Digestive System 14.1- 14.

9

Gastrointestinal Tract:

Mouth: It is the entrance of the GI tract

o Process of chewing occurs here which breaks down food into smaller and smaller
chunks in order it to be small enough to swallow
o An effective food processor
o There is a large amount of bacteria, that live between the teeth
! The bacteria then can dissolve the enamel, which creates cavities (dental
caries)
! Can cause inflammation of the gums- gingivitis
! Decay that causes inflammation of the periodontal membrane- periodontitis
o Teeth break down the food (grinds and tear food apart into smaller

Tongue: Positions food over the teeth in order for it to be broken down to smaller pieces
o Skeletal muscle enclosed in a mucous membrane
o Voluntary control over the movement
o Contributes to taste and speech

Saliva: Moistens food in order to be broken down further

o 3 Glands: Parotid, sublingual and submandibular
! Located below the haw and tongue
! All 3 glands connect to the oral cavity
o Moistens food, which makes it easier to chew and swallow
o Mucin is part of saliva that holds food particles together
o Salivary amylase beings digestion of carbohydrates
o Bicarbonate maintains the pH of the mouth (6.5-7.5)
o Lysozymes prevents bacterial growth

Pharynx: Delivers the food to the esophagus

o Stops breathing temporarily during swallowing reflex
o Tongue and jaws push the bolus into the pharynx
o Before swallowing, muscles keep esophagus closed
o Receptors initiate the swallowing reflex; it cannot be stopped
! It closes the passageway of air
o Soft palate rises to close passage to nasal cavity
o Epiglottis bends to close off trachea, and open the esophagus
o Tongue pushes the food back even further, and it slides down to esophagus

Esophagus: muscular tube (skeletal and smooth muscle) that transports the food from the
mouth to the stomach
o Lining of esophagus produces lubricating mucus that helps food slide down
o Thick foods can stick to the mucosa but gets dislodge and slides down; this is
because of contractions that occur
o Peristaltic contractions enable the esophagus to transport food fore and against
gravity
o Contains the lower esophageal sphincter that opens when food arrives and closes
once it goes through to the stomach
! Prevents reflux of stomach contents back into the esophagus
! Sphincter can malfunction and back flow can occur causing acid reflux/ heart
burn

more common during weight gain, pregnancy and age

Can be caused by a hiatal hernia

Stomach: the place where food is held

o Food storage: stores food, it can shrink and expand
o Digestion: digests proteins, produces enzymes, kills bacteria, mixes acids with food,
breaks food down and pushes contents into the small intestines
o Regulation of delivery: regulates the delivery rate of how frequent food can enter the
small intestines
o Gastric pits secretes HCl, pepsinogen (which is then converted into pepsin enzyme)
o HCl, pepsinogen, and fluid secreted are known as gastric juices
o pH=2
o Pepsin dissolves connective tissues in food, and proteins into amino acids
o Food in stomach is called chyme
o Pyloric sphincter is between stomach and small intestines; regulates food entry into
small intestines
o Cells in the stomach constantly secrete mucus to protect the lining of the stomach
! If damaged then it becomes a peptic ulcer
o Mucosal cells also secrete intrinsic factor that allows B12 to be absorbed in the small
intestines
o Some cells secrete gastrin
o Muscles contractions make the stomach small when empty or expand when full
o Stretching signals peristalsis to increase
! It allows chyme to move into the small intestines, by squeezing
o 2-6 hours for stomach to empty completely after a meal
o Peristalsis declines as the stomach empties
o Chyme that has high acid or fat will stimulate to release a hormone that decreases
peristalsis so nutrients can be absorbed during the small intestines
o Stomach doesnt absorb anything, however minimal alcohol and drugs will penetrate
with minimal absorption

Small Intestines: digest and absorbs the nutrients from the chyme
o Digestion: digests proteins because of the strong acids and pepsin, carbohydrates
and lipids also get digests.
! CHO, Proteins, and Lipids in the small intestines involves neutralizing the
acidic gastric juices and adding digestive enzymes from the intestines and
pancreas
o Absorption: macromolecules are broken down to single units (amino acids,
monosaccharides, fatty acids, and glycerol)
! Must be small enough to be transported across mucosal cells into the blood
! 90% of absorption occurs here
o 3 Sections: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
! Duodenum- most digestion occurs here
! Jejunum and ileum- most absorption occurs here
o Contains villi (large folds covered with microscopic projections) and each villi has
microvilli
! Enlarges the surface area (500x) when it comes to absorption of nutrients
! Each villi has blood capillaries that transport nutrients that are small enough
for the blood cappillaries, and lacteals transport larger molecules via lymph

Large Intestines: absorbs the remaining nutrients and water, and stores solid waste
o Has 4 sections: ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid
colon
o A pouch that receives the chyme from the small intestines is called a cecum
! A small finger projection attached to it is called the appendix

No digestive function, but can be infected or inflamed

o Feces is stored in the sigmoid colon
! Contains 5% bacteria weight

Bacteria releases by products that are useful such as vitamin K

o Defecation is controlled by neural reflexes
! Internal anal sphincter- keeps anus closed by contractions

When feces enters rectum, internal anal sphincter relaxes and rectum
contracts
! External anal sphincter- voluntary contraction, skeletal muscle, potty training
is controlling this sphincter

Rectum: Where waste materials is stored temporarily, until the body needs to release the
waste, stimulates the desire to secrete waste

Anus: Where feces and waste materials leave the body

Organs form a hollow tube in which the space within this tube is the area in which the food
travels is called the lumen- Gastrointestinal tract (GI tract)
Accessory Organs:

Assist the digestive system (Know the roles and functions of each)
o Pancreas: Endocrine/exocrine gland that secretes/produces several hormones into
the blood/digestive tract
! Sodium bicarbonate:

Works best in neutral pH

Neutralizes stomach acid in small intestine so it can digestive

molecules more
! Digestive enzymes: most enzymes involved in the digestion come from
pancreas

Protease: Digests proteins

o Trypin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase

Pancreatic amylase: Digests carbohydrates and it is helped by

salivary amylase

Lipase: Digests lipids

o Small intestine doesnt produce lipase so its important!
o Salivary Glands: produce saliva in order to pass food through to the stomach
! 3 glands: Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual
! Connect via oral cavity via ducts
! Release mucin, salivary amylase, bicarbonate, and lysozymes
o Liver: Facilitate digestion and lipids by producing bile
! Contains electrolytes, cholesterol, bile salts, lecithin and pigments
! Bile emulsify lipids in the small intestines so they can become smaller
particles and be digested by lipase
! Hepatic portal system carries nutrient rich blood directly from the digestive
organs to the liver via the hepatic portal vein
! Important organ for processing and storing nutrients from the body
! Other functions of liver:

Stores fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK) and iron

Stores and converts glucose and glycogen

Manufactures plasma proteins

Synthesizes and stores lipid

Inactivating toxic chemicals

Converts ammonia to urea

Destroys old RBCs

o Gallbladder: Stores bile, and concentrates bile by removing water, transported into
the small intestines by common bile duct
Tissue Layers:

Walls of the GI tract have 4 layers:

o Mucosa: innermost tissue layer, all nutrients must cross the mucosa to enter the
blood
o Submucosa: connective tissue containing: blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves
! Food that are absorbed across the mucosa enter the blood and lymph
vessels here
o Muscularis: responsible for motility and movement
! Two or three layers of smooth muscle
! Muscle is in circular way, not lengthwise like others
! Stomach has diagonal sublayer
o Serosa: outermost layer, connective tissue that protects the other 3 layers and
attaches the digestive system to the walls of the body cavities
Functions of Digestive System

Mechanical processing and movement: Chewing breaks food into smaller pieces and mixes
contents of the lumen and propel it forward

Secretion: Fluids are secreted into the GI tract at various places

o Several hormones regulate digestion that are secreted into the bloodstream

Digestion: Contents of the lumen are broken down both mechanically and chemically into
smaller particles

Absorption: Nutrient molecules pass across the mucosal layers of the GI tract and into the
blood and lymph

Elimination: Undigested material is eliminated from the body via the anus
Movement of the GI Tract:

Peristalsis propels food forward towards the stomach

o Bolus stretches esophagus causing muscle in the front to relax and the muscle
behind to contract
o Peristaltic wave of contraction ripples through the organs of the GI tract, mixing
contents of the esophagus and intestines forwards
o Occurs in all parts but mostly in the esophagus

Segmentation mixes food

o Short sections of smooth muscle contracts and relaxes randomly
o Results in mixing back and forth the contents of lumen
o Food particles are pressed against the mucosa allowing the body to absorb the
nutrients
o Occurs mostly in the small intestines
Pathway Through The System:

Teeth mechanical break down of food

o 4 types of teeth: sharp edge incisors (cut food), pointed canines (tear food),
premolars and molars (flat surface that grind and crush food)
o Children have 20 teeth, adults have 32
o Tooth has crown is the visible part of tooth, and the root is the part that is inserted
in the root

Tongue positions food over teeth and mashes it against the root of the mouth
o Contributes to taste and speech

Saliva moistens food with the help of mucin (holds food together), salivary amylase
(digests carbs), bicarbonate (maintains pH of mouth), and lysozymes (inhibits bacteria
growth)
o 3 glands: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual

Pharynx transports food from mouth to the esophagus

o Voluntary- tongue and jaws push the bolus into the pharynx
o Involuntary- swallowing reflex that closes the trachea so food doesnt enter the
lungs

Epiglottis closes the trachea while food passes from the pharynx to the esophagus

Esophagus transports the bolus towards the stomach, using movements such as
peristalsis, produces mucus that helps food slide down, as a sphincter at the bottom to allow
food to enter the stomach

Stomach:
o Functions- Food storage (stores food until digestion and absorption), Digestion
(digests food into smaller particles by using enzymes), Regulation of delivery
(regulates rate of which food is delivered to the small intestines)
o Structure- Figure 14.7 (mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa, oblique layer,
circular layer, longitudinal layer)
o Chemicals- pepsin (enzyme that digests protein), HCl (breaks down everything),
pepsinogen (hormone that activates pepsin), intrinsic factor (protein that binds
vitamin B12 so it can be absorbed in SI), mucus (absorbs minimal vitamins and
alcohol and protects lining of the stomach)
o Peptic ulcer formation- mucus lining becomes damaged that leaves tissue to be
vulnerable, forms in esophagus or small intestines

Small intestine:
o Functions - Digestion (digests macromolecules, neutralizes acidic gastric juices and
adds digestive enzymes) & Absorption (macromolecules are absorbed through villi)
o Regions - duodenum (most digestion), jejunum and ileum (most absorption)
o Structure and Role of villi and microvilli (Figure 14.9)- enlarge surface area when it
come to absorption of nutrients, contains lacteals and blood capillaries

Pancreas:
o Digestive enzymes (proteases [digests proteins], pancreatic amylase [digests
carbohydrates], lipase [digests lipids-important] and sodium bicarbonate [neutralizes
acidity])
o Delivers these enzymes into the duodenum

Liver:
o Digestion and absorption of lipids by producing bile (electrolytes, cholesterol, bile
salts,lecithin and pigments)
o Role of bile- emulsifies lipids in order to become smaller droplets so it can be
absorbed
o Hepatic portal system- carries nutrient rich blood from digestive organs to the liver
o Other functions of the liver- storing fat soluble vitamins, store and converts glucose
and glycogen, manufacture plasma proteins, synthesizing and storing lipids,
inactivating toxic chemicals, converting ammonia to urea, and destroying old RBCs
o Why injury to this organ can be dangerous- overexposure to toxic chemicals can
impair the liver by killing liver cells

Gallbladder:
o Concentrates bile and secretes it into small intestine via bile duct
o Can be removed, and if it is removed, the liver dispenses bile into the small
intestines right away

Large intestine:
o Functions- absorbs remaining nutrients along with water, and store waste for
elimination
o Regions- Appendix, colon (ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid), rectum
& anus
o Bacterial component- some bacteria releases by products that we use such as
vitamin K
o Eliminating waste is a neural reflex that is both involuntary and voluntary that uses
sphincters

Sphincters:
o Lower esophageal- located at the bottom of the esophagus, prevents contents of
stomach to rising, allows how much bolus enters the stomach at a time, prevents
acid reflux
o Pyloric- located at the bottom of the stomach connecting the small intestines, allows
how much chyme is allowed to enter the small intestines at a time
o Internal anal- Inside the anus, keeps the anus closed by contractions, and relaxes
when feces pass through
o External anal- Outside the anus, voluntary contraction, skeletal muscle, actually
going to release waste

Nutrient absorbtion- Proteins and carbs by active transport

o Proteins- enzymes break down proteins into amino acids, then they are actively
transported into the mucosal cells
! Move via facilitated diffusion towards the capillaries
o Carbohydrates- digestion occurs all over the digestive tract, eventually breaking
them down to monosaccharides
! Use different active transport proteins to go to the capillaries (same as
proteins)
o Lipids broken down and then reassembled
! 1. Bile salts + fat globules turns to
! 2. Emulsion droplets which lipase comes and digests them into smaller
particles which then turns to
! 3. Bile salts+ fatty acids and monosaccharides which then turns to
! 4. Micelles (a mixture of bile salts and lecithin with FA and monosaccharides)
! 5. Enter the epithelial cell layer, in which micelles combine with other
micelles to form a triglycerides, but also protein surrounds each triglycerides
that form a chylomicrons
! 6. Then they travel towards the lacteal (opening of lymph vessel) in order to
be transported to the correct area in the body
o Water osmosis
! High concentration of water compared to other areas of the body
! Diffusion of water is strong
! Too much food placed in the large intestines leads to diarrhea
! Feces in the large intestines for a long period of time leads to constipation
o Vitamins & minerals various pathways
! Fat-soluble vitamins dissolve in the miscalls and absorbed by diffusion in the
membrane of the mucosal cell (like lipids)
! Water soluble vitamins are absorbed via active transport or diffusion
(channels or pores)
! Minerals- not lipid soluble so they use active transport or diffusion by specific
transport proteins, pores or channels
! Body fluids (acids, enzymesetc)- are digested and reabsorbed by the
digestive system it self
Endocrine and Nervous System Regulate Digestive System:

Regulation involves motility and secretions of the organs

To maintain a constant internal environment

Promote rapid, efficient digestion and absorption

Volume and content of food:

o When stomach stretches, neural reflexes increase peristalsis and secretion of gastric
juice
o Promotes the release of gastrin that trigger the release of more gastric juice
o Stretching of duodenum increases segmentation to mix chyme
o Duodenum secretes secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK)
! Acid in chyme triggers secretin stimulates pancreas to release water and
bicarbonate to neutralize
! Fat and protein triggers CCK which signals the pancreas to secrete more
digestive enzymes

CCK and stretching of duodenum stimulate gallbladder to release bile

o Secretin, CCK and stretching of duodenum inhibits stomach motility and secretions
o If chyme is released to the small intestine too fast, then small intestines will slow
stomach activity
o Gastrin and neural reflex involving stretching of the stomach increase motility of the
large intestine after eating

Nutrients used or stored until needed:

o Regulation of organic metabolism involves interact between all organs
o 1. Constant communication of what we need and what we store. Macromolecules
can be converted to storage and recycled when needed
o 2. Bodies store excess for the future, which increase body weight
o 3. The body uses the stored excess when we need to use it, which decrease weight
Eating Disorders:

Anorexia Nervosa: dieting excessively and stops eatting

o Mental illness with highest mortality rate
o Refuse to maintain a healthy body weight, weigh less than 85% of ideal weight
o Fear of gaining weight
o Distorted view of their body weight and shape
o Missing 3 period cycles/ hormone problems
o Malnutrition, hair loss, fatigue, and moodiness, low bone mass

Bulimia Nervosa: binge and purge

o Eating a lot of food and then not eating any
o Vomiting, taking laxatives, diuretics, enemas, fasting, excessive exercising
o Binge behaviour occurs twice a week for three months
o Worrying about body shape and weight, however they are normal weight
o Ulcers, heartburn, rectal bleeding, mouth issues

Binge Eating Disorder: no control over how much they eat, even eat when not hungry

Most of these disorders are mental illnesses

Digestive Disorders:

Lactose intolerance: cannot digestive the lactose due to lack of lactase enzyme
o Diarrhea (retention of fluids in intestines), gas, bloating, cramps (bacterial
fermentation)

Peptic ulcers: erosions of mucosal lining of the stomach or duodenum

o Infection of bacteria that can live in acidic environment
! Helicobacter pylori
o Chronic inflammation increases gastric acid secretion and damages mucosal lining
o Constant usage of NSAIDs causes peptic ulcers
o Heal on their own after treatment

Celiac disease: destruction of villi that line the small intestines

o Malabsorption of nutrients
o Genetic disorder
o Fatigue, depression, malnutrition
o Blood work determines this disease

Diverticulosis: small sacs produced when the mucosal lining of the large intestines protrudes
to other layers
o No discomfort, but can develop to diverticulitis which is inflammation
! Antibiotics help this
o Develop this by not eating enough fibre, which produces smaller feces which narrow
the colon

Colon polyps: noncancerous growths from the mucous membrane

o Removing them is recommended
o Colonoscopy is used to determine polyps

Hepatitis: inflammation of liver that is caused by toxic substances or viruses

o Type A: transmitted by food and water
o Type B: blood and body fluids
! Leads to liver failure if untreated
! Jaundice, nausea, abdominal pain, and arthritis
o Type C: infected blood
! Chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver cancer

Gallstones: excessive cholesterol, calcium and bile salts create stones

o Can obstruct bile flow, cause intense pain
o Can be removed by removing surgery or dissolving the stones via vibrations and
laser treatments

Malnutrition: unbalanced or insufficient diet

o Over nutrition or undernutrition
o 13 million are undernourished
o Lack of nutrients can cause effects
! Vitamin A= eye damage and night blindness
o Stunts growth and increases infections

Obesity: overweight individuals

o 13% in 1990 to 36% in 2010 for USA
o Body weight has genetic and environmental factors
! Fat genes
! Inbalance of caloric intake and expenditure
o Physical activity and balanced diet can decrease obesity