Unit V PDF

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering UNIT-V -EDC
___________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

UNIT-V

AMPLIFIERS

INTRODUCTION:

A circuit that increases the amplitude of the given input signal is an Amplifier. A small a.c. signal
fed to the amplifier is obtained as a larger a.c. signal of the same frequency at the output. In
discrete circuits, bipolar junction transistors and Field Effect transistors are commonly used as
amplifying elements.

Classification of Amplifiers

Amplifiers can be classified as follows:

1. Based on the active device.

a) BJT Amplifier
b) FET Amplifier

2. Based on the transistor configuration.
a) Common Emitter amplifier
b) Common Collector amplifier
c) Common Base amplifier

3. Based on input.
a) Small signal amplifiers
b) Large signal amplifiers

4. Based on the output.
a) Voltage amplifier
b) Power amplifier

5. Based on the number of stages.
a) Single stage amplifier
b) Multistage amplifier

6. Based on the Q-point (Operating conduction)
a) Class A Amplifier
b) Class B Amplifier
c) Class AB Amplifier
d) Class C Amplifier

7. Based on the frequency response.
a) Audio frequency amplifier
b) Intermediate frequency amplifier
c) Radio frequency amplifier

8. Based on the bandwidth.
a) Narrow band amplifier
b) Wide band amplifier
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Transistor as an Amplifier:

To make the transistor work as an amplifier, it is to be biased to operate in the active
region, i.e., base-emitter junction is to be forward biased, while base-collector junction to be
reverse biased.

When only one transistor with associated circuitry is used for amplifying a weak signal, the
circuit is known as Single Stage Transistor Amplifier.

Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

Let us consider the common emitter amplifier circuit using self bias (or) voltage divider bias
as shown in fig1. below.

Fig1. Common emitter amplifier

It consists of different circuit components. The functions of these components are as
follows.

1. Biasing circuit:

The resistances R
1
,

R
2
and R
E
form the voltage divider biasing circuit for the CE amplifier.
It sets the proper operating point for the CE amplifier.

2. Input Capacitor C
1
:

This capacitor couples the signal to the base of the transistor. It blocks any dc component
present in the signal and passes only ac signal for amplification, because of this, biasing conditions
are maintained constant.

3. Emitter Bypass Capacitor C
E
:

An emitter bypass capacitor C
E
is connected in parallel with the emitter resistance R
E
, to
provide a low reactance path to the amplified ac signal. If it is not inserted, the amplified a.c signal
passing through R
E
will cause a voltage drop across it. This will reduce the output voltage,
reducing the gain of the amplifier.

4. Output Coupling Capacitor C
2
:

The coupling capacitor C
2
couples the output of the amplifier to the load (or) to the next
stage of the amplifier. It blocks d.c. and passes only a.c. part of the amplified signal.

Need for C
1
, C
2
and C
E
:

Consider that the signal source is connected directly to the base of the transistor then we
can notice that source resistance R
s
is in parallel with R
2
, this will reduce the bias voltage at the
transistor base and consequently alter the collector current, which is not desired.

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Similarly, by connecting R
L
directly, the d.c. levels of V
c
and V
CE
will change. To avoid this
and maintain the stability of bias condition coupling capacitors are connected. Coupling capacitors
acts as open circuits to d.c., maintain stable biasing conditions even after connection of Rs and R
L.

Another advantage of connecting C
1
is that any d.c. component in the signal is opposed and only
a.c. signal is routed to the transistor amplifier.
The emitter resistance R
E
is one of the components which provide bias stabilization. But it
also reduces the voltage swing at the output. The emitter bypass capacitor C
E
provides a low
reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal increasing the output voltage swing.

How Transistor amplifies?

When a weak a.c. signal is given to the base of transistor, a small base current starts
flowing. Due to transistor action, a much larger a.c. current flows through the collector resistance
R
c
. As the value of R
c
is quite high (usually 4 10 k), therefore, a large voltage appears across
R
c
. Thus, a weak signal applied in the base circuit appears in amplified form in the collector circuit.
It is in this way that a transistor acts as an Amplifier.

Phase Reversal:

The phase relationship between the input and output voltages can be determined by
considering the effect of a positive half cycle and negative half cycle separately. Consider the
positive half cycle of input signal in which terminal A is positive w.r.t. B due to this, two voltages,
a.c. and d.c. will be adding each other, increasing forward bias in base emitter junction. This
increases base current. The collector current is times the base current, hence the collector
current will also increases. This increases the voltage drop across R
c.

Since V
c
= V
cc
I
c
R
c

The increase in I
c,
results in a drop in collector voltage V
c
, as V
cc
is constant. Thus, as V
i
increases in a positive direction, V
0
goes in a negative direction and we get negative half cycle of
output voltage for positive half cycle at the input.

In the negative half cycle of input, in which terminal A becomes negative w.r.t. terminal
B, the a.c. and d.c. voltages will oppose each other, reducing forward bias on base-emitter p-n
junction, this reduces base current. Accordingly collector current and drop across R
c
both reduces,
increasing the output voltage. Thus, we get positive half cycle at the output for negative half cycle
at the input.

Therefore, we can say that there is a phase shift of 180
0
between input and output voltages
for a common emitter amplifier.

Common Collector Amplifier Circuit

Common collector amplifier circuit is shown in fig. (2) below.

Figure 2. Common Collector Amplifier
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The d.c. biasing is provided by R
1
, R
2
and R
E
. The load resistance is capacitor coupled to the
emitter terminal of the transistor.
When a signal is applied via to the base of the transistor, V
B
is increased and decreased as the
signal goes positive and negative respectively.
From fig. we can write V
E
= V
B
- V
BE

By considering V
BE
is constant, we say that variation in the V
B
appears at emitter and emitter
voltage V
E
will vary same as base voltage V
B
.

Since the emitter is output terminal, it can be noted that the output voltage from a common
collector circuit is the same as its input voltage. In other words, we can say that in common
collector circuit, emitter terminal follows the signal voltage applied to the base. Hence the common
collector circuit is also known as an Emitter Follower.

Common Base Amplifier Circuit

Figure 3. Common Base Amplifier

Common Base Amplifier circuit is shown in fig3. The signal source is coupled to the emitter
of the transistor via C
1
. The load resistance R
L
is coupled to the collector of the transistor via C
2
.

The positive going pulse of input source increases the emitter voltages as base voltage is
constant; the forward bias of emitter base junction reduces. This reduces I
B
, reducing Ic and
hence the drop across Rc.

Since Vo = Vcc Ic Rc the reduction in Ic results in an increase in Vo.

Therefore we can say that positive going input produces positive going output and similarly
negative going input produces negative going output and there is no phase shift between input and
output in a common base amplifier.

Small Signal transistor models

A small signal linear model represents the operation of the transistor in the active region so
that the output is not distorted (i.e., the operating point 'Q' lies in the active region).

Two Port devices and Network parameters:

Fig. 4. A two-port network
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A transistor can be treated as a two - port network. The terminal behavior of any two-port
network can be specified by the terminal voltages V
1
and V
2
at ports 1 and 2 respectively, and
currents I
1
and I
2
entering ports 1 and 2 respectively.

Of these four variables V
1
, V
2
, I
1
and I
2
two can be selected as independent variables and
the remaining two can be expressed in terms of these independent variables. This leads to various
two-port parameters out of which the following three are more important.

i) Z - Parameters (or) Impedance Parameters
ii) Y - Parameters (or) Admittance Parameters
iii) H - Parameters (or) Hybrid Parameters

Z - Parameters (or) Impedance Parameters:

Here i
1
and i
2
are taken as independent variables. The voltages V
1
and V
2
are given by the
equations.

V
1
= Z
11
i
1
+ Z
12
i
2

V
2
= Z
21
i
1
+ Z
22
i
2

These four impedance parameters Z
11
, Z
22
, Z
12
and Z
21
are defined as follows.

Z
11
= V
1
/i
1
with i
2
=0
= Input impedance with Output port open circuited.

Z
22
= V
2
/i
2
with i
1
=0
= Output impedance with Input port open circuited.

Z
12
= V
1
/i
2
with i
1
=0
= Reverse Transfer impedance with port1 open circuited.

Z
21
= V
2
/i
1
with i
2
=0
= Forward Transfer impedance with port2 open circuited.

Y - Parameters (or) Admittance Parameters:

Here V
1
and V
2
are taken as independent variables; the currents i
1
and i
2
are given
by the equations.
i
1
= Y
11
V
1
+ Y
12
V
2

i
2
= Y
21
V
1
+ Y
22
V
2

Y
11
, Y
12
, Y
21
and Y
22
are called short circuited admittance parameters and that are defined
as follows.

Y
11
= i
1
/V
1
with V
2
=0
= Input Admittance with port 2 short circuited.

Y
22
= i
2
/V
2
with V
1
=0
= Output Admittance with port 1 short circuited.

Y
12
= i
1
/V
2
with V
1
=0
= Reverse Transfer Admittance with port 1 short circuited.

Y
21
= i
2
/V
1
with V
2
=0
= Forward Transfer Admittance with port 2 short circuited.

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h - Parameters (or) Hybrid Parameters:

If the input current i
1
and the output voltage V
2
are taken as independent
variables, the input voltage V
1
and output current i
2
can be written as
V
1
= h
11
i
1
+ h
12
V
2

i
2
= h
21
i
1
+ h
22
V
2

The four hybrid parameters h
11
, h
12
, h
21
and h
22
are defined as follows.

h
11
= V
1
/i
1
with V
2
=0
= Input impedance with output port short circuited.
h
22
= i
2
/V
2
with i
1
=0
= Output Admittance with input port open circuited.

h
12
= V
1
/V
2
with i
1
=0
= Reverse Voltage Transfer ratio with input port open circuited.

h
21
= i
2
/i
1
with V
2
=0
= Forward current gain with output port short circuited.
The dimensions of h - parameters are:
h
11
- ohms
h
22
- mhos
h
12
, h
21
- dimension less.

As the dimensions are not alike, i.e., they are hybrid in nature, these parameters are
called as hybrid parameters.

Notation:

When h - parameters are applied to transistors, first subscript, i - input; o - output; f -
forward transfer; r - reverse transfer and Second subscript to designate the type of
configuration, e - common emitter; b - common base; c - common collector.

For CE configuration; hie - short circuit i/p impedance
hoe - open circuit o/p impedance
hre - open circuit reverse voltage transfer ratio
hfe - short circuit forward current gain

The Hybrid model for two - port network

V
1
= h
i
i
1
+ h
r
V
2

i
2
= h
f
i
1
+ h
0
V
2

Figure.5. Hybrid model for two-port network
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The model can be verified by writing Kirchoff's voltage law in the input loop and Kirchoff's
current law for the output node.

Transistor hybrid model:

Use of h-parameters to describe a transistor has the following advantages.

i) h - parameters are real numbers up to radio frequencies.
ii) They are easy to measure.
iii) They can be determined from the transistor static characteristics curve.
iv) They are convenient to use in circuit analysis and design.
v) Easily convertible from one configuration to other.
vi) Readily supplied by manufacturers.

Hybrid models for the transistor in three different configurations

Figure 6. Transistor configurations and their hybrid models

Typical h- parameters values for a transistor

Parameters CE CC CB
hi 1,100 1,100 21.6
hr 2.5x10
-4
1 2.9x10
-4

hf 50 -51 -0.98
ho 25 A/v 25 A/v 0.49 A/v
1/h0 40K 40K 2.04M
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Conversion formulas for h-parameters

CC CB
h
ic
= h
ie

1
hie
hib
hfe
=
+

h
rc
= 1
1
hiehoe
hrb hre
hfe
=
+

h
fc
= - (1+h
fe
)
1
hfe
hfb
hfe
=
+

h
oc
= h
oe

1
hoe
hob
hfe
=
+

Analysis of a Transistor Amplifier Circuit Using h Parameters

Fig.7. Basic Amplifier circuit

A transistor amplifier can be constructed by connecting an external load and signal source as
indicated in fig. above and biasing the transistor properly.

The two port active network represents a transistor in any of its configuration.

The hybrid equivalent circuit is valid for any type of load whether it is pure resistance (or)
impedance (or) another transistor. It is assumed that h-parameters remain constant over the
operating range. Further, the input is sinusoidal and I
1
, V
1
, I
2
and V
2
are phasor quantities.

Current Gain (or) Current Amplification, A
i

For a transistor amplifier, the current gain A
I
is defined as the ration of output
current to the input current.

Figure 8. Transistor amplifier in its h-parameter model
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From Output circuit
2 1 0 2 f
I h I h V = +
But
2 2 L L L
V I Z I Z = =

2 1 2 0 f L
I h I I Z h =
2 2 1 L f
I I Z ho h I + =

2 1
(1 )
L f
I Z ho h I + =

2
1
1
f
I
L
h
I
A
I Z ho
= =
+

1
f
I
L
h
A
hoZ
=
+

Input Impedance (Z
i
):

In the circuit, Rs is the signal source resistance. The impedance seen when looking into
the amplifier terminals (1, 1) is the amplifier input impedance Z
i
, i.e.,
Z
i
= V
1
/I
1

From Input circuit
1 1 2 i r
V h I h V = +
Hence,
1 2
1
i r
i
h I h V
Z
I
+
=
2
1
i i r
V
Z h h
I
= +
Substituting
2 2 1 L I L
V I Z A I Z = =

i i r i L
Z h h AZ = +
Substituting for A
I

1
f r L
i i
L
h h Z
Z h
hoZ
=
+

1
f r
i L
L
L
h h
Z hi Z
Z ho
Z
=

+

Taking the load admittance as
1
L
L
Y
Z
=

f r
i
L
h h
Z hi
Y ho
=
+

Voltage Gain (or) Voltage Amplification factor (A
v
):

The ratio of the output voltage V
2
to the input voltage V
i
gives the voltage gain of
the transistor. i.e.,
2
1
V
V
A
V
=
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Substituting
2 2 1 L I L
V I Z A I Z = =

1
1
I L I L
V
i
A I Z A Z
A
V Z
= =

I L
V
i
A Z
A
Z
=

Output Admittance (Y
0
):

By definition, Yo is obtained by setting V
1
to zero, Z
L
to infinity and by driving the
output terminals from a generator V
2.
. If the current drawn from V
2
is I
2,
then

2
0
2
I
Y
V
= With V
1
=0 and R
L
=
From the circuit, I
2
= h
f
I
1
+ h
0
V
2
Dividing by V
2
2 1
0
2 2
f
I I
h h
V V
= +
From the circuit
1 1 2 i r
V h I h V = +
Dividing by V
2
, and taking V
1
=0
1
2
0
i r
I
h h
V
= +

1
2
r
i
I h
V h
=

Using this equation in the above equation, we get,

2
0
2
r
f
i
I h
h h
V h

= +

0 0
f r
i
h h
Y h
h
=
Voltage Amplification (A
vs
) taking into account the resistance (Rs) of the
source:
The overall voltage gain A
VS
is given by

2 2 1 1
1
. .
VS V
S S S
V V V V
A A
V V V V
= = =

From the equivalent input circuit using Thevenins equivalent for the source shown
in figure.

R
s

V
s
Z
i

+
-
V
1

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1
.
S i
i s
V Z
V
Z R
=
+

1 i
S i s
Z V
V Z R
=
+
Then
V i
VS
i s
A Z
A
Z R
=
+

Substituting
I L
V
i
A Z
A
Z
=

I L
V S
i S
A Z
A
Z R
=
+

Note that if R
S
=0, then
I L
V S V
i S
A Z
A A
Z R
= =
+
. Hence, A
v
is the voltage gain with an ideal
voltage source (with Rs=0). In practice, A
VS
is more meaningful than A
v
because source
resistance has an appreciable effect on the overall amplification.

Current amplification (A
IS
) taking into account the source resistance:

The equivalent input circuit using Nortons equivalent circuit for the source, for the
calculation of A
IS
is shown in fig. below.

Overall current gain,
2 2 1 1
1
. .
IS I
S S S
I I I I
A A
I I I I

= = =
I
1

I
s
R
s
Z
i

From the figure
1
s
s
S i
R
I I
R Z
=
+

and hence,
1 S
s S i
R I
I R Z
=
+

If Rs=, then A
IS
= A
I.
Hence, A
I
is the current gain with an ideal current source (one
with infinite source resistance).

But, .
S I L
VS
i S S
R A Z
A
Z R R
=
+

IS L
VS
S
A Z
A
R
=
Operating Power Gain:

V
1

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Average power delivered to the load is
2 2 L
P V I Cos = , where is the phase
angle between V
2
and I
L
.

Assume that Z
L
is resistive i.e., Z
L
=R
L
. Since h-parameters are
real at low frequencies, the power delivered to the load is P
2
=V
2
I
L
=- V
2
I
2
, since the
input power P
1
=V
1
I
1
, the operating power gain Ap of the transistor is defined as

2 2 2
1 1 1
p v i
P V I
A A A
P V I
= = =
L
P I I
i
R
A A A
R
=

2 L
P I
i
R
A A
R

=

Input impedance taking into account the source resistance (Rs):

I
s

Rs

Vs Z
i

S
IS S I
S
V
Z R Z
I
= = +

IS S i r I L
Z R h h A Z = + +
Output impedance taking into account the source resistance (Rs):

By definition, Y
0
is obtained by setting Vs to zero, Z
L
to infinitely and by driving the
output terminals from a generator V
2
.

If the current drawn from V
2
is I
2
, then
2
0
2
I
Y
V
= with Vs=0 and R
L
=
From the circuit, I
2
= h
f
I
1
+h
0
V
2
Dividing by V
2
,
2 1
0
2 2
f
I I
h h
V V
= +
With Vs=0, by applying KVL in input circuit, R
S
I
1
+h
i
I
1
+h
r
V
2
=0
I
1
[R
s
+h
i
]+h
r
V
2
=0

1
2
r
S i
I h
V R h
=
+

Using this in the above equation, we get

2
0
2
r
f
S i
I h
h h
V R h

= +

+

0 0
f r
S i
h h
Y h
R h
=
+

+
-
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SUMMARY
1)
1
f
I
L
h
A
hoZ
=
+

2)
f r
i
L
h h
Z hi
Y ho
=
+

3) Z
is
= R
s
+Z
i

4)
0 0
f r
i
h h
Y h
h
=
5)
0 0
f r
S
S i
h h
Y h
R h
=
+

6)
I L
V
i
A Z
A
Z
=
7)
V i
VS
i s
A Z
A
Z R
=
+

8) .
S
IS VS
L
R
A A
Z
=
9)
2 L
P I
i
R
A A
R

=

Analysis of CE amplifier using h-parameter model:

Circuit diagram:

Figure 9. Common Emitter Amplifier

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AC equivalent circuit:

i) Vcc=0 ii) Xc=0

h-parameter model equivalent circuit:

Step 1:

Load impedance :
c
L L
Z R R =

..(1)
Step 2:
Current gain (A
I
):
0 c
I
i b
I
i
A
I i
= =
But,
c oe c
fe b
V i h i h = +

c c
L
V i Z =
( )
c oe c
L fe b
i h i h i Z = +
(1 )
c oe
L fe b
i h Z h i + =

1
fe
c
oe
L b
h
i
i h Z
=
+

1
fe
c
I
oe
L b
h
i
A
i h Z
= =
+

1
fe
I
oe
L
h
A
h Z
=
+
(2)

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Step 3:
Input Impedance (Z
i
):
i b
i
i b
V V
Z
I i
= =
But,
re c b ie b
V h i h V = +
.
re c ie b re
c i ie
b b
h i h V
h
Z h V
i i
+
= = +

[ ]
re c
L
ie
b
h i Z
h
i
= +
c c
L
V i Z =

re i ie I L
Z h h A Z = + . (3)
c
I
b
i
A
i
=
Step 4:
Voltage Gain (A
V
):
0 c
V
i b
V
V
A
V V
= =
c
L I L
V
i i b
i Z A Z
A
i Z Z
= =
c
I
b
i
A
i
=

I L
V
i
A Z
A
Z
= .. (4)
Step 5:
Output Impedance (Z
0
):
0
c
c
i
Y
V
= at V
b
=0
0
oe
fe b
c
h i h Vc
Y
V
+
=
b
oe
fe
c
i
h h
V

= +
Short circuiting the input section, 0
b
V =
h
ie

i
b
h
re
V
c

0
re c ie b
h i h V + =

re c ie b
h i h V =
b re
c ie
i
h
V h
=

0
re
fe
oe
ie
h h
Y h
h
= (5)
0
0
1
Z
Y
=
+
-
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Step 6:

Voltage gain by considering Rs into the analysis (A
VS
):

Rs

Z
i

Vs
0
.
c b
VS
s s
b
V V
V
A
V V V
= =
.
i
s
b
s i
Z
V V
Z R
=
+

b i
s s i
V Z
V Z R
=
+

.
i
V VS
s i
Z
A A
Z R
=
+
. (6)
Step 7:
Current gain by considering Rs into the analysis (A
IS
):

i
b

I
s
R
s
Z
i
0 0
.
b
IS
s s
b
i I I
A
I i I
= =

.
c b
IS
s
b
i
i
A
i i
=
0 c
i i =
b
I IS
s
i
A A
i

=
s s
b
s i
R i
i
R Z
=
+

b s s
s s i
i
R i
i R Z
=
+

s
I IS
s i
R
A A
R Z
=
+
(7)
Step 8:

Input impedance by considering Rs into analysis (Z
is
):

S is i
Z =Z +R

s re ie I L IS
Z h R h A Z = + +
.. (8)

+
-
V
b

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Step 9:

Output impedance by considering Rs into analysis (Z
OS
):

0
re
fe
oe
ie
h h
Y h
h
=

re
fe
os oe
s ie
h h
Y h
h R
=
+
.(9)

1
os
os
Z
Y
=

Analysis of CB amplifier using h-parameter model
Circuit diagram:

Figure 10. Common Base Amplifier

i) Vcc=0 ii) Xc=0

h-parameter model:

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Step 1:

Load impedance :

c
L L
Z R R =

..(1)
Step 2:
Current gain (A
I
):
c
I
e
i
A
i
=
But,
c e c
fb ob
i h i h V = +
c c
L
V i Z =

c e c
L fb ob
i h i h i Z =
(1 )
c e
L ob fb
i h Z h i + =
1
fb
c
e
L ob
h
i
i h Z
=
+

1
fb
I
L ob
h
A
h Z
=
+
.. (2)
Step 3:
Input Impedance (Z
i
):
e
i
e
V
Z
i
=
We have,
c
ib rb
V h i h V
e e
= +
e c
ib rb
e e
V V
h h
i i
= +
But,
c c
L
V i Z =

( )
c
L e rb
ib
e e
h i Z
V
h
i i
= +

i I L ib rb
Z h h A Z = + . (3)
c
I
b
i
A
i
=
Step 4:
Voltage Gain (A
V
):
c
V
e
V
A
V
=
But,
c c
L
V i Z = and
e e
I
V i Z =
c
L
V
e
I
i Z
A
i Z
=
c
I
e
i
A
i
=

I L
V
I
A Z
A
Z
= .. (4)
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Step 5:
Output Impedance (Z
0
):
0
c
c
i
Y
V
= at V
e
=0
We have,
c e c
fb ob
i h i h V = +

c e
ob fb
c c
i i
h h
V V
= +
We have,
e e c
ib rb
V h i h V = + 0
e c
ib rb
h i h V = +

e rb
c
ib
h
i
V h
=

fb rb
e
ob
c
ib
h h
i
h
V h
=

0
fb rb
ob
ib
h h
Y h
h
=
0
ib
ob ib fb rb
h
Z
h h h h
=
.. (5)
Step 6:

Voltage gain with source resistance (A
VS
):

R
s
z
i

0
.
c e
VS
s e s
V
V V
A
V V V
= =
Vs .
i
e s
s i
Z
V V
Z R
=
+

e i
s s i
Z V
V Z R
=
+

.
i
V VS
s i
Z
A A
Z R
=
+
(6)
Step 7:

Current gain with source resistance (A
IS
);

I
e

I
s
R
s
Z
i
0
.
c e
IS
s e s
I
i i
A
I i I
= =
+
-
V
e

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.
s
e s
s i
R
i I
R Z
=
+

e s
s s i
i R
i R Z
=
+

.
s
I IS
s i
R
A A
Z R
=
+
(7)
Step 8:

Input impedance with source resistance (Z
is
):

s is i
Z Z R = +
s is I L ib rb
Z h R h A Z + = + (8)
Step 9:

Output impedance with source resistance (Z
OS
):

0
fb rb
ob
ib
h h
Y h
h
=

fb rb
os
ob
s
ib
h h
Y h
h R
=
+
. (9)

1
os
os
Z
Y
=
Analysis of CC amplifier using h-parameter model
Circuit diagram:

Figure .11 Common Collector Amplifiers
1) Vcc=0 ii) Xc=0

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h-parameter model:

Step 1:
Load impedance (Z
L
):
L E L
Z R R = (1)

Step 2 :
Current Gain (A
I
):
e
I
b
i
A
i
=
We have,
e oc e
fc b
i h i h V = +
But,
e e
L
V i Z =
( )
e L e oc
fc b
i Z i h i h = +
(1 )
fc b oc
L
e
h Z h i i + =

1
fc
e
oc
L b
h
i
i h Z
=
+

1
I
fc
oc
L
A
h
h Z
=
+
(2)
Step 3:
Input Impedance (Z
i
):
b
i
b
V
Z
i
=
We have,
rc
ic
V h i h V
e
b b
= +
b e
rc ic
b b
V
V
h h
i i
= +
But,
e e
L
V i Z =

rc
e
b L
ic
b b
V i Z
h h
i i
= +

rc i ic I L
Z h h A Z = + . (3)
e
I
b
i
A
i
=
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Step 4:
Voltage Gain (A
V
):
e
V
b
V
A
V
=
But,
e e
L
V i Z = and
I b b
V i Z =

e
L
V
I b
i Z
A
i Z
=
e
I
b
i
A
i
=
I L
V
I
A Z
A
Z
= .. (4)
Step 5:
Output Impedance (Z
0
):
0
e
e
i
Y
V
= at V
b
=0
We have,
e oc e
fc b
i h i h V = +

e b
oc
fc
e e
i
i
h h
V V
= +
We have,
rc e ic b b
V h i h V = +
0
rc e ic b
h i h V = +

b rc
e ic
i
h
V h
=

rc
fc
e
oc
e ic
h h
i
h
V h
=
0
rc
fc
oc
ic
h h
Y h
h
=

0
0
1
Z
Y
=
0
ic
oc rc ic fc
h
Z
h h h h
=
(5)
Step 6:

VS
):

Rs

Z
i
Vs
0
.
c b
VS
s s
b
V V
V
A
V V V
= = = .
b
V
S
V
A
V

.
i
s
b
s i
Z
V V
Z R
=
+

b i
s s i
V Z
V Z R
=
+
.
i
V VS
s i
Z
A A
Z R
=
+
(6)
+
-
V
b

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Step 7:

IS
);

I
b

I
s
R
s
Z
i

0
. .
e b b
I IS
s s
S b
i i I
i
A A
I i I i
= = =
.
s
s
b
s i
R
i i
R Z
=
+

b s
s s i
i
R
i R Z
=
+

.
s
I IS
s i
R
A A
R Z
=
+
(7)
Step 8:

is
):

s is i
Z Z R = +
s rc is ic I L
Z h R h A Z + = + .. (8)
Step 9:

OS
):

0
rc
fc
oc
ic
h h
Y h
h
=
1
o
o
Z
Y
=

rc
fc
os oc
s ic
h h
Y h
h R
=
+
. (9)

1
os
os
Z
Y
=

Simplified CE hybrid model:

We have calculated current gain, voltage gain, input impedance and output impedance in different
configurations of a transistor using h-parameters.

However, in most of the practical circuits, we may use simplified hybrid model. Such an
approximate model is justified because h-parameters themselves are not steady but vary
considerably for the same type of transistor since CE configuration is the most widely used, it is
taken for consideration.

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Figure below shows the exact CE h-parameter model.

Figure 12. Exact CE hybrid model

Now we proceed to find simplified approximate and accurate version of this model. It is obvious
from the figure that resistance (1/hoe) appears in parallel with the load resistance R
L
. (1/hoe) is
often large enough to be ignored in comparison to a parallel load. On having omitted hoe, the
collector current is given by
C fe b
i h i = . Further
L L C C fe b
V i R h i R = = .

Accordingly the magnitude
of the voltage of generator in the emitter circuit also gets modified. This is given by
re c re
L fe b
h V h h i R = . Since 0.01
re
fe
h h , this voltage may be neglected in comparison with
the voltage drop across
ie ie b
h h i = provided that R
L
is not too large.Thus it is possible to neglect
the parameters hoe and hre in approximate CE h-model and use remaining two other h-
parameters. Figure shows the simplified approximate CE hybrid model.

Figure 13. Approximate CE hybrid model.

Generalized Approximate Model

The approximate CE h-parameters model is redrawn as shown in fig. below. This is known as
generalized approximate model.
B C

i
b
i
c

hie

i
e

E

Figure 14. Approximate hybrid model valid for all configurations.

This model can be used for any configuration by simply grounding the appropriate terminal.
The signal is always applied between the input terminal and ground while the load impedance is
connected between output terminal and the ground.

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The generalized approximate model for common base circuit is as shown below.
Rs
E C

hfe ib

Vs hie R
L

ib

B

Fig 15. CB generalized approximate model

Analysis of CE amplifier using approximate model:

Circuit diagram:


Approximate hybrid model:

+
-

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Step 1:

Load impedance (Z
L
):

C L L
Z R R = (1)
Step 2 :
Current Gain (A
I
):
c
I
b
i
A
i
=
We have,
c
fe b
i h i =

fe
c
b
h
i
i
=

fe I
A h = (2)
Step 3:
Input Impedance (Z
i
):
b
i
b
V
Z
i
=
We have,
ie
V h i
b b
=

b
ie
b
V
h
i
=

i ie
Z h = . (3)
Step 4:
Voltage Gain (A
V
):
c
V
b
V
A
V
=
But,
L fe b
c c
L
h i Z V i Z = = and
I b b
V i Z =

fe L b
V
I b
h i Z
A
i Z
=

fe L
V
i
h Z
A
Z
=
But,
i ie
Z h =

fe
ie
L
V
h Z
A
h
= .. (4)
Step 5:
Output Impedance (Z
0
):
0
c
c
i
Y
V
= at V
b
=0
With V
b
=0, i
b
=0 and i
e
=0
i
c
=0 Therefore, Y
0
=0 Z
0
= (5)
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Step 6:

VS
):

Rs

Z
i

Vs .
i
V VS
s i
Z
A A
Z R
=
+

.
ie
V VS
s ie
h
h
A A
R
=
+
(6)
Step 7:
IS
);

I
b

I
s
R
s
Z
i
.
s
I IS
s i
R
A A
R Z
=
+

.
s
I IS
s ie
R
A A
R h
=
+
(7)
Step 8:
is
):

s
is i
Z Z R = +
s
is ie
Z h R = + .. (8)
Step 9:
OS
):

os
Z = . (9)

Analysis of CB amplifier using approximate model

Circuit diagram:

+
-
V
b

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Step 1:

Load impedance (Z
L
):

C L L
Z R R = (1)
Step 2 :
Current Gain (A
I
):
c
I
e
i
A
i
=
We have,
c
fe b
i h i =
From figure, 0
e b fe b
i i h i + + = (1 )
e b fe
i i h = +

(1 )
fe b
I
b fe
A
i h
h i
=

(1 )
fe
I
fe
A
h
h
+
= (2)
Step 3:
Input Impedance (Z
i
):
e
i
e
V
Z
i
=
We have,
ie
V h i
e
b
= and (1 ) i i
fe e
b
h + =
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) (1
b fe
b ie
i
i
i h
h
Z
+
=
) (1
fe
ie
i
h
h
Z
+
= . (3)

Step 4:
Voltage Gain (A
V
):
c
V
e
V
A
V
=
But,
L fe b
c
h i Z V = and
e
b ie
V h i =
fe L b
V
b ie
h i Z
A
h i

fe
ie
L
V
h Z
A
h
= .. (4)
Step 5:
Output Impedance (Z
0
):
0
c
c
i
Y
V
= at V
e
=0
With V
e
=0, i
e
=0 and i
b
=0
i
c
=0 Therefore, Y
0
=0
Z
0
= .. (5)
Step 6:

VS
):

Rs

Z
i

Vs .
i
V VS
s i
Z
A A
Z R
=
+

( )
1
S
fe
L
R
fe
VS
ie
h h
h Z
A
+
=
+
(6)
Step 7:

IS
);

+
-
V
b

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I
b

I
s
R
s
Z
i
.
s
I IS
s i
R
A A
R Z
=
+

( )
1
fe
fe
s
IS
s
ie
h
h R
A
h R + +
= (7)
Step 8:

is
):
s
is i
Z Z R = +
( )
( )
1
1
fe
fe
s
ie
is
h
h h R
Z
+
+ +
= (8)
Step 9:

OS
):

os
Z = (9)

Analysis of CC amplifier using approximate model

Circuit diagram:

i) Vcc=0 ii) Xc=0

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Step 1:

Load impedance (Z
L
):
E L L
Z R R = (1)

Step 2 :
Current Gain (A
I
):
e
I
b
i
A
i
=
From circuit, 0
e b fe b
i i h i + + =

( )
1 0
e
b fe
i i h + + =
1
e
fe
b
i
h
i
= +
1
I fe
A h = + (2)
Step 3:
Input Impedance (Z
i
):
b
i
b
V
Z
i
=
From circuit,
ie
V h i
b b
e
V + = and
e e
L
V i Z =

ie
V h i
e L
b b
i Z =

( )
ie
1 V h i
L fe b b b
h i Z + + =

( )
ie
1
V
h
L fe
b
b
h Z
i
+ + =

( )
ie
1 h
L fe i
h Z Z + + = . (3)

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Step 4:
Voltage Gain (A
V
):
e
V
b
V
A
V
=
From circuit,
e
L
e
i Z V = and
( )
1
L ie b b fe
h h Z V i

+ + =

e
L
V
i b
i Z
A
i Z
=
I
i
L
V
A Z
A
Z
=

( )
( )
1
1
fe
fe
L
V
ie L
h
h
Z
A
h Z
+
+
=
+
(or) 1
ie
V
i
h
A
Z
= (4)
Step 5:
Output Impedance (Z
0
):
0
e
e
i
Y
V
= at V
b
=0
We have,
e
ie b b
V h i V = +
0
e
ie b
h i V = +

e
ie b
V h i =
But 1
e
b fe
i i h

= +

0
1
fe
ie
h
Y
h
+
=

0
1
ie
fe
h
Z
h +
= .. (5)

Comparison of Transistor Amplifier configurations

The characteristics of three configurations are summarized for the quantities
A
i
,A
V
,R
i
,Ro and Ap calculated fir typical h-parameters by taking the values of R
L
and Rs
are as 3K.

Quantity CB CC CE
A
i
0.98 47.15 -46.5
A
V
131 0.989 -131
Ap 128.38 46.98 6091.5
R
i
22.6 144K 1065
Ro 1.72M 80.5 45.5K

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Characteristics of CB Amplifier:

i) Current gain of less than unity.
ii) High voltage gain.
iii) Power gain approximately equal to voltage gain.
iv) No phase shift for current (or) voltage.
v) Small input impedance.
iv) Large output impedance.

Applications:

The CB amplifier is not commonly used for amplification purpose. It is used for.

1) Matching a very low impedance source.
2) As a non-inverting amplifier with voltage gain exceeding unity.
3) For driving a high impedance load.
4) As a constant current source.

Characteristics of CC Amplifier:

1) High current gain.
2) Voltage gain of approximately unity.
3) Power gain approximately equal to current gain.
4) No current (or) voltage phase shift.
5) Large input impedance.
6) Small output impedance.
Applications:

The CC amplifier is widely used as a buffer stage between a high impedance
source and a low impedance load. The CC amplifier is called the emitter follower.

Characteristics of CE amplifier:

1) Large current gain.
2) Large voltage gain.
3) Large power gain.
4) Voltage phase shift of 180
0
.
5) Moderate input impedance.
6) Moderate output impedance.
Applications:

Of the three configurations CE amplifier alone is capable of providing both voltage
gain and current gain. The input resistance R
i
and the output resistance Ro are
moderately high.

Hence the CE amplifier is widely used for amplification purpose.
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Common Emitter Amplifier with Emitter Resistor is un bypassed by a
Capacitor (C
E
):

Circuit diagram:

AC Equivalent circuit:

1) Vcc=0 ii) Xc=o

h-parameter model:

Step 1:

Load impedance (Z
L
):
C L L
Z R R = (1)
Step 2:
Current Gain (A
I
):
c
I
b
i
A
i
=
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We have,
c
fe b
i h i =
fe
c
b
h
i
i
=

fe I
A h = (2)
Step 3:
Input Impedance (Z
i
):
b
i
b
V
Z
i
=
From the circuit,
ie
R V h i i
E e
b b
+ =
1
fe b
e
i h i

= +

( )
ie
R 1 V h i
E
fe b b b
h i + + =

( )
1
V
i
E
fe ie
b
b
R h h

+ + = ) (1
E fe i ie
Z h h R = + + (3)

Step 4:
Voltage Gain (A
V
):
c
V
b
V
A
V
=
But,
L fe b
c c
L
h i Z V i Z = =
Dividing with V
b
on both sides of the above equation
L L fe b fe
C
b b b
b
h i Z h Z
V
V V V
i

= =

fe L
V
I
h Z
A
Z
=
( )
1
E
fe
ie
L
V
fe
R
h Z
A
h h +
=
+
.. (4)
Step 5:
Output Impedance (Z
0
):
0
c
c
i
Y
V
= at V
b
=0
c
fe b
i h i =
) (1
ie E b b fe b
V h i h R i = + +
If V
b
=0 i
b
=0
i
c
=0
Therefore, Y
0
=0 Z
0
= (5)
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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering UNIT-V -EDC

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