Comparison between Animal Cell (AC) and Plant Cell (PC)

1. Mitochondrion (pl: Mitochondria): AC and PC

spherical / rod-shaped organelles
two membranes: Inner membrane form cristae & Outer membrane regular and
smooth
an energy source
site of cellular aerobic respiration
produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
2. Nucleus (pl: Nuclei): AC and PC
contains the genetic material
regulates and controls the activities of the cell
an organelle bounded by double (2) layers of nuclear membrane with pores and
selectively permeable
responsible for all cellular structure, chemical functions, growth and reproduction
separates the genetic materials (chromatin) from cytoplasm
3. Nucleolus: AC and PC
spherical structure within the nucleus
consists of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) and proteins
visible when the cell is not dividing
synthesis RNA which is needed to make ribosomes
4. Nucleoplasm: AC and PC
fluid contained within the nucleus
highly viscous solid
made up of the chromatin and the nucleolus
5. Chromosomes
thread-like structures (consists of genetic material)
appears as chromatin spread throughout the nucleus in the form of tiny granules
chromatin condenses into chromosomes (during cell division)
carry genetic information in its DNA
6. Ribosomes: Ac and PC
small dot-like organelles
protein synthesis
consist of RNA (ribonucleic acids)
smallest cellular organelles
attached on the surface of ER and occur freely in cytoplasm
7. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): AC and PC
connected to the nuclear membrane
synthesises proteins, steroids and lipids
collects, stores and distributes protein, steroids and lipids
exists as rough ER and smooth ER
Rough ER: covered with ribosomes, flat sealed sac which continued from the nuclear
membrane, transports protein, and have a large surface area for chemical reactions.
Smooth ER: does not have ribosomes, transports lipids and presents in large amounts of
cells.
8. Plasma membrane: AC and PC
cell membrane
thin membrane surround the cytoplasm of a cell
selectively permeable / semi permeable
a protective and selective outer barrier
consists of phospholipids and protein molecules
To be continued.. Upcoming post involves Golgi apparatus/body, Cytoplasm, Lysosome,
Centriole, Vacuole, Cell wall, Chloroplast.
9. Golgi apparatus / Golgi body: AC and PC
bound sacs
processes, packages and transport molecules synthesised in the cell
forms lysosomes
transports and stores lipids
synthesis of carbohydrate from hormone
changes protein into glycoprotein
excretes waste products out of the cell
10. Cytoplasm: AC and PC
aqueous solution (except nucleus)
stores water, enzymes, nutrient, salts and dissolved gases
provided support, shape and protects the cell organelles
medium for metabolic reactions
provides substances
11. Lysosome: AC
sac-like organelle with one membrane
digest proteins, lipids and carbohydrates
removes undigested materials
releases enzymes to digest external materials
12. Centriole: AC
are paired cylindrical organelles
nine tubes with three tubules each
produces spindle during cell division (mitosis and meiosis)
migrate to the opposite poles of the cell (during cell division will be discussed in
Chapter 5 Cell Division)
13. Vacuole: AC (temporary / lower class species) and PC
small cavity in the cytoplasm
bound by a single membrane
filled with cell sap
storage of food (protein, oil and water)
some vacuoles remove metabolic waste
functions as cell expansion
Amoeba: food vacuoles (phagocytosis)
Paramecium: contractile vacuoles (expel water)
14. Cell Wall: PC
rigid and tough cellulose layer surrounding the plasma membrane (cell membrane)
protects and supports the cell
maintains the shape
prevents the cell from busting (excessive intake of water)
allows substances to move freely through the cell wall
15. Chloroplast: PC
disc / lens-shaped organelle
have two membranes: inner and outer membrane
contains chlorophyll in the grana to trap sunlight energy
carry out photosynthesis in the chlorophyll
storage of food and pigments

Keys:
AC and PC = similarities
AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch)

Organelles (little organ) tiny structures inside a cell that perform specific functions for a cell.
Example: mitochondria, lysosome and chloroplast.
Mitochondria
Animal: High density at sperm cells (at middle piece to provide sufficient energy for
motive power), flight muscle cells (bird / avian), liver cells, meristematic / meristemic
cells (involve with cell division), kidney cells, heart muscle cells, brain cells.
Chloroplasts
Plant: High density at palisade mesophyll (leaf: below upper epidermis). It functions to
trap sunlight to synthesise sugar during photosynthesis.
The Uniqueness of The Cell
A cell is unique:
1. Specialisation
2. Division of labour
3. Coordination and integration
Example of specialisation of cells :
Animal smooth muscle cell, neuron (nerve cell), white blood cell, red blood cell
(erythrocyte), cheek cell (lining epithelial cell), sperm, ovum cell (the biggest cell in
human)
Plant palisade mesophyll cell, xylem, phloem, guard cell.









Cell Organisation
Unicellular A single cell performs all the basic life process. Example: Amoeba sp.,
Paramecium sp., Chlamydomonas, Bacteria and Euglena.
Multicellular An organism consists of more than one cell. Each group of cell specialized to
carry our life processes. Example: Homo sapien (human), animals and plants. It has five levels of
organisation
1. Cells: basic units of structure and function.
Example: Red blood cells and xylem vessel cells.
2. Tissues: made up of cells with similar in structure and function.
Example: Epithelial tissues and vascular tissues.
3. Organs: made up of tissues that perform a specific function.
Example: Heart and flower.
4. System: two of more organs that perform a specific function.
Example: Digestive system and root system.
5. Organisms: whole living thing that carry out all the basic life processes.
Example: Human and durian tree.
Cell Organisation (Unicellular) in Amoeba sp. (lives in freshwater ponds) and Paramecium
sp. (lives in soil and moist area)
1. Cell structure
Amoeba sp.: plasma membrane, food vacuole, contractile vacuole, pseudopodium,
nucleus, ectoplasma, endoplasm.
Paramecium sp.: food vacuole, posterior contractile vacuole, cytostome, gullet, oral
groove, cilia, macronucleus, micronucleus, anterior contractile vacuole.
2. Locomotion
Amoeba sp.: Pseudopodium (false foot) helps it to move forward slowly and it is known
as amoeboid movement.
Paramecium sp.: Hair-like cilia to beat against water. It beats its cilia backwards
diagonally (swim forward) and it rotates on its axis. It beats its cilia forward (swim
backwards).
3. Feeding
Amoeba sp.: Omnivore. Eat bacteria, plant cells, algae and other microscopic organisms.
1. Entrapment extend pseudopodium.
2. Engulfment engulf tiny food (phagocytosis) with its pseudopodia.
3. Digestion food enclosed in food vacuole
4. Absorption enzyme digests the bacteria
5. Egesting expel indigestible material.
Paramecium sp.: Eat bacteria, organic material and other microscopic organisms.
1. Sweeping movement of cilia. Food moves along the oral groove into the gullet and
cytostome.
2. Digestion food vacuole circulates round the cell.
3. Elimination undigested food is eliminated at the anal pore.
4. Reproduction
Amoeba sp.: two types of reproduction.
1. Binary Fission nucleus divides (favourable condition) and then follows by division of
cytoplasm. Two daughter cells are formed (mitotic division).
2. Spore Formation spores form (bad condition) and germinate into new amoeba under
favourable condition.
Paramecium sp.: two types of reproduction.
1. Binary Fission micronucleus undergoes mitosis (favourable condition). Macronucleus
begins to elongation and form two. Cell content divide and two daughter cells are formed.
2. Conjugation (Sexual reproduction) two same species parent paramecia exchange
genetic material of their micronuclei. Each parent divides and forms four daughter cells.
5. Osmoregulation
Amoeba sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has a
contractile vacuole.
Paramecium sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has
two contractile vacuoles.
6. Respiration
Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): exchange gases throughout the whole cell
membrane
7. Excretion
Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): waste products are ammonia and carbon dioxide
by diffusion. Solid waste in paramecium is expelled through its anal pore.
Cell Organisation (Multicellular) in Human
1. Cells: Epithelial cells, muscle cells, white blood cells, red blood cells, sperm, nerve cells.
2. Tissues: Epithelial tissue, smooth muscle tissue, connective tissue, skeletal tissue, nerve
tissue.
3. Organs: Stomach, heart, kidney, lung, liver.
4. Systems: Circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system, excretory system,
muscular system, lymphatic system, integumentary system, skeletal system, nervous
system, endocrine system, reproductive system.
5. Organisms: Human.
Cell Organisation in Plant
1. Cells: Parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, epidermal cells.
2. Tissues: Epidermal tissue, meristem tissue, vascular tissue.
3. Organs: Leaf organ, flower organ, stem organ, root organ.
4. Systems: Shoot system, root system.
5. Organisms: Plant.















Movement of Substances Across the Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is a membrane of biological nature which forms the barrier between the
interior of a cell against external environment. However, do not just think of it as a layer which
do not have any function. Typically, movement of substances to and from cells to outer
environment is controlled (due to its permeability) by the plasma membrane. The key concept
here for this topic is to understand the selective-permeability nature of a plasma membrane. The
rest of the topic are rather easy and intuitive. Do note that plasma membrane is also known as
cell membrane and plasmalemma.
Permeability of the fruit skin
1. Uniqueness of Plasma Membrane (also known as cell membrane):
it is a semi-permeable cell membrane
it allows water and certain substances to move in and out of the cell.
2. Importance of Plasma Membrane:
- cells obtain nutrients and gases
cells excrete metabolic wastes
cells can maintain pH for enzyme activity
cells can maintain ionic concentration of the cells for enzyme activity
control the types and the amount of substances
allow useful substance (hormones/enzymes) to secrete from cells
protect cells
a boundary between the inside and outside of cell.
3. Structure of the basic unit of plasma membrane
Phospholipid molecule:
Head hydrophilic: a polar phosphate molecule (philic~loves water / attracted to water)
Tail hydrophobic: two non-polar fatty acids (phobic~hates water / repelled to water)
Formation:
Hydrophilic heads pointing outwards
Hydrophobic tails pointing inwards
(Bilayer phospolipid)
Fluid Mosaic Model (Protein embedded in the bilayer)
Carrier protein
carrier for some molecules (glucose, amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids)
controls the movement of ions and particles (Na
+
, Ca
2+
and K
+
)
Glycoprotein
Glycolipid
combination of lipids and polysaccharides
4. Permeability
Permeable (allow to pass through)
small non-polar molecules (vitamins A, D, E, K, fatty acids, glycerol and steroids)
Impermeable (not allow to pass through but with help of carrier protein and cellular energy, it is
allow to pass through)
large polar molecules (glucose, amino acids, mucleic acids and polysaccharides)
charged ions (H
+
, Na
+
, K
+
, Cl
-
and Ca
2+
)
Substances that are allowed to move in the cell:
CO
2

O
2

excess H
2
O
waste: nitrogenous
Substances that are allowed to move out of the cell:
CO
2

O
2

amino acids
ionic salts
glucose
Materials must be able to move through the plasma membrane in order for the cell cytoplasma to
interact with the external environment. Therefore, the movement of soluble substances can occur
in several mechanisms:
A. Process of Passive Transport
B. Process of Active Transport
A. Passive Transport
i) Simple Diffusion
not selective: lipid-soluble molecules, gases and water.
not control by cell.
movement of the molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion are temperature, size of molecules/ions, diffusion
gradient, surface area and diffusion medium.
example: diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide at the alveolus.
ii) Osmosis:
only water molecules.
not control by cell.
movement of water from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration
and often occurs across a semipermeable membrane.
strong sucrose solution = less water molecule = low water potential.
weak sucrose solution = more water molecule = high water potential.
example: absorption of water by root hairs.
iii) Facilitated Diffusion:
very specific: glucose, nucleic aicds, amino acids, protein and mineral ions.
control by cell.
transport of molecules (only certain molecules) across the outer membrane of living cell
by a process of carrier protein (hydrophilic group) / channel protein (Ions: Na
+
, Ca
2+
, K
+
)
within the cell membrane.
normally take place from a region with higher concentration of molecules to a region of
lower concentration.
example: absorption of digested food in the villus.
B. Process of Active Transport
very specific: minerals ions and amino acids.
control by cell.
This process needs carrier proteins and energy (due to against concentration gradient)
from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration).
Cell must expend energy that derived from ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
example: human nerve cells (sodium ions are constantly transport out of the cell) / ions
intake by root hairs of a plant.





Type of Solution
1. Hypotonic
2. Isotonic
3. Hypertonic
1) Hypotonic
Solute concentration in the external solution is lesser than solute concentration inside the
cell.
Water concentration outside the cell is higher than the water concentration inside the cell.
2) Isotonic
Solute concentration in the external solution is equal to the solute concentration inside the
cell.
Water concentration inside and outside of the cell is the same.
3) Hypertonic
Solute concentration in the external solution is greater than solute concentration inside
the cell.
Water concentration outside the cell is lower than the water concentration inside the cell.
Types of solutions:
Type of
Solution
Hypotonic Isotonic Hypertonic
Animal
Cell
The cell inflates due to
the water molecules enter
the cell. Eventually it
bursts (thin plama
membrane). Example: red
blood cell in distilled
water.
No change in the
size of cell. Net
movement of
water is zero.
Example: red
blood cell in
0.85% sucrose
solution.
The cell shrinks and
becomes soft and
dehydrated due to the
water molecule leave
the cell. Example: red
blood cell in 5% sodium
chloride solution.
Plant Cell The cell expands and
becomes firm / turgid due
to the water molecules
enter the cell. The rigid
cellulose cell wall
expands slightly and
prevents cell from
bursting. Example: strip
of potato in distilled
water.
No change in the
size of cell. Net
movement of
water is zero.
Example: strip
of potato in 5%
sucrose solution.
The cell becomes
flaccid (plasmolysis
occurs), vacuole and
cytoplasma shrink due
to the water molecules
leave the cell. Example:
strip of potato in 30%
sucrose solution.
Application
1. Food is soaked in a concentrated salt solution to prevent bacteria and fungus to survive.
2. Chemical fertiliser (dissolved ions) increases solute concentration (decrease water
molecules) in soil. Therefore, water leaves from the cell sap of the plant which result the
plant wither.
Finally, the end of the interesting substance movement over plasma membrane. Do keep note
that this might be a popular essay question. Easy to answer but hard to score, so take note of the
terminologies and concepts shown above.