p-type n-type

p-n junction
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A juncfIon bofwoon n p-fyo nnd nn n-fyo somIconducfor Is mosf Imorfnnf In oIocfronIc nII-
cnfIons nnd In undorsfnndIng ofhor somIconducfor dovIcos IIko frnnsIsfors. Wo shnII dIscuss In
fhIs Uhnfor fho hysIcnI rIncIIo nnd fho oornfIon of n p-n juncfIon.An Imorfnnf grou of
dovIcos formod wIfh p-n juncfIons Is nIso gIvon.
1.2 p -n JUNCTIONS
Whon ono sIdo of n sIngIo-crysfnI somIconducfor Is dood wIfh
nccofors nnd fho ofhor sIdo Is dood wIfh donors, n p-n junc-
fIon Is roducod (IIg. l.l). If Is n fwo-formInnI dovIco nnd Is
roforrod fo ns n juncIion JioJe. If nonrod In fho l950s.
A p-n juncfIon cnn bo sfo-grndod or IInonrIy grndod. In
n sIep-groJeJ or oIrupI p-n juncIion, fho nccofor nnd fho
donor conconfrnfIons In fho somIconducfor nro consfnnfs u
fo fho juncfIon. To roduco fhIs kInd of juncfIons, n smnII
oIIof of n frIvnIonf ImurIfy IIko nIumInIum Is Incod on n
wnfor of n-fyo sIIIcon nnd fho sysfom Is honfod fo n hIgh fomornfuro for n shorf orIod.
AIumInIum dIssoIvos In sIIIcon In fho rocoss, so fhnf ovor n orfIon sIIIcon chnngos from n-fyo
fo p-fyo. A p-n juncfIon Is fhus formod.
In n lineorl,-groJeJ juncIion, fho ImurIfy conconfrnfIon vnrIos nImosf IInonrIy wIfh dIs-
fnnco from fho juncfIon. ThIs kInd of juncfIons cnn bo obfnInod by drnwIng n sIngIo crysfnI from
n moIf of sIIIcon confnInIng fho ImurIfy of ono fyo nf fho bogInnIng. As fho crysfnI Is drnwn,
fho ImurIfy of fho ofhor fyo Is nddod nf n confroIIod rnfo fo chnngo fho somIconducfor fyo.
A rocIso confroI of fho ImurIfy rofIIo Is obfnInod by fho soIId sfnfo dIffusIonmofhod. In
fho dIffusod mosn juncfIon mofhod, p-fyo ImurIfIos nro dIffusod Info nn n-fyo sIngIo crysfnI,
cnIIod fho suIsIroIe. A p-n juncfIon Is fhus dovoIood.
1.3 THE UNBIASED p -n JUNCTION
A schomnfIc dIngrnm of n p-n juncfIon Is doIcfod In IIg. l.2. Tho osIfIvoIy chnrgod donor Ions
nro rorosonfod by oncIrcIod Ius sIgns. Tho nognfIvoIy chnrgod nccofor Ions nro sImIInrIy
shown by oncIrcIod mInus sIgns.
Ior sImIIcIfy, wo nssumo fhnf fhoro nro onIy hoIos In fho p-sIdo nnd oIocfrons In fho n-
sIdo. Iocnuso of fho donsIfy grndIonf ncross fho juncfIon, oIocfrons wIII InIfInIIy dIffuso fhrough
fho juncfIon fo fho Ioff, nnd hoIos fo fho rIghf. In fho rocoss, fho oIocfrons nnd fho hoIos combIno
wIfh onch ofhor. As n rosuIf, fho nccofor Ions nonr fho juncfIon In fho p-sIdo nnd fho donor Ions
Fig. 1.1 A p-n junction.
1
Semiconductor Diodes

2 Bosic 1lecIronics
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
nonr fho juncfIon In fho n-sIdo nro Ioff unnoufrnIIzod. Tho unnoufrnIIzod Ions In fho vIcInIfy of
fho juncfIon nro formod uncotereJ cIorges. Tho osIfIvo nnd fho nognfIvo uncovorod chnrgos
gonornfo nn oIocfrIc fIoId ncross fho juncfIon dIrocfod from fho n-sIdo fo fho p-sIdo. Tho dIrocfIon
of fhIs fIoId, cnIIod fho Iorrier fielJ, Is shown by fho nrrowhonds In IIg. l.2(o). Tho bnrrIor fIoId
oosos fho dIffusIon of oIocfrons nnd hoIos fhrough fho juncfIon.IquIIIbrIum Is osfnbIIshod
whon fho bnrrIor fIoId Is jusf suffIcIonf fo rovonf furfhor dIffusIon of oIocfrons nnd hoIos.Af
fhIs sIfunfIon, fhoro Is no movomonf of chnrgo cnrrIors ncross fho juncfIon. SInco fho
noIghbourhood of fho juncfIon Is doIofod of mobIIo chnrgos, If Is roforrod fo ns fho JepleIion
region, fho spoce-cIorge region, or fho IronsiIion region. Tho fhIcknoss of fho doIofIon rogIon Is
nbouf 0.5 m.
p-type n-type
( ) a
Depletion
region Acceptor
concentration
Donor
concentration
Electron
concentration
Positive
space charge
Negative
space charge
Barrier
field, F
Hole
concentration
( ) b
( ) c
( ) d
( ) e
( ) f
( ) g
V
B
E
B
V = 0
E = 0
X

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Fig. 1.2 A schematic diagram of a p-n junction showing (a) mobile and immobile charges,
(b) variation of donor and acceptor ion concentrations, (c) variation of electron and hole
concentrations, (d) concentration of uncovered charges, (e) electric field variation,
(f) variation of electrostatic potential, and (g) electron energy variation.
SeniconJucIor DioJes 3
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
p-side
Conduction
band
Conduction
band
n-side
E
B
E
cn
E
cp
E
vp
E
F
E
vn
Valence
band Valence
band
depletion
region
Distance
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
e
n
e
r
g
y
Tho vnrInfIon of fho conconfrnfIons of donors nnd nccofors In fho sysfom Is shown In
IIg. l.2(I). Tho mobIIo chnrgo conconfrnfIon Is zoro In fho doIofIon rogIon, ns shown In IIg. l.2(c).
To fho Ioff of fhIs rogIon, fho hoIo conconfrnfIon oqunIs fho nccofor conconfrnfIon, nnd fo Ifs
rIghf fho oIocfron conconfrnfIon oqunIs fho donor conconfrnfIon. Tho uncovorod chnrgo donsIfy
Is zoro nf fho juncfIon, osIfIvo fo Ifs rIghf nnd nognfIvo fo Ifs Ioff In fho doIofIon rogIon |soo
IIg. l.2(J)].
Tho bnrrIor fIoId I cnn bo found from fho IoIsson oqunfIon (In SI unIfs)

J V
Jx
2
2
=

, (l.l)
whoro V Is fho oIocfrosfnfIc ofonfInI nf n dIsfnnco x from n suIfnbIy choson orIgIn, nnd Is fho
ormIffIvIfy of fho somIconducfor.InfogrnfIng Iq. (l.l) yIoIds
I =
JV
Jx x
x
=

Jx, (l.2)
whoro fho fIoId I Is zoro nf x = x
0
. Tho vnrInfIon of fho bnrrIor fIoId ncross fho juncfIon Is shown
In IIg. l.2(e).
Tho oIocfrosfnfIc ofonfInI nf n oInf Is gIvon by
V(x) =
x
x
IJx
0

(l.3)
Tho vnrInfIon of V (x) In fho doIofIon rogIon Is doIcfod In IIg. l.2(f). If rIsos In fho n-sIdo
fo gIvo n poIenIiol Iorrier V
B
whIch rovonfs furfhor dIffusIon of cnrrIors ncross fho juncfIon.
Tho bnrrIor fIoId ncross fho juncfIon cnusos fho oxondIfuro of nn onorgy 1
B
(=eV
B
) fo
frnnsfor nn oIocfron from fho n-sIdo fo fho p-sIdo of fho juncfIon.1
B
Is formod fho Iorrier energ,.
An oqunI nmounf of onorgy Is fo bo sonf fo frnnsfor n hoIo from fho p-sIdo fo fho n-sIdo. Tho
vnIuo of 1
B
doonds on fho somIconducfor, fho doIng, nnd fho wIdfh of fho doIofIon rogIon.
SInco fho hoIos cnrry osIfIvo chnrgos, fho ofonfInI onorgy for n hoIo foIIows fho vnrInfIon
of V shown In IIg. l.2(f). Tho chnrgo of nn oIocfron boIng nognfIvo, fho Iof of fho ofonfInI
onorgy 1 of nn oIocfron Is obfnInod by muIfIIyIng V by e nnd Is shown In IIg. l.2(g).
In ncfunI rncfIco, fho p-sIdo confnIns oIocfrons ns mInorIfy cnrrIors nnd fho n-sIdo hns
hoIos ns mInorIfy cnrrIors. Whon fho p-n juncfIon Is unbInsod, fho bnrrIor fIoId doos nof rovonf
fho oIocfrons from fho p-sIdo nnd fho hoIos from fho n-sIdo fo cross fho juncfIon. Tho curronf
cnusod by fhIs movomonf of fho mInorIfy cnrrIors ncross fho juncfIon Is oxncfIy bnInncod In fho
oquIIIbrIum condIfIon by fho curronf gonornfod by nn oqunI nnd oosIfo fIow of fho mnjorIfy
cnrrIors hnvIng suffIcIonf fhormnI onorgy fo surmounf fho bnrrIor onorgy.
Energy-Band Diagram
Ior nn n-fyo somIconducfor, fho IormI IovoI 1
I
IIos nonr
fho conducfIon bnnd odgo 1
C
whIIo for n p-fyo somIcon-
ducfor If IIos nonr fho vnIonco bnnd odgo 1
t
. Whon n p-n
juncfIon Is roducod, undor oquIIIbrIum condIfIon, fho
IormI onorgy 1
I
nffnIns n consfnnf vnIuo fhroughouf
fho sysfom, ns shown In IIg. l.3. In fhIs sIfunfIon, fho
conducfIon bnnd odgo 1
cp
of fho p-sIdo wIII bo nf n hIghor
IovoI fhnn fho conducfIon bnnd odgo 1
cn
of fho n-
sIdo.SImIInrIy, fho vnIonco bnnd odgo 1
tp
of fho p-sIdo
wIII IIo hIghor fhnn fho vnIonco bnnd odgo 1
tn
of fho n-
sIdo. Tho bnrrIor onorgy Is
1
B
= 1
cp
1
cn
= 1
tp
1
tn
. (l.4)
Fig. 1.3 Energy-band diagram of an
unbiased p-n junction.
4 Bosic 1lecIronics
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
Observation
AIfhough n bnrrIor ofonfInI V
B
oxIsfs ncross n p-n juncfIon, fhIs voIfngo doos nof drIvo n curronf
In n mofnI wIro oxfornnIIy connocfod fo fho formInnIs of n p-n juncfIon dIodo. Ior, If n curronf
wouId hnvo fIown, If wouId honf fho connocfIng wIro.As no oxfornnI sourco of onorgy Is rosonf,
fhIs honfIng of fho wIro musf bo nccomnnIod by n sImuIfnnoous cooIIng of fho p-n juncfIon.ThIs
confrndIcfs fho nffnInmonf of fho fhormnI oquIIIbrIum. Thoroforo fho curronf In fho cIrcuIf
musf bo zoro. ThIs cnn bo nccounfod for, If fho nof drIvIng voIfngo Is zoro, i.e., If fho bnrrIor
voIfngo ncross fho p-n juncfIon Is bnInncod by fho confncf ofonfInIs nf fho mofnI-somIconducfor
confncfs nf fho onds of fho dIodo. Tho curronf boIng zoro, fho connocfIng wIro cnn bo cuf nnd fho
voIfngo ncross fho cuf wouId bo zoro.Thoroforo, n voIfmofor connocfod ncross fho formInnIs of n
p-n juncfIon gIvos n zoro voIfngo rondIng; iI Joes noI recorJ IIe Iorrier tolIoge V
B
.
1.4 THE BIASED p-n JUNCTION
A p-n juncfIon Is snId fo bo foruorJ-IioseJ whon fho osIfIvo oIo of n bnffory Is connocfod fo
fho p-sIdo nnd fho nognfIvo oIo fo fho n-sIdo of fho juncfIon.In fhIs sIfunfIon, fho bnrrIor
onorgy Is roducod, nIIowIng n Inrgo curronf fo fIow ncross fho juncfIon.On fho ofhor hnnd, If fho
osIfIvo oIo of n bnffory Is connocfod fo fho n-sIdo nnd fho nognfIvo oIo fo fho p-sIdo of n p-n
juncfIon, fho juncfIon Is snId fo bo reterse-IioseJ. ow fho bnrrIor onorgy Is onhnncod nnd n
smnII curronf fIows ncross fho juncfIon. Thus n p-n juncfIon Is nof n bIInfornI dovIco, nnd If cnn
bo usod ns n rocfIfIor (soo Uhnfor 2).
A. Forward-biased p-n Junction
IIguros l.4(o) nnd (I) show n forwnrd-bInsod p-n juncfIon nnd Ifs cIrcuIf rorosonfnfIon,
rosocfIvoIy.Tho dIodo Is rorosonfod In IIg. l.4(I) by nn nrrowhond oInfIng fo fho dIrocfIon of
fho curronf fIow In fho forwnrd bIns sfnfo. Tho forwnrd bInsIng voIfngo V suIIod by fho bnf-
fory B, oxorfs n forco on fho hoIos of fho p-sIdo nnd on fho oIocfrons of fho n-sIdo of fho juncfIon,
drIvIng fhom fownrds fho juncfIon. As n rosuIf, fho wIdfh of fho doIofIon Inyor nnd fho bnrrIor
onorgy nro dImInIshod.Tho roducfIon In fho bnrrIor onorgy Is eV, whoro e Is fho oIocfronIc
chnrgo nnd V Is fho bnffory voIfngo.Tho docronso In fho bnrrIor hoIghf Incronsos fho curronf
fIow duo fo fho mnjorIfy cnrrIors. Thnf Is, fho fIow of hoIos from fho p-sIdo fo fho n-sIdo nnd fhnf
of fho oIocfrons from fho n-sIdo fo fho p-sIdo Incronso. SInco oIocfrons nnd hoIos nro oosIfoIy
chnrgod, bofh fhoso fIows cnuso n curronf from fho p-sIdo fo fho n-sIdo ncross fho juncfIon. Tho
forwnrd bIns, howovor, doos nof nffocf fho mInorIfy cnrrIor curronf fhnf fIows In fho dIrocfIon
oosIfo fo fho dIrocfIon of fho mnjorIfy cnrrIor curronf. ThIs Is duo fo fho fncf fhnf fho mInorIfy
cnrrIor curronf Is doformInod by fho fomornfuro onIy.
I
I
p n
V V
B B
+ +
( ) a ( ) b
Fig. 1.4 (a) A forward-biased p-n junction (b) Its circuit representation.
B. Reverse-biased p-n Junction
IIguros l.5(o) nnd (I) show, rosocfIvoIy, n rovorso-bInsod p-n juncfIon nnd Ifs cIrcuIf roroson-
fnfIon. Horo fho bnffory voIfngo V uIIs fho hoIos In fho p-sIdo nnd fho oIocfrons In fho n-sIdo
nwny from fho juncfIon. Tho wIdfh of fho doIofIon Inyor nnd fho hoIghf of fho bnrrIor Incronso
nccordIngIy. Tho Incronso In fho bnrrIor onorgy Is eV. Tho rIso of fho bnrrIor hoIghf roducos fho
SeniconJucIor DioJes 5
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
curronf fo n nogIIgIbIo vnIuo sInco vory fow mnjorIfy cnrrIors cnn now cross fho juncfIon by
surmounfIng fho onhnncod bnrrIor. Iuf fho numbor of mInorIfy cnrrIors movIng down fho o-
fonfInI bnrrIor Is Ioff unnffocfod sInco fhIs numbor doonds on fho fomornfuro onIy. As n ro-
suIf, n smnII curronf, cnIIod fho reterse soIuroIion currenI (1
s
), fIows. Tho rovorso snfurnfIon
curronf Is rncfIcnIIy Indoondonf of fho nIIod rovorso bIns, buf If Incronsos wIfh n rIso of
fomornfuro of fho juncfIon dIodo. ThIs Is bocnuso fho mInorIfy cnrrIor donsIfy confrIbufIng fo
1
s
Incronsos wIfh n rIso of fomornfuro.
I
I
p n
V V
B B
+ +
( ) a ( ) b
Fig. 1.5 (a) A reverse-biased p-n junction (b) Its circuit representation.
As fho doIofIon rogIon Is dovoId of froo cnrrIors, fhIs rogIon hns n much hIghor rosIsfIvIfy
fhnn nny nrf of fho somIconducfor. So, nImosf fho onfIro bnffory voIfngo V nonrs ncross fho
doIofIon rogIon for bofh forwnrd nnd rovorso bIns. Tho ofonfInI onorgy dIngrnms of forwnrd-
bInsod nnd rovorso-bInsod juncfIons roInfIvo fo fho unbInsod juncfIon nro shown In IIg. l.6(o)
nnd (I), rosocfIvoIy.
Observation
In n forwnrd-bInsod p-n juncfIon, hoIos nro Injocfod Info fho n-sIdo nnd oIocfrons Info fho p-sIdo.
Tho Injocfod hoIos nro fho mInorIfy cnrrIos In fho n-rogIon, so nro fho Injocfod oIocfrons In fho p-
rogIon. As ono movos nwny from fho juncfIon, fho Injocfod mInorIfy cnrrIor donsIfy fnIIs off
oxononfInIIy duo fo oIocfron-hoIo rocombInnfIon.Tho Injocfod hoIo curronf 1
pn
In fho n-rogIon
fhus docronsos nwny from fho juncfIon Info fho n-rogIon. oo In fho n-sIdo fho curronf Is
cnrrIod onfIroIy by fho oIocfrons. As fho juncfIon Is nronchod, somo oIocfrons rocombIno wIfh
fho hoIos Injocfod from fho p-sIdo.So, fho oIocfron curronf 1
nn
docronsos fownrd fho juncfIon,
buf fho fofnI curronf 1
pn
+ 1
nn
romnIns consfnnf. SImIInrIy, In fho p-sIdo fho hoIo curronf 1
pp
docronsos ns fho hoIos nronch fho juncfIon nnd somo of fhom rocombIno wIfh fho oIocfrons
Injocfod Info fho p-sIdo from fho n-sIdo. Tho Injocfod oIocfron curronf 1
np
In fho p-sIdo fnIIs off ns
wo go Info fho p-rogIon from fho juncfIon, buf ngnIn fho fofnI curronf 1
np
+ 1
pp
romnIns consfnnf.
Thus fho curronf fIowIng In fho cIrcuIf Is 1 = 1
pn
+ 1
nn
= 1
np
+ 1
pp
. Tho curronf onfors fho p-rogIon
ns n hoIo curronf nnd Ionvos fho n-rogIon ns nn oIocfron curronf of fho snmo mngnIfudo. ofo
fhnf fho p-n dIodo Is n Iipolor dovIco sInco fho curronf Is cnrrIod by bofh hoIos nnd oIocfrons.
Junction Capacitance
Tho snco-chnrgo rogIon nround n p-n juncfIon consIsfs of ImmobIIo osIfIvoIy chnrgod donor
Ions In fho n-sIdo nnd ImmobIIo nognfIvoIy chnrgod nccofor Ions In fho p-sIdo of fho juncfIon.
AIso, fho nIIcnfIon of n rovorso bIns fo n p-n juncfIon Incronsos fho wIdfh of fho snco chnrgo
rogIon. ThIs voIfngo-doondonf osIfIvo nnd nognfIvo chnrgos, snfInIIy sonrnfod from onch
ofhor, ondows fho p-n juncfIon wIfh n cnncIfnnco, formod fho IronsiIion, spoce-cIorge, or Jeple-
Iion-region copociIonce.If cnn bo shown fhnf fho juncfIon cnncIfnnco docronsos ns fho rovorso
voIfngo Incronsos. ThIs fonfuro of fho juncfIon cnncIfnnco Is ufIIIzod In torocIor JioJes.
A forwnrd-bInsod p-n juncfIon hns n moro Imorfnnf sourco of cnncIfnnco. !ndor such n
bIns, hoIos nro Injocfod Info fho n-sIdo whoro fhoy bocomo mInorIfy cnrrIos, nnd oIocfrons nro
Injocfod Info fho p-sIdo whoro fhoy bocomo fho mInorIfy cnrrIors.Tho Injocfod mInorIfy cnrrIor
6 Bosic 1lecIronics
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
I
S
I
+
+
O
V V
g
P
Q
Forward
bias
Reverse
bias
conconfrnfIon docronsos ns wo movo nwny from fho juncfIon.ThIs Injocfod chnrgo on oIfhor sIdo
of fho juncfIon gIvos rIso fo n cnncIfnnco, formod fho Jiffusion or sIoroge copociIonce.
E
B
E
B
E eV
B

E eV
B
+
with forward bias
without bias
without bias
with reverse
bias
( ) a ( ) b
Fig. 1.6 Potential energy diagrams of a (a) forward-biased and (b) reverse-biased p-n junction.
1.5 CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC OF A p-n JUNCTION
Whon n voIfngo V Is nIIod ncross n p-n juncfIon, fho fofnI curronf 1 fIowIng fhrough fho junc-
fIon cnn bo shown fo bo gIvon by fho foIIowIng oqunfIon formod fho JioJe equoIion :
1 = 1
s

ox
eV
l T
B

l
, (l.5)
whoro 1
s
Is fho rovorso snfurnfIon curronf (nIso cnIIod fho scole currenI), e Is fho oIocfronIc
chnrgo, l
B
Is fho IoIfzmnnn consfnnf, T Is fho nbsoIufo fomornfuro of fho juncfIon, nnd Is n
dImonsIonIoss numbor. Tho consfnnf Is cnIIod fho enission coefficienI. If Is nn omIrIcnI con-
sfnnf nnd nccounfs for fho oIocfron-hoIo rocombInnfIon In fho doIofIon rogIon. Tho vnIuo of
IIos bofwoon l nnd 2 doondIng on fho somIconducfor mnforInI. Ior gormnnIum nnd gnIIIum
nrsonIdo dIodos Is nonrIy unIfy whIIo for sIIIcon dIodos Is nroxImnfoIy 2. Tho vnIuo of
chnngos sIIghfIy wIfh fho wIdfh of fho doIofIn rogIon, nnd Is fhoroforo Is n wonk funcfIon of fho
dIodo voIfngo.
SubsfIfufIng e = l.6 l0
l9
U, l
B
= l.38 l0
23
J/K, nnd T = 300 K (room fomornfuro), wo
hnvo from Iq. (l.5)
1 = 1
s
ox
39
l
V

(l.6)
If V Is osIfIvo, fho p-n juncfIon Is forwnrd bInsod, nnd If V Is nognfIvo, fho juncfIon Is
rovorso bInsod. ogIocfIng fho voIfngo dros In fho buIk p-fyo nnd n-fyo rogIons, fho voIfngo
V Is nroxImnfoIy fho voIfngo nIIod ncross fho dIodo
formInnIs.
IIguro l.? gIvos fho Iof of fho curronf 1 vorsus fho
voIfngo V, ns doscrIbod by Iq. (l.6). ThIs Iof Is formod
fho currenI-tolIoge cIorocIerisIic or fho tolI-onpere
cIorocIerisIic of fho p-n juncfIon dIodo. Whon fho forwnrd
bIns V Is Ioss fhnn n vnIuo V

, fho curronf Is vory smnII.As

V oxcoods V

, fho curronf Incronsos vory shnrIy.Tho

voIfngo V

Is known ns fho Ireol-poinI, offseI, IIresIolJ,

Iurn-on or cuIin voIfngo of fho dIodo.V

0.2 V for Co
dIodos nnd, furnon V

0.6 V for SI dIodos.

Whon V Is osIfIvo nnd suffIcIonfIy hIgh, fho form
unIfy In fho nronfhosos of Iq. (l.6) cnn bo nogIocfod, so
fhnf fho curronf 1 Incronsos oxononfInIIy wIfh fho voIfngo
Fig. 1.7 Volt-ampere characteristic
of a p-n diode.
SeniconJucIor DioJes ?
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
V.If fho dIodo Is rovorso-bInsod nnd | V | Is n fow fImos /39, wo hnvo 1 1
s
.Thus fho rovorso
curronf Is Indoondonf of fho nIIod bIns nnd oqunIs fho reterse soIuroIion currenI.Ior Co
dIodos, 1
s
Is n fow mIcronmoro nnd for SI dIodos, 1
s
Is n fow nnnonmoro nf room fomornfuro.
OrdInnrIIy, fho rnngo of forwnrd curronf for fho dIodo oornfIon Is mnny ordors of mngnIfudo
gronfor fhnnfho rovorso snfurnfIon curronf. TyIcnIIy, fho forwnrd curronf Is In fho rnngoof
mIIIInmoro whIIo fho rovorso curronf Is In fho rnngo of mIcronmoro or Ioss.
SInco = 2 for SI dIodos nnd = l for Co dIodos, for n gIvon forwnrd bIns(Inrgor fhnn V

)
fho curronf for n SI dIodo Is Ioss fhnn fhnf for n Co dIodo. Howovor, SI dIodos cnn bo usod ovor n
Inrgor rnngo of fomornfuros fhnn Co dIodos.
Af n rovorso voIfngo corrosondIng fo fho oInf I In IIg. l.?, fho rovorso curronf Incronsos
nbrufIy, ns IndIcnfod by fho IIno IQ, nImosf nrnIIoI fo fho curronf nxIs. Tho orfIon IQ of fho
chnrncforIsfIc Is cnIIod fho IreolJoun region. A p-n dIodo oornfod In fho bronkdown rogIon, Is
known ns IreolJoun JioJe whIch Is dIscussod In moro dofnII In Soc. l.6.
Diode Resistance
Tho rnfIo bofwoon fho voIfngo V ncross fho juncfIon nnd fho curronf 1 fIowIng fhrough fho
juncfIon Is cnIIod fho sIoIic or fho Jc resisIonce r
Jc
of fho dIodo. Thnf Is,
r
Jc
=
V
1
. (l.?)
As Ohm`s Inw Is nof vnIId for fho p-n juncfIon, r
Jc
Is nof n consfnnf buf vnrIos wIfh fho
nIIod voIfngo.
Tho Invorso of fho sIoo of fho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of fho p-n dIodo dofInos fho
J,nonic or fho oc resisIonce (r
oc
) of fho dIodo. Thus
r
oc
=
JV
J1
. (l.8)
Irom Iq. (l.6), wo obfnIn for fho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco nf room fomornfuro
r
oc
=
JV
J1 1 1
s
=
+

39( )
(l.9)
UIonrIy, r
oc
Is nof n consfnnf nnd Is doformInod by fho oornfIng voIfngo. Ior n rovorso bIns
such fhnf |39V/|> >l, fho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco Is oxfromoIy Inrgo.Ior n forwnrd bIns (gronfor
fhnn V

), 1> >1
s
nnd r
oc
=/(391). Ior n Co dIodo (=l) nf room fomornfuro, fho forwnrd nc
rosIsfnnco Is r
oc
=26/1, whoro 1 Is In mA nnd r
oc
Is In ohm. Thus, for n forwnrd curronf of 26mA,
fho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco of n Co dIodo Is lohm.
Tho nonohmIc bohnvIour of n juncfIon dIodo gIvos n
vnrInbIo rosIsfnnco fhnf Is oxIoIfod In n dovIco, cnIIod torisIor
(vnrInbIo rosIsfor).To nchIovo fho forwnrd 1-V chnrncforIsfIc
In oIfhor dIrocfIon, n vnrIsfor Is obfnInod by connocfIng fwo
IdonfIcnI dIodos In nrnIIoI, oosIfoIy oIod (IIg. l.8).
Observations
(l) Tho IenperoIure JepenJonce of fho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of n p-n juncfIon gIvon by
Iq. (l.5) Is confnInod In fho forms 1
s
nnd eV/( l
B
T). Tho rovorso snfurnfIon curronf 1
s
nonrIy
doubIos for ovory l0U Incronso In fomornfuro. If 1
s
=1
s0
nf T=T
0
, fhon 1
s
nf nnofhor fomorn-
furo T Is obfnInod from 1
s
(T) = 1
s0
2
0
l0 ( ) / T T
for oIfhor Co or SI. WIfh IncronsIng fomornfuro,
fho docronso of fho form eV/( l
B
T) fonds fo roduco fho curronf 1, buf for ordInnry voIfngos fho
Fig. 1.8 Two oppositely
poled diodes in parallel.
B Bosic 1lecIronics
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
+
r i
V
g
V +
i
0 V
g
V
rIso In 1
s
rodomInnfos, so fhnf fho curronf 1 Incronsos nf n
fIxod voIfngo ns fho fomornfuro Is rnIsod. Tho curronf cnn bo
broughf bnck fo Ifs InIfInI vnIuo by roducIng fho voIfngo.
(2) A p-n juncfIon dIodo conducfs whon fho nIIod for-
wnrd voIfngo V oxcoods fho cufIn voIfngo V

. Tho forwnrd chnr-

ncforIsfIc of fho dIodo cnn bo roughIy nroxImnfod by n
sfrnIghf IIno (IIg. l.8A) of sIoo l/r for V > V

whoro r (nIso
donofod by I
f
) Is fho dIodo forwnrd rosIsfnnco. !ndor fhIs con-
dIfIon, fho oquIvnIonf cIrcuIf of fho dIodo consIsfs of n bnffory
of voIfngo V

In sorIos wIfh n rosIsfnnco r (IIg. l.8I). Tho dIodo

curronf Is i = (V V

)/r. TyIcnIIy, r Is n fow ohm. Ior V < V

nnd nIso for n rovorso bIns boIow bronkdown, fho dIodo ncfs ns
nn oon cIrcuIf. Tho chnrncforIsfIc Is fhus IocowIso IInonr.
In fho IdonI cnso V

= 0 nnd r = 0. Honco fho iJeol

voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of n pn dIodo wIII bo ns shown In
IIg. 38U.
(3) Tho oc equitolenI circuiI of fho p-n juncfIon dIodo cnn
bo drnwn by connocfIng fho funcfIon cnncIfnnco In nrnIIoI
wIfh fho dIodo rosIsfnnco In fho cIrcuIf of IIg. l.8I.
(4) If fho voIfngo-curronf (i.e., voIf-nmoro) chnrncforIsfIc
of n cIrcuIf oIomonf Is n sfrnIghf IIno, fho cIrcuIf oIomonf Is
cnIIod lineor. Ior sInusoIdnI curronfs of nnguInr froquoncy ,
fho roInfIonshIs bofwoon fho rms voIfngo V nnd fho rms
curronf 1 for n rosIsfor I, nn Inducfor L, nnd n cnncIfor C, nro rosocfIvoIy V = I1, V = L1, nnd
V = (l/C)1. Thus, If I, L, nnd C nro consfnnfs Indoondonf of fho voIfngo or curronf, fho V-1
Iofs nro sfrnIghf IInos. So, I, L, nnd C nro IInonr cIrcuIf oIomonfs undor fhIs condIfIon.
If fho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of nn oIomonf Is nof n sfrInghf IIno, fho oIomonf Is nonlin-
eor. Whon fho curronf fhrough n rosIsfor Is Inrgo onough fo honf If u, fho vnIuo of I wIII
chnngo. ow I bocomos n funcfIon of fho curronf, nnd fho rosIsfor bohnvos ns n nonIInonr
oIomonf. An Iron-coro Inducfor Is nIso nonIInonr, sInco fho ormonbIIIfy of Iron doformInIng fho
vnIuo of L doonds on fho Inducfor curronf.
Tho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of n pn-juncfIon dIodo shows fhnf If Is n nonIInonr oIomonf.
Tho pn-juncfIon cnncIfnnco Is nIso nn oxnmIo of n nonIInonr cnncIfnnco, sInco fho cnncI-
fnnco vnIuo doonds on fho voIfngo ncross fho juncfIon.
Ovor IImIfod rnngos of voIfngo nnd curronf, fho 1-V chnrncforIsfIcs cnn bo nroxImnfoIy
IInonr, so fhnf ovor fhnf rnngo fho nonIInonr oIomonfs cnn bo roughIy rorosonfod by IInonr
oIomonfs.
(5) If fho voIf-nmoro roInfIonshI of n cIrcuIf oIomonf romnIns fho snmo uon fho rovorsnI
of fho oInrIfIos of fho voIfngo nnd fho dIrocfIon of fho curronf, fho cIrcuIf oIomonf Is snId fo bo
IiloIerol. Tho fomornfuro of n rosIsfor, fhnf doformInos fho rosIsfnnco, doonds on fho owor
dIssInfIon, i.e. on fho squnro of fho curronf. So fho vnIuo of fho rosIsfnnco mny doond on fho
mngnIfudo of fho curronf, buf nof on Ifs dIrocfIon. Tho rosIsfor Is fhus n bIInfornI oIomonf
fhough If Is nof nocossnrIIy IInonr.
Whon fho Inws roInfIng fho curronf nnd fho voIfngo nro dIfforonf for dIfforonf curronf
dIrocfIons, fho cIrcuIf oIomonf Is snId fo bo uniloIerol. A pn-juncfIon dIodo Is n unIInfornI oIomonf
ns If bohnvos dIfforonfIy undor forwnrd nnd rovorso bIns condIfIons. An oIocfroIyfIc cnncIfor Is
nnofhor unIInfornI oIomonf.
Fig. 1.8A Piecewise linear
approximation of the p-n diode
characteristic.
Fig. 1.8B Equivalent circuit of a
conducting junction diode.
I
0 V

+
Fig. 1.8C Volt-ampere charac-
teristic of an ideal diode
SeniconJucIor DioJes 9
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
1.6 BREAKDOWN DIODES
Ironkdown dIodos nro p-n juncfIon dIodos oornfod In fho bronkdown rogIon of fho rovorso-
voIfngo chnrncforIsfIc (IIg. l.?). Thoso dIodos nro dosIgnod wIfh suffIcIonf owor-dIssInfIon
cnncIfIos fo work In fho bronkdown rogIon. Tho foIIowIng fwo mochnnIsms cnn cnuso bronk-
down In n juncfIon dIodo:
(i) AvuIuncLe Bveukdown: WIfh IncronsIng rovorso-bIns voIfngo, fho oIocfrIc fIoId ncross
fho juncfIon of n p-n dIodo Incronsos. Af n corfnIn rovorso bIns, fho oIocfrIc fIoId Imnrfs n
suffIcIonfIy hIgh onorgy fo n fhormnIIy gonornfod cnrrIor crossIng fho juncfIon. ThIs cnrrIor, on
coIIIdIng wIfh n crysfnI Ion on Ifs wny, dIsrufs n covnIonf bond nnd roducos n now oIocfron-
hoIo nIr.Thoso cnrrIors cnn nIso gnIn suffIcIonf onorgy from fho nIIod fIoId nnd coIIIdo wIfh
ofhor crysfnI Ions fo gonornfo furfhor oIocfron-hoIo nIrs.Tho rocoss Is cumuInfIvo nnd ro-
ducos nn nvnInncho of cnrrIors In n vory shorf fImo.ThIs mochnnIsm, known ns otoloncIe nul-
IiplicoIion, cnusos n Inrgo rovorso curronf, ns shown by fho nrf IQ of fho chnrncforIsfIc of
IIg. l.?. Tho dIodo Is snId fo work In fho rogIon of otoloncIe IreolJoun.
(ii) Zenev Bveukdown: Zonor bronkdown occurs whon fho rovorso bIns voIfngo ncross n
p-n juncfIon Is suffIcIonfIy hIgh, so fhnf fho rosuIfIng oIocfrIc fIoId nf fho juncfIon oxorfs n Inrgo
forco on n bound oIocfron fo fonr If ouf of Ifs covnIonf bond. Thus n dIrocf rufuro of fho covnIonf
bonds roducos n Inrgo numbor of oIocfron-hoIo nIrs, fhoroby IncronsIng fho rovorso curronf.
ThIs rocoss Is roforrod fo ns Zener IreolJoun.!nIIko nvnInncho bronkdown, Zonor bronk-
down doos nof orIgInnfo from fho coIIIsIon of cnrrIors wIfh fho crysfnI Ions.
Ior honvIIy dood dIodos, Zonor bronkdown occurs nf voIfngos boIow 6V. Ior IIghfIy dood
dIodos fho bronkdown voIfngo Is gronfor, nnd nvnInncho muIfIIIcnfIon Is rodomInnnf.osIfo
fho fwo dIfforonf mochnnIsms, bronkdown dIodos nro commonIy roforrod fo ns Zener JioJes.
Zonor bronkdown occurs In n juncfIon hnvIng n nnrrow doIofIon rogIon. WIfh n rIso of
fomornfuro, fho onorgy of fho vnIonco oIocfron Incronsos so fhnf n Iowor nIIod voIfngo cnn
uII fhoso oIocfrons ouf of fhoIr covnIonf bonds. So, fho Zonor bronkdown voIfngo (whIch Is Ioss
fhnn 6V) docronsos wIfh IncronsIng fomornfuro.Thnf Is, fho fomornfuro cooffIcIonf of fho
Zonor bronkdown voIfngo Is negoIite. On fho ofhor hnnd, nvnInncho bronkdown fnkos Inco In n
juncfIon hnvIng n wIdo doIofIon Inyor.WIfh n rIso of fomornfuro, fho crysfnI Ions vIbrnfo wIfh
n gronfor nmIIfudo, IncronsIng fho ossIbIIIfy of coIIIsIons of fho cnrrIors nnd fho crysfnI Ions.
Tho cnrrIors fhus hnvo Ioss oorfunIfy fo Ick u onough onorgy bofwoon coIIIsIons fo frIggor
fho nvnInncho rocoss. UonsoquonfIy, fho nvnInncho bronkdown voIfngo (whIch Is hIghor fhnn
6V) Incronsos wIfh n rIso of fomornfuro. Thus fho fomornfuro cooffIcIonf of fho nvnInncho
bronkdown voIfngo Is posiIite. Tho chnngo of fho bronkdown voIfngo Is nbouf +0.l or conf or
confIgrndo dogroo chnngo of fho dIodo fomornfuro.
Wo nro now In n osIfIon fo dIsIny fho
fomornfuro doondnnco of fho V-I chnrncforIsfIcs
of n p-n juncfIon dIodo. Wo show In IIg. l.8 fho
chnrncforIsfIcs for fwo fomornfuros T
l
nnd
T
2
(T
2
>T
l
). As fho fomornfuro Incronsos, fho
rovorso snfurnfIon curronf Incronsos; nIso fho
forwnrd curronf for n gIvon forwnrd bIns Incronsos,
ns dIscussod In Soc. l.5. If nvnInncho bronkdown
occurs, fho bronkdown voIfngo Incronsos, buf for
Zonor bronkdown, fho corrosondIng voIfngo
docronsos ns fho fomornfuro Is rnIsod.
V
I
O
T
2
T
1
T T
2 1
>
Avalanche
breakdown
Zener
breakdown
Fig. 1.8D Temperature dependence of the volt-
ampere characteristics of a p-n junction diode.
10 Bosic 1lecIronics
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
Tho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of n Zonor dIodo
showIng fho bronkdown rogIon Is gIvon In IIg. l.9. !ndor
forwnrd bIns, fho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of fho Zonor
dIodo Is sImIInr fo fhnf of nn ordInnry pn juncfIon dIodo.
!ndor rovorso bIns boIow fho bronkdown voIfngo, fho Zonor
dIodo nIso ncfs ns fho ordInnry pn juncfIon dIodo.In Zonor
dIodos, fho doIng Is confroIIod nnd fho surfnco
ImorfocfIons nro nvoIdod, so fhnf fho bronkdown voIfngo
Is shnr nnd dIsfIncf. Tho mInImum dIodo curronf for fho
Zonor dIodo fo fIro Is 1
Z0
jusf boIow fho knoo of fho
chnrncforIsfIc curvo. If V
Z
Is fho oornfIng voIfngo of n
Zonor dIodo nnd 1
Z
Is fho corrosondIng Zonor curronf, fho Jc resisIonce of fho dIodo Is V
Z
/1
Z
.
Tho J,nonic resisIonce r
Z
of fho Zonor dIodo Is gIvon by r
Z
= V
Z
/1
Z
, whoro n chnngo 1
Z
In fho
oornfIng curronf roducos n chnngo V
Z
of fho oornfIng Zonor voIfngo.Thus r
Z
Is fho rocIrocnI
of fho sIoo of fho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc.In fho IdonI sIfunfIon, r
Z
= 0, whoro fho Zonor
chnrncforIsfIc Is nrnIIoI fo fho curronf nxIs. In rncfIco, r
Z
vnrIos from n fow ohm fo nbouf n fow
hundrod ohm. Iofh fho dc nnd fho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco of n Zonor dIodo vnry wIfh fho oornfIng
oInf.
Tho cIrcuIf symboI for n Zonor dIodo Is shown In
IIg. l.l0, SInco r
Z
Is smnII, fho voIfngo ncross fho Zonor
dIodo chnngos vnry IIffIo for n Inrgo chnngo In fho Zonor
curronf. Honco fho voIfngo ncross n Zonor dIodo cnn sorvo
ns n roforonco nnd fho dIodo Is fhon snId fo work ns n
reference JioJe. IIg. l.ll doIcfs fho nIIcnfIon of n Zo-
nor dIodo ns n roforonco dIodo.Tho suIy voIfngo V nnd
fho sorIos rosIsfnnco I nro so choson fhnf fho dIodo cur-
ronf 1
Z
Is wIfhIn fho socIfIod rnngo nnd fho dIodo oor-
nfos In fho bronkdown rogIon. Tho voIfngo V
Z
ncross fho
Iond rosIsfnnco I
L
romnIns fnIrIy consfnnf nIfhough fho
suIy voIfngo V nnd fho Iond curronf 1
L
cnn vnry. Tho
uor IImIf of fho dIodo curronf doonds on fho owor
dIssInfIon rnfIng of fho dIodo. If W Is fho owor dIssIn-
fIon rnfIng, fho mnxImum nIIownbIo dIodo curronf Is
1
Zn
=W/V
Z
. If fho curronf suIIod by fho voIfngo sourco In IIg. l.ll Is 1, wo hnvo from KIrchhoff `s
curronf nnd voIfngo Inws
1 = 1
Z
+ 1
L
(l.l0)
nnd V
Z
= V 1I (l.ll)
AIso, V
Z
= 1
L
I
L
(l.l2)
In fho IdonI cnso, V
Z
romnIns consfnnf. !of fho suIy voIfngo V bo kof consfnnf nnd fho
Iond curronf bo chnngod by vnryIng fho Iond rosIsfnnco I
L
SInco V
Z
=0 nnd V = 0, Iq. (l.ll)
yIoIds 1 = 0. Honco Iq. (l.l0) gIvos
1 = 1
Z
+ 1
L
= 0
or, 1
Z
= 1
L
.
So, whon fho Iond rosIsfnnco Is docronsod buf fho suIy voIfngo romnIns consfnnf, fho
Iond curronf 1
L
Incronsos nnd fho Zonor curronf 1
Z
docronsos oqunIIy such fhnf fho suIy curronf
1 romnIns fIxod.
Fig. 1.10 Circuit symbol of a
Zener diode.
V
Z
I
ZO
I
Z
V
I
Fig. 1.9 Current-voltage characteristic
of a Zener diode.
I
R
V
+
+

I
Z
I
L
R
L
V
Z

Fig. 1.11 Application of a Zener

diode as a reference diode.
SeniconJucIor DioJes 11
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
If, on fho ofhor hnnd, fho Iond rosIsfnnco I
L
Is kof consfnnf nnd fho suIy voIfngo V Is
chnngod, wo fInd from Iq. (l.ll)
V = I 1,
sInco V
Z
= 0. IqunfIon (l.l2) gIvos 1
L
= 0, nnd Iq. (l.l0) fInnIIy yIoIds 1 = 1
Z
.Thus, whon
fho suIy voIfngo Is chnngod nnd fho Iond rosIsfnnco Is kof consfnnf, fho suIy curronf 1 nnd
fho Zonor curronf 1
Z
chnngo oqunIIy fo mnInfnIn fho Iond curronf 1
L
nf n consfnnf vnIuo.
Ratings of a Zener Diode
Snmo of fho Imorfnnf rnfIngs of n Zonor dIodo quofod by fho mnnufncfurors nro fho foIIowIng :
(i) Bveukdown (ov Zenev) voItuge. ThIs Is fho voIfngo nf whIch bronkdown occurs In n
rovorso-bInsod Zonor dIodo. In fncf, If Is fho voIfngo nonrIng ncross fho Zonor dIodo
undor oornfIng condIfIons. Tho hIghor fho doIng, fho Ioss fho bronkdown voIfngo.
(ii) ToIevence : If gIvos fho rnngo of vnrInfIon of fho bronkdown voIfngo of nny socIfIc
fyo of Zonor dIodos. SIIghf chnngos In fho bronkdown voIfngo of fho roducfs of fho
snmo fyo occur sInco If Is nof ossIbIo fo hnvo fho snmo IovoI of doIng for onch dIodo.
A nrfIcuInr fyo of Zonor dIodos mnrkod 9 V, l0 foIoronco cnn hnvo fho bronkdown
voIfngo In fho rnngo 8.l V fo 9.9 V.
(iii) MuxImum opevutIng tempevutuve. Tho Zonor dIodo musf bo oornfod boIow fho
socIfIod mnxImum fomornfuro, sInco fho bronkdown voIfngo doonds on fomorn-
furo nnd fho dovIco mny bo dnmngod nf oxcossIvo fomornfuros.
(it) MuxImum powev vutIng. ThIs Is fho mnxImum owor n Zonor dIodo cnn dIssInfo
wIfhouf boIng dnmngod. If V
Z
Is fho rnfod voIfngo of fho Zonor dIodo nnd I
Zn
Is fho
mnxImum rnfod curronf of fho dIodo, fhnn fho mnxImum rnfod owor Is I
Zn
= V
Z
1
Zn
.
Tho mnnufncfurors offon monfIon fho curronf rnfIng 1
Zn
of fho Zonor dIodo.
(t) Zenev vesIstunce. SomofImos fho mnnufncfurors IncIudo In fho dnfn shoofs fho Zonor
rosIsfnnco I
ZT
nf n fosf curronf 1
ZT
. ThIs Is fho nc or dynnmIc rosIsfnnco of fho dIodo
nf fho fosf curronf. Thus, If fho currnnf chnngos by n smnII nmounf 1
Z
nbouf 1
ZT
, fho
chnngo In fho Zonor voIfngo Is V
Z
= I
ZT
1
Z
.
Equivalent Circuit of a Zener Diode
Tho bronkdown chnrncforIsfIc of n Zonor dIodo Is nonrIy n
sfrnIghf IIno, ns shown In IIg. l.9. Wo rodrnw fhIs nrf of
fho chnrncforIsfIc In IIg. l.llA. Whon roducod bnckwnrds,
fho sfrnIghf IIno Inforsocfs fho voIfngo nxIs nf fho voIfngo
V
Z0
, cnIIod fho lnee tolIoge. If fho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco, i.e.,
fho rocIrocnI of fho sIoo of fho sfrnIghf IIno Is r
Z
, fho Zo-
nor voIfngo nf nn oornfIng curronf 1
Z
Is
V
Z
= V
Z0
+ r
Z
1
Z
Horo nII fho voIfngos nnd curronfs nro fronfod ns osIfIvo.
+
V
zo
r
z
I
z
V
z
+
+
V
z
I
z
( ) a ( ) b
Fig. 1.11B Equivalent circuit of (a) a nonideal Zener diode, and (b) an ideal Zener diode
I
z
V
o
I
V
zo
V
z
Fig. 1.11A Knee voltage of a
Zener diode
12 Bosic 1lecIronics
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
Tho cIrcuIf rorosonfnfIon of fhIs oqunfIon Is gIvon In IIg. l.llI (o), whIch Is roforrod fo ns
fho equitolenI circuiI of fho Zonor dIodo. Ior nn iJeol Zonor dIodo, r
Z
= 0, nnd fho oquIvnIonf
cIrcuIf consIsfs of sImIy n bnffory of Zonor voIfngo V
Z
, ns shown In IIg. l.llI (I).
Observation
Two IdonfIcnI Zonor dIodos cnn bo nrrnngod In nrnIIoI by connocfIng fhoIr p-sIdos fogofhor nnd
fho n-sIdos fogofhor. Tho bronkdown voIfngo of fho oquIvnIonf Zonor dIodo romnIns fho snmo,
buf Ifs dynnmIc rosIsfnnco bocomos hnIf fhnf of onch dIodo In fho combInnfIon. Tho curronf
cnrrIod by fho oquIvnIonf Zonor dIodo Is fwo fImos fho curronf nssIng fhrough onch dIodo.Tho
curronf-hnndIIng cnncIfy nnd fho wnffngo rnfIng Is fhus Incronsod by such nrnIIoI connocfIon.
Howovor, sInco If Is dIffIcuIf fo gof IdonfIcnI Zonor dIodos, such nrnIIoI connocfIons nro rnroIy
usod.
Whon fwo Zonor dIodos of bronkdown voIfngos V
l
nnd V
2
nro connocfod In sorIos, fho
bronkdown voIfngo of fho oquIvnIonf Zonor dIodo Is (V
l
+V
2
) nnd Ifs dynnmIc rosIsfnnco Is fho
sum of fho dynnmIc rosIsfnncos of fho IndIvIdunI dIodos. Such n sorIos connocfIon cnn bo usod In
sIfunfIons whoro moro fhnn ono roforonco voIfngo, e.g. V
l
(or V
2
) nnd V
l
+V
2
, Is roquIrod.
1.7 SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. TIe reterse soIuroIion currenI oI 300 K of o p-n juncIion Co JioJe is 5 A.IinJ IIe tolIoge Io
Ie opplieJ ocross IIe juncIion Io oIIoin o foruorJ currenI of 50 mA.
Ans. Tho curronf 1 for nn nIIod voIfngo V Is gIvon for n Co p-n dIodo by
1 = 1
s
ox
eV
l T
B

l
Horo 1 = 50 mA = 50 l0
3
A, 1
s
= 5 A = 5 l0
6
A, nnd T = 300 K. So,
ox
eV
l T
1
1
B s

= + =

l
50 l0
5 l0
3
6
+ l = l0
4
or V =
l T
e
B
In l0
4
=
l.38
l.6

l0 300
l0
23
l9
2.303 4 = 0.238 voIf.
2. ColculoIe IIe roIio of IIe currenI for o foruorJ Iios of 0.06 V Io IIe currenI for IIe sone tolue
of reterse Iios opplieJ Io o Co p-n JioJe oI 2?U.
Ans. Tho curronf 1 nnd fho bIns voIfngo V for n Co dIodo nro roInfod by
1 = 1
s
ox
eV
l T
B

l ,
whoro 1
s
Is fho rovorso snfurnfIon curronf nf fho nbsoIufo fomornfuro T, e Is fho oIocfronIc
chnrgo, nnd l
B
Is IoIfzmnnn`s consfnnf. Ior n forwnrd bIns V = 0.06 voIf, wo hnvo for fho
curronf
1
l
= 1
s
ox
. e
l T
B

0 06
l (i)
SeniconJucIor DioJes 13
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Ior n rovorso bIns of V = 0.06 voIf, fho curronf Is
1
2
= 1
s

ox
.

e
l T
B
0 06
l
(ii)
Irom (i) nnd (ii), wo gof

1
1
e
l T
e
l T
B
B
l
2
0 06
l
0 06
l
=

ox
.
ox
.
(iii)
ow,
0 06 l0
2? 2?3
l9
.
( )
e
l T
B
=

+

0.06 l.6
l.38 l0
23
= 2.3l9
Honco
1
1
e
e
l
2
2 3l9
2 3l9
l
l | | | |
.
.
=

= l0.l6
3. TIe currenI flouing IIrougI o p-n juncIion SI JioJe is 60 mA for o foruorJ Iios of 0.9 voIf oI
300 K. DeIernine IIe sIoIic onJ J,nonic resisIonce of IIe JioJe.
Ans. Tho curronf fhrough fho sIIIcon dIodo Is 1 =60mA = 60 l0
3
A. Tho forwnrd bIns Is
V = 0.9 voIf. So, fho sfnfIc rosIsfnnco Is
r
Jc
=
V
1
=

0 9
60 l0
3
.
= l5 ohm.
Tho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco Is
r
oc
=
26
1
whoro = 2 for SI nnd 1 Is In mA.
Thoroforo, r
oc
=
26 2
60

= 0.8? ohm.
4. A silicon p-n juncIion JioJe operoIes oI 2?U. 1f IIe opplieJ foruorJ Iios is increoseJ, IIe
currenI 1 is JouIleJ. ColculoIe IIe increose in IIe Iios tolIoge. Assune I >> I
s
.
Ans. !of fho curronf bo 1 for fho forwnrd bIns voIfngo V, nnd fho curronf bo 21 for fho forwnrd
bIns V
l
. Thon, by fho dIodo oqunfIon,
1 = 1
s
ox
eV
K T
B

(i)
nnd 21 = 1
s
ox
eV
K T
B
l

(ii)
sInco 1 >> 1s. IvIdIng (ii) by (i), wo obfnIn
ox
e V V
K T
B
( )
l

= 2
or, V
l
V =
K T
e
B
In 2 =
2 38 l0 2?3 2?
6 l0
2
23
l9
+

l.
l.
( )
In
= 35.9 l0
3
V = 35.9 mV,
whIch Is fho roquIrod Incronso In fho bIns voIfngo.
14 Bosic 1lecIronics
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E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
5. IinJ IIe Iios for uIicI IIe reterse currenI in o silicon p-n juncIion JioJe is Iolf IIe soIuro-
Iion tolue oI roon IenperoIure.
Ans. !of fho bIns bo V. Thon, by fho dIodo oqunfIon,
1 =
1
s
2
= 1
s
ox
eV
K T
B

l
or, ox
eV
K T
B

=
l
2
or, V =
K T
e
B
In In ( . )
l
2
2 38 l0 300
6 l0
0 5
23
l9

l.
l.
= 35.9 l0
3
V = 35.9 mV.
Tho nognfIvo sIgn monns rovorso bIns.
6. ColculoIe IIe rise in IenperoIure if IIe reterse soIuroIion currenI in o p-n juncIion JioJe
increoses I, o focIor of 50.
Ans. Tho rovorso snfurnfIon curronf 1
s
doubIos for ovory l0U rIso In fomornfuro. If 1
sl
Is fho
vnIuo of 1
s
nf fomornfuro T
l
nnd 1
s2
fhnf nf fomornfuro T
2
, fhon
1
s2
= 1
sl
2
2 l
l0 ( ) / T T
,
so,
T T
2 l
l0

Iog
l0
2 = Iog
l0

1
1
s
s
2
l
l0
50

= Iog
whonco T
2
T
l
=
l0
2
l0
Iog
Iog
l0
50 = 56.4U
?. TIe p-n juncIion JioJe useJ in IIg. l.l2 Ios o cuI
in tolIoge of 0.6 V onJ o foruorJ resisIonce of 10
oIn. 1f IIe JioJe con JissipoIe o noxinun pouer of
200 mW, colculoIe IIe noxinun pernissiIle tolue
of IIe IoIIer, tolIoge V
B
.
Ans. In IIg. l.l3, fho dIodo Is roIncod by Ifs oquIvn-
Ionf cIrcuIf nnd fho cIrcuIf fo fho Ioff of fho formI-
nnIs o, I by Ifs ThovonIn oquIvnIonf form.
SInco fho dIodo cnn dIssInfo n mnxImum owor
of 200 mW, fho mnxImum snfo dIodo curronf i wIII
snfIsfy fho roInfIonshI
I = 200 l0
3
= i
2
r = l50 i
2
or, i =
0 2
l50
.
= 0.0365 A = 36.5 mA.
In IIg. l.l3, i =
( / ) . V
B
3 0 6
3

= 36.5
or, V
B
= 330.3 V,
whIch Is fho mnxImum ormIssIbIo bnffory voIfngo.
V
B
+

6 kW
850 W
3 kW
a
b
Fig. 1.12 Figure for Problem 7
V
B
3
+

2 kW
850 W
a
b
i
+

r = 150 W
V = 0.6 V
g
Fig. 1.13 Reduced form of Fig. 1.12
SeniconJucIor DioJes 15
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E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
B. 1n IIe circuiI of IIg. l.ll, IIe suppl, tolIoge is V = l5 voIf. TIe l2V, 0.36W Zener JioJe
operoIes oI o nininun JioJe currenI of 2 mA. ColculoIe IIe series resisIonce I onJ IIe ronge
oter uIicI IIe looJ resisIonce I
L
con Ie torieJ.
Ans. Tho mnxImum nIIownbIo Zonor curronf Is
0. W
l2 V
36
= 0.03 A = 30mA. If fho Iond rosIsfnnco
I
L
Is InfInIfo, fho Zonor curronf 1
c
nffnIns Ifs mnxImum vnIuo of 1 = 30 mA. Tho voIfngo dro
ncross fho sorIos rosIsfnnco I Is V
I
= V V
c
=l5 l2 = 3 voIf. SInco fho curronf fhrough I Is 1
= 30 mA = 30 l0
3
A, wo hnvo
I =
V
1
I
=

3
30 l0
3
= l00 ohm.
As I
L
Is docronsod, fho curronf 1
L
fhrough If Incronsos nnd fho Zonor curronf 1
c
docronsos
corrosondIngIy, sInco 1
L
+ 1
Z
= 1 = 30 mA.
Ior fho mInImum vnIuo I
Ln
of I
L
, fho Zonor curronf 1
Z
nffnIns Is mInImum vnIuo of 2 mA.
Honco, 1
L
= 30 2 = 28 mA.
Thoroforo, I
Ln
=
l2
28
voIf
mA
= 428.6 ohm.
Honco fho nIIownbIo rnngo of vnrInfIon of I
L
Is 428.6 I
L
< .
9. 1n IIe circuiI of IIg. l.ll, IIe Zener JioJe Ios IIe sone specificoIion os in proIlen 4.1n IIe
circuiI, ! = l00 onJ !
!
= l k. DeIernine IIe liniIs IeIueen uIicI IIe suppl, tolIoge V con
tor, uiIIouI loss of reguloIion in IIe circuiI.
Ans. Whon V Is n mInImum, fho Zonor curronf 1
Z
nffnIns Ifs mInImum vnIuo of 2 mA. Tho Iond
curronf Is 1
L
= l2 voIf/l k = l2 mA.Honco fho mInImum nIIownbIo vnIuo of 1 Is l2 + 2
= l4 mA.Tho corrosondIng voIfngo dro ncross I Is V
I
=1I = l4 l0
3
l00 = l.4 voIf. Thus
fho mInImum vnIuo of V Is
V
mIn
= V
Z
+ V
I
= l2 + l.4 = l3.4 voIf.
Af fho mnxImum vnIuo V
mnx
of V, fho Zonor curronf bocomos n mnxImum, i.e., 30 mA. ow
1 = 30 + l2 = 42 mA nnd V
I
= 42 l0
3
l00 = 4.2 voIf. Thoroforo,
V
mnx
= 4.2 + l2 = l6.2 voIf.
So, V cnn vnry bofwoon l3.4 voIf nnd l6.2 voIf.
10. 1n IIe circuiI of IIg. l.l4, IIe Zener JioJe
Ios o IreolJoun tolIoge V
Z
= 3 V. IinJ
uIeIIer IIe pouer JissipoIeJ in IIe Zener
JioJe exceeJs IIe noxinun pouer liniI of
20mW specifieJ for iI.
Ans. If 1 Is fho curronf In fho rosIsfnnco I
l
nnd 1
z
Is fho Zonor curronf, by KIrchhoff`s
curronf Inw, fho curronf In fho rosIsfnnco I
2
Is (1 1
c
). AIyIng KIrchhoff`s voIfngo Inw In
fho Ioos (l) nnd (2), wo gof rosocfIvoIy 1I
l
+ (1 1
c
)I
2
= V
i
nnd 1
c
I
3
+ V
c
(1 1
c
)I
2
= 0,
whoro fho rosIsfnncos nro In k nnd fho curronfs nro In mA. IuffIng fho gIvon numorIcnI vnIuos
In fhoso oqunfIons ono obfnIns
2
R
2
= 1 kW
+

V
z
I
z
I
I I
z
1
V =
i
12 V
+

R
3
= 500 W R
1
= 1 kW
Fig. 1.14 Figure for Problem 10
16 Bosic 1lecIronics
dharm
E:\N-up\VTU1-1.p65
+

V
o
+

R = 800 W
V
s
21 1
c
= l2 (i)
nnd 21 31
c
= 6 (ii)
SubfrncfIng (ii) from (i) gIvos 1
c
= 3 mA.
Tho owor dIssInfod In fho Zonor dIodo Is I
c
= V
c
1
c
= 3 3 mW = 9 mW, whIch doos nof
oxcood fho mnxImum owor IImIf of 20 mW.
11. 1n IIe circuiI of IIg. l.l5, IIe Zener JioJe is non-
iJeol Ioting o lnee tolIoge V
co
= 9 V onJ o J,nonic
resisIonce r
c
= 5 ohm. 1f IIe suppl, tolIoge V
s
tories
fron l5 Io 30 V, JeIernine IIe ronge of torioIion of IIe
ouIpuI tolIoge V
0
. ConnenI on IIe resulI.
Ans. Tho nonIdonI zonor doIodo Is rorosonfod by Ifs
oquIvnIonf cIrcuIf consIsfIng of n dc sourco voIfngo V
co
In sorIos wIfh fho rosIsfnnco r
c
. Tho cIrcuIf of IIg. l.l5
fhon roducos fo fho cIrcuIf of IIg. l.l6. Tho curronf
fhrough fho Zonor dIodo Is
1
z
=
V V
I r
s co
c

+
Whon V
s
= l5 V, 1
c
Is n mInImum, sny, 1
c(mIn)
. So,
1
c(mIn)
=
l5 9
800 5

+
= ?.45 l0
3
A = ?.45 mA.
Tho corrosondIng mInImum oufuf voIfngo Is
V
0(mIn)
= r
c
1
c(mIn)
+ V
co
= 5 ?.45 l0
3
+ 9 = 9.03? V
Whon V
s
= 30 V, 1
Z
nffnIns Ifs mnxImum vnIuo 1
Z(mnx)
, whoro
1
c(mnx)
=
30 9
800 5

+
= 0.026 A = 26 mA.
Tho mnxImum oufuf voIfngo Is
V
0(mnx)
= r
c
1
z(mnx)
+ V
co
= 5 0.026 + 9 = 9.l3 V
Thus fho oufuf voIfngo V
0
vnrIos In fho rnngo 9.03? V fo 9.l3 V.
+AJ Though V
s
Is doubIod, V
0
vnrIos vory IIffIo, roffocfIng fhnf fho Zonor dIodo
sorvos ns n roforonco dIodo.
12. 1n IIe circuiI of IIg. l.ll, V = 35 V, 1
c
= 25 mA, onJ 1
L
= 5 mA. 1f IIe lnee tolIoge of IIe Zener
JioJe is V
co
= ? V onJ iIs J,nonic resisIonce is r
c
= 6 , uIoI is IIe tolue of IIe resisIonce I :
Ans. Tho Zonor voIfngo Is V
c
= V
co
+ r
c
1
c
= ? + 6 0.025 = ?.l5 V. Tho curronf fhrough I Is
1 = 1
c
+ 1
L
= 25 + 5 = 30 mA. So,
I =
V V
1
c

35 ? l5
30 l0
3
.
= 928.3 ohm.
Fig. 1.15 Figure for Problem 11
+

V
o
I
z
+

V
s
R = 800 W
+

r
z
V
zo
Fig. 1.16
SeniconJucIor DioJes 1?
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Whnf Is n p-n juncfIon dIodo How doos n bnrrIor fIoId nonr ncross n p-n juncfIon
2. Ior nn unbInsod p-n juncfIon, skofch fho vnrInfIon of fho snco chnrgo, oIocfrIc fIoId, oIocfrosfnfIc
ofonfInI, nnd oIocfron onorgy ns n funcfIon of dIsfnnco ncross fho juncfIon.
3. Whnf Is nn nbruf nnd n IInonrIy grndod p-n juncfIon
4. (o) Iscuss fho oornfIon of n p-n juncfIon dIodo.
(I) MonfIon somo nIIcnfIons of somIconducfor dIodos.
5. rnw fho onorgy-bnnd dIngrnm of nn oon-cIrcuIfod p-n juncfIon. IxInIn fho foIIowIng forms
wIfh roforonco fo n p-n juncfIon: uncovorod chnrgos, bnrrIor fIoId, doIofIon rogIon, ofonfInI bnr-
rIor, nnd bnrrIor onorgy.
6. (o) Tho bnrrIor ofonfInI ncross n p-n juncfIon dIodo cnnnof bo monsurod by IncIng n voIfmofor
ncross fho dIodo formInnIs. IxInIn.
(I) Tho bnrrIor ofonfInI dovoIood ncross nn oon-cIrcuIfod p-n juncfIon nIds fho fIow of mInor-
Ify cnrrIors. IxInIn how fho fIow of chnrgo Is counfor-bnInncod.
?. Whon Is n p-n juncfIon snId fo bo (i) forwnrd-bInsod, (ii) rovorso-bInsod If fho bInsIng voIfngo Is
fho snmo, wIII fho snmo curronf fIow undor bofh forwnrd nnd rovorso bIns condIfIons If nof, why
B. (o) Why doos mosf of fho bnffory voIfngo nIIod ncross fho dIodo formInnIs nonr ncross fho
doIofIon rogIon of n p-n dIodo
(I) How nro fho wIdfh of fho snco-chnrgo rogIon nnd fho bnrrIor hoIghf nffocfod whon n p-n
juncfIon Is (i) forwnrd-bInsod, (ii) rovorso-bInsod
9. Whnf Is fho orIgIn of fho rovorso snfurnfIon curronf In n p-n juncfIon oos fho rovorso snfurnfIon
curronf chnngo wIfh fho nIIod rovorso bIns nnd fho dIodo fomornfuro IxInIn.
10. rnw fho cIrcuIf dIngrnms of n forwnrd-bInsod nnd n rovorso-bInsod p-n juncfIon dIodo. WrIfo fho
oxrossIon for fho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of fho dIodo.rnw fho chnrncforIsfIc curvo nnd ox-
InIn Ifs nnfuro.
11. ofIno fho sfnfIc rosIsfnnco nnd fho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco of p-n dIodo. Aro fhoy oqunI If nof, why
o fhoso rosIsfnncos doond on fomornfuro nnd bIns voIfngo
12. (o) ofIno fho cufIn voIfngo of n p-n dIodo. Whnf nro Ifs fyIcnI vnIuos for Co nnd SI dIodos
(I) Whnf do you monn by fho frnnsIfIon cnncIfnnco of n p-n dIodo oos If doond on fho doIo-
fIon Inyor wIdfh nnd fho nIIod rovorso bIns
(c) Whnf Is dIffusIon cnncIfnnco
(J) IxInIn fho uso of p-n dIodos ns vnrIsfors.
(e) A p-n dIodo hns n fhroshoId voIfngo V

nnd n forwnrd rosIsfnnco I

f
. rnw Ifs IocowIso IInonr
voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc nnd fho oquIvnIonf cIrcuIf.
(f) rnw fho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of nn IdonI dIodo.
(g) 'A p-n juncfIon dIodo Is n nonIInonr unIInfornI oIomonf.`IxInIn.
13. Whnf Is n bronkdown dIodo Iscuss fho orIgIn of bronkdown of n juncfIon.
14. (o) Whnf Is fho dIfforonco bofwoon nvnInncho bronkdown nnd Zonor bronkdown of n p-n juncfIon
(I) Whnf Is fho dIfforonco bofwoon nn ordInnry somIconducfor dIodo nnd n Zonor dIodo
15. (o) 'Zonor bronkdown voIfngo hns n nognfIvo fomornfuro cooffIcIonf whorons fho nvnInncho bronk-
down voIfngo hns n osIfIvo fomornfuro cooffIcIonf`.IxInIn.
(I) 'Tho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco of nn IdonI Zonor dIodo Is zoro buf fho dc rosIsfnnco Is nof so`. Why
(c) CIvo fho oquIvnIonf cIrcuIf of (i) nn IdonI Zonor dIodos nnd (ii) n non-IdonI Zonor dIodos.
1B Bosic 1lecIronics
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16. IxInIn wIfh n cIrcuIf dIngrnm fho uso of n Zonor dIodo ns n roforonco dIodo.
1?. WrIfo shorf nofos on: (i)curronf comononfs In n p-n juncfIon, nnd (ii) Zonor dIodo nnd Ifs uso.
OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS
1. IIII In fho bInnks:
(o) Tho uncovorod chnrgo In fho p-sIdo of n p-n juncfIon Is ............, whIIo fhnf In fho n-sIdo of fho
juncfIon Is ............ .
(I) Tho bnrrIor fIoId In n p-n juncfIon Is dIrocfod from ............ fo .............
(c) Tho ofonfInI onorgy of nn oIocfron In n p-n juncfIon dIodo Is gronfor In fho ............ sIdo fhnn
In fho ............ sIdo.
(J) A p-n juncfIon Is forwnrd bInsod whon n osIfIvo voIfngo Is nIIod fo fho ............ sIdo roInfIvo
fo fho ............ sIdo.
(e) Tho juncfIon cnncIfnnco of n p-n dIodo Is ufIIIsod In .............
(f) Tho bronkdown rogIon of fho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of n p-n juncfIon occurs for ............
bIns of fho dIodo.
2. Uhooso fho corrocf nIfornnfIvo(s):
(o) A voIfmofor connocfod ncross fho formInnIs of n p-n juncfIon cnn/cnnnof rocord fho bnrrIor
voIfngo ncross fho juncfIon.
(I) Tho forwnrd rosIsfnnco of n p-n dIodo Is gronfor/Ioss fhnn fho rovorso rosIsfnnco.
(c) Tho doIofIon Inyor wIdfh of p-n juncfIon Incronsos/docronsos whon fho juncfIon Is rovorso-
bInsod.
(J) Tho rovorso snfurnfIon curronf of n p-n dIodo doonds/doos nof doond on fho voIfngo nIIod
ncross fho juncfIon.
(e) Tho bnrrIor hoIghf of n rovorso-bInsod p-n juncfIon Is gronfor/Ioss fhnn fhnf of n forwnrd-
bInsod juncfIon.
(f) Tho voIf-nmoro chnrncforIsfIc of n p-n dIodo oboys/doos nof oboy Ohm`s Inw.
(g) If fho cufIn voIfngo of n Co p-n dIodo Is V
l
nnd fhnf of n SI p-n dIodo Is V
2
, fhon
(i) V
l
= V
2
, (ii) V
l
> V
2
, (iii) V
l
< V
2
.
(I) Ior n gIvon curronf fho dynnmIc rosIsfnnco of n Co p-n dIodo Is Ioss/gronfor fhnn fhnf of SI
p-n dIodo.
(i) Tho fomornfuro cooffIcIonf of fho nvnInncho bronkdown voIfngo of n p-n dIodo Is zoro/osI-
fIvo/nognfIvo.
(j) Tho Zonor bronkdown voIfngo Is hIghor/Iowor fhnn fho nvnInncho bronkdown voIfngo.
(l) Tho doIofIon Inyor wIdfh of n p-n dIodo Is nbouf
(i) 0.5 cm, (ii) 0.5 mm, (iii) 0.5 m.
(l) Tho cufIn voIfngo of n SI p-n dIodo Is nbouf
(i) 0.6 V, (ii) 0.6 mV, (iii) 6 V
Answers to Objective-Type Questions
1. (o) nognfIvo, osIfIvo, (I) n-sIdo, p-sIdo, (c) p-, n-, (J) p-, n-, (e) vnrncfor dIodos, (f) n rovorso
2. (o) cnnnof, (I) Ioss, (c) Incronsos, (J) doos nof, (e) gronfor, (f) doos nof, (g) (iii), (I) Ioss, (i) osIfIvo,
(j) Iowor, (l) (iii), (l) (i).
PROBLEMS
1. Tho snfurnfIon curronf donsIfy of n Co p-n dIodo nf 2?U Is 300 mA/m
2
. Whnf voIfngo musf bo
nIIod fo fho dIodo fo yIoId n forwnrd curronf donsIfy of 6 l0
5
A/m
2
(Ans. 0.3?5 V)
SeniconJucIor DioJes 19
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2. A p-n juncfIon Co dIodo hns n rovorso snfurnfIon curronf of l.5 A nf 300 K. ObfnIn fho sfnfIc nnd
fho dynnmIc rosIsfnncos of fho dIodo nf fhnf fomornfuro for nn nIIod forwnrd bIns of 0.3 V.
(Ans. l.6? ohm, 0.l4 ohm)
3. UnIcuInfo fho voIfngo nf whIch fho rovorso curronf In n Co p-n dIodo Is 85 orconf of Ifs snfurnfIon
vnIuo of 2 A nf 300 K.AIso fInd fho curronf for n forwnrd bIns of fho snmo mngnIfudo.
(Ans. 49 mV, ll.5 A)
4. Tho rovorso snfurnfIon curronf of n SI p-n juncfIon Is 5 nA nf 2?U. Whnf nro fho sfnfIc nnd fho
dynnmIc rosIsfnncos of fho juncfIon for nn nIIod forwnrd bIns of 0.6 V (Ans. 49?, 85 )
5. In fho cIrcuIf of IIg. l.ll, fho sourco voIfngo V Is l2 voIf nnd fho voIfngo ncross fho Zonor dIodo V
c
Is 9 voIf. Tho mInImum nnd fho mnxImum nIIownbIo Zonor curronfs nro 4 mA nnd 40mA, rosoc-
fIvoIy. IInd fho vnIuo of fho rosIsfnnco I. IInd nIso fho rnngo of nIIownbIo vnIuos of fho rosIsfnnco
I
L
. (Ans. ?5, > I
L
250 )
6. In IrobIom 5, n Iond rosIsfnnco I
L
= 2.2 k Is usod. Whnf nro fho Iond nnd fho Zonor curronfs
(Ans. 4.l mA, 35.9 mA)
?. In fho cIrcuIf of IIg. l.ll, fho Zonor dIodo hns fho snmo socIfIcnfIon ns In IrobIom 5, nnd I
L
= 2.2
k nnd I = ?5 . oformIno fho ormIffod rnngo of vnrInfIon of fho suIy voIfngo V.
(Ans. 9.6 voIf fo l2.3 voIf)
B. How cnn you connocf fwo Zonor dIodos, 6V nnd 4 V, fo obfnIn n roforonco voIfngo of l0V, If fho
suIy voIfngo Is l5V nnd fho Iond rosIsfnnco Is vnrInbIo Tho mInImum curronf for onch Zonor
dIodo Is lmA nnd fho wnffngo of onch dIodo Is 0.5W.
(Ans. UIrcuIf of IIg. l.ll wIfh fho fwo Zonor dIodos In sorIos. I = 60, l2l.5 I
L
< )
9. Two IdonfIcnI SI dIodos, onch hnvIng n forwnrd rosIsfnnco of 6 nnd n fhroshoId voIfngo of 0.6 V,
nro connocfod In sorIos fo conducf In fho snmo dIrocfIon. Tho dIodo combInnfIon Is connocfod fo n
forwnrd bInsIng bnffory of voIfngo 3 V fhrough n sorIos rosIsfnnco of l68. UnIcuInfo fho cIrcuIf
curronf nnd fho voIfngo dro ncross onch dIodo. (Ans. l0 mA, 0.66 V)