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Power Series
Power Series
Lecture Notes
A power series is a polynomial with infinitely many terms. Here is an example:
0 B " B B B a b
# $
Like a polynomial, a power series is a function of B. That is, we can substitute in different
values of to get different results. For example, B
0 ! " ! ! ! " a b .
and
0 " #
" " " "
# # % )
.
Though power series may seem complicated, they are actually not much more difficult to deal
with than polynomials. For example, it is easy to take the derivative of a power series:
.
.B
" B B B B " #B $B %B
# $ % # $
and it is just as easy to take the integral:
(
" B B B .B B B B B G
" " "
# $ %
# $ # $ %
As you can see, a power series is not much more complicated than a polynomial.
Taylor Series
Consider again the power series
0 B " B B B a b
# $
.
As we have seen, it is easy to compute the sum of this series for different values of . For B
example,
0 "
" " " " " $
$ $ * #( " "$ #
.
In fact, no matter what value of we plug in, the result is always a geometric series. The first B
term of this series is , and the common ratio is always . " B
Indeed, the entire power series
" B B B
# $
can be thought of as a geometric series with a common ratio of . This gives us a simple formula B
for the sum:
" B B B
"
" B
# $
This is our first example of a Taylor seriesa power series that adds up to a known function.
So which functions can be expressed as power series? The answer may surprise you:
/ " B B B B
" " "
# $x %x
B " B B B
" " "
#x %x 'x
B B B B B
" " "
$x &x (x
B B B B B
" " "
$ & (
" B B B B B
" " "
# $ %
B # $ %
# % '
$ & (
" $ & (
# $ %
cos
sin
tan
lna b
All of these functionsthe exponential, the sine, the cosine, the logarithm, the inverse tangent
all of them are really just polynomials!
This result seems to good to be true. How is it possible that something like is a /
B
polynomial? According to the table above,
/ " B B B B B
" " " "
# ' #% "#!
B # $ % &
.
Why would this be true? Well, the defining property of is that it is equal to its own derivative: /
B
.
.B
/ / a b
B B
.
However, the Taylor series for is also equal to its own derivative: /
B
. " " " "
.B # ' #% "#!
" B B B B B
" B B B B
" " "
# ' #%
# $ % &
# $ %
.
Based on this observation alone, it seems reasonable that the two functions might be the same.
Unfortunately, we are not yet in a position to fully explain the formulas above. The goal of
the next two sections is to learn how to express various functions as power series. By the time
we are done, you will understand all five of these formulas.
Geometric Power Series
Recall the formula for the sum of a geometric series:
+ +< +< +<
+
" <
# $
As we have seen, this formula works perfectly well when and are functions of . For + < B
example, plugging in and gives the formula + " < B
"
" B
" B B B
# $
.
There are many more series we can get this way. For example, using and gives + " < B
"
" B
" B B B
# $
,
and using and gives, + B < #B
B
" #B
B #B %B )B
# $ %
EXAMPLE 1 Find a formula for the sum of the following series:
B #B %B )B "'B
# & ) "" "%
SOLUTION This is a geometric series with a common ratio of . The first term is , so #B B
$ #
B #B %B )B "'B
B
" #B
# & ) "" "%
#
$
EXAMPLE 2 Find a power series representation for each of the following functions:
(a) (b)
B "
" $B " B
#
SOLUTION
(a) This should be the sum of a geometric series with and : + B < $B
B
" $B
B $B *B #(B
# $ %
(b) This is the sum of a geometric series with and : + " < B
#
"
" B
" B B B
#
# % '
We now come to our first major task: finding a power series for the natural logarithm.
EXAMPLE 4 Find a Taylor series for . lna b " B
SOLUTION Observe that
(
a b
"
" B
.B " B G ln .
But is the sum of a geometric power series:
"
" B
"
" B
" B B B
# $
Integrating both sides gives:
lna b
" B B B B B G
" " "
# $ %
# $ %
Plugging in reveals that . Therefore: B ! G !
lna b "
a b
" B B B B B B
" " " "
# $ % 8
# $ % 8
8"
_ 8"
Power series can also be added, subtracted, and multiplied like polynomials.
EXAMPLE 9 Find a power series representation for . B B
$ "
tan
SOLUTION We have:
B B B
B B B B
" " "
$ & (
$ " $
% ' ) "!
tan
B B B B
" " "
$ & (
$ & (