Approaches For Conservators To The Identification of Plant Material Used in Maori Artefacts

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Approaches for Conservators to the Identification of Plant Material used in Mori Artefacts
Author(s): Debra Carr, Natasha Cruthers, Elizabeth Girvan and Susan Scheele
Source: Studies in Conservation, Vol. 53, No. 4 (2008), pp. 252-263
Published by: on behalf of the Maney Publishing International Institute for Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works
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252
Approaches
for Conservators to the
Identification of Plant Material used in
Maori Artefacts
Debra
Carr,
Natasha
Cruthers,
Elizabeth Girvan and Susan Scheele
The aim
of
this
study
is to
provide
a suite
of
tools to assist with the
preliminary identification of
historical textile
plant
material
originating from
New Zealand. The
plants investigated
are
indigenous
to New Zealand and were/are used
by
Maori
for
the
manufacture of baskets, mats, nets, ropes,
snares and various
garments. Surface morphology of leaves, fibre
bundle
shape
and
repeating pattern
observable in transverse sections
of leaves, fibre
dimensions and the
presence of crystals
were evaluated. Some
results
from
this research have been used to establish a
free-to-use
on-line database that
may
assist in
identifying plant
material
used in
artefacts manufactured by
Maori,
but which should not be
regarded
as a substitute
for
a
confirmed identification by
a
plant
scientist.
INTRODUCTION
It is
widely recognized
that the identification of
material(s)
used in artefacts is critical before the selection
of
appropriate
conservation treatments
(see
for
example
[1?3]).
Cultural
institutions,
both in New Zealand and
overseas, hold collections of woven and
plaited
artefacts
manufactured
by
Maori,
including fragments
from
archaeological
excavations. The
plant
material used in
such
objects
is not
always
known nor
easily
determined
by employees
in these cultural institutions. Plant material
used in artefacts from New Zealand is often recorded
as unknown or
tentatively
recorded as either Phormium
tenax
(harakeke)
or
Cordyline
australis
(t? kouka). Processing
methods,
surface
dirt,
historical conservation
treatments,
ageing processes, storage
issues
and,
particularly,
a lack of
readily
available reference information all contribute to
the
difficulty
of
making positive
identifications of
plant
species
used.
Before
European
contact,
Maori were reliant on
local
plant
resources for their survival. As well as the
Received October 2007
essentials of
food,
medicine and
shelter,
the
leaves,
stems
and
occasionally
bark of
many species
were used to
make
clothing,
containers
(in
the absence of
pottery),
mats and
cordage (see
for
example [4-13]).
The most
widely
used and
important species
in Maori subsistence
economy
was Phormium tenax
(harakeke,
New Zealand
flax).
Leaf
strips (whenu)
were used to make baskets
(kete)
and other
containers,
mats for
sleeping
and
sitting
on,
fishing
nets and snares, serviceable
garments,
sandals
(paraerae)
and,
in more recent
times,
the
swinging
skirt
called a
piupiu.The
fibre
(muka
or
whxtau)
extracted from
the leaves was used for the manufacture of cloaks and
other fine
garments
and
cordage.
Phormium cookianum
(wharariki)
is not as
strong
and fibrous as P.
tenax,
but
was
employed
in the manufacture of items that could be
used and
discarded,
or where
lightweight qualities
were
desired. The
tough
fibrous leaves of
Cordyline
australis
(t?
k?uka,
cabbage tree)
were valued when
hard-wearing
properties
were
required,
such as for
sandals, snares,
baskets for
collecting
shellfish,
and to create an outer
layer
of
thatching
on rain
capes (i.e.
short
strips
of
plant
material inserted into the outer surface of the main
body
of the
cape
in an
overlapping manner). Cordyline
is more
STUDIES IN CONSERVATION 53
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
APPROACHES FOR CONSERVATORS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL USED IN MAORI ARTEFACTS 253
resistant to
rotting
in seawater than
Phormium,
so fibre
retted from
Cordyline
was used for the manufacture of
anchor
ropes. Cordyline
indivisa, (t?t,
mountain
cabbage
tree)
was
particularly important
in mountainous
regions
where harakeke did not
grow,
and the retted leaf fibre
was used in
making weatherproof capes. Strips
of
Freycinetia
banksii
(kiekie)
leaves were another
highly
regarded
resource for
weaving
fine mats and baskets
and in
making
tukutuku
(decorative panels).
The retted
fibre was also used in
making capes.
The
sedge
Eleocharis
sphacelata (kutd)
was favoured when softness was desired
for
weaving baskets,
widows'
mourning caps,
hats and
mats. The
spongy
stems of another
sedge, Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani
(k?p?ng?wh?,
and also called
kutd), closely
related to the worldwide
genus Scirpus,
were used to
plait sleeping
mats and whitebait nets. The
tough,
golden
leaves of Desmoschoenus
spir?lis ipTngao),
a
sedge
found on sand
dunes,
were used to weave
baskets,
belts
and
poho-taupa (chest protectors
used in
fighting),
and
in decorative tukutuku
panels. Strips
of the
lacy
inner
bark of Hoheria
spp. (houhere, lacebark)
were used when
making
decorative
baskets,
for ornamentation such as
braiding
on
hats,
while the
tough
outer bark was
plaited
into
strong ropes.
Hierochloe
redolens, (k?retu, holy grass)
is
a sweet-scented
grass
used to manufacture women's
belts,
headbands and as a scented necklace. The dried leaves of
Dracophyllum spp. (neinei, inanga)
were tied into cloaks as
ornamental
tags.
The
silvery
tomentum of the leaves of
large
mountain daisies
(Celmisia spp.)
was removed and
used in
making
cloaks
(often
as ornamental
tags),
rain
cloaks and stuffed into
leggings
to
protect
travellers'
legs
from
thorny plants. Among
other less common
plants
used on cloaks for decoration or
thatching
are tussock
grasses,
such as Poa
spp.
The current research focuses on the
development
of a web-based atlas
containing
reference information
from dried and
semi-processed contemporary specimens
of
indigenous
New Zealand
plant
material
(e.g.,
fibre
and
leaves)
that
may
assist
employees
in cultural institu
tions with the identification of
plant
material. It is
envisaged
that the atlas will
grow
to include similar
information
regarding
historical
specimens,
further
assisting
identification of
plant
material used in
objects.
The atlas aims to
provide images
that the
non-specialist
can use to assist in identification and thus add to the
suite of observed features available. It seeks to
provide
a
preliminary step
towards
species
identification,
although
consultation with
specialists may
be
required
for a
positive
identification.
It is useful to define some terms that are used
by
object
and textile conservators,
and
by
botanists and
plant
anatomists. Fibre
aggregate,
a term used
by
textile
conservators/scientists,
refers to the
macroscopic product
of leaf or stem
processing [14].
Fibre
aggregates
are
popularly
referred to as 'the fibre' in
publications,
but
may
contain
many components,
i.e. ultimate fibres and often
vascular bundles which
transport
water and solutes
[15,
16].
Ultimate fibre is a textile/fibre science term used to
describe the individual fibres or
single sclerenchyma
cells
(plant
science
term)
found in fibre
aggregates [14,16].
In
fibre
aggregates,
the ultimate fibres are twisted
together
or
arranged
in an
overlapping
manner, and are adhered
in a non-cellulosic matrix. Bundles of fibres
may
be
visible in transverse sections of leaves
[15].
Diagnostic
tools that can contribute to the identifi
cation of
plant
material and would be
relatively
accessible when
specialized
advice is not available
include
morphological
features such as
plant
leaf
surfaces,
transverse sections of leaves and ultimate
fibre dimensions. In textile science and
conservation,
microscopy
is used
primarily
to
distinguish among
different fibres
[1?3, 14?18].
The
shape
and size of the
fibre bundles in transverse sections of leaves and of the
individual ultimate fibres can be tools for identification
purposes [14-18].
However,
minimal information has
been
reported previously
for
plants
from New Zealand.
Exceptions
include
Goulding,
who
provided
criteria
and a
key (but
no
microscopy images)
for
identifying
13
plants
used in New Zealand
artefacts, including Cordyline
spp., Dracophyllum spp.,
Phormium
spp.,
Hierochloe
redolens,
Freycinetia banksii,
Eleocharis
sphacelata
and Desmoschoenus
spir?lis [17].
A number of
light microscopy images
of
Phormium have been
published,
the ultimate fibres are
reportedly
convex
polygonal,
with a round lumen and
may
be
pitted [14, 16, 18].
A
study
of the transverse
sections of leaves from different cultivars of Phormium
has
suggested
differences in the
pattern
of'molar tooth
shaped'
and
'keyhole shaped'
fibre bundles that
may
enable different cultivars to be
distinguished [18].
Unlike
most
plants,
there is an
equal
number of stornata on
both sides of the
Cordyline
leaf and this
may
assist is
distinguishing Cordyline
from other
species.
There is much debate in the
plant
science literature
about whether the
presence
of
crystals
in
plant
material
can be a useful tool for their identification
[16, 19?22].
However,
crystals
are
widely
used in textile science and
textile conservation to assist in the identification of
plant
material
[2, 14-16].
At least five
crystal morphologies
are identified in the
literature,
but these are
commonly
grouped
into these main
categories:
raphides (needle-like crystals);
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
254 D.
CARR,
.
CRUTHERS,
E. GIRVAN AND S. SCHEELE
sand-like,
styloids
and
prismatic crystals;
and
druses
(multiple crystals
that
appear flower-like) [16,
19-22].
Crystals
are
notoriously
difficult to use as a
diagnostic
feature as the
take-up
of calcium or silica
by
the
plant
and
deposition
in the cells is erratic and related to soil
and
geology,
sometimes on a
very
localized basis. In this
study
the
presence
of
crystals
was
noted,
but care should
be taken not to
rely
too
heavily
on their
presence
as a
reliable
diagnostic
criterion.
The aim of this
study
was to
provide
selected refer
ence data
-
images
of leaf
surfaces,
transverse sections
(to
allow examination of fibre bundle
shape
and
repeat
pattern),
ultimate fibre
length
and
width,
and
presence
of
crystals
?
that
might
assist with
identifying
such
plant
material.
METHODS
Materials
Plant
specimens
for
study
were selected
according
to
their
importance
in
early
Maori material
culture,
as
reflected in the literature
[4-13].
The selection was
approved by
Maori weavers,
conservators and other
museum
professionals,
and circulated to relevant
academic
departments
within the
University
of
Otago
for their comment. All
plant specimens
in this
study
were
identified,
collected and
supplied by
an ethnobotanist of
long-standing experience
and whose
primary
research
area is
weaving plants
used
by
Maori
(S. Scheele).
On
arrival at the
University
of
Otago
each
plant specimen
was
given
a
unique
code and
documented;
the
locality
at
which it was collected was
recorded,
the
specimen
was
photographed
and notes made
regarding
its
appearance.
The
botanical,
Maori and common names of the
species
that were chosen are listed in Table 1
along
with their
common
uses, while other
pertinent
information
regarding usage
is summarized above. Plant material was
generally processed
in some
way
before the manufacture
of
objects, e.g.,
extraction of fibre
aggregates, softening
of
strips
of
leaves,
drying, beating, boiling, bleaching
and sometimes
dyeing.
It should be noted that such
processing may
have
degraded
the
diagnostic
features
discussed in the current work.
Plant material transverse sections
and fibre dimensions
Pieces of fresh material
(~5
x
10
mm)
were cut from the
centre of leaves
(right side),
stems or bark as
appropriate,
fixed with
Tellyesniczky
s formula
(100
mL 70% alcohol/
5 mL
glacial
acetic acid/5 mL 100%
formalin)
for 24
Table 1
Botanical, Maori and common names of the
plants studied, with details of the
parts
used and their common uses
Botanical name Maori name Common name Part used Common uses
Celmisia semicordata
Cordyline
australis
Cordyline
indivisa
Desmoschoenus
spir?lis
Dracophyllum spp.
Eleocharis
sphacelata
Freycinetia
banksii
Hierochloe redolens
Hoheria
populnea
Phormium tenax
Phormium cookianum
Poa cita
Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani
tikumu
ti k?uka
toi
pingao
neinei, inanga
kuta
kiekie
harakeke
wharariki
wJ
k?pung?wh?
mountain
daisy
cabbage
tree
mountain
cabbage
tree
golden
sand
sedge
bamboo
spike sedge
kiekie
k?retu
holy grass
houhere lacebark
leaf, tomentum
leaf, fibre
leaf, fibre
leaf
leaf
stem
leaf, fibre
leaf
outer and inner bark
New Zealand flax, swamp
flax leaf, fibre
mountain flax, coastal flax leaf
silver tussock leaf
lake clubrush stem
rain-protective tags
on
cloaks,
as
stuffing
in
leggings
baskets, nets, snares, anchor ropes, rough
garments,
sandals
rain
capes (fibre), sandals, rough garments,
baskets, cordage
baskets, chest-protectors, belts, decorative house
panels
decorative
tags
on cloaks
soft hats, baskets, mats
baskets, mats, decorative house
panels,
rain
cape
(fibre)
belts, necklace, headbands
inner bark
-
kete, hats, decorative braids
outer bark
-
cordage, piupiu, garments
cloaks, baskets, cordage, mats, sandals, piupiu
baskets, mats, tags
on cloaks
stuffing
in
leggings, top layer
on cloaks
mats, whitebait nets
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
hours and then stored in 70% alcohol. The methods used
to
prepare plant
material transverse
sections,
macerate
fibre bundles into ultimate
fibres,
and measure the
dimensions of the ultimate fibres have been described
previously [23]. Means,
standard deviations
(s.d.)
and
coefficients of variation
(CV)
for ultimate fibre 'width'
and
length
measurements
(for
an
average
often
samples:
=
10)
were calculated.
Images
of
plant
material surfaces
Pieces of
plant
material were
placed
in buffered acid-free
paper,
sandwiched between buffered museum board and
an outer metal frame and were oven dried
(50?C,
72
hours). Dried,
rather than
fresh,
material was examined
because
plant
material
specimens
removed from artefacts
are in a desiccated state. Small
pieces (~5
x
10
mm)
of
this dried material were mounted on 25 mm diameter
aluminium stubs with carbon
tape
so that the adaxial
and abaxial surfaces could be examined. The
specimens
were coated with
approximately
5 nm of
gold/palladium
or carbon and viewed in a
Jeol
6700F field emission
scanning
electron
microscope (FESEM) (3-5 kV,
7?8 mm
working distance).
Chemical
composition
of
crystals
The transverse sections
previously prepared (see above)
were examined
using polarized light
to
identify
which
specimens
contained
crystals. Crystals
were observed
in
specimens
of
Cordyline spp., Hoheria, Dracophyllum,
and two selections of Phormium
(provenance
Karikari
Beach and the named cultivar 'Waihirere'
?
both
growing
at
Lincoln,
South
Island,
New
Zealand).
Dried
specimens
for each of these were
split
and mounted
on an aluminium stub
using
carbon
tape.
A
Jeol
2300F
energy dispersive X-ray (EDX)
detector
(10 kV, working
distance 15
mm)
was used to measure the
energy
of
the
X-rays
emitted when an electron beam collided
with the surface of the
specimen,
hence the elemental
composition
of the
crystals
could be
investigated.
Point and area
analyses
were
used,
dead time was
kept
below 25% and
spectra
were collected for 60 seconds.
The
specimens
were then coated with 5 nm of
gold/
palladium using
an Emitech K575X
high-resolution
coater and
crystals imaged using
a
Jeol
6700F FESEM
(3 kV,
10
A).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
General observations
Phormium tenax
(harakeke)
and P. cookianum
(wharariki):
A
range
of
provenances
and cultivated
varieties
(cultivars)
of Phormium were examined
(n
=
28).
Fibre bundles were either
keyhole
or molar-tooth
shaped,
and
repeating patterns
for these
shapes
were
commonly
observed
(Figure la).
Fibre bundles were
larger
in the
upper part
of the leaf.
Generally,
the fibre
bundles in cookianum were smaller than those in
harakeke.
Sclerenchyma
fibres had convex
polygonal
shapes
with a clear
elliptical
or circular
lumen,
and were
sometimes
pitted.
Hoheria
populnea (houhere):
The inner bark had a
characteristic lace-like
appearance.
Fibre bundles were
quadrilateral
or
elliptical
in
shape (~30-50
x
150-200
), typically containing
30?50 convex
polygonal
fibres
(occasionally pitted)
with small circular or
elliptical
lumen
(Figure lb).
Hierochloe redolens
(k?retu):
The transverse section
had a lace-like
appearance (Figure lc).The elliptical
or
convex
polygonal
fibres had
large
lumens,
thin walls and
some were
pitted.
Freycinetia
banksii
(kiekie):
The fibre bundles in
the
upper part
of the leaf were
irregular
in
shape (5?40
fibres),
while in the lower
part they
were round
(10?20
fibres) (Figure Id) [19].
Small
(lighter stained)
fibre
bundles were observed close to the
upper
and lower
epithelium
with a
cap
over the
top
of the vascular
bundle. The convex
polygonal
fibres were
large
with
large
lumens and
comparatively sharp edges.
Dracophyllum
traversii
{mountain neinei)
and
D.
elegantissimum (neinei):
Fibre bundles were not
observed in either
Dracophyllum species,
rather the fibres
were found
throughout
the structure
(Figures
le and
If).
The convex
polygonal
fibres had
large lumens,
and
were smaller in D.
eleganitissimum (which
has the
longer,
narrower
leaves)
than in D. traversii.
Desmoschoenus
spir?lis (ptngao): Triangular/half-oval
shaped
fibre bundles
(~50
x
50-100
)
were
observed,
while
larger elliptical/irregularly shaped
fibre bundles
were observed in the centre of the leaf
(Figure lg).The
convex
polygonal
fibres had
relatively
thick cell walls
with small lumens.
Cordyline
australis
(t? k?uka):
More fibre was
observed in the
upper portion
of the leaf than the lower
portion (Figure lh).The
fibre bundles
(100
x
300
)
repeated
in a
pattern
of: molar
tooth;
small truncated
oval or molar
tooth;
truncated
hourglass
or
long
molar
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
256 D.
CARR,
.
CRUTHERS,
(f)
Figure
1 Transverse sections
(light microscopy,
scale bar
=
50
m): (a)
Phormium tenax
Opiki'; (b)
Hoheria
populnea; (c)
Hierochloe
redplens; (d)
Freycinetia banksii; (e) Dracophyllum traversii; (f) Dracophyllum elegantissimum; (g)
Desmoschoenus
spir?lis; (h) Cordyline australis; (i) Cordyline indivisa;
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
Figure
1 Continued.
tooth;
small truncated oval or molar
tooth;
and molar
tooth.The rounded thick walled convex
polygonal
fibres
in C. australis had
large elliptical
lumens and
pits.
Thick
distinct
layers
of wax were observed on the
upper
and
lower cuticles.
Cordyline
indivisa
(??f):The
fibre bundles
(~
300
x
350
)
were molar-tooth
shaped,
the
repeat pattern
was
large
bundle, very small, small, very small,
then
large
(Figure li).
Fibres were convex
polygonal
with
large
lumen.
(tikumu):
The fibrous surface
appeared
as flattened ribbons. In transverse
section,
a
thick
upper epidermis
and distinct vascular tissue
capped
by
small fibre bundles were noted
(Figure lj).
Ultimate fibre dimensions
Ultimate fibre dimensions were obtained for most
of the
plants
in the
study (Table 2).
Mean transverse
widths of ultimate fibres from P. tenax varied from
11
(Campbell Island)
to 15
('Taeore' cultivar)
and mean
lengths
varied from 1.79 mm
(Ten
Mile
Creek)
to 4.27 mm
(Auckland Island) (Table 2).
The
cookianum examined tended to have
larger
transverse
widths
compared
to P. tenax and the ultimate fibre
lengths
tended to be
longer (Limestone
Stream,
width
13 ,
length
3.95 mm; Punakaiki,
width 14 ,
length
3.86
mm;Wharariki '#62',
width 14 ,
length
3.05
mm; Okiwi
Bay,
width 15 ,
length
not
collected)
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
258 D.
CARR,
.
CRUTHERS,
(Table 2).
Cultivars from the Rene Orchiston
weaving
collection were
represented throughout
the
range
of
ultimate fibre transverse widths and
lengths (Table 2)
[12].
The ultimate fibre widths and
lengths
of cultivars
prized
for the
length, strength
and ease of extraction of
fibre
('Taumataua'/Tapamangu'and'Taeore')
also varied
across the
range
measured. The
range
of values obtained
for P. tenax ultimate fibre dimensions is similar to those
previously reported [18].
Fibres from
Cordyline spp.
were similar in width to
P. tenax
fibres,
but were
shorter,
and this
may
assist in
distinguishing
between the use of these two
plants.
Ultimate fibres from C. austr?te were 13 wide and
1.39 mm
long (Table 2).
C. indivisa ultimate fibres were
15 wide and 1.45 mm
long (Table 2).That
C. indivisa
has coarser fibres than C. austr?te has been
previously
noted,
although
no dimensions were
given [17, 24].
For other
plants,
mean ultimate fibre dimensions
ranged
in width from 8
(Dracophyllum elegantissimum)
to 23
(Hierocliloe redolens)
and in
length
from 0.68
mm
(Freycinetia banksii)
to 1.92 mm
(Desmoschoenus
spirate) (Table 2).
Crystals
Calcium Oxalate
raphide crystals
were observed in three
Cordyline species:
C.
austr?te,
C. banksii and C. indivisa
(Figures 2a?c). Raphides
have been
previously reported
in
Cordyline (species
not
stated) [20,25]
and in
specimens
of root from C. austr?te
[26].
Druse
crystals
were observed
in Hoheria
(Figures
3a and
3b)
and
styloid crystals
were
observed in both
Dracophyllum species
studied
(Figures
4a and
4b).
The
presence
of these
crystals
in Hoheria and
Dracophyllum
does not
appear
to have been
previously
reported.
Calcium was detected
using
EDX in two
selections of Phormium
(Karikari beach, 'Waihirere'),
but
crystals
were not observed in the
specimens examined,
although they
were detected when transverse sections
were examined with
polarized light. Styloids
have
been
reported
as
being present
in
Phormium,
although
no further details of the
plant(s)
examined were
given
[20, 27].
Parkin
reported raphides
in Phormum tenax var.
atropurp?rea [28],
a bronze
variety
more
commonly
known as 'Monrovia Red'
[29]. Raphides
have also been
reported
in the roots o? Phormium cookianum
[26].
Database
Reference data obtained
during
the research have
been
incorporated
into a free-to-use on-line database
aimed at
assisting
workers in cultural institutions to
OTAGO SEI 3.0kV X4,000 l^m
WD 7.6mm
(c)
Figure
2
Raphide crystals
in
Cordyline spp. (FESEM):%(a) Cordyline
australis; (b) Cordyline banksii; (c) Cordyline
indivisa.
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
Table 2 Dimensions of ultimate fibre: an
average
of ten
(n
=
10)
unless otherwise stated
Specimen
Width
mean s.d.
(pm) (Mm)
Length
Coefficient of
Variation
(%)
mean
(mm)
s.d.
(mm)
Coefficient of
Variation
(%)
Phormium tenax^
cultivars/provenance:
H?hiroa2
Ngutunui2
Opiki2
Paoa2
Paretaniwha2
Potaka2
Taeore, Taiore2
Taumataua2
Tapamangu2
Tupurupuru2
Waihirere2
Wharanui2
Whareongaonga2
Auckland Island
Campbell
Island
Chatham Islands
Karikari Beach
Norfolk Island
Port Hills
Raoul Island
Taramea
Bay
Ten Mile Creek
Three
Kings
Island
P. cookianum'
cultivars/provenance:
Limestone Stream
Okiwi
Bay
Punakaiki
Wharariki #622
Cordyline
australis
C. indivisa
Desmoschoenus
spir?lis
fibre
surrounding
vascular bundle
close to
epithelium
Dracophyllum elegantissimum
D. traversa
Freycinetia
banksii
fibre under vascular bundle
fibres in other locations
Hierochloe redolens
Hoheria
populnea
Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani
11
12
15
12
15
14
15
12
15
12
12
13
14
12
11
13
12
12
12
15
12
13
15
13
15
14
14
13
15
12
9
8
16
13
18
23
16
nc
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
7
4
nc
19.0
16.3
13.0
14.9
12.1
16.2
14.2
8.3
16.7
9.5
10.8
12.8
8.0
18.2
13.7
14.4
17.6
12.5
14.8
11.2
10.8
12.7
14.4
10.5
12.5
17.1
12.6
14.2
14.8
13.7
21.9
20.5
13.4
21.2
16.1
33.1
24.7
nc
3.68
(n
=
2)
nc
3.66
2.52
(n
=
5)
nc
3.86
nc
3.09
(n
=
4)
nc
nc
2.25
nc
2.67
(n
=
5)
4.27
2.77
(n
=
5)
nc
nc
nc
4.25
(n
=
8)
3.14
nc
1.79
3.14
(n
=
4)
3.95
(n
=
6)
nc
3.86
3.05
1.39
1.45
1.92
nc
nc
0.75
0.82
(n
=
8)
0.68
nc
nc
0.96
1.63
0.77
(n
=
5)
0.19
nc
0.62
0.27
nc
0.61
nc
0.59
nc
nc
0.33
nc
0.97
0.73
1.66
nc
nc
nc
0.36
0.37
nc
0.30
0.35
0.51
nc
0.70
0.49
0.52
0.31
0.36
nc
nc
0.15
0.13
0.16
nc
nc
0.20
0.27
0.18
5.2
nc
16.9
10.9
nc
15.9
nc
17.3
nc
nc
14.7
nc
36.3
17.1
59.9
nc
nc
nc
8.5
11.8
nc
16.8
11.2
12.8
nc
18.13
16.2
37.5
21.5
18.8
nc
nc
20.0
16.3
23.5
nc
nc
20.3
16.6
23.1
'
Growing
at Lincoln, South Island, New Zealand;2 from the Rene Orchiston
weaving collection;
nc
=
data not collected
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
260 D.
CARR,
N.
CRUTHERS,
(b)
Figure
3 Druses
crystals
in Hoheria
populnea (FESEM): (a) magnification
750; (b) magnification
2500.
take
steps
towards the identification of
plant
material in
artefacts. Consultation with New Zealand conservators
suggested
the use of minimal text in the database and the
inclusion of
images
of leaf
surfaces;
transverse
sections;
photographs
of the
plants (to give
an idea of the
general
appearance
rather than as an identification
tool); Maori,
common and botanical names;
some traditional uses;
and useful links. The
microscopy images provided
in
the database are at
magnifications
well within the
range
of
simple optical microscopes commonly
available
in conservation laboratories. The leaf surface
images
(b)
Figure
4
Styloid crystals
in
Dracophyllum spp. (FESEM): (a)
D.
elegantissimum; (b)
D. traversii.
were obtained
using scanning
electron
microscopy
to
ensure
good depth
of
field,
but the
magnifications
used
(X100?200)
were chosen with
optical microscopes
in
mind. The database He
mrangi whakaaturanga
o
ng? taonga
r?kau
(data /identification
/exhibition list
of
treasured
plants)
is available at
www.otago.ac.nz/textiles/plantfibres/
index.html
(accessed
10 November
2008).
The authors
are in the
process
of
adding images
of historical
specimens
to the database and
encourage
submission
of
images
for inclusion. The
images
used in the
database are not
reproduced
in this
article,
but
higher
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
magnification images
have been
provided
to illustrate
the discussion.
CONCLUSIONS
A database of observed features has been
developed
and
made accessible to assist workers in cultural institutions
to characterize
plant
material that has been used in
objects originating
from New Zealand. These include
transverse
sections,
fibre bundle
shape
and
repeat pattern,
ultimate fibre dimensions and the observation of
crystals
for
contemporary plant
material. Distinct differences
have been identified between the two most
commonly
used,
and
commonly
confused,
plants,
i.e. Phormium tenax
and
Cordyline
australis. Of
particular
use are:
the
comparison
of the transverse sections of Phormium
and
Cordyline;
the observation of
raphide crystals
in C
australis;
the ultimate fibres in tenax and C. australis are
similar in
width,
but those from C. australis are
shorter;
and
the transverse sections of
Freycinetia
banksii
{kiekie)
and Desmoschoenus
spir?lis (p?ngao);
because the leaves
from some P. tenax that have been
processed
into
narrow
strips
and woven into fine articles
dry
to
shades of white and
yellow
similar to those shown
by
kiekie and
pxngao.
However,
it must be
emphasized
that the database
contains information collected on
semi-processed,
dried
contemporary
material. It is
recognized
that for historic
specimens
some of the features described in this
paper
may
be
degraded
or the
processing may
be at such a
level that the
diagnostic
features described are no
longer
visible. Further work is
required
to address these issues.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Maori
ownership,
traditional
knowledge
and the
status under Article II of The
Treaty
of
Waitangi
of the
plants investigated
in this work are
acknowledged
and
recognized by
the authors. Heike
Winkelbauer,
an
objects
conservator,
first
suggested
the
development
of an atlas
of
plant
material from New Zealand. New Zealand
Lottery
Grants
(Lottery
Environment and
Heritage
Committee)
funded this work.The authors
acknowledge
the assistance of K. Columb
(Human Nutrition),
A.
McNaughton (Otago
Centre for Confocal
Microscopy)
and D. Potter
(Histology),
and comments made
by
C.
Smith
(Clothing
and Textile
Sciences),
Professor R.M.
Laing (Clothing
and Textile
Sciences)
and Dr
J.
Lord
(Department
of
Botany),
all of the
University
of
Otago.
We also
acknowledge
comments made
by
the referees.
Rua McCallum
(Ng?i
Tahu
wh?nui) provided guidance
throughout
the
project
?
kia
ora, Rua.
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1
Goodway, M.,
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the
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Bal?zsy, A.,
and
Eastop, D.,
Chemical
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servation,
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4
Colenso, W.,
On the
geographic
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botany
of the
North Island of New
Zealand',
Transactions
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the New Zealand
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Best, E.,
'The art of the whare
pora:
Notes on the
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the ancient
Maori,
their
knowledge
of the
preparing, dyeing,
and
weaving
various
fibres, together
with some account of dress
and ornaments and ancient ceremonies and
superstitions
of the
whare
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Proceedings of
the
Royal Society of
New Zealand 31
(1898)
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BeattieJ.H.,
Traditional
Lifeways of
the Southern Maori:The
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University
Museum
Ethnological Project,
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Otago University
Press/Otago
Museum, Dunedin,
New Zealand
(1994).
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Buck, R, (Te Rangi Hiroa),
'The Maori craft of
netting',
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Proceedings of
the New Zealand Institute 56
(1926)
597-646.
8
Best, E.,
Forest lore
of
the
Maori,
Polynesian Society
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Museum,
Wellington,
New Zealand 14
(1942).
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Beattie, J.H.,
Our Southernmost
Maoris,
Otago Daily
Times and
Witness
Newspapers
Co.
Ltd., Dunedin,
New Zealand
(1954).
10
Mead, S.M.,
Traditional Maori
Clothing:
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and Functional
Change, Reed, Wellington,
New Zealand
(1969).
11
Pendergrast, M.,
TeAho
Tapu:The
Sacred
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(1987).
12
Scheele, S.,
and
Walls, G.,
HarakekeiThe Rene Orchiston
Collection,
Manaaki Whenua
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New Zealand
(1994).
13
Puketapu-Hetet, E.,
Maori
Weaving, Longman, Auckland,
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Zealand
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14
Catling,
D.,
and
Grayson, }., Identification of Long Vegetable
Fibres,
Chapman
and
Hall,
London
(1982).
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Esau, K.,
Plant
Anatomy, John Wiley
and
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New York
(1965).
16
Luniak, B.,
The
Identification of
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Sons,
London
(1953).
17
Goulding, J.H.,
'Identification of
archaeological
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ethnological
specimens
of
fibre-plant
material used
by
the
Maori',
Records
of
the Auckland Institute and Museum 8
(1971)
57-101.
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.
CRUTHERS,
18
Cruthers, N.M., Carr, DJ., Laing,
R.M.,
and
Niven, B.E.,
'Structural differences
among
fibers from six cultivars of
harakeke
(Phormium tenax, New Zealand
flax)',
Textile Research
Journal
76
(2006)
601-606.
19
Franceschi,V.R.,
and
Horner, H.T.,'Calcium
Oxalate
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plants',
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361-427.
20
Prychid, C.J.,
and
Rudall, P.J.,
'Calcium Oxalate
crystals
in
monocotyledons:
A review of their structure and
systematics',
Annals
of Botany
84
(1999)
725-739.
21
Nakata, P.A.,
'Calcium Oxalate
crystal morphology',
Trends in
Plant Science 1
(2002)
324.
22
Amato, I.,
'The secret life of
plant crystals',
Chemical &
Engineering
News 84
(2006)
26-27'.
23
Cruthers, N.M., Carr, DJ., Niven, B.E., Girvan, E.,
and
Laing,
R.M.,
'Methods for
characterizing plant fibers', Microscopy
Research and
Technique
67
(2005)
260-264.
24
Simpson, P., Dancing
Leaves: The
Story of
New Zealand's
Cabbage
Tree,
TT
K?uka,
Canterbury University
Press, Christchurch
(2000).
25
Rudall, P.J., Cribb, P.J., Cutler, D.E,
and
Humphries, C.J.,
Monocotyledons Systematics
and
Evolution, Royal
Botanic Gardens
Kew,
London
(1995).
26
Kauff, E, Rudall, PJ.,
and
ConranJ.G., 'Systematic
root
anatomy
of
Asparagales
and other
monocotyledons',
Plant
Systematics
and
Evolution 223
(2000)
139-154.
27
Dahlgren, R.M.T.,
and
Clifford, H.T.,
The
Monocotyledons:
A
Comparative Study,
Academic
Press,
London
(1982).
28
Parkin, J.,'On
some
points
in the
histology
of
monocotyledons',
Annals
of Botany
XII
(1898)
147-155.
29
Heenan, P.B.,
Checklist
of
Phormium
Cultivars,
Royal
New
Zealand Institute of
Horticulture,
Lincoln
(1991).
AUTHORS
Debra Carr is a materials
engineer
whose research
interests include the
structure,
properties
and use of
fibres. She is an Affiliate Member of the New Zealand
Conservators of Cultural Materials
(NZCCM).
Address:
Clothing
and Textile
Sciences, University of Otago,
PO Box
56, Dunedin,
New Zealand. Email:
d.carr@otago.ac.nz
Natasha Cruthers is a PhD student whose research
interests include
properties
of natural fibres. Address: as
Carr. Email:
natasha.cruthers@otago.ac.nz
Elizabeth Girvan is a
scanning
electron
microscopist
who works with staff from a wide
range
of
departments
at the
University
of
Otago,
New Zealand. Address:
Otago
Centre
for
Electron
Microscopy, University of Otago, Dunedin,
New Zealand. Email:
liz.girvan@otago.ac.nz
Sue Scheele is an
ethnobotanist,
with
particular
research
interests in
weaving plants
used
by
Maori. Address:
Tandeare
Research,
PO Box
40,
Lincoln
7640,
New Zealand.
Email:
ScheeleS@landcareresearch.
co. nz
R?sum?
?
Le but de cette ?tude est de
fournir
une s?rie d'outils
pouvant
aider ?
identifier
de
fa?on pr?liminaire
les mat?riaux
textiles
v?g?taux originaires
de la Nouvelle-Z?lande. Les
v?g?taux
?tudi?s sont
indig?nes
de Nouvelle-Z?lande et ?taient
(ou sont)
utilis?s
par
les Maoris
pour
la
fabrication
de
paniers,
nattes,
filets, cordages, pi?ges,
et v?tements vari?s. On a ?tudi?
la
morphologie
de la
surface
des
feuilles,
la
forme
des
faisceaux
de
fibres
et les
motifs r?p?titifs
observables dans les sections
transversales des
feuilles,
la dimension des
fibres
et la
pr?sence
de cristaux. Certains r?sultats de cette recherche ont ?t? utilis?s
pour
?tablir une base de donn?es libre d'acc?s
qui peut
aider ?
identifier
les mat?riaux
v?g?taux
utilis?s dans Vartisanat
maori,
mais
qui
ne doit
pas
?tre consid?r?e comme un substitut
pour
une
identification fait par
un
scientifique sp?cialiste
des
plantes.
Zusammenfassung
?
Ziel der
vorliegenden
Studie ist
es,
mit einer Reihe von
hilfreichen Werkzeugen
bei der
Identifizierung
von historischem textilem
Pflanzenmaterial
aus Neuseeland zu assistieren. Die untersuchten
indigenen Pflanzen
Neuseelands
wurden/werden von den M?ori
f?r
die
Herstellung
von
K?rben, Matten, Netzen, Seilen,
Stricken und verschiedenen
Kleidungsst?cken
verwendet. Die
Oberfl?chenmorphologie
der
Bl?tter,
die Form der Faserb?ndel und sich wiederholende Muster
im
Querschnitt
von
Bl?ttern,
Faserdimensionen sowie die Anwesenheit kristalliner Strukturen wurde zur
Analyse genutzt.
Einige Ergebnisse
der
Forschung
wurden zur
Etablierung
einer
freien
Onlinedatenbank
genutzt,
die dazu
beitragen
kann,
das
Pflanzenmaterial
von durch die M?ori
hergestellten Objekten
zu
bestimmen,
was
allerdings
nicht als Ersatz
f?r
eine sichere
Bestimmung
durch einen Botaniker
gelten
kann.
Resumen
?
La intenci?n de este estudio es
aportar
una
gama
de herramientas v?lidas
para ayudar
en la
identificaci?n
preliminar
de materiales hist?ricos textiles de naturaleza
vegetal originarios
de Nueva Zelanda. Las
plantas investigadas
son
ind?genas
de Nueva Zelanda
fueron,
o
son,
usadas
por
los Ma?ori
para
la
manufactura
de
cestos, esteras, redes, cuerdas, trampas
y
diversas vestimentas. Se evaluaron la
morfolog?a superficial
de las
hojas,
la
morfolog?a
de los haces de
fibras,
la
repetici?n
de
(2008)
PAGES 252-263
estructuras en cortes transversales de
hojas,
las dimensiones de las
fibras
la
presencia
de cristales.
Algunos
resultados de esta
investigaci?n
han sido utilizados
para
establecer bases de datos en l?nea de libre acceso
que puedan ayudar
a
identificar
materiales
de
origen vegetal empleados
en la
manufactura
de
objetos
de los
Ma?or?, aunque
no deber?an ser utilizados
para
sustituir las
identificaciones precisas
del
cient?fico
de materiales
vegetales.
(2008)
PAGES 252-263

Approaches For Conservators To The Identification of Plant Material Used in Maori Artefacts

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