons,
but al ways non- vi o1ent l y.
When we t hen move st i l l f ur t her t o t he East t he Chi nese con-
cept of ho p' i ng and t he Japanese concept of hei wa seem mor e t o
car r y connot at i ons of soci al har mony, peacef ul ness, adj ust ment -
pr obabl y compat i bl e not onl y wi t h st r uct ur al vi ol ence. but al _so
wi t h di r ect vi ol ence.
what r am hi nt i ng at i s onl y t he f ol l owi ng: di f f er ent ci vi l i -
zat i ons see peace di f f er ent l y. I f peace
r esear ch t r i es t o be not
onl y hol i st i c but al so gl obal i t i s cer t ai nl y i nsuf f i ci ent t o deal
wi t h peace t he way i t i s concei ved of i n, f or i nst ance, Nor t her n
r - r r r nna enmaf uoi 7
4] f of t hi s shoul d be t aken i nt o account :
absense of di r ect vi ol ence/ absence
of st r uct ur al - vi ol ence
i
i nner / out er i
vi ol ent met hods/ non- vi ol ent met hods; har mony/ dl shar mony, Some
combi nat i ons of t hese di mensi ons have been gi ven expr essi ons i n
t he cul t ur es ment i oned; t her e ar e many ot her human cul t ur esr r r o
doubt t her e ar e ot her peace concept s. I t i s as i f somewher e t her e
was once a r i ch, hol i st i c peace concept whi ch was t hen spl i t i nt o
sever al - component s, one component bei ng gi ven t o each par t of
humankj - nd. and t hus i t comes t hat not onl y i s t her e pl ent y of
unpeace i n a f r agment ed humani t y; t he concept of peace i s i t sel f
f r aqment ed.
Resear ch pr obl em_:
what ar e t he conseguences
of t hat ? And
what i s t he r el at i on bet ween t he t wo aspect s of t he f ocus on ci vi -
l i zat i on: t o what ext ent i - s t he peace concept an ar t i cul at i on of
ci vi l i zat i onal
bi ases, t o what ext ent does t he concept i t sel f f avor
some pol l ci es r at her t han ot her s?
4c)
Concl usi on
Thi s l ast poi - nt i s i mpor t ant : maybe i t i s t he t ask of t he
peace r esear ch t o t r y t o put t oget her what has been so ef f ect i vel y
f r agment ed and pi t t ed agai nst each ot her i n a hi ghl y dest r uct i ve
manner ' i ncl udi ng t he concept of peace
i t sel f . I am not t he sl i ght -
est wor r i ed t hat t hi s wi l - l shoul d l ead t o a homogeneous wor l d st at e:
t her e wi l l al ways be mor e t han enough cont r adi ct i ons
ar ound. , emer g-
i ng out of t he ver y ef f or t t o put t hi ngs t oget her . But humani t y
i n gener ar , ano
peace i n par t i cul aq,
ar e t od. ay di vi ded i n a most des-
t r uct i ve manner . Somet hi ng
has t o be done about i t .
Peace r esear ch, t hen, st ands out as one t i ny l i t t l e ef f or L,
I have t r i ed t o i ndi cat e how i mpor t ant i t was openl y t o admi t peace
as a val ue, t o be made e: r pl i ci t and t o be expl or ed as. pr ggl Smat j s"
And f r om t hat poi nt on al l t he chal l enges ment i oned have some of
t he same st r uct ur e: somet hi ng has been f ound. i nsuf f i ci ent , some-
t hi ng new has been devel oped and af t er t hat a bot h- and. emer ges r a-
t her t han an ei t her - or .
one may ask: what about peace r esear ch i n t he f ut ur e? r
coul d i magi ne a coupl e of poi nt s.
Thus I t hi nk nat ur al sci ences
and humanj - t i es have t o be
{or qgnt
i n much mor e ef f ect i vel y; t he
f i el d has been t o much doml nat ed by soci al sci ences. Fur t her ,
t he l ast di mensi on hi nt s ver y def i ni t l l z t o t he si gni f i cance of
a t ranscul t ural . not onl y t ransnat i onat ; p_gl : ! Sg! y_e_
Then,
41
peace r esear ch shoul d l i ber at e i t sel f f r om a mat er i al i st i c bi as
deal i ng wi t h bodi es, dead or al i ve, heal t hy or not heal t hy - i n
ot her wor ds wi t h mor t al j - t y and mor bi di t y onl y and not wi t h t he
ment al and spi r i t ual di mensi ons of vi ol ence and human
qr owt h
and
devel opment . No doubt t hi s woul d l ead t o a f ur t her devel opment
of t he t heor y of needs
,
par t i cul ar l y t he cl asses of f r eedom and
i dent i t y needs, si ngl y and combj - ned.
f have al r eady poi nt ed t o t he need f or i nt egr at i on of t he
f our spaces, not onl y by t r aci ng i nt er connect l ons, but al so by es-
t abl j - shi ng mor e i somor phi sms bet ween t hem. Syst ems t heor y i s sup-
posed t o do t hi s. t her e i s much t o be f et ched t her er ho doubt t her e
coul - d al so be ot her accr oaches.
Wher eas t hi s woul - d be r esear ch, t he maj or chal l enges of t he
198O' s ar e cer t ai nl y peace- educat i on and peace act i on. Due t o
t he UN and UNESCO r esol ut i ons manv count r i es ar e now havi ng
gr eat
i nt er nal debat es as t o how
peace
educat i on coul d be car r i ed out ,
Thi s i s a f i el d wher e many peace r esear cher s have al r eady
l - aunched t hemsel ves, and hopef ul l y wi l l cont i nue t o d. o so, seei ng i t
as a ver y i mpor t ant oppor t uni t y t o t est t he t hi nki ng i n di al ogues
t hat ar e educat i onal t o bot h si des. And t he same goes f or t he
peace act i on possi bi l i t i es, wi t h t he peace r esear cher s as t he i nt el -
l i gent si a of t he peace movement , and t he secur i t y r esear cher s or
def ense i nt el l ect ual s as t he i nt el l i qent si a of
gover r unent al es-
t abl i shment s, somet i mes onl y shades away f r om what mi ght be cal l ed
t he"war movement ". At l of t hi s wi l l t est t he peace r esear cher s'
abi l i t y t o est abl i sh an i dent i t y of hi s own and t o
l ead
a l i f e
42
i n r easonabl e i nt egr i t y; i t wi l l cer t ai nr y not be easy. But
al - l t he same hj - s t ask wi l l be t o devel op new peace st r at egi es, ,
t o be i magi nat i ve, const r uct i ve and cr i t i cal but al so empi r i cal
and t o know how t o pr esent hi s f i ndi ngs.
I f i n addi t i on t o t hi s t he cul t ur a1 sensi t i vi t y coul d l ead
t he peace r esear cher t o see t he danger of et hnocent r i sm not onl y
i n ot her but al so i n hi msel f much woul d be
qai ned.
No smar l bi l r , i ndeed. But t hen, who sai d t hat t he r i f e
of a peace r esear cher shoul d be unpr obl emat i c? We ar e onl y 15 year s
away f r om year 2ooo, l et t hat be t he next r est i ng poi nt i n t j _me
t o t ake st ock. Hopef ul l y, dt t hat poi nt we shoul d be abl e t o
say: our act i vi t y hm not onl y resul t ed i n an enormous amounr
of l - ect ur es and t al ks, i - r r ar t l cl es and books; but al so i n l ess
vi ol ence mor e
peace.
i r FC i cat ,
a'fli
l l nl
"
- i : ; . . -
i 1
NOTES
l . The l i r e per son\ ! \ er c l ngr i d Ei de ( l at er assi st anr
pr ot c' ssor of soci ol o- e1, Ll ni ver si t y of Osl o. NI P
and Under secr et ar y of Educat i on) , Nl ar i Hol nt boe
Ruge ( l at er secr et ar y of t he soci al sci ence sect i on of
t he Nor r vegi an Counci l l br Rescar ch i n Sci ence and
t he Hunt ani t i cs, and Heat l of Sect i on i n t hr - NI i ni sr r l
of Labor ) .
. \ r
r r e \ l ar t i n Ki auscn ( l at er pr ot cs: or of
ant hr opol ogr ) and Si r er t l - anghol m ( l ui t cr pr of essor
of hi sttl r r ) - and m1' scl f, peace rcsearchcr i n search
of nacr o- spal i al , macr o- t empor al and macr o-
di sci pl i nar l per spect i ves. I nt ent i on t hi s t o i ndi cat e
t hal not onl v t he r oads i nt o hr r t al so l r onr pcact
r esear ch ar e r nan) , t r sual l y' pr er cr r i ng nr uch of t he
basi c pcr spcct i ve.
ni , e: . nai , i
i i e: t f r ci i
+, he
: - e : : r l l _: ' i : j - " r _ : "f , -
qi
: ^ c'
c c : l r r
: r .. !:'
+. . r : :
st , r : t :
i "^i c: cr i
t n i : : e i r i . : . i ' - i - , "I r , ' eg
gi "- ' : "e
*t i , e: ' nat t cr
, ' i : : c; : a' . ' - c:
-
l l l : t r .
j i . t i !
I l e' . . : sl ei , *, e: "
' r cc.
! , - / =. t a. :
' . i - nr
! ' , - 6r i c
t . . - r i
"^. : . . a: =i - i - - ; 4+*f , i - - - r +! - - ' ' , 1, . . - ,
Y. ' - r - - 1
- <' -
- t n
, ' i : : ci : a' . ' - c:
-
l l l : ".
j i . t i !
I l e' . . : sl ei , *, e: "
' r cc.
' ! , - . / =.
t a. :
' , : ": . .
, - : . ?; . e, , : at
r . ,
, , ^; r : : E: - i : a*f , *- - T*l i - - "", . : . i , y. , - r - - 1
- <. - -
' n
2. At t he Gyt r r cont ' er ence t hi s \ \ as t he case wi t h
Mar i o Bor el l i . Magnus Haavel sr ud and Hdkan
\ \ I i bc- r g. f hcr c r i i l be manv ot hcr s i n r he t i nt e t o
CO nl ! ' .
l . For e i l escr i pl i on ol a r cal l y cl i t i st r cscar ch i nst i t u-
ti on, src' rnl arti cl c i n R<rr1i rs, spri ng 198.1, on the
\ \ ' i ssenschaf t skol l eg zu Bcr l i n, r epr i nr cd i n t hc
. l l i t t ei l unl sbl ut t ol t he Techni sche Ll ni ver si t ai t .
Bcr l i n, Jun! ' 198- 1.
L The l i r st s\ sl enr at i .
l ) r e\ cl t t at i on
of t hi s pt - r spt - ct i l e
by t he pr esent aur h( l r \ \ as
- qi r en
at t hc Nor di c
Summcr Uni ver si n. Tanr pcr e. August 1962, unpr i nt ed
manuscr i pt .
5. See An Edi tori al ' , Journul cl Pt' uce Rr,.searr' h, r' ol . l ,
no. l . 1961. pp. l - ; 1. f or i i n ear l v exampl e of t hi s
O' pe
pl
r hi nki ng. Kcnner h Boul di ng. l ocs nol agr cc:
' l
t hi nk i t
[ peace
r escar eh] di d get a l i t t l c di st r act cd.
Pur t l v. t hi s i s r r . r l goocl f r i end. l ohan Cal t un, q' s f aul t . I
l r . nr \ er v f bnd ol ' . l ohi r n hut he r eal l y pcr l er t ccl t he
f caec
r escl r ch mo\ en) enl i nt o somet hi ng f hat i s t oo
gr ancl t o nr i l na, qe: t he i dea ol ' posi t i ve peace. et c.
I . r nr nt r t goi ng t o t hr or r i t out ol ' t he r vi ndor i
al t ogct hcr . by anv nr eans - but i t seenl s t o nr e t hat
negat i r c pcace i s r r r uch nl or c i nr por t ant , t hat i s.
j ust
'
t l ) e pr e\ ( ' nt i on of uar . l n a eci l ai n scnsc. t hc movcmenl
has r at hcr l osl i nt er cst i n t hi s and I t hi nl t hat uas
unl or l unal q'
l Boul di ng. l 9f i . l . p. l 9) .
I r l i sagr ee doubl l r i t h r l r ) ! ' qual l l ' good t l t cnd
K' , : r r net h Roul di ng: t hcr c r l r c JO nr an) ' sl al c\ ot al ' f ai r s
t i r i i l . l o not i ncl ude uar bl t t cl t nnol possi bl l be sai d
t o i ncl ucl e peacc ei t her : and t he pcaec r cscar ch
movcn) er ) t has bcen \ er ) i t r ' t i \ e i n t hc l ' i cl cl oi l l ar
pr t r er t l i or r and ar nr r l ace r t ' sear r l ' t I l t c l ast l i r r : r car s,
al t cr u l be us dr r r i ng l hc 197( ) : on pl obl ent s t t t t l scl op-
r nent . \ \ ' hcn i l cor ne. : l t r pr i or i t i es, par r i cul ar l y l i r r
peace r cscar cher . i n t he l i r st ancl sccond r r or l cl s r i ght
no*, i n our
l ) t r ' \ L- nt
desper at c si l r r at i cl r r , I coul d easi l r
agr ec *i t h Kr nnct h. but I do not want t ( ) cr ect anv
t l ar r i ct s i i ni t t r ' l l er e, l l ot l gr t hct i l t : t i i t l r i t or '
bel cl r t - qs l r r : i l nt cone el sc! '
6. l ' hi s i s t hc r eason f br nr l ear l 1, use ot t hc r vor d
' st nl ct ul t l ' i n t he t i t l c ot scl man) ' ar t i cl es, sl ar t i ng wi l h
an ar t i cl e on a- qgr cssi on pLr hl i shed 196. 1 see E. r : r dr s
i n Peuce Rt seur Lh, \ / ol s. l l l and I V r t r r peacc and
soci i t l st r t r ct ur er l or l t l st r t r et r r r e r esp! . et i \ cl \ .
J..-.
7. Thc Bhopal cl i saster 1984 di fl -ers fronr thi s process
i n bei ng qui cker , so qui ck t hat i t l ooks mor e l i ke
di r ect vi ol encc and t he quest i on of gui l t and puni sh-
ment , nr or al l v and, / or l cqal l ) ' , ar i ses.
l l , , ' , t , he
i : : e: . ' : ' r i t : j ' , . ' t : ?. 1 . i : ol _e: _r *er r
*, - ; l ' t
l c t f _n: i *er : : , bl _e
, _: : ) r , +, c.
i he j *e: . Ja- r a i 3
cbr . r ! c' : : i
' j hc: , cl , s i : ' l . c. l i
- ; l cl anX
: n
t : . t ! ?*: o ci : . Cl - e:
' . S : een f - : , - i : i e: : . i ' t ' : : : ; , ) n"e l . e3l Cl l C C ; c : : l f eCl
' , r - 1
3- l e) n3e, : i : Se] _: -
: ei *n: . i i i : . *, i l n: i
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a: r t r oi j ci cn,
*nr r ei vi nS cf s: r ci i : i - l , 3*
ni r , en. . 3. 2 e: . : . , i ci i ei - l cno ct ; ' Lf
gnr j
: cci a] ' n j . ; : : 1, : xg
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1' i nd. *: ' n
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: i : l , er ar ' ! , 2u. , ' 7, gL
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: : 3i j s . : i L: . 1: v: . i , - i ct : "i r , .
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l r : i ci r : T: . Ji e: l n i l : e : e"i r e c:
t : : - : i n; : , l i i : f ' : , et l c: r oi hccl c ! 1ec, - ; l ( i i u: , / ' ' ", f . 1,
. . . r c1: l - De ' hi - r
l l ec' l c: : , ' r dent l t , - : ) i i : - : cst : . ' {r i e i cr 1: - ' r . : ' 1; e n' i : ; - 3el : r ot
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-
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( 5) ' l i : er e
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: nc c. ; 1 t o{' ' l i : : eci vi cl Lence a: '
j
n
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t
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i e
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- - l r - / Ur ' - : ) - : :
.;
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z: u r: r-a
j'
r
s/ f ; r L; a, _i : L .
8. Thus. I do not agr ee ni t h \ l 3i l 1r r 1; : : : : : t \ : umpl i ot l
ot a hi er ar chv of needs and f i nl l r nr : i : r r cncr al t hcr .
i s a r i eh nt an. \ \ e: t er n nr an. Li r l . . r n n. , an l . t t : .
9. Hi ncl Lr i sm al so has a qui r r r et oi basi c val ues:
Dhar r l a ( ( hl t ) ) , Ar t ha ( po\ \ c\ \ i ( ) ns) , Kama ( pl casur e)
and l \ ' l oki ha ( l i ber at i on) - bur ui t h t he i r npor r anl
addi t i onal poi nt t hat t her c i . no hi er ar chl , t hey
al e al l t o br - pur sucd. She hc uho pur \ Ll c. . r r nl v one
r \ l een i l s headi ng t i r r l r r . Lnc c- r c- n t hat one.
l ( ) . Thi s r : uhat I l nr er t r r ent l y uor ki n- c. r , i t heor ] ,
Itl r
' nraturrt-v'
i n al l tbur spaccs, dftrrr i l l g rrn sonte
of t he i nsi ghr s gai r r ed I r om ! - col r r ! t ! i , l r esci l r ch.
I cl ni e j ust
hast en t o add: I havc n( ' \ r . r l i ( ) r . l ght of '
. I l \ ' pcr spect i \ c as 1r per spect i l c. r h. - t i nl l onc
- oni v as
( ) ne nt or e per \ nect i \ e.
l r r i r r g t t r \ qu( ' ( - zc
r ) ut
of t hc per : pcet i \ ! . as nl uch i nsi ght a: possi bl e.
Cr j t i cr sont ct i nt c\ nl i ss t hat poi nt , bcl i oi ng t hat I
bel i cr e i n x t heor \ as t he onl l t heor v possi hl e.
11. I r r l 96j I sr ot e l hc f i r st dr af l of n Theor i t ' s ol '
peac. ,
r r nder cont r act ui t h L. NESCI O. Nocr publ i shed, r t i s
nor i hei ng t ot al l v r e\ i r ed l r nd i s ' l or t hcont i ng'
( l oger hcr t i t h a Zr r , r r r r cr ol
( ' onl l i ct
r r r i t t cn i n
1973t . \ l a1be i l \ \ n\ r ar hcr
- r ood
r her ' \ \ ' er e nol
publ i shcd. . .
l l . Thi s i s a t l pi cul i hi i r acl r . r i sl i c ol t - t N r t scar ch, a
basi c par t ot r hc' anr hr opol ogr ot r hc LI N as a
r esczr r ch est at r i i r l i nr c- ni . pr obat r l r t he sor l d . l ar gesl
\ \ he1 t t k( l t 1. . . . \ r r , ,
r '
Ca l C' : ' j ' l e
r
: : : i 1f : ' : - : ! 5: i : ": - . - l ' i , : ' a. : ' i ' ' r : - . '
' : : c. . : ,
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, - l : r 1; a,
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l . : : I l : : cl ' l : - : c: . "3n l ; : i nt t : 1: l 1- r
"-
. : : '
hi . l : , en
t t
. l - 1. Thus, i n r he ear l v vear s oi I , RI ( ) t hi r \ \ . as er , r l ai nl \
I he l heor t anct pr act i ce ol gct t i r . . , u I aunchr ' d. l hc-
( ounci l
l br Conf l i ct and Pcacc Rcscar ch \ \ a\ a \ cr \
l r . r t j r l br r i l r I i r r l l r i . r cs; r r J. : r . l r r i r r r i st er i r r i l r r r r r j .
l r onr t he I \ l i ni sr r y of Educat i on t o r he l - [ , cl gl i ng
i nst i t r Lt e. l Jut er cr r i l t hc t hct t r v i s goocl t hi s pl ur al i st i e
l i l ndi ns st r uct uf e i \ \ er \ l abor i nl ensi r e, r nd
somct i mes nol \ c' r \ caI i t al - i nt enr i r c.
l J I l r e I l r cnt e t r t ur nl r r i t l r l i or r i . l l , r ql r r pr , d l {) l I ) t et _
I t uman r el at i ons i r r
( i al t ung
( 19r 0) , al l d l r t r i nt c. r _
soci cr al r el at i ons i n Ci aJt ung ( 1971) .
Li . \ l v book Ther e . 1r e , , l l t t ' r nut n <, . s ( ( i al r Lr ng, l 9S- l a;
( Nt r t t i r r ghanr : Spt t kesnr an, J98. 1 f l cr nt a: t , Dt l ch.
Spani sh, Nor wegi an l r . ansl at i ons ar ai l abl c: Danr : h.
Sucr l i sh. l l l i l i an, . l apar r c\ c i ur r l I - r cr ) ch oJ) l l t c
r i ay) . I hr bor t k i s an ei ' t i t r t t r r bc \ er \ concr ! - t e.
t r ar r sl at i ng peac! ' r csear eh i nl o
1. g1. 1
pol i t i cs si t h
\ i . r v concr et c. i t nnt edi at c sl cps t l t l l
j an
be t akcn
t odzr ) ' i n r r r anl count r i cs. . \ r r i r i s pout t a l r t t l e
gr cct r ng t o my l r i r . ndr I 3ou[ l i ng and Rl popor t : r r l r r .
l hconcs ar e exccl l ent , Lr t r t r . ou har e st i l l l o nr i r t ch
( ' har l c.
Os{ood i n concr et eness, i n \ ( r ut ct hi l l g
t hat al \ o eapr ur c) t he pol i t i cal nt i ndl
( i ood
Luck.
16. Thus. t he Nor dr c counl r i es ar ! . at vpi cal ant ong
nt i l n\ r easons i n bei ng r t r t si nr i l ar i n si ze, at l easl
t he f bur hi gger or r es. u i t h no i nt r a- Npr di c pr ohl cm
of bei ng a sr nal l count r y next t o u super pou, er . *. i t h
t he pos: i bi l i t i e. s <l f canar l i zat i on l i nr l l i nl andi zar i on
i r nr l u l r i r l i s cor t si dcr i t bl r $or sc
' l l l c
l at c ol Mt r i c<t
l 8{{r - l l . ol l : l r st cr n Lr unr pc 19. 15) . Ar r d t hc t i i si i r -
nl i r nr ct ) t ( ) l
(
ost i r Ri ca shoul d t r c sct t t i n t hc l i ght ol
t l r c r r l r j or u\ c ol - l hc ar nr t i n Sout h Ant t r t ca: l or
r r r i l i l : r r l coLr ps. nr i l i nl \ l o pr escn c t hc \ oci xl or t l cr -
*' hi ch r r r
(
ost a Ri ca i s r el r t r vcl r cgal i t ar i an. Con-
scr ; ucnl l r I l r cr c i s l css l t ccd l i r r nr i l i t ar u ct t ups f r t , nr
ahove or bt l cl r v. ant l l css nccd I br at t ar nr r ' .
l i ' . 5cc l r r r . r r t i cl c
. Soci al
( os11; , 11, , *. .
. l l t . , nt ut yL, t .
li),,,
l ",
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nl _! l / / I / r , r r \ r \ , . St ul i nt sr r t , Reugunt sr r t
i ).,,, ,,:,;.;;,,l ?i [:i ]:i
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hi ' t hc pr . scnt aur hor . pubi i shcd i n Onur uc; er : r l
( 19' 76) uas hor | ur r pr cpar cd t hc
1: r opr r l ar i on
r vas t o
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f , r l i et . . ha$ h! , l pl css t hc)
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( '
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(
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(
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. : i . . l r I l
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(
or i
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