Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183

Animal use at the Postclassic Maya center of Mayapa n

Marilyn A. Masson
a,
, Carlos Peraza Lope
b
a
Department of Anthropology AS 237, University at AlbanySUNY, Albany, NY 12222, USA
b
Centro INAHYucatan, Km 65 Carretera Progreso, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico 97000, Mexico
Available online 14 February 2008
Abstract
This paper presents archeological evidence for animal use at Mayapa n, the largest capital city of the Postclassic period Maya lowlands.
The most commonly consumed species were white-tailed deer, turkey, and iguana, and other important but less frequent animals in the
assemblage were dog, peccary, and brocket deer. A wide variety of local and non-local fauna were also recovered. Our analysis of 97,416
faunal bones is based on two distinct samples that are compared in this studythe sites monumental center buildings (temples, halls,
shrines, and nearby houses) and the outlying domestic settlement zones. Four arguments are presented regarding Mayapa ns animal use
in this paper. First, certain rare mammals and marine species were likely obtained through trade. Second, evidence suggests that white-
tailed deer were either raised in captivity or were carefully managed in habitats surrounding the city. Surplus deer meat and skeletal
elements were major commodities for exchange and local consumption. Third, dog, exotic animals, and specic deer elements were
preferentially utilized for monumental center activities. Fourth, culturally prescribed methods of ritually discarding deer skulls were
practiced at Mayapa n. Mayapa ns faunal exploitation patterns were embedded in important ways within the citys larger regional,
coastal-inland economic system. Key similarities and differences with other Maya sites are identied.
r 2008 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
This paper investigates some strategies of animal use at
the ancient Maya city of Mayapa n. In what ways were
various animal products important to economic institu-
tions such as local food production, hunting, subsistence
exchange, and ritual or social events? Mayapa n, the largest
political capital of the Late Postclassic period in the Maya
area, was founded during the 12th century A.D. and was
abandoned by A.D. 14411461, only decades before the
arrival of the Spanish in the early 1500s (Peraza Lope et al.,
2006). Ethnohistorical accounts of faunal use during
Mayapa ns occupation and into the Contact period (e.g.,
Landa, 1941) are potentially biased, but provide useful
models that can be tested with empirical archeological
data.
The range and quantities of wild, tamed, and domes-
ticated animals found in consumption contexts at the site
reveal diverse methods for animal acquisition and con-
sumption, including exchange, shing, hunting, and
husbandry or game management. This paper documents
selected aspects of this complex subsistence and economic
system and contrasts patterns observed in the monumental
center versus ordinary domestic contexts. A more detailed
analysis of the spatial distribution of faunal remains by
specic contexts within the monumental center and at
various elite and commoner houselots throughout the city
is forthcoming.
2. Regional setting: Mayapa n
Mayapa n is located in the west-central portion of the
Mexican state of Yucata n, at the northern end of the
Yucata n peninsula. The city was the largest of its time
within the Maya area, with a population of around 15,000
(Smith, 2005, pp. 411, 419; Russell, 2008). The walled
portion of the city itself is 4.2 km
2
(Fig. 1), and regular
domestic settlement occurs outside of the city wall to a
distance of 500 m (Russell, 2008). Ethnohistorical docu-
ments suggest that the citys council of confederated
township leaders was likely ruled by a paramount (Ringle
and Bey, 2001), and obligations of tribute, corvee labor,
and military service were imposed on subject towns (Roys,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2008.02.002

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 518 442 5199.

E-mail address: massonma@albany.edu (M.A. Masson).
1962, p. 50). The political nucleus of the city is represented
by epicentral buildings surrounding the main plazas where
the majority of the sites temples, colonnaded meeting
halls, and specialized ritual buildings are concentrated
(Proskouriakoff, 1962). This monumental center is found
in Square Q (Fig. 1), a 500 500 m segment of the site map
(Jones, 1962). Surrounding the monumental center is the
epicenter including the largest elite dwellings at Mayapa n
which likely served as palaces for the citys most prominent
ofcials (Masson et al., n.d.). Outside of the epicenter and
within the city wall, Mayapa ns domestic zone consists of
densely packed houselots; over 4000 dwellings and out-
buildings have been documented in this outlying settlement
zone (Smith, 1962). A typical commoner houselot is shown
in Fig. 1. Residential groups were delineated by stone walls
(albarradas), as shown in the example (Fig. 1), which
indicate specic social units (Bullard, 1952; Brown, 1999).
The domestic zone was probably divided into barrios or
wards (kuchteel), as Colonial period sources claim (Roys,
1957); these neighborhoods, distributed across through the
city, are thought to be marked by temples, halls, raised
roads, major waterholes (cenotes), a large marketplace,
stone lanes, and city gates (Hare et al., 2006). Early
zooarcheological investigations were conducted by Pollock
and Ray (1957, pp. 636637) who provided a taxonomic
list of 5472 remains from 145 excavation lots at structures
in or near the monumental center (Palace Group R-85-90,
temple/hall Q-152/151, Cenote Chen Mul, and Temple
Q-95).
Two zooarcheological samples are compared in this
study. The rst is from the sites monumental center and
some nearby houses (Fig. 2), excavated by the Instituto
Nacional de Antropolog a e Historia (INAHYucata n),
and the second is from the domestic settlement zone
located outside of this monumental center (Fig. 1),
excavated by the authors joint project, the Proyecto
Econo mico de Mayapa n (PEMY). The monumental center
sample reects consumption activities of the citys highest-
ranking political and religious ofcials and includes
materials that are primarily from the monumental or
political center and the surrounding elite palaces. The
sample from the domestic zone includes a majority of
commoner dwellings and a small number of lesser,
secondary elite dwellings and associated buildings. The
bulk of this latter sample reects the remains of animal
used in every day life as foods and other products.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Collection and analysis
Fig. 1 shows the location of contexts from which the
domestic zone (PEMY) faunal material derives. Cleared
milpas (swidden agricultural plots) represented our sample
units for mapping, surface collection, and test-pitting in
these non-epicentral locations at Mayapa n. Test pit
materials from these domestic zone contexts were collected
with the use of a
1
4
in screen. The sample from the site
monumental center and nearby houses (Fig. 2) was hand-
collected, quite systematically and meticulously by the
INAH project. Due to differences in collection strategy,
these samples are reported separately in the tables of this
article. Analysis occurred in project laboratories in Tecoh,
Yucatan, and Albany, New York, using comparative
skeletal collections housed at both localities and standard
illustration reference works (e.g., Olsen, 1982; Gilbert,
1993). One-hundred percent of the domestic zone sample
was analyzed (from the 20012003 seasons), and 85% of
the monumental center sample was analyzed (from the
1996 to 2004 seasons). Altogether, we analyzed 97,416
pieces of fauna (67,107 INAH from 94 buildings, 30,309
PEMY from 86 building groups).
1
Faunal taxonomy
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 1. Top: Location of site monumental center (INAH sample), outlying
milpa areas (domestic zone/PEMY sample) and Mayapa ns city wall.
Bottom: A typical Mayapa n commoner house group from Milpa 9
showing walled yard space and a pen.
1
Of the 86 PEMY groups, 21 are represented only from surface
collection materials and 65 were sampled in test pits and surface
collections. Of the 30,309 PEMY bones, 2604 are from surface collections
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 171
presented here was veried with www.itis.gov on January
7, 2007. All scientic names are presented in the tables.
3.2. Animal products and exchange
The relative frequencies of identied sh skeletal
elements are evaluated here to assess evidence for different
means of sh acquisition at Mayapa n. Comparisons of
marine catsh to marine non-catsh taxa are offered
(following Masson, 2004). An over-representation of sh
cranial elements at coastal sites and a similar disproportio-
nately high representation of postcranial spines and
vertebrae at inland sites are criteria that have been used
to suggest that sh heads were removed at coastal sites
prior to the preparation of salted postcranial portions
destined for exchange (Carr, 1985; Rackham, 1994, p. 52).
Alternatively, if sh were captured, prepared, and con-
sumed at a single site, we might expect cranial and
postcranial elements to approximate those proportions
present in the body. This set of expectations has been tested
archeologically and is supported by data from a faunal
sample from at the coastal salt-making site of Northern
River Lagoon, Belize (Mock, 1994; Masson, 2004, p. 113),
which had a disproportionate quantity of catsh crania, in
contrast to other marine sh where cranial and postcranial
elements were balanced. A complementary industry in salt-
making and salted catsh postcranial salt sh produc-
tion was identied at Northern River Lagoon. Few inland
site samples have been examined with the goal of testing
this model of exchange.
3.3. Identifying deer management in the archeological
record
Age composition of deer remains is used here in the
Mayapa n samples to investigate the possibility of deer
husbandry or management. In ancient Mesoamerica, deer,
unlike dog, were not domesticated, and thus husbanded or
managed individuals would exhibit no diagnostic morpho-
logical differences from wild individuals. The age composi-
tion of an archeological faunal assemblage provides the
primary key to identifying whether human management
strategies were in effect. This approach is commonly
adopted in archeological studies of animal husbandry
elsewhere in the world (Ducos, 1978, p. 55; Rackham,
1994, pp. 44, 47), and traditionally involves comparing the
age prole of an archeological sample of a species to that
expected from a natural population. Our assessment of
white-tailed deer management at Mayapa n focuses on older
subadults; specically, animals that have reached full size but
do not yet have fully fused long bones (late-fusing elements
that fuse close to or after sexual maturity). Fusion rates are
based on Reitz and Wing (1999, Table 3.5) and Brothwell and
Higgs (1963, pp. 252253, Table A). Ideally, the study of age
proles should be performed using complete mandibles to
document tooth eruption and wear. This was not possible due
to the near absence of teeth in the sample. It was also not
possible to ascertain sex at this point in the analysis although
this is theoretically possible for husbanded and wild deer
populations (Rackham, 1994).
Techniques of husbandry often include the slaughter of a
high proportion of animals in late subadulthood. At this
point in the life cycle, animals attain adult size and provide
the maximum amount of meat. Butchering animals soon
after they reach full size is an efcient strategy, as keeping
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Fig. 2. Map of monumental center (left), published by Jones (1962). The Temple of Kukulkan (Q-162), adjacent buildings, and location of units discussed
in the text on the right (modied from Delgado Ku , 2004, Fig. 29; Peraza Lope et al., 2007, Fig. 16).
(footnote continued)
and the remainder (91%) are from test pits. Only test pit data are used
here.
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 172
animals longer would involve more feeding but no increase
in meat return (Davis, 1987, p. 150). We infer that an
exceptionally high proportion of older subadult white-
tailed deer (rather than full adults), at Mayapa n would
suggest that deer were raised and probably bred in
captivity. Alternatively, a sophisticated form of forest
game management was in place.
4. Results
4.1. Identied taxa
Mammals identied at Mayapa n are reported in Table 1.
Birds, reptiles, and amphibians are presented in Table 2
and sh are shown in Table 3. The primary animals
consumed at Mayapa n are reected in the larger sample
from the site center including both monumental core and
epicentral households, excavated by INAH. These were
white-tailed deer (23% of identied bone fragments), dog
(4.4%), turkey (12.9%), and iguana (10.2%). Turkey was
not identied to speciestwo alternatives are possible,
the domestic Mexican turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) or the
wild ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata). Brocket deer
formed 2.6% of the sample, and peccary 1% (Table 1).
All other animals identied at least to the genus level
formed less than one percent of the sample, although the
combined contribution of all sh in the monumental zone
was 1.2% (Table 3). Except for the estuarine catsh species
Ariopsis felis, most species were fully marine. The catsh
that is identied at Mayapa n could have been obtained
from inland semi-saline lagoons (within a few kilometers of
the city) or at coastal margins (Carr, 1985, p. 126). These
percentages represent only those elements identiable to
genus or species, and it is likely that primary animals
formed even greater proportions of the diet in the
monumental zone as implied by high proportions of large
mammal bone (26%), much of which could be deer, and
6.6% of the sample identied as bird or large bird could
have been turkey.
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Table 1
Mammals (bone count) in INAH and PEMY test pit samples
INAH % ID bone PEMY % ID bone
Tepezcuintli (Agoutidae) 16 0.03 8 0.05
Armadillo (Dasypodidae) 12 0.03 13 0.07
Brocket deer (Mazama americana) 1254 2.68 177 1.01
Brocket deer/peccary 99 0.21
Coati (Nasua nasua) 2 0.00
Dog (Canidae) 2094 4.48 248 1.41
Feline Lg (Felidae) 4 0.01
Feline (Felidae) 4 0.01
Fox (Urcyon) 3 0.01 1 0.01
Gopher (Geomys sp.) 77 0.16 57 0.32
Grison (Galictis vittata) 2 0.00
Lg mammal 12,177 26.04 5868 33.34
Mammal 1045 2.23 70 0.40
Manatee (Trichechus manatus) 2 0.004
Md/lg mammal 836 1.79 374 2.12
Md Mammal 1805 3.86 2322 13.19
Mouse (Peromyscus sp.) 9 0.02
Ocelot/jaguarondi (Leopardus pardalis or Herpailurus
yaguarondi)
3 0.01 1 0.01
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) 35 0.07 6 0.03
Peccary (Tayassuidae) 511 1.09 62 0.35
Peccary/white-tailed deer 61 0.13
Porcupine (Coendou sp.) 1 0.00
Puma/jaguar, Puma concolor or Panthera onca) 8 0.02
Rabbit (Leporidae) 176 0.38 70 0.40
Rabbit (Cotton tail, Sylvilagus sp.) 13 0.03 2 0.01
Rabbit (Jackrabbit, Lepus sp.) 4 0.01 1 0.01
Rice rat (Oryzomys sp.) 1 0.00
Ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) 1 0.00
Sm mammal 204 0.44 230 1.31
Tapir (Tapirus bairdii) 5 0.01
Rodent (Rodentia) 73 0.16 61 0.35
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) 10,783 23.05 1482 8.42
White-tailed deer/brocket deer 104 0.22 24 0.14
White-tailed deer/brocket/peccary 20 0.04
Percentages calculated from total number of identied bone fragments per sample (INAH/Monumental Center and Nearby Houses 46,771, PEMY/
outlying houses 17,602). A surface collection sample of 2604 bones is not shown.
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 173
Faunal consumption in the settlement zone (PEMY
sample) shows similar preferences to that of the monu-
mental center (Tables 13), with white-tailed deer forming
8.4%, dog 1.4%, turkey 5.3%, iguana 14.5% of the
sample. Brocket deer and peccary were less common in the
settlement zone (1%, 0.3%, respectively) and the total
proportion of sh was more common (3.6%) than in the
monumental center. Small mammals, iguana, and sh were
consumed in somewhat higher levels in outlying domestic
zones (Tables 2 and 3). Turtle and rabbit were consumed in
equivalent proportions in both areas in proportions of
under 1.5% (Tables 1 and 2). The more fragmented nature
of the settlement zone faunal remains causes the propor-
tion of animals identied to the genus level or beyond to be
lower since more bone fragments are in general categories
such as large or medium mammal or bird (Tables 1 and 2).
Despite the preference at Mayapa n for deer, turkey, and
iguana, a great variety of taxa were identied, most of
which form less than 1% of the sample. Identied birds
other than turkey included quail, parrot, and cormorant.
Reptiles present in low quantities include crocodile, sea
turtle, mud turtle, pond turtle, and snake. The monumental
zone sample has a greater variety of identied animals than
the settlement zone, and many rare animals are only found
in the site center (Table 1). Seventeen genera of sh were
identied (Table 3); and a greater variety of marine species
of sh is noted for the monumental center (13 genera
besides catsh) compared to the domestic zone (four
genera besides catsh). Small and medium-sized mammals
include armadillo, opossum, gopher, rabbit, small mice and
rats, agouti, grison, porcupine, ringtail, and coati. The
latter ve were concentrated in the monumental zone.
Larger rare animals that were also concentrated in the site
center include tapir, manatee, and felines (ocelot or
jaguarundi, and puma or jaguar).
Consumption patterns at the sites central temples, halls,
and other public/ritual buildings included a taste for exotic
animals. Felines and tapir were probably trade items, and
Pollock and Ray (1957, p. 653) argued that tapir teeth were
brought into Mayapa n as individual elements. Our analysis
of the INAH sample yielded three tapir teeth and two
phalanges. Similarly, at the site of Laguna de On, Belize
(contemporary with Mayapa n), tapir elements were also
limited to teeth and phalanges. Tapir may have been
consumed as food or perhaps they were used for symbolic
purposes. Feline elements are not so restricted at Mayapa n;
two dentaries, an astragalus and carpal, three metapodials,
four femurs and six humeri were identied. Long bones
and skulls were often used for modication into staffs and
headdresses, respectively, and pelts could contain paw
bones. Carr (1996, p. 255) presents a convincing argument
that deer and other large animal products were commod-
ities that were exchanged among Postclassic Yucatecan
Maya sites.
4.2. Fish-element analysis
Cranial parts formed a large proportion of the catsh
elements in three subsets of our sample, the monumental
core, surrounding epicentral households, and the outlying
commoner and lesser-elite households, listed in Table 4
(61.3%, 66.7%, and 48.1%, respectively). This observation
contrasts with the percentages of cranial fragments present
for other kinds of sh in our samples (19.3%, 21.1%, and
34.1%, respectively). The sample from the outlying
settlement zone shows the least discrepancy in cranial
parts per type of sh (48.1% catsh, 34.1% non-catsh).
Vertebrae frequencies for catsh are twice as high in the
outlying settlement zone sample (14.8%) compared to the
monumental sample (7.5%), and houses near the monu-
mental zone (excavated by INAH) are comparable (8.3%)
to those of the monumental center. This may be a sampling
bias related to the improved recovery of the PEMY
materials through screening, as catsh vertebrae tend to
be smaller than those of other marine sh at this site.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 2
Birds, reptiles, and amphibians (bone count) in INAH and PEMY test pit
samples
INAH
#
INAH
%
PEMY
#
PEMY
%
Birds
Bird 1416 3.03 1416 8.04
Bird Lg 1668 3.57 454 2.58
Bird Md 171 0.37
Bird Sm 41 0.09 42 0.24
Bird (Quail, Colinus sp.?.) 2 0.01
Bird (Phalacrocorax auritas?) 1 0.002
Turkey (Meleagridinae) 6076 12.99 945 5.37
Parrot (Psittacidae) 1 0.002 3 0.02
Total bird 9374 20.04 2862 16.26
Reptiles/amphibians
Crocodile
Crocodile (Crocodylus sp.) 21 0.04 10 0.06
Turtle
Turtle (Testudines) 219 0.47 162 0.92
Marine turtle (Cheloniidae) 21 0.04
Mud turtle (Kinosternidae) 67 0.14
Pond turtle (Emydidae) 107 0.23 88 0.50
Lizards
Iguana (Iguana iguana) 4769 10.20 2566 14.58
Lizard (Opluridae) 27 0.06
Frogs/toads
Frog (Anura) 9 0.02 9 0.05
Frog/toad (Anura/
Bufonidae)
2 0.004
Snake
Snake (Serpentes) 9 0.02 5 0.03
Misc. reptile/amphibian
Reptile (Reptilia) 102 0.22 197 1.12
Reptile/amphibian 7 0.01
Total reptile/amphibian 5360 11.46 3037 17.25
Percentages calculated from total number of identied bone fragments per
sample (N 46,771 INAH, N 17,602 PEMY).
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 174
Non-catsh vertebrae (of larger marine sh) occur in
similar quantities for all three types of contexts regardless
of recovery method (48.3%, 42.1%, and 45.3%). Non-
catsh vertebrae frequencies are three to six times higher
than values for catsh in our three subsamples (Table 4).
The higher ratio of vertebra to cranial parts of non-catsh
may indicate the procurement of postcranial salted non-
catsh carcasses (with vertebrae and spines intact) from
coastal localities. We discuss this possibility further in the
concluding discussion below.
Major differences are not observed in spine frequencies
for catsh or non-catsh among monumental center
contexts excavated by INAH (31.2% catsh, 32.5% non-
catsh). Fish spines were commonly modied into bone
tools, and for this reason, their distributions are probably
different from sh remains that were simply discarded after
eating. Some houses near the site center (INAH outer
houses) had more non-catsh spines (36.8%) than catsh
(25%), perhaps due to the value of larger non-catsh spines
as needles or perforators. Outlying domestic contexts at
Mayapa n (PEMY sample) had more catsh spines (37%)
than other kinds of sh (20%) which may indicate that
domestic contexts varied in the amount of non-catsh
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 3
Fish (bone count) in INAH and PEMY test pit samples
Sub-category Common/scientic name INAH # INAH % PEMY # PEMY %
Non-catsh (marine)
Barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda) 3 0.01
Bonesh (Albula vulpes) 7 0.01
Cichlid Fish (Cichlidae) 1 0.00
Black drum (Pogonias cromis) 3 0.01 9 0.05
Jack (Carangidae) 3 0.01
Ladysh (Elopidae) 4 0.01
Sea trout (Cynoscion sp.) 2 0.01
Sea bass (Serranidae) 6 0.01
Sheepshead (Archosargus sp.) 6 0.01
Snapper (Lutjanidae) 3 0.01 1 0.01
Snapper/Sea bass (Lutjanidae, Serranidae) 1 0.002
Snook (Centropomus sp.) 1 0.002
Tarpon (Megalops atlanticus) 51 0.11 35 0.20
Wrasse (Labridae) 2 0.004
Large Marine Fish (Perciformes) 82 0.18
Fish (unidentied, distinctive otolith type) 2 0.004 10 0.06
Fish (non-catsh) 224 0.48 290 1.65
Catsh
Catsh (Ariopsis felis) 105 0.22 243 1.38
Miscellaneous bony sh
Bony sh (Osteichthyes) 60 0.13 7 0.04
Cartilagenous sh
Nurse shark (Ginglymostoma sp.) 2 0.01
Tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) 1 0.002
Stingray (Rajiformes) 6 0.01 9 0.05
Shark (Carcharhinidae) 22 0.05 18 0.10
Total sh 593 1.27 626 3.6
Percentages calculated from total number of identied bone fragments per sample (N 46,771 INAH, N 17,602 PEMY).
Table 4
Catsh and non-catsh element counts and percentagescomposite
samples
Element INAH center INAH outer houses PEMY houselots
Catsh
Crania 56 60.2% 8 66.7% 88 36.2%
Otolith 1 1.1% 29 11.9%
Dorsal spine 13 14.0% 1 8.3% 29 11.9%
Pectoral spine 13 14.0% 1 8.3% 56 23.0%
Pneumatic spine 1 1.1%
Spine 2 2.2% 1 8.3% 5 2.1%
Vertebra 7 7.5% 1 8.3% 36 14.8%
Total 93 12 243
Non-catsh
Crania 70 17.5% 8 21.1% 72 20.6%
Otolith 7 1.8% 47 13.5%
Dorsal spine 19 4.8% 1 2.6% 15 4.3%
Pneumatic spine 70 17.5% 10 26.3% 24 6.9%
Rib 8 2.0%
Spine 33 8.3% 3 7.9% 32 9.2%
Vertebra 193 48.3% 16 42.1% 158 45.3%
Scale 1 0.3%
Total 400 100.0% 38 349
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 175
spines they were able to obtain. Alternatively, screening of
PEMY contexts may have improved the recovery of catsh
spines.
4.3. Deer skull vs. postcranial elements
One of the most striking patterns in our faunal analysis has
been the paucity of brocket and white-tailed deer skull and
dentary elements relative to other mammals. We investigated
diverse ritual, administrative, and domestic contexts, and
cannot attribute this to sampling error. Nor is it a taphonomic
problem, as crania and teeth from smaller animals are
well preserved, and deer petrosals and teeth should be as
well-preserved as ubiquitous postcranial fragments.
Only one context at the site yielded a concentration of
deer cranial elements, the Temple of Kukulkan (Q-162)
the largest, most signicant building at the center of the
monumental zone (Fig. 2). Eleven deer dentaries were
found in a 2 2 m excavation unit (13-Z) at the temple,
another nine dentaries representing at least ve individuals
were found in Square 33-Y (Fig. 2), and teeth from three
other units (Squares 13-Y, 21-Y, 15-AA) raise the MNI to
29 individuals for these temple units. Young and older
adults are represented by the dentaries (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 illustrates the scarcity of cranial fragments in other
contexts at the site beyond Q-162 (Table 5). Dog cranial
and dentary parts form 2738% of the site center dog
bones (INAH) and outlying houselot (PEMY) samples,
and peccary crania form 17.745.3% of the peccary. In
contrast, brocket deer crania only forms 0.8% of the
brocket elements in the monumental center, and none were
recovered from the outlying domestic zone (PEMY)
sample. White-tailed deer crania form only 1.63.1% of
the deer bone samples, and even lower ranges are
calculated if antler fragments, often modied, are elimi-
nated (0.92.4%).
4.4. Proportions of unfused dog and artiodactyl elements
To determine what proportion of subadult individuals
were represented in the sample for the primary species of
dog, deer, and peccary, we calculated the percentage of
unfused elements for selected elements of each species (site
center/INAH unfused N 1219, outlying houselots/
PEMY unfused N 173). This study only includes
elements for which there were more than 10 examples.
The elements listed in Table 6 are all late-fusing except for
metapodials and the calcaneus. Where the whole element is
listed (femur, tibia, radius), either the proximal or distal
end was unfused; both proximal and distal ends of these
bones are relatively late-fusing, that is, once the animal has
reached adult size and is capable of reproducing. For
example, the dog distal tibia fuses around 1316 months,
while the proximal tibia fuses around 18 months, according
to Brothwell and Higgs (1963, p. 253, Table A). Dogs reach
sexual maturity at 612 months.
We do not feel that factors of differential preservation of
subadult versus adult bones are at play. Preservation of
bone at Mayapa n is excellent, as indicated by the presence
of many small, fragile bones of sh, iguana, and gopher
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 3. (A) Proportion of crania (skull, dentary, maxilla, teeth) of brocket deer, dog, peccary, and white-tailed deer found in Mayapa n samples; deer crania
are scarce compared to dog and peccary. (B) Deer dentary concentration from a 2 2 m unit (33-Y) excavated at the Temple of Kukulkan (Q-162)worn
dentaries of older individuals shown in top two rows and younger animals dentaries shown in lower two rows.
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 176
and unfused epiphyses are abundant in the sample. Most of
our faunal subadults are full-sized and have thick, durable
cortical bone. Even if some very young animal bone is
lacking due to preservation, this proportion of the
population is not relevant to our arguments concerning
the older subadult proportions of four categories of
mammals.
For both the site center (INAH) and outlying houselot
(PEMY samples), brocket deer values indicate 2.210.9%
unfused elements (Table 6, Fig. 4). Three unfused peccary
percentages (site center) fall between 5.3% and 6.5%,
within the range of brocket deer. In contrast, white-tailed
deer unfused element proportions fall within higher ranges
of 14.442.1% for the site center and between 13.6% and
54.5% for outlying houselots (Table 6, Fig. 4). Similarly,
dog percentages of unfused elements were between 16.0%
and 42.1% (site center). There is only one outlying
houselot value for unfused dogs and it is low by
comparison (5.4%) and is represented by an early fusing
element (metapodials). These subadult proportions are
probably underestimated, as many additional fragmented,
unfused epiphyses were present in the sample but were not
identied to element. The white-tailed deer sample has high
proportions of unfused elements in both the site center and
outlying domestic contexts and unfused dog elements are
also numerous in the site center compared to brocket deer
and peccary elements. It is important to emphasize that the
majority of unfused elements are those of full-sized
individuals; it was rare during the analysis to encounter
small (younger juvenile) unfused elements. Abundant
unfused (but adult size) proximal femora, proximal tibiae,
and vertebral centra of deer suggest the animals are
younger than, but close to an age range of 2.53.5 years
old (Reitz and Wing, 1999, Table 3.5).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 5
Percentage of cranial elements-brocket, dog, peccary, and white-tailed deer
INAH center INAH outer houses PEMY houselots
Brocket deer
Antler 2 0.2%
Crania 1 0.1%
Dentary 3 0.3%
Teeth 2 0.2%
Occipital 1 0.1%
Total crania 9 0.8% 0 0% 0 0%
Total brocket 1131 122 177
Dog
Auditory bulla 5 0.2% 3 1.2%
Crania 111 5.5% 3 3.8% 14 5.6%
Dentary 210 10.4% 9 11.4% 5 2.0%
Maxilla 78 3.9% 2 2.5% 4 1.6%
Occipital 28 1.4%
Petrosal 24 1.2% 2 0.8%
Teeth 254 12.6% 16 20.3% 39 15.7%
Total crania 710 35.3% 30 38.0% 67 27.0%
Total dog 2014 79 248
Peccary
Crania 7 1.5% 1 1.9%
Dentary 15 3.3% 8 15.1% 7 11.3%
Maxilla 3 0.7% 2 3.8% 1 1.6%
Petrosal 1 0.2%
Teeth 55 12.0% 13 24.5% 18 29.0%
Total crania 81 17.7% 24 45.3% 26 41.9%
Total peccary 458 53 62
White-tailed deer
Antler 65 0.7% 5 0.8% 10 0.7%
Auditory bulla 5 0.1% 1 0.1%
Crania 65 0.7% 2 0.1%
Dentary 69 0.7% 3 0.5% 2 0.1%
Occipital 7 0.1%
Petrosal 30 0.3% 2 0.3%
Teeth 60 0.6% 4 0.6% 8 0.5%
Total crania 301 3.1% 14 2.3% 23 1.6%
Total wtd 9782 622 1482
Total crania without antler 2.4% 1.4% 0.9%
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 177
5. Discussion
5.1. Fish exploitation
Several arguments are possible based on the sh element
data presented above. Catsh may have been procured by
Mayapa n residents directly as all parts of their skeletons
are ubiquitous and are found across the site. It is also
possible that they were procured through trade as
preserved whole sh. In contrast, a majority of postcranial
remains (vertebrae and spines) represent non-catsh at
Mayapa n. A signicant quantity of non-catsh marine taxa
may therefore have been obtained through trade that
involved the importation of postcranial fragments, possibly
in dried, salted sh carcasses. Spines of all types of sh
were probably curated with the intent to use them as tools,
but houselots closer to the site center had more non-catsh
spines, perhaps suggesting greater value for these larger
and sturdier elements. Trade in non-catsh marine species
may also be implied by the greater diversity of sh from the
monumental zone compared to the outlying settlement
zone, despite the fact that sh forms a lower overall
proportion of the monumental zone sample. It is interest-
ing to note that at the Northern River Lagoon site, catsh
were selected for postcranial salt sh processing over
other kinds of marine sh (Masson, 2004, Table 7.8) and at
Mayapa n, the opposite preference is implied.
Pohl (1989, p. 168) argues that occupants of inland sites
traded deer to coastal sites in exchange for marine
products, and conversely, Carr (1985) presents evidence
that coastal localities prepared sh for exchange to inland
sites. Marine sh exploitation at Mayapa n was thus part of
a larger picture of faunal use and exchange and the
acquisition or production of surplus inland game (deer) is
possibly linked to the acquisition of marine products.
Landas (1941, p. 40) account indicates that Mayapa n
traded inland products of game and fruit with coastal
polities such as Ah Kin Chel for sh and salt. This co-
dependency was tenuous as Landa was describing a mutual
embargo, but the passage is pertinent to the Mayapa n
faunal industries.
5.2. Animal management at Mayapan
The element age data indicate that greater proportions of
older subadult dogs and white-tailed deer were utilized in
all contexts at Mayapa n than subadults of either peccary or
brocket deer. Peccary and brocket deer were clearly
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 6
Percentage of unfused elements as a proportion of total number of elements (for element samples 410)
INAH PEMY INAH PEMY INAH PEMY INAH PEMY
Brocket Brocket Dog Dog White-tail deer White-tail deer Peccary Peccary (%)
Proximal humerus 29.4% 19.7% 0
(17) (66)
Proximal radius 42.1% 42.1% 18.2% 0
(19) (19) (11)
Distal radius 21.4% 21.4% 18.2% 0
(14) (14) (11)
Radius (whole) 7.7% 16.8% 0
(13) (161)
Radius/ulna (fused on peccary) 5.9% 0
(17)
Femur (whole) 7.3% 7.7% 17.3% 21.6% 18.6% 0
(110) (13) (127) (1081) (86)
Proximal femur 2.2% 30.8% 33.5% 41.4% 0
(45) (26) (275) (29)
Distal femur 12.2% 25% 25.7% 13.6% 0
(49) (16) (455) (22)
Tibia (whole) 6.1% 18.2% 17.4% 23.1% 6.5% 0
(136) (132) (685) (65) (31)
Proximal tibia 8.8% 22.7% 24.7% 54.5% 0
(34) (22) (255) (22)
Distal tibia 2.3% 16% 17.8% 20% 5.3% 0
(87) (25) (258) (20) (19)
Calcaneus (distal) 10.9% 14.4% 16.1% 0
(101) (492) (31)
Metapodials (unspecied portions) 5.4% 0
(37)
Notes: dog distal metacarpus fuses at 8 mos, dog distal and proximal radius at 1112 mos, dog proximal humerus at 15 mos, dog proximal tibia 1.5 years,
distal tibia 1316 mo, dog proximal and distal femur 1.5 years. Pig distal radius fuses at 33.5 years, pig proximal tibia 3.5 years, distal tibia 2 years (from
Brothwell and Higgs, 1963, pp. 252253, Table A).
Number of elements given in parentheses below percentage.
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 178
acquired and utilized differently than white-tails and dogs.
Pollock and Ray (1957, p. 653) were the rst to identify the
importance of dogs in activities of Mayapa ns site center,
and the city is hardly unique in this regard. Older subadult
dogs (19%) were common in ritual contexts at Postclassic
Cozumel Island (Hamblin, 1984, Table 7.9), where dog was
most often used for sacrice and other rituals (Hamblin,
1984, pp. 116117). Dogs were an important resource
during the Late Preclassic period at Colha (Shaw, 1991,
1999, p. 94), Cerros (Carr, 1985, p. 131), and other
Preclassic settlements (Pohl, 1985b, p. 109).
The high proportions of older (full-size) subadult white-
tailed deer in both the PEMY and INAH samples suggests
the practice of animal husbandry, or alternatively, a
sophisticated system of game management in forests
controlled by the city. This pattern suggests an efcient
strategy of game production in which deer and dog were
allowed to grow until they reached full size before they
were consumed, which would have maximized the meat
yield from the animals and minimized the time invested in
feeding them. The fact that the proportions of older
subadult white-tailed deer resemble the proportions of
subadult dog, a known domesticate, and do not resemble
the proportions of either brocket deer or peccary strength-
ens the argument that white-tailed deer, like dog, were bred
and raised in captivity or were carefully harvested at
Mayapa n. These data independently support Landas
(1941, p. 127) statement that deer were raised by women
in Contact period Yucata n.
The Mayapa n data match a key criterion of animal
managementthe age structure is different from a normal
population (Davis, 1987, p. 150). In Old World cases where
animal management is suspected, many animals are killed
when fairly large but still immature (Rackham, 1994,
p. 46, also, Carr, 1996, p. 256).
As initial claims for animal husbandry at Mayapa n made
by the authors in earlier versions of this paper were met
with sharp skepticism by reviewers, it is helpful to eliminate
alternative explanations and list additional corroborating
data regarding the prevalence of older subadults in the
Mayapa n deer sample. First, immature deer were not
simply preferred by site center elites as they also occur in
large proportions in outlying houselots. Second, the high
proportion of subadults at Mayapa n is unlikely due to
selective hunting practices as there is no ethnographic
evidence that fully grown adults were ever excluded as a
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 4. The upper graph (A) illustrates that the proportion of juvenile elements for brocket deer and peccary is much lower than the values for white-tailed
deer and dog shown in the lower graph (B). This pattern suggests that white-tailed deer and dog were commonly selected for butchering and consumption
at a young age.
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 179
food source in Mesoamerican deer hunts. Third, infra-
structural features suitable for game connement are
present at Mayapa n in the form of pens and corrals that
are located adjacent to domestic houselot walls (Fig. 1).
Similar, smaller features at Cozumel were used as bird
pens, according to soil test results (Hamblin, 1985, p. 188).
The larger enclosures at Mayapa n could have corralled
turkeys, peccaries, dogs, or tethered deer. A fth alter-
native explanation for Mayapa ns abundant young deer,
high levels of predation, merits further consideration.
Unmanaged high levels of predation can have the effect
of reducing the age structure of a population, and shortly
thereafter, the availability of the population. There is no
evidence for depletion of deer at Mayapa n, where it is
present in great abundance throughout the citys occupa-
tion. However, if game reserves were carefully managed in
Mayapa ns territory, older subadults could have been
allowed to reproduce prior to being huntedsuch a
strategy would have replenished the population but would
have inhibited the numbers of older adults in the sample.
Although this alternative may seem far-fetched, both game
reserves (Pohl, 1989, pp. 153154) and selective hunting
(Teeter and Chase, 2004, p. 165) have been proposed for
the Maya sites of Seibal and Caracol. As modern hunters in
the US sometimes kill large proportions of older subadults
in a managed setting (Cahalane, 1931), the idea of game
reserves and high, but balanced predation management
may be worth considering for sites like Mayapa n. Mann
(2005, pp. 273274, 348350) eloquently summarizes the
extensive new evidence for the management of anthropo-
genic landscapes and their botanical and faunal resources
by indigenous populations across the New World. The
Maya were likely no exception (e.g., Fedick, 1996). More
work is needed to determine whether forest game manage-
ment or domestic houselot husbandry accounts for the age
structure of Mayapa ns deer.
High proportions of subadult deer are known from other
Maya sites, which may suggest that deer management (and
possibly husbandry) was practiced at other settlements.
Late Classic Altar de Sacricios had 36% juveniles, Late
Classic/Early Postclassic Macanche had 33%, and Post-
classic Flores had 33%, according to Pohl (1989, Table 3).
It is not known whether these proportions were primarily
older subadults or whether they represent juveniles of
younger ages as well. Caracol is another site with a high
proportion of subadultsTeeter and Chase (2004, p. 165)
report that 84% of the individuals for which age could be
determined (only 15% of the total sample of deer) were not
fully mature.
In the southern Maya lowlands, studies of deer skeletal
isotope samples from the Preclassic and Classic periods
show no evidence of intentional corn-feeding of deer, either
wild, tame, free-ranging, or houselot-raised (Emery et al.,
2000, p. 545; White et al., 2001). Emery et al. (2000, p. 546)
report one example of a probable tamed deer (with a healed
injury and found as part of a cache) that did not show any
evidence of maize feeding, suggesting that even tamed deer
were likely fed wild fodder in addition to maize by their
keepers. Isotopic studies are currently being conducted on
Mayapa n deer (by Lori Wright) that may help to determine
their maize consumption levels and dependency on food
provided by humanspatterns may be quite different in
the Postclassic northern lowlands from those of earlier
periods.
Despite the fact that archeological evidence for raising or
breeding deer in captivity is scarce, documentary accounts
are explicit on this point (Xime nez, 1967, p. 57; Pohl and
Feldman, 1982, p. 295; Pohl, 1985a, p. 143; Carr, 1996,
p. 251). Pohl (1985a, p. 140) observes that the Maya had a
term for a deer that was raised in a dwelling (ah may),
according to the Motul dictionary. Perhaps this practice
was more characteristic in areas under direct Spanish
observation, i.e., northwest Yucatan in which Mayapa n is
situated. A striking passage in Landas (1941, p. 127)
account claims that the women of 16th century Yucatan
ylet the deer suck their breasts, by which means they
raise them and make them so tame that they never will go
into the woodsy. This quote is perhaps an overly
metaphoric description of the practice of deer-raising.
Comparative data are needed from consumer sites that
were directly engaged in exchange with Mayapa n. The
Postclassic Maya sites of Cozumel Island are contemporary
with Mayapa n and have been the target of an exhaustive
faunal study (Hamblin, 1984). Fish were a staple food,
and peccary was abundant on Cozumel (Hamblin, 1984,
Table 9.3). These plentiful animals at Cozumel are rare at
Mayapa n and Mayapa ns abundant deer was scarce at
Cozumel. Whether or not this site traded animal resources
directly with Mayapa n, the patterns there do support
coastal-inland system of animal exchange (Hamblin, 1984,
pp. 138, 141).
5.3. Deer Crania (lack thereof)
The paucity of crania elements of white-tailed deer
suggests that specialized processing and disposal occurred.
The deer skull proportions for Mayapa n are low by any
standards. Skull proportions reported at other Maya sites
by Carr (1996, Table 15.1) are higher, around 14% at
Cozumel and Dzibilchaltun, 5% at Isla Cerritos where deer
are thought to have been imported, and higher at Chichen
Itza (38%). If antler frequencies are included in the
proportion of skull fragments from these other sites, they
are even higher: 46% for Chichen Itza , 35% for Cozumel,
15% for Dzibilchaltun, and 19% for Isla Cerritos. Clearly,
Mayapa ns proportion of white-tail deer skull, even with
antler, at 1.63.1%, is the lowest of all reported sites.
The lack of deer skulls in most monumental and
domestic contexts suggests that commoner and noble
consumers obtained or processed their deer through similar
mechanisms. Deer skulls, including those of brocket and
white-tail, were likely disposed of in culturally prescribed
ways that resulted in their removal from almost all of our
contexts. Dentaries were were placed at the Temple of
ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 180
Kukulkan (Q-162) for specic ceremonies. However, the
amount of deer at this temple (29 individuals) does not
account for all of the missing deer crania from Mayapa n,
as the MNI for the combined INAH-PEMY samples was
241 white-tailed deer.
2
The dentaries at Q-162 were placed in special locations.
Quadripartite (four staircase) temples like this structure are
signicant markers for central, sacred points on the
landscape at Maya sites (Fox, 1987; Freidel et al., 1993),
including Mayapa n (Pugh, 2001). The squares with dentary
concentrations are located along an east-west axis that
crosses the south base of the temple (Fig. 2); units 13-Z/13-
Y/15-AA and 33-Y are in the vicinity of the southeast and
southwest corners of the pyramid, suggesting the bones
were part of a dedicatory offering linked to establishing (or
re-establishing) the temples status as a sacred place.
Square 21-Y is at the base of the temples south staircase,
which is also a meaningful location for dedication
offerings.
There are probably other specic contexts, perhaps in
the forest or in outlying caves or cenotes, where deer crania
bones might be found. For example, Maya hunters in the
Guatemalan highlands currently dispose of animal skulls in
caves (Brown, 2005). Pohl (1985a, p. 136) cites an account
of a scientist (A.W. Anthony, quoted in Goodwin, 1934, p. 2)
who observed small thatch-enclosed altars in Guatemala
where animal skulls had been deposited and blackened by
ritual res for many years. These small structures were
located near corn elds and away from settlement zones,
and such features may exist for Mayapa n. Like the Castillo
at Mayapa n, a cache at Cuello also consisted of deer
dentaries (Pohl, 1985a, p. 140), many of which were
subadults. At Laguna de On, a contemporary of Mayapa n
located in northeastern Belize, skulls of large game (deer,
peccary, crocodile, and tapir) were disposed of at a single
building, along with incense burners, as part of a ritual
(Masson, 1999). The deer skulls found at the Temple of
Kukulkan may have been deposited in the context of
period ending rituals, perhaps dedication or termination
events associated with calendrical celebrations as proposed
for Laguna de On (Masson, 1999). Skulls may also have
been a commodity for exchange. Deer metapodials and
antlers were imported to coastal sites for bone tool
manufacture (Carr, 1996, p. 255) and Postclassic Maya
murals at the site site of Santa Rita Corozal, Belize
illustrate a jaguar and a peccary skull in the headdresses of
two individuals (Masson, 2000, Figs. 6.16, #7, 6.18, #18).
6. Conclusions
The evidence described above suggests that the produc-
tion and exchange of animal commodities within and
beyond the city of Mayapa n was an integral component of
the citys economy. Surplus meat and bone products may
have been highly signicant as one of the few subsistence
products that Mayapa n merchants offered to coastal
polities from whom they obtained salt for more distant
exchange voyages (Masson et al., n.d.). The likelihood that
marine sh other than catsh were obtained at the site
through trade is implied by lower proportions of cranial
elements of these taxa and a diverse list of species from the
site center. We argue that white-tailed deer-raising or
management was a major production industry for the site
based on the high proportions of full-sized subadults
these deer provided a staple food source for the citys
residents and surplus meat and bone products for
exchange. Ethnohistoric evidence suggests that women
were heavily involved in many aspects of animal exchange,
including selling dogs in the marketplace, providing birds
for tribute, and delivering peccaries and deer destined for
sacrice (Pohl and Feldman, 1982, pp. 295, 305). Deer-
raising/management at Mayapa n was probably the respon-
sibility of women (Landa, 1941, p. 127).
The selective disposal of deer crania implied by the
paucity of such elements at all contexts other than the
Temple of Kukulkan attests to another probable dimen-
sion of ritual practice involving animal resources. Ethno-
historic documents suggest that consumption activities in
the political center of the site included animal sacrices and
meals associated with political and ritual gatherings
(Landa, 1941, pp. 92, 106, 141, 158); these claims are
sometimes supported in the archeological record of
Mayapa n and a number of other Postclassic Maya sites
(Masson, 1999).
Our initial analyses of Mayapa n faunal remains reect
that fact that animal use was incorporated into multiple
dimensions of daily life. Animal products were critical
commodities that were utilized in the construction and
negotiation of class relationships and ritual and economic
activities that linked the residents of the city to governing
ofcials and to a greater regional context of exchange and
interaction. Diverse techniques for acquiring fauna have
been documented across the Maya area (Carr, 1985,
p. 126), and adaptations and diet can be vary considerably
at specic locales (Pohl, 1985a, p. 137, b, p. 109; Masson,
1999, 2004). Mayapa ns patterns contribute valuable
information from a large urban settlement of the Post-
classic period for whose occupants faunal resources were
essential.
Acknowledgments
This analysis was made possible with the dedicated
assistance of UAlbany graduate students Amanda Schrei-
ner, Juliana Novic, and Elizabeth Paris, as well as two
classes of undergraduates in Albany in 2004 and 2005.
Marilyn Masson checked all identications and assumes
full responsibility for any errors. Elizabeth France, Beatriz
del Pilar Espinoza Geracitano, Megumi Orima, Sarah
Hampson, Shauna McKown, Patrick Rodriguez, Carlos
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2
MNI based on 18 L distal humeri for the PEMY sample, 18 proximal R
tibia for the INAH-house sample, and 205 L astragali and 205 L calcanei
for the INAH-center sample.
M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope / Quaternary International 191 (2008) 170183 181
Ariraga Mej a, and Ismene Cowoh devoted many hours to
data entry. Immense thanks are due to Kitty Emery and
two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments. Research
at Mayapa n is supported by the National Science
Foundation (SBR-1018919), FAMSI, Inc., with the gra-
cious permission of the Consejo de Arqueolog a of the
Instituto Nacional de Antropolog a e Historia in Mexico
City.
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