THE MODEL OF OPPENHEIMER AND SNYDER OF

A COLLAPSING STAR.
By Rainer BURGHARDT.
Abstract. We work out some interesting features of the model of Oppen-
heimer and Snyder concerning a collapsing star. We discuss the geometrical
basis of the theory.
Inroduction. In 1939, Oppenheimer and Snyder [1]
1
presented a paper
now known as that paper which has given rise to the theory of black holes,
although the term black hole has been introduced much later. Moreover, the
OS approach diers from current methods to implement black holes. The OS
model is composed of a collapsing interior and an exterior solution, where the
exterior part is the static Schwarzschild solution, which remains static due to
the Birkho theorem even if the eld generating stellar object collapses. Most
approaches to a black hole do not use an interior solution. In this case the
exterior Schwarzschild solution or the exterior Kerr solution is extended beneath
the event horizon. The inner regions of these solutions are to describe black
holes.
The OS model is based on an existing cosmological solution by Tolman
[2]. The stellar object is made of pressure-free dust with homogeneous density.
Since in this case, the internal resistance against a contraction is missing, the
object cannot be static. It collapses as a consequence of its own gravitational
attraction
2
.
A completely pressure-free star is not physically realistic, because the par-
ticles of a star nally come so close during the collapse that pressure can be
expected at a suciently high density. A pressure-free stellar object may ap-
proximately describe a dying star. If the thermonuclear processes are exhausted
inside a star, they give way to the stars own gravitational attraction, and the
star collapses. The just-discussed simplication to p = 0 is primarily on practi-
cal grounds. The integration of Einsteins eld equations without this condition
leads to considerable diculties, and it is hard to nd an analytical solution.
In addition to these above-mentioned limitations the OS model permits fur-
ther criticism. The star collapses with the velocity of observers coming in free
fall from innity. The stellar object at the time t = 0 would have been innitely
large. We will work out this in the following. Mitra [3] has shown that incon-
sistencies in the OS model can only be resolved if the mass of a hypothetical
OS black hole is M = 0. However, a massless star is contrary to the widespread
opinion that black holes are supermassive objects. For these and other reasons
1
Numbers in brackets refer to the reference at the end of the paper
2
What could have prevented a pressureless star to contract before its collapse has started
remains an open question. A realistic stellar object is kept in balance by inner nuclear and
thermodynamic processes. However, this excludes the absence of pressure.
1
which we will point out the OS model does not provide an appropriate basis for
a black hole.
The linking conditions on the boundary surface between the interior and
exterior solutions, which are not treated extensively in the literature, are also
of special interest. One has to deal with the question as to why the OS metric
though time-dependent appears to be at.
1. The OS interior solution, basic relations. The rst considerations
are closely related to the original paper by OS, but we have to introduce auxil-
iary variables which are in close connection with geometrical quantities. Both,
the interior and the exterior solutions are treated in two dierent coordinate
systems: the one is comoving with the collapsing matter and the other one is
not comoving. It is the very transition between the two systems which brings
insight into how the collapse proceeds, and thus, sheds light onto the inconsis-
tencies of the model. Our rst eort will be to examine the quantities and the
relations of the OS-model, to regroup them, and to get contiguity with familiar
matters, and to prepare a geometric interpretation [4].
For the comoving and for the non-comoving coordinate system we use the
notations
{r

, , , t

} , {r, , , t} .
In the comoving system we write the line element according to OS as
ds
2
= e

dr
2
+e

(
d
2
+ sin
2
d
2
)
dt
2
, = (r

, t

) , = (r

, t

) . (1)
For the two metric factors OS put
e

= (G+Ft

)
4/3
, e

=
1
4
e

)
2
, (2)
wherein one has for the interior solution
G =

r
3
, F =
3
2

2M

r
3
r

g
3
(3)
with r

g
the value of r

on the surface of the stellar object, i.e. on the boundary

of the interior and exterior solutions. We note the auxiliary variables
R

g
=

r
3
g
2M
,

g
= 2R

g
, = 1
3

g
t

. (4)
As in the non-comoving system the lateral part of the metric has the form
r
2
(
d
2
+ sin
2
d
2
)
,
and this form is conserved under a coordinate transformation between these two
systems a comparison with (1) gives
r
2
= e

.
2
With (2) and (4) we obtain the relation
r =
2/3
r

. (5)
From the point of view of the comoving observer the radial coordinate of the
surface does not change
r

g
r

= 0,
r

g
t

= 0.
For the quantity one gets the relations

= 0,

t

=
3

g
, (6)
which we need for some calculations. For the radial coordinate of the non-
comoving observer system one gains, taking advantage of (5) and the above
formulae,
r
g
r

=

r

2/3
r

g
)
= 0,
r
g
t

=

t

2/3
r

g
)
=
r
g
R
g
=

2M
r
g
. (7)
In this calculation the relations
R
g
= R

g
,
g
=

g
(8)
have been used which can be veried with (4) and (5). Thus, we have also
motivated the introduction of these auxiliary variables.
=

2r
3
M
is the curvature radius of the Schwarzschild parabola. R
g
has half the length
of
g
, the curvature radius on the boundary surface. If one extends the curva-
ture vector of the Schwarzschild parabola to the directrix of the Schwarzschild
parabola, the resulting distance between the Schwarzschild parabola and the
directrix has the length
R =

r
3
2M
. (9)
(8) refers to the values on the boundary surface. The quantities occurring
in the OS model allow a geometric interpretation which facilitates the under-
standing of the theory. We leave the elaboration of the geometrical foundations
to a later Section. Since the proper time T

coincides with the coordinate time

t

in the comoving system, the second relation (7) can be written as

r
g
t

= v
g
, v
g
=

2M
r
g
,
whereby v
g
is the velocity of an observer who is in free fall in the Schwarzschild
eld, coming from the innite and reaching the surface of the stellar object.
3
However, this means that the surface itself has this speed and must come from
innity. After a brief calculation we found out an inconsistency of the OS model.
This problem will be represented in detail later on.
Using (7) the changes of further variables which relate to the surface can be
calculated. We summarize the results with
r
g
r

= 0,
r
g
t

= v
g
,
R
g
r

= 0,
R
g
t

=
3
2
,

g
r

= 0,

g
t

= 3. (10)
In the next step we calculate the changes of the relevant variables in the interior
of the stellar object. From (5) and (6) one gets
r
r

=
2/3
=
r
r

,
r
t

=
r
R
g
= v
I
. (11)
v
I
is the speed in the interior, i.e. the speed with which the particles draw near
in the interior during the collapse. The velocity decreases linearly inwards, and
in the center of the object one has
v
I
(0) = 0.
Finally, the second relation (2) should be resolved. According to (11) one
has
e
/2
r

=
r
r

and at last
e

=
4/3
=
r
2
r
2
.
Hence all the metric coecients of the inner OS solution can be written in a
form that simplies the further considerations
1

e
1
=
r
r

,
2

e
2
= r,
3

e
3
= r sin ,
4

e
4
= 1. (12)
The metric can be written either as
ds
2
=
r
2
r
2
dr
2
+r
2
d
2
+r
2
sin
2
d
2
dt
2
or as
ds
2
=
4/3
[
dr
2
+r
2
d
2
+r
2
sin
2
d
2
]
dt
2
.
The latter form is entirely written in comoving coordinates and the factor
contains the time dependence of the otherwise at 3-dimensional line element.
In order to adapt the notation of authors who deal with collapsing models
we introduce the scale factor
K (t

) =
2/3
with which we can basically describe the relation between comoving and non-
comoving coordinates
r = Kr

.
4
With comoving coordinates we obtain instead of (12)
1

e
1
= K,
2

e
2
= Kr

,
3

e
3
= Kr

sin ,
4

e
4
= 1. (13)
and instead of (6)
K
r

= 0,
1
K
K
t

=
1
R
g
; K
|1
= 0,
1
K
K
|4
=
i
R
g
. (14)
The last expression we shall meet again in the eld equations and it is also
known for other time-dependent models. From (11) and (13) we read
r
r

= K.
With this and with (13) one has for t

= const.
dx
1

= Kdr

= dr
from which one recognizes that the radial arc element corresponds to a segment
on the r-axis. Thus, the OS interior geometry appears to be at. In a later
Section we will critically return to this subject.
2. The OS interior solution, coordinate and reference systems. In
the previous Section we have already made use of the variable r which desig-
nates the radial coordinate in the non-comoving system. OS have specied the
relation of t

and t. Thus, a matrix can be assembled for the transformation

between the two coordinate systems. The nding of such a transformation is
obviously quite tedious. It is probably for this reason that other authors did
not provide such a coordinate transformation for their models, or the putting
up of a coordinate transformation was not possible because the model has no
analytical solution. The use of dierent coordinate systems is apparently the
only purpose of providing calculations on the simplest possible basis. The great
advantage lies in the fact that such a coordinate transformation is accompanied
by a Lorentz transformation which contains the velocity parameters. If one has
found such a Lorentz transformation, and if one refers to the velocity of the
surface of the stellar object, one has the physical velocity of the collapse at
hand.
In the last Section we have already prepared the way for a Lorentz transfor-
mation. From (11) and (12) we obtain
dr =
r
r

dr

r
R
g
dt

= dx
1

iv
I
dx
4

, v
I
=
r
R
g
,
wherein the
{
dx
1

, dx
4

}
are the anholonomic tetrad dierentials. By means of
an auxiliary variable
y =
1
2
[
(
r

g
)
2
1
]
+
r

g
2M
r
r

, dy =
r

g
2
dr

1
2M

2M
r
g
dt

(15)
5
and from
t =
3
2
1

2M
[
r

g
3/2
(2M)
3/2
]
4M

y + 2M ln

y + 1

y 1
one gets, by dierentiating,
dt = 2M
y
3/2
y 1
r

g
dr

2M
r
g
y
3/2
y 1
dt

.
From this one can read the transformation coecients of the coordinate
transformation

i
i
= x
i
|i
.
Since these coecients are orthogonal, one gains also the reciprocal values

1
1
=
r
r

,
1
4
= i
r
R
g
= iv
I
,
4
1
= 2Mi
y
3/2
y1
r

r
2
g
,
4
4
=
y
3/2
y1

2M
r
g
,

1
=
2
I
r

r
,
4

1
= i
2
I
v
I
,
1

4
= i
2
I
y1
y
3/2
r

r
g
,
4

4
=
2
I
y1
y
3/2

r
g
2M
,

I
=
1

1
2M
r
r
3
r

g
3
=
1

1
r
2
R
2
g
, v
I
=
r
R
g
.
(16)
In these expressions all indices are coordinate indices. From
g
ik
=
i k
i

k
g
i

and (12) can be calculated the 4-bein e

m
i
and from this the reciprocal one
1
e
1
=
I
,
2
e
2
= r,
3
e
3
= r sin ,
4
e
4
=
I

r
g
2M
y 1
y
3/2
. (17)
The indices m number the 4-bein vectors of the reference system which is asso-
ciated with the observers at rest. Now it is easy to calculate the corresponding
Lorentz transformation connecting the comoving observers and the observers at
rest
L
m
m
=
m
e
i

i
i

e
m

,
L
1
1
=
I
, L
1
4
= i
I
v
I
, L
4
1
= i
I
v
I
, L
4
4
=
I
.
(18)
Thus, one has the physical quantities describing the collapse at hand. On
the surface one has with
1
e
1
=
g
I
=
1

1
r
2
g
R
2
g
=
1

1
2M
r
g
,
4
e
4
=
g
I

r
g
2M
r
g
2M
1

(
r
g
2M
)
2
=

1
2M
r
g
6
the Schwarzschild values of the exterior eld on the surface of the stellar object.
Thus, the two solutions are matched on the boundary surface.
For the velocity on the surface one obtains
v
g
I
=
r
g
R
g
=

2M
r
g
, (19)
the velocity of an observer who is in free fall from innity. Thus, we have once
again proved by using physically relevant equations that the surface of the stellar
object collapses in free fall from innity. From (19) we also recognize that for
r
g
= the initial velocity is v
g
I
= 0.
In (6) we had developed

=
3

g
.
Since does not depend on r one has
dt

g
3
d, t

g
3
+C =

g
3
+C,
also relying on (8).
g
is the radius of curvature of the Schwarzschild parabola
on the boundary surface, which has its minimum value
g
(2M) = 4M at the
vertex of the Schwarzschild parabola. From this we determine the constant of
integration and nally we have
t

=
4M
3


g
3
.
That is up to sign the formula for the rise time in the Schwarzschild eld. At
r
g
= 2M applies t

= 0 and at r
g
= applies t

= . Because of the invari-

ance under time reversal it can be concluded that the surface of the collapsing
object begins to collapse at the time t

= 0 at innity and reaches the event

horizon after an innite proper time. Since for a freely falling observer in the
Schwarzschild eld the coordinate time t

matches the proper time T

, the col-
lapsing star would take an innitely long time to contract to the event horizon.
The OS stellar object in its initial state would have an innitely large ex-
tension, collapses in free fall and leaves empty space behind it in which a
Schwarzschild eld spreads. However, the collapse velocity would reach the
speed of light at r
g
= 2M which has to be ruled out by the principle of rel-
ativity. At this location the gravity and tidal forces would be innitely large.
Under these conditions a star cannot exist. The OS model is aicted with all
those problems which are known from the Schwarzschild theory. Consequently,
the OS model cannot be used as a base model for a black hole.
3. The OS exterior solution. For the exterior solution OS start from
7
the same metric (1) with the ansatz (2) where now we have
3
G =

r
3
, F =
3
2

2M, = 1
3

2r
3
M
(20)
and the following auxiliary formulae

=
9
4

2M
r
5
t

,

t

=
3

,

r

=
2
r

apply. After similar calculations such as we have performed for the interior
solution we obtain the tetrads in the comoving system
1

e
1
=

r
=
1/3
,
2

e
2
= r,
3

e
3
= r sin ,
4

e
4
= 1
and from
r =
2/3
r

(21)
with (8) and (9) the auxiliary formulae
r
r

r
,
r
t

=
r
R
=

2M
r
= v
E
, (22)
in which we recognize the Schwarzschild velocity of free fall from innity. OS
put for the time of the system at rest
t =
3
2
1

2M
(
r
3/2
r
3/2
)
2

2Mr 2M ln

2M

r +

2M
.
With (21) and (20), last equation, one has
r =
(
1 3

M
2r
3
t

)
2/3
r

.
Isoliating t

=
2
3
1

2M
(
r
3/2
r
3/2
)
we nally obtain
t

= t + 2

2Mr + 2M ln
1

2M
r
1 +

2M
r
, (23)
the formula for the transition from the static Schwarzschild time coordinate to
a time coordinate which refers to an observer who is in free fall from innity.
3
Note that the quantity

(r

, t

) is used while the analogous quantity for the interior

solution is the constant quantity

g
, the value of

on the boundary surface between the

interior and exterior solutions.
8
The relation originally was found by Lematre. By a gauge transformation of
the radial coordinate
r

=
2
3
1

2M
r
3/2
, t

= t

one obtains with

1

e
1
dr

2M
r

dr

2M
r
dr

the relation
dx
1

= v
E
dr

, v
E
=

2M
r
,
well-known from the Lematre transformation as well. Thus, it is ensured that
in spite of dierent coordinate systems the radial arc elements are the same:
dx
1

= dx
1

.
After recasting one can specify r as a function of the Lematre coordinates
r =
3

2M
[
3
2
(r

)
]
2/3
and can write the curvature radius of the Schwarzschild parabola and the quan-
tity as
= 3 (r

) , = 1
t

.
Thus, we have explained the OS coordinate transformation as a Lematre trans-
formation. With the help of (22) and by dierentiating (23) we evaluate the
coecients of this transformation

1
1
= v
E
,
1
4
= iv
E
,
4
1
= i
2
E
v
2
E
,
4
4
=
2
E
,

1
=

2
E
v
E
,
1

4
= i,
4

1
= i
2
E
v
E
,
4

4
= 1.
(24)
By transvecting with the 4-bein of the comoving system
1

e
1
= v
E
,
4

e
4
= 1
and the 4-bein of the non-comoving Schwarzschild system
1
e
1
=
E
,
4
e
4
=
1

E
,
E
=
1

1
2M
r
(25)
we obtain the coecients of a Lorentz transformation
L
1
1
=
E
, L
1
4
= i
E
v
E
, L
4
1
= i
E
v
E
, L
4
4
=
E
. (26)
In these coecients are included the physical components of the relative velocity
v
E
of the two systems which we refer again to the surface of the stellar object.
One has
v
g
E
=

2M
r
g
.
9
In accordance with previous results the surface has always the speed of an object
coming in free fall from innity. At r
g
= 2M arise the well-known Schwarzschild
problems.
We want to modify slightly the calculus. If we introduce the scale factor
K =
2/3
we arrive at
r = Kr

(27)
instead of (21) and at
1

e
1
=
1

K
,
2

e
2
= Kr

,
3

e
3
= Kr

sin ,
4

e
4
= 1. (28)
By dierentiating (27) we obtain, in addition, the relation
dr =
1

K
dr

= dx
1

.
It should also be noted that according to (20) the scale factor K is a function
K = K (r

, t

) in contrast to the analogous quantity of the interior OS solution.

Thus, one has
1
r
dr =
1
r

dr

+
1
K
dK,
wherein
1
K
K
|1
= (1 )
1
r
,
1
K
K
|4
=
i
R
.
The result of the second expression is known from earlier Sections. Just compare
it with the corresponding formulae of the interior OS solution (14). A transfor-
mation matrix for the OS coordinate system akin to the Lematre-matrix (24)
can be set up

1
1
=
1

K
,
1
4
= iv
E
,
4
1
= i

K
2
E
v
E
,
4
4
=
2
E
,

1
=

K
2
E
,
1

4
= i

Kv
E
,
4

1
= i
2
E
v
E
,
4

4
= 1.
It leads with (28) and (25) to the same Lorentz transformation (26). To calculate
these expressions the relations (21), (27), and (23) can be used. A further
extension of the procedure can be omitted because the free fall has already been
discussed in detail [4].
4. The eld equations of the interior OS solution The OS solution
describes the collapse of an innitely large stellar object and is therefore not
physically expedient. However, we examine the eld equations because the
model is mathematically quite interesting and can bring some insights which
are supportive for other models.
10
First, we calculate the stress-energy tensor contained in
G
mn
= R
mn

1
2
g
mn
= T
mn
.
The pressure-free model comprises only the time-dependent energy density
T
44
=
0
(t

) ,
whereby OS have specied

0
=
4
3
1
(
t

+
G
F
)
(
t

+
G/r

F/r

).
With (3) we compute
G
F
=
G/r

F/r

and

0
=
4
3
1
(
t

+
G
F
)
2
,
G
F
=
2
3

g
3
2M
=

g
3
.
After some further reshaping one nally obtains with (4) and (8)

0
=
3
R
2
g
. (29)
This is the expression for the energy density and it is identic with the one of
the interior Schwarzschild solution. At the beginning of the collapse (t

= 0)
(0) = 1, r
g
= r

g
is valid, whereby the surface of the stellar object is situated at innity (r
g
= ).
For (29) one can also write

0
= 3
2M
r
3
g
.
Thus, the innitely extended object has vanishing mass density

0
(0) = 0.
Otherwise holds the relation
m =
4
3
r
3
g

0
by means of
=
8k
c
4
, M = m
k
c
4
.
Therein m is the mass of the object which is enclosed by the sphere with the
radius r
g
.
11
For further calculations we need several auxiliary formulae. We use the
metric of the comoving system in the form with the scale factor
(A) ds
2
= K
2
[
dr
2
+r
2
d
2
+r
2
sin
2
d
2
]
+dit
2
and we read o the 4-bein system
(A)
1

e
1
= K,
2

e
2
= Kr

,
3

e
3
= Kr

sin ,
4

e
4
= 1. (30)
The scale factor is a function of the time t

, and illustrates the relation between

the comoving and non-comoving coordinates
r = Kr

. (31)
With (11)
4
we have already prepared the quantities needed for further calcula-
tions. With the help of tetrads (30) we write
r
|m
= {1, 0, 0, iv} = {, 0, 0, iv} a, a = 1/. (32)
With the Lorentz transformation (18) one calculates the change of the non-
comoving radial coordinate
r
|m
= L
m

m
r
|m
= {a, 0, 0, 0} .
Likewise, one determines the values on the surface, whereby use is made of the
compilation (10)
r
g|m
= {vv
g
, 0, 0, iv
g
} . (33)
The 4-velocity of a mass point in the interior of the object relative to the
comoving and non-comoving systems is

u
m
= {0, 0, 0, 1} ,

u
m
= {iv, 0, 0, } .
With this and (10) one has
R
g|m
=
3
2
i

u
m
,
g|m
= 3i

u
m
, R
g|m
=
3
2
i

u
m
,
g|m
= 3i

u
m
.
The values of and v are taken from (16) last line. Thus, we can calculate
v
|m
=
{

1
R
g
, 0, 0, iv
1

g
}
=
{
v
g
r
g
, 0, 0, iv
1

g
}
.
The change of v consists of a circular part and a parabolic one. The spatial
change of v occurs if one moves on a radial line in the interior of the object at
a given moment. The time change takes place, however, because the boundary
of the interior geometry is sliding down on the Schwarzschild parabola with
the radius of curvature
g
. If we write the two components separately and if we
4
The marker I of v and is omitted because in this Section we only deal with the interior
OS solution.
12
calculate the components of the system at rest with the Lorentz transformation,
we have
v
|m
= {, 0, 0, iv}
(

a
R
g
)
+{0, 0, 0, 1}
(
3iv
1

g
)
,
v
|m
= {1, 0, 0, 0}
(

a
R
g
)
+{iv, 0, 0, }
(
3iv
1

g
)
.
(34)
It can be seen that the circular quantity is dened in the system at rest. It
appears in the comoving system Lorentz transformed while the parabolic com-
ponent is derived in the comoving system and must be determined for the non-
comoving system with a Lorentz transformation. With
1

|m
=
2
vv
|m
one has the values for the change of the Lorentz factor

|m
=
{

3
v
1
R
g
, 0, 0, i
3
v
2 1

g
}
,

|m
=
{

4
v
1
R
g

4
v
3 1

g
, 0, 0, 3i
4
v
2 1

g
}
.
(35)
For the conservation law we note

0|m
=
{
0, 0, 0, 3i

o
R
g
}
,
0|m
= 3i

o
R
g

u
m
. (36)
Thus, we are prepared to set up the eld equations in both systems. In the
comoving system results a similar simple structure of the eld equations. With
the tetrads (12) we calculate the Ricci-rotation coecients
5

U
4
=

A
1

=
1

e
1
e
1

|4

,
B
m
=

A
2

=
2

e
2
e
2

|4

, C
m
=

A
3

=
3

e
3
e
3

|4

.
(37)
With (32) this results in

U
m
=
{
0, 0, 0,
i
R
g
}
,
B
m
=
{
1
r
, 0, 0,
iv
r
}
, C
m
=
{
1
r
,
1
r
cot , 0,
iv
r
}
.
(38)
Thus, the quantity

U
4
describes the change in time of the scale factor. With
(31), (32), and v = r/R
g
one has

U
4
=
i
R
g
,
1
K

K =
1
R
g
,

K =
K
t

5
We use the following notation: A prime on a kernel of a quantity indicates a quantity of
the comoving system. A prime on the index of a quantity indicates that it is measured in the
comoving system. Thus, for example
m
is a quantity of the non-comoving system which is
measured in the comoving,

m
a quantity of the co-moving system which is measured in the
non-comoving system.
13
and thus also

U
4

=B
4
=

=C
4
=
i
R
g
. (39)
The common expression for the expansion results with

u
n
= {0, 0, 0, 1} in

u
n

||n
=

A
n

u
n

=

U
4
+B
4
+C
4
= 3
i
R
g
(40)
and is here to be interpreted as a spatially uniform contraction which has the
same value in all points in space. Nothing changes if one arbitrarily rotates or
shifts the local coordinate system. The model has spherical symmetry.
According to (30) the metrical factor of the time-like part of the line element
(A) is equal to 1, indicating the free fall from innity. Thus, no other forces can
be derived from the metric (A), in particular, no eect of gravity. Therefore one
has

U
1
=

A
4

=
4

e
4
e
4

|1

= 0,

U
4
=

A
1

=
1

e
1
e
1

|4

=
1
K
K
|4
.
Thus, the 4-vector

U
m
=
{
0, 0, 0,
i
R
g
}
(41)
has only a single component, the time-like one.
With the unit vectors

m
m
= {1, 0, 0, 0} ,

b
m
= {0, 1, 0, 0} ,

c
m
= {0, 0, 1, 0}
and the Ricci-rotation coecients

A
m

=

U
m

+B
m

+C
m

U
m

=

m
m

U
n

m
s

m
m

m
n

U
s

,
B
m

=

b
m
B
n

b
s

b
m

b
n
B
s

,
C
m

=

c
m
C
n

c
s

c
m

c
n
C
s

we form the graded derivatives

U
m

||
1
n
=

U
m

|n
, B
m

||
2
n
= B
m

| n

U
n

B
s
,
C
m

||
3
n
= C
m

|n

U
n

C
s
B
n

C
s
.
(42)
With the submatrices of the metric
h
m

n
=

1
0
0
1

,
3
g
m

n
=

1
1
1
0

14
one nally obtains the Ricci
R
m

n
=
[

U
s

||
1
s
+

U
s

U
s

]
h
m

[
B
n

||
2
m
+B
n
B
m

b
n

b
m

[
B
s

||
2
s
+B
s

B
s

[
C
n

||
3
m
+C
n
C
m

c
n

c
m

[
C
s

||
3
s
+C
s

C
s

]
=
3
2
1
R
2
g
[
3
g
m

u
m

u
n

]
(43)
and
R =
3
R
2
g
.
This results in
G

= 0, G

4
= 0, G
4

4
=
0
,

= 1

, 2

, 3

.
The conservation law leads to
T
4

||n
=
0|4
+

A
4

0
= 0,

A
4
=

U
4
+B
4
+C
4
= 3
i
R
g
,
4
=

it

.
Thus one obtains

0
=
0
3
R
g
.
(29) is also veried with (10). It is the expression for the mass density which
we have taken from the corresponding relation of OS.
The calculation of the eld equation in the non-comoving system is consid-
erably more dicult. We start with the metric
(B) ds
2
=
2
dr
2
+r
2
d
2
+r
2
sin
2
d
2
+a
2
T
dit
2
,
=
1

1
r
2
R
2
g
, a
T
=

r
g
2M
y1
y
3/2
,
y =
1
2
[
(
r

g
)
2
1
]
+
r

g
2M
r
r

,
T
= 1/a
T
(44)
and with the 4-bein system (17)
(B)
1
e
1
= ,
2
e
2
= r,
3
e
3
= r sin ,
4
e
4
= a
T
, (45)
and we calculate the eld strengths similar to (37). Taking from (15), second
equation, the values for
y
|1
= e
1

1
y
r

, y
|4
= e
4

4
y
it

15
and performing a Lorentz transformation using (18) one obtains
y
|1
= 0 (46)
which makes further calculations much easier.
The lateral eld quantities
B
m
=
{
1
r
, 0, 0, 0
}
, C
m
=
{
1
r
,
1
r
cot , 0, 0
}
(47)
are easy to calculate with the 4-bein system (45). Alternatively, one obtains the
quantities from (38) with the Lorentz transformation (18)
B
m
= L
m

m
B
m
, C
m
= L
m

m
C
m
.
The radial metric factor of the metric (B) contains the curvature quantity
which is time-dependent in accordance with (13) and (12). With (35) one has
U
4
= A
14
1
=
1
e
1
e
1|4
1
=
1

|4
= 3i
3
v
2
1

g
.
Taking into account (46) one gets from (44)
U
1
= A
41
4
=
4
e
4
e
4|1
4
=
1
a
T
a
T|1
=
1

|1
+
1

r
g
2M
(
r
g
2M
)
|1
.
We calculate the rst term with (35). For the second term the relation
r
g|1
= vv
g
derived in (33) is used. Thus, one has in sum
U
m
= U
C
m
+U
P
m
, U

m
= U
C
m
+U
P
m
,
U
C
m
= {1, 0, 0, 0} v
1
R
g
, U
P
m
= {, 0, 0, iv}
(
3
2
v
1

g
)
,
U
C
m
= {, 0, 0, iv} v
1
R
g
, U
P
m
= {1, 0, 0, 0}
(
3
2
v
1

g
)
(48)
and we have already performed a separation into the circular and into the
parabolic part. With the Lorentz transformation (18) we have calculated the
second line. The circular part has its origin in the non-comoving system. It
is a negative quantity which lies in the radial direction and corresponds to the
gravitational force. The parabolic part is positive, has its origin in the comoving
system and is a result of the collapse. Both parts are regular for r > 2M. Be-
neath the Schwarzschild event horizon U
C
is imaginary and the transformation
(18) unphysical.
The eld equations take a form such as (43) in the non-comoving system.
They are form invariant
R
mn
=
[
U
s
||
1
s
+U
s
U
s
]
h
mn

[
B
n||
2
m
+B
n
B
m
]
b
n
b
m
[
B
s
||
2
s
+B
s
B
s
]

[
C
n||
3
m
+C
n
C
m
]
c
n
c
m
[
C
s
||
3
s
+C
s
C
s
]
,
(49)
16
wherein the graded derivatives are constructed similarly to (42)
U
m||
1
n
= U
m|n
, B
m||
2
n
= B
m|n
U
nm
s
B
s
, C
m||
3
n
= C
m|n
U
nm
s
C
s
B
nm
s
C
s
.
With

R
2
=
[
U
s
||
1
s
+U
s
U
s
]
+
[
B
s
||
2
s
+B
s
B
s
]
+
[
C
s
||
3
s
+C
s
C
s
]
one can calculate the Einstein tensor and with the Lorentz transformation
T
mn
= L
m

m n
T
m

we obtain the components of the stress-energy-momentum tensor for the system

at rest
T
11
=
2
v
2

0
, T
14
= i
2
v
0
, T
44
=
2

0
.
To verify the eld equations one needs a set of formulae. From the last two
equations (10) one gains after the transition to the non-comoving system

g|m
= {3v, 0, 0, 3i} .
For further calculations we need the relations (34) and (35). If we analyze the
eld equations it is of particular interest how the components of the stress-
energy-momentum tensor can be extracted from the Einstein tensor. For this
purpose, the second term (35) is decomposed into a circular and a parabolic
part
1

|m
= E
C
m
+E
P
m
,
E
C
m
=
{
v
1
R
g
, 0, 0, 0
}
, E
P
m
=
{
3
3
v
3 1

g
, 0, 0 3i
3
v
2 1

g
}
.
From (48) one needs U
P
1
. With (29) we nally have
(B
1
+C
1
) E
P
1
= 2
a
r
(
3
3
v
3 1

g
)
=
2
v
2

0
= T
11
,
(B
1
+C
1
) E
P
4
= 2
a
r
(
3
3
v
2 1

g
)
= i
2
v
0
= T
14
,
(B
1
+C
1
) U
P
1
= 2
a
r
(
3
3
v
1

g
)
=
2

0
= T
44
.
The left-hand side terms of the above expression are included in the Einstein
tensor. It can be seen that the parabolic parts of the eld quantities have a sig-
nicant role in establishing the stress-energy-momentum tensor. The remaining
terms in the Einstein tensor cancel each other.
With a little algebra one also nds
B
s
||
2
s
+B
s
B
s
=
2

2
g
, C
s
||
3
s
+C
s
C
s
=
6

2
g
, U
s
| s
+U
s
U
s
=
2

2
g
17
and thereby veries Einsteins eld equations
R
mn

1
2
Rg
mn
= T
mn
.
In the next Section we will use all the relations which we have found here.
5. Discussion of the OS-eld equations. In the previous Sections, the
OS model was put into a covariant form, although the question of the geometric
interpretation of the model has not been presented in sucient detail. This will
be made up now.
In the last Section we have discovered that the OS-expression for the mass
density can be converted into the familiar form
0
= 3
/
R
2
g
. We have en-
countered such a relation in the cosmological models and in the Schwarzschild
interior solution. That implies that the space portion of the interior OS solution
can be represented as a spherical cap. We want to pursue this.
We consider a snapshot of the spatial 3-dimensional part of the model during
the collapse at an arbitrary time in the non-comoving system. The metric

ds
2
=
2
dr
2
+r
2
d
2
+r
2
sin
2
d
2
applies. By this we separate the time-dependent variables which describe the
collapse from those describing the basic geometry. Thus, for the Ricci remains
only

=
[
B
||
2

+B

]
b

[
B

||
2

+B

[
C
||
3

+C

]
c

[
C

||
3

+C

]
with = 1, 2, 3 and
B
||
2

= B
|
, C
||
3

= C
|
B

.
With the lateral eld quantities dened in (46) we obtain after a simple calcu-
lation

=
2
R
2
g
g

.
This corresponds to a geometry with constant positive curvature.
According to these considerations we are able to interpret the geometry of
the OS model. The metric (B), whose structure is known from other models,
suggests to interpret the interior spatial geometry as a cap of a sphere which is
placed at a suitable position from the bottom of Flamms paraboloid up to the
Schwarzschild geometry. R
g
is the radius the cap, and we use the relation
r = R
g
sin , (50)
where is the polar angle of the cap. According to the metric (B) is = 1/ cos
and with (50) is dr = R
g
cos d. We have for the metric (B)
ds
2
= R
2
g
d
2
+R
2
g
sin
2
d
2
+R
2
g
sin
2
sin
2
d
2
+a
2
T
dit
2
.
18
Thus, we have found a simple geometric interpretation of the OS-model.
During the collapse the cap of a sphere slides down on Flamms paraboloid of
the Schwarzschild environment. While the cap of a sphere shrinks during this
process Flamms paraboloid remains unchanged. This is also a very insightful
presentation of the Birkho theorem. A collapse has no eect on an observer
located in the exterior eld. It can also be seen that the cap of a sphere cannot
shrink beneath the event horizon. It would uncouple from Flamms paraboloid.
Thus, the OS model does not allow the formation of black holes. Mitra [3] has
brought forward another argument for this subject.
All the years since the publication of the paper by Oppenheimer and Snyder
have obviously been little investigated the linking conditions of the geometries.
On the boundary surface two conditions must be satised to ensure the matching
of two geometries.
i The metric or the tetrads, respectively, must match, so that the geometries
contact.
ii The rst derivatives of the metric or the eld strengths, respectively, must
match. This means that the surfaces which are described by the geometries
have common tangents, the surfaces merge smoothly into each other and do
not buckle.
Nariai [5, 6] and Tomita are of opinion that the interior OS solution does not
match the exterior Schwarzschild solution. They have replaced the Schwarzschild
solution by a complicated one maintaining the interior OS solution. Nariai [7]
has discussed linking conditions of models which consist of interior and exterior
solutions in general terms. Israel [7], OBrien [8], Synge and Robson [9] have
written extensively about the linking condition of two regions. Nakao [10] has
extended the OS model with a cosmological constant.
We want to examine the linking condition for the OS model more closely. In
Section 4, Eqs. (18) we have calculated the values of the metric coecients
of the metric (B) on the boundary surface of the two geometries

g
=
1

1
2M
r
g
, a
g
T
=

1
2M
r
g
.
They coincide with the values of the exterior Schwarzschild geometry, if r
g
is
not less than 2M. Condition (i) is satised, the spaces are connected to each
other as long one does not under-run the event horizon.
The rst derivatives of the metric coecients correspond to the eld strengths
presented by us. From (46) one immediately recognizes that the quantities B
and C have Schwarzschild values on the boundary. This is certainly not the
case with the quantities U
m
of (48). This can be understood quite well. The
quantity U
m
contains the portion U
C
m
which corresponds to the body geometry
and takes the Schwarzschild value on the boundary surface. The second part U
P
m
19
is allocated to the collapse. U
P
m
does not arise immediately from the geometry,
but from its change. In accordance with (10) this change comprises the relation

R
g
=
3
2
.
If one has separated the two quantities, it becomes clear that only the sur-
face of the body geometry can have the same tangents with the surface of the
Schwarzschild geometry. Thus, the condition (ii) is satised.
The particle velocity in the interior is closely related to the angle of ascent
of the radial curves on the cap of the sphere
v = sin =
r
R
g
.
In (19) we have calculated the value of v for the boundary surface. It is
sin
g
=

2M
r
g
.
But this is exactly the value of the angle of ascent of Flamms paraboloid of
the Schwarzschild geometry on the boundary surface to the interior geometry.
Thus the condition (ii) is satised.
A look at the eld strengths of the comoving system immediately shows that
the eld strengths of the interior and exterior solutions match on the boundary
surface. The exterior eld is described by a freely falling observer. In several
papers ([12] - [14]) we have written down the relation between the OS coordi-
nates and the comoving Lematre coordinates and have discussed the free fall
in detail in [4].
It is now to be claried why the metric (A) appears to be at. A reference-
system transformation, ie, a transition from an observer being in rest to a co-
moving observer is not expected to change the geometric structure of the space.
The at appearance of the metric arises because the motion of the freely falling
system is tightly coupled to the geometric structure of the model. This will
now be examined in more detail. We consider the at 5-dimensional embedding
space, and at rst we suppress all dimensions except the rst two ones. The
global Cartesian coordinates in this space are
{
x
0

, x
1

}
with x
0

as the extra
dimension and the local coordinates are
{
x
0
, x
1
}
. The relations between the
reference systems provide local rotations
dx
0
= dx
0

cos dx
1

sin ,
dx
1
= dx
0

sin +dx
1

cos .
Since the radial arc element of the line element (A) lies entirely in the local
1-direction
dx
0
= 0, dx
0

= tan dx
1

, dx
1

= dr,
dx
1
2
= dx
0
2
+dx
1
2
= tan
2
dr
2
+dr
2
=
1
cos
2

dr
2
20
applies. According to (50) on has
sin =
r
R
g
, cos =

1
r
2
R
g
= a =
1

, (51)
whereby the radial part of the metric (A) is geometrically deepened. The par-
allels of the cap of a sphere have the radius r, and its curvature is dened
by
B
a
=
{
0,
1
r
, 0, 0, 0
}
, a

= 0

, 1

, ..., 4

. (52)
In the local system it has the form
B
a
=
{
1
r
sin ,
1
r
cos , 0, 0, 0
}
, a = 0, 1, ..., 4. (53)
Using the Lorentz angle the Lorentz transformation (18) can be written as
L
1
1
= cos i, L
1
4
= sin i, L
4
1
= sin i, L
4
4
= cos i
and is a pseudo-rotation through the imaginary angle i in the local [1,4]-plane.
If one operates herewith on (53), one obtains with
B
a
=
{
1
r
sin ,
1
r
cos cos i, 0, 0,
1
r
cos sin i
}
an expression whose 1-component will appear at because the radial metric
coecient in (B) corresponds to the Lorentz factor. One has
cos cos i = 1. (54)
From (26) and (51) one gathers
v = sin , a = cos
and one obtains
B
a
=
{
1
R
g
,
1
r
, 0, 0,
i
R
g
}
. (55)
The quantity B
a
is generated from (52) by two transformations. A rotation
in the [0,1]-plane and a pseudo-rotation in the [1

, 4

]-plane. It should also be

noted that this deceptive appearance also occurs in the exterior Schwarzschild
eld concerning the free fall. The Schwarzschild metric can be brought with a
Lematre transformation into a form which appears at. This is only valid for
the free fall from innity. If the body starts at a nite position, the metric takes
on a much more complicated form.
The metric (A) of the comoving OS model is obtained by means of a Lematre-
like transformation which we have discussed in detail in 2
g
i

k
=
i k
i

k
g
ik
,
i
i
=
m

e
i
L
m
m
e
m
i
.
21
A coordinate transformation can never change the geometrical or physical
background of the model, so that one cannot make any direct conclusions about
the geometric structure of the model by means of the apparently at represen-
tation (A). The eld quantities, however, show that the basic structure of the
geometrical model is invariant under a transformation of the coordinates and
under a Lorentz transformation as well.
Let us show now how the eld equations of the comoving system and the
non-comoving system can be converted into one another. Therefore one must
recall that the Ricci-rotation coecients transform inhomogeneously

A
m

= L
m n s

s
A
mn
s
+

L
m

,
A
mn
s
= L
m

s
m n s

A
m

+L
mn
s
.
We call the respective second terms Lorentz terms. They are dened by

L
m

= L
s

s
L
s
n

|m
, L
mn
s
= L
s
s
L
s

n|m
,

L
m

= L
m n s

s
L
mn
s
. (56)
Using
L
1
1
= , L
1
4
= iv, L
4
1
= iv, L
4
4
=
one can express the components of the Lorentz terms in the following way

L
4

=

L
1
= i
2
v
|4
,

L
1

=

L
4
= i
2
v
|1
,
L
41
4
= L
1
= i
2
v
|4
, L
14
1
= L
4
= i
2
v
|1
(57)
and one can write the Lorentz terms in the form

L
m

= h
s

L
n
h
m

L
s

, L
mn
s
= h
s
m
L
n
h
mn
L
s
. (58)
With this arrangement results from
A
mn
s
= U
mn
s
+B
mn
s
+C
mn
s
,
U
mn
s
= h
s
m
U
n
h
mn
U
s
,
B
mn
s
= b
m
B
n
b
s
b
m
b
n
B
s
, C
mn
s
= c
m
C
n
c
s
c
m
c
n
C
s
(59)
the transformation law for the U-quantities

U
m
= U
m
+

L
m
, U
m
= L
m
m
U
m
, U
m
=

U
m
+L
m
,

U
m
= L
m

U
m
(60)
if one uses (57) with (34). According to (56)
L
m
= L
m

L
m
(61)
is to be considered. The relation (60) simplies the conversion of the eld
equations of the system (A) into the ones of the system (B) and vice versa. In
22
addition we want to decompose the Lorentz terms into circular and parabolic
parts. First we dene in each case two circular and parabolic quantities
L
C
m
= {1, 0, 0, 0}
(
v
1
R
g
)
, L
P
m
= {, 0, 0, iv}
(
3
2
v
1

g
)
,

L
C
m
= {, 0, 0, iv}
(
v
1
R
g
)
,

L
P
m
= {1, 0, 0, 0}
(
3
2
v
1

g
)
(62)
and we again note that the quantity

U has no parabolic part. With this we can
deepen the transformation (60). It turns out that the circular and parabolic
parts of the U-quantities transform separately. Taking into account (62) one
can rearrange (60)

U
m
=
[
U
C
m
+

L
C
m

]
+
[
U
P
m
+

L
P
m

]
+

U
m
,

U
m
=
[
U
C
m
L
C
m
]
+
[
U
P
m
L
P
m
]
+

U
m
.
The lateral eld quantities B and C transform as vectors, as we have already
noted above. On the basis of
L
n

n m
B
n

|m
= B
n|m
L
mn
s
B
s
, U
mn
s
= L
m

s
m n s

U
m

+L
mn
s
(63)
results
L
n

n m
[
B
n

|m

U
m

B
s
+B
m
B
n

]
= B
n|m
U
mn
s
B
s
+B
m
B
n
(64)
and a corresponding relation for the quantity for C. With (60) and (61) we
obtain

U
s

||
1
s
+

U
s

U
s
=
1
2
1
R
2
g
. (65)
After these preliminaries we are able to investigate the transformation properties
of the eld equations. We start with the Ricci
R
mn
= A
mn
s
|s
A
n|m
A
rm
s
A
sn
r
+A
mn
s
A
s
and perform the decomposition according to (59). From this one gets the rela-
tion (49) for the non-comoving system and for the comoving system the Ricci
(43). As seen from (63) - (65) all the subequations of the Ricci are invariant.
Thus, the Ricci is invariant as well
L
m

m n
R
m

n
= R
mn
,
which was to be expected.
The stress-energy-momentum tensor of the unprimed system can be calcu-
lated from the unprimed eld equations or with
T
mn
= L
m

m n
T
m

n
=
0

u
m

u
n
,

u
m
= {iv, 0, 0, } .
Thus, the conservation law results in
T
m
n
||n
=

u
m
[

0|n

u
n
+
0

u
n
||n
]
+
0

u
m||n

u
n
.
23
With the results of previous Sections it can be shown that the motion of the
particles in the collapsing object is geodesic

u
m||n

u
n
= 0. (66)
Therefore remains

0|n

u
n
+
0

u
n
||n
= 0.
One has
0||n

u
n

=
0|4
and

u
n
||n
=

u
n

||n
. If one reads from (36) one has
veried the conservation law. With (40) one has

0
=
3
R
g

0
in accordance with (10). Lets take a look at the equation of motion (66). After
reshaping a little we get
(iv)
|4

= (U
1
+iv U
4
)
and with m = m
0

dmv
dt

= mU
1
.
On the other hand one has with (57)
(iv)
|4

= i
3
v
|4
=

L
1

and with (60)

L
1
+U
1
=

U
1
0.
It can be seen that the force of gravity acting on the particles in the interior
of the stellar object is canceled by the counter force

L in the comoving system.
A comoving observer is not exposed to gravity.
Due to the absence of the parabolic eld strengths the possibility to inspect
the geometric mechanism of the collapse is limited for the comoving observer.
This is reserved for the non-comoving observer. If we isolate the purely spatial
parts of the eld quantities by means of

=
{
1
r
, 0, 0
}
,

C

=
{
1
r
,
1
r
cot , 0
}
,

= 1

, 2

, 3

, (67)
we obtain for the Ricci and the Einstein tensor of these quantities

= 0,

G

= 0.
For the comoving observer the spatial part of the geometry appears to be at.
But that this is not the case as we have shown above. We process the remaining
components of the 4-dimensional variables to

A
m

=

A
m

+Q
m

u
n
Q
m

u
s

,

A
s

=

A
n
=

A
n
+Q
s

u
n
,
Q
[m

]
= 0, Q
m

u
n

= 0.
24
Included in

A are the quantities (67) and the new symmetric quantity is dened
by
Q
1

1
=

U
4
, Q
2

2
= B
4
, Q
3

3
= C
4
. (68)
The unit vector

u
m

= {0, 0, 0, 1} is orthogonal to the surfaces t

= const. of
the interior geometry, it is the rigging vector of this shrinking surface. On the
basis of

u
m

||n
= Q
m

the Qs are the second fundamental forms of the surface theory. For the Ricci
then only remains
R
m

n
=
[
Q
m

u
s

+Q
m

n
Q
s

u
n

[
Q
s

m
Q
m

u
m

A
n

|s

u
s

+Q
r

A
s

u
m

u
n

[
Q
s

u
r

+Q
r

s
Q
r

]
.
In it is

u
m
= {0, 0, 0, 1} and

n
=
m

|n

A
n

s
, m

= 1

, 2

, 3

the 3-dimensional covariant derivative of a 3-dimensional quantity.

The third brackets in the above block vanish identically and so do the con-
tracted Codazzi equation
Q
s

m
Q
m

s
= 0
in the second row of the block. Both relations express that in the comoving
system must be R
m

4
= 0.
From this the Einstein tensor
G

= 0,
0
= Q

= 1

, 2

, 3

can be calculated. The mass density is made up of the eld energy density.
From (68) and (39) one gets for it the more familiar term

0
=
3
R
2
g
=
6M
r
3
g
with r
g
the value associated with the surface of the collapsing star. Since the
star collapses in free fall from innity, the mass density is zero at the beginning
of the collapse due to r
g
. On the other hand one has
Q
1

1
= i
1
K

K, Q
2

2
= Q
3

3
= i
1
r
r.
If one pulls the master switch and if one stops the collapse, the energy density
vanishes and so does the mass. The star disappears and the space is empty.
25
From the perspective of a ctional observer the space also appears to be at.
More seriously, one can say that the star of the OS model is gaining its mass
only from the collapse.
The solution of Oppenheimer and Snyder is an analytical solution of Ein-
steins eld equations which describes in the same way the interior and the
exterior of a stellar object. It has the deciency to be limited only to pressure-
free matter. The model is physically unrealistic because the stellar object is
innitely large at the time t

= 0 and its matter is innitely thinned. The col-

lapse takes place in free fall. OS claim that the stellar object can contract below
the event horizon during the collapse. However, our results of previous Sections
suggest that the surface of the object can only asymptotically approach the
event horizon. The formation of a black hole is not possible. We again refer to
the papers of Mitra [15] and his theory of ECOs and MECOs. Mitra has shown
that OS have miscalculated by a less important factor 1/4 at the critical part of
the respective calculation. In addition, the crucial quantity has the wrong sign
for penetrating the event horizon.
Thus, the physical usability of the model has been questioned. A pressure-
free star which lls the vastness of the universe and has vanishing density at the
beginning of the collapse and leaves an empty space with a Schwarzschild eld
during the collapse behind it, does not exist.
Rainer BURGHARDT
A-2061 Obritz 246
Austria
E-mail arg@aon.at
Homepage: http//arg.or.at
REFERNCES
[1] J. R. Oppenheimer and H. Snyder : On continued gravitational contraction.
Phys. Rev., 56(1939), 455-459.
[2] R. C. Tolman : Eect of inhomogeneity on cosmological models. Proc. Nat.
Ac. Sci., 20(1934), 169-176.
[3] A. Mitra : The mass of the Oppenheimer Snyder black hole. gr-qc/9904163
[4] R. Burghardt :
Spacetime curvature. http://members.wavenet.at/arg/Emono.htm,
Raumkr ummung. http://members.wavenet.at/arg/Mono.htm.
[5] H. Nariai and K. Tomita : On the applicability of a dust-like model to a
collapsing or anti-collapsing star at high temperature. Prog. Theor. Phys.,
35(1966), 777-758.
[6] H. Nariai and K. Tomita : On the problem of gravitational collapse. Prog.
Theor. Phys., 34(1965), 155-172.
26
[7] H. Nariai : On the boundary conditions in general relativity. Prog. Theor.
Phys., 34(1965), 173-186.
[8] W. Israel : Discontinuities in spherically symmetric gravitational elds and
shells of radiation. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A, 248(1958), 404-414.
[9] S. OBrien and J. L. Synge : Jump conditions at discontinuities in general
relativity. Comm. Dublin Inst. Adv. Stud. A, No 9(1952), 1-20.
[10] E. H. Robson : Junction condition in general relativity theory. Ann. Inst.
H. Poinc., 16(1972), 41-50.
[11] K.-i. Nakao : The Oppenheimer-Snyder space-time with a cosmological
constant. GRG, 24(1992), 1069-1081.
[12] R. Burghardt : Remarks on the model of Oppenheimer and Snyder I.
http://arg.or.at/Report ARG-2012-03.
[13] R. Burghardt : Remarks on the model of Oppenheimer and Snyder II.
http://arg.or.at/Report ARG-2012-04.
[14] R. Burghardt : Remarks on the model of Oppenheimer and Snyder III.
http://arg.or.at/Report ARG-2013-03.
[15] A. Mitra : The fallacy of Oppenheimer Snyder collapse: No general rela-
tivistic collapse at all, no black hole, no physical singularity. Astrophys. Sp.
Sci., 332(2010), 43-50.
27